Accepted Article View metadata,citationandsimilarpapersatcore.ac.uk This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. doi: 10.1111/bre.12294 lead to differences between this version and the throughbeen the copyediting, pagination typesetting, which process, may and proofreading hasThis article been accepted publicationfor andundergone peerfull but review not has the last two decades there has been a resurgence in exploration, spurred on by significant gas spurred onby significant exploration, in a resurgence been has decades there the two last In results. and disappointing hamperedinstabilities by political but ithasintermittent, and been slow years going past50-60 the onfor has margin alongbeen African East the exploration Hydrocarbon Introduction tectono-stratigraphy megasequences, Words: Key megasequence. margin themodern of deposition to change the marked System African the East of development the to linked unconformity from the and the Mascarene Plateau.Late post-rift deposition continued until a major India separating toform Ridge, Indian the Central south and Ridge propagated ceased Carlsberg the marinesedimentation. At the onset of Phase 4(60 Maonward) spreading on the Mascareneridge deep continued with megasequence late post-rift the of deposition of onset the by characterised was 3 Phase Ma). (89-60 Phase 3 in from India separated Ridge Mascarene the on spreading of Theonset continued. megasequence post-rift theearly of deposition and plates Antarctic and between the African continued spreading However, plate. African tothe became fixed Madagascar West ceasedand basin inthe Somali Ma) Phase 2(133-89 spreading In sequences. early post-rift continental/marine syn-rift megasequences were deposit Zone.Mixed onthe Davie movement Fracture strike-slip and and Somali basins dextral Mozambique West inthe spreading Ma), ~170-165 seafloor by (at breakup after and later, rifting by first , from separated Phase Ma) During Madagascar/India/ development. tectonic 1 of (183-133 four phases comprising framework to the plate a we model tectono-stratigraphic margin-scale produce thebasins in megasequences Bycorrelating basins. sedimentary corresponding and segments margin conjugate of evolution analyseto the point starting a as data spreading seafloor of inversion joint by We model built a understood. use kinematic plate poorly areevolution relatively andmargin basins sedimentary of history tectonic regional the between links the However, exploration. hydrocarbon The continental margins of East Africa (EA) andWest Madagascar (MAD) are a frontier for Abstract discoveries, for example the Pweza deep-water gas discovery offshore Tanzania. Despite the recent recent the Despite Tanzania. offshore discovery gas deep-water Pweza the example for discoveries,

2 Alfred Wegner Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar und Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany. Germany. Bremerhaven, Research, Marine und Polar for Centre Helmholtz Institute, Wegner Alfred New Plate Kinematic Model and Tectono-stratigraphic History of the East African and West and African East the of History Tectono-stratigraphic and Model Kinematic Plate New 1 Department of Sciences, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, UK UK Surrey, Egham, London, of University Holloway, Sciences, Royal Earth of Department Corresponding author: Corresponding Tectonics, plate kinematics, rifted continental margins, East Africa, West Madagascar, A. Tuck-Martin Amy Tuck-Martin ([email protected]) ([email protected]) AmyTuck-Martin Article type : Original ArticleArticle type Madagascan Margins 1 , J. , J. Adam Version of Record. Please Version as this cite of Record. article ed in rift basins followed by shallow-marine shallow-marine by followed basins rift in ed 1 , and G. Eagles and G. , 2

provided byRoyalHolloway-Pure brought toyouby CORE Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. will work Ongoing basins. sedimentary its and margin African East the of evolution the documenting a is result The segments. margin conjugate between this information with the plate kinematic model to enable correlations along margin segments and and integrated unconformities andmegasequences, regional important identifying margin segments, conjugate the on basins from information structural and stratigraphy regional reviewed Wehave (EA-ANT). Africa-Antarctica East and (MAD-EA) Africa Madagascar-East (EA-MAD), Madagascar East Africa- (EA-IND), East Africa-India segments: margin conjugate following of megasequences controlled changes on the tectonically these theeffects of weinvestigate Here, kinematic model. plate the to by and reference correlated analysed can be West margins and Madagascan African along East basins the margin continental sedimentary rifted the of history The tectono-stratigraphic multiple reconstruction maps. builda of and fragments modelconsisting kinematic plate to continental the between in ocean basins of development model the to progressive zone andallow which magnetic data, of fracture isochron plates of and iterative pairs visual inversions joint intheother of region fitting generated bya mixture for the rotations previously-published with are combined The new rotations 2016). Africa-Antarctica et al., Phethean Davis al., 2016; et al., et Sandwell 2014; 2012; & Jokat, Larsen Sea (Leinweber andRiiser- basins and Mozambique Somali the West from new interpretations dataand incorporating (2008) & the to isanThe newmodel Antarctica Eagles of and Africa. König study update East model of the separation for plate rotation a of new high-resolution This results presents paper the in area. events andchanges tectonic pl coherent and satisfactory no Currently, margins. the along correlated can be elements systems petroleum phases andrelated break-up and post-rift howrifting, inparticular histories, fill and basin tectonic intermsneed their of be understood to Margins Madagascan the West and Eastand gasAfrican oil for exploration, As anemerging frontier 1). plate (Fig. assembly paper. to Following the Eastcontinued fragmentbreakup, initial forming thepresent-day bethis and in addressed this will disputed is of widely breakup America). The timing South (Africa, West Gondwana from separated Gondwana (Madagascar/India/Seychelles/Australia/Antarctica) Antarctica (Ferrar)(Cox, 1992). Further riftingand breakupJurassic the followed in asEast and Africa (Karoo) South Largeacross of Province Igneous the Karoo-Ferrar (LIP) the eruption in culminated phase, rifting a ‘Karoo’ as grouped often events, Theserifting 2005). al., et (Catuneau Madagascar as and asnorth Somalia, far reaching possibly and Africa, eastern southern through ti this Ma.180 Throughout to 300 approx. from Pangea, of the portion southern the Gondwana, of parts formed Antarctica, and India, Madagascar, Africa, importantly most plates, region’s the within embedded changes. major of tectonic complicated a by have been number 1) margins (Fig. accompanying continental of its configuration of present-day the and Ocean theIndian The Northwest evolution tectonic Margins. West and Madagascan the African along East sedimentary basins in megasequences controlled tectonically of development the on havehad to likely are changes these it in terms of Ocean,interpret Indian Northwest sedimentary basins (Fig. 1).To dothis, we present a new high-resolution plate kinematic model of the the of histories fill of basin the correlations margin-scale tectonostratigraphic for framework potential with processes platekinematic of correlation the on based chronostratigraphy margin-wide integrated an develop to Weaim understood. poorly evolution and geological geodynamic andits the East margin boom in remains African underexplored interest, me,intracontin episodic geodynamic changes, and consider the implications implications the consider and changes, geodynamic ate tectonic model exists to piece together all the all piecetogether ate model exists tectonic to

the regional tectonic events which can be used as can as which be used the regional events tectonic margin-scale chronostratigraphic correlation correlation chart chronostratigraphic margin-scale ental riftingpropagated Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. 2016). al., et Phethean 2010; Jokat, and (König key locations in data better of new and pre-datesand collection the 2008), data and König, (Eagles pre-mid to applied has thetechnique been only , In boundary. SW plate the however, Seychelles-Africa the of evolution ahigher-resolution portrays and (2015), and Patriat Cande and (2010) al Cande et of that than the Ocean is smoother NWIndian in depicted The history kinematic 2005). (DeMets etal., plate Capricorn the of motion coarsely-estimated more the to sensitive is which circuit, plate the close attempting to without andSeychelles plates and and African African Indian, and Antarctic, African the of separations the depict These studies crust. oceanic of regions anomalyin gravityover data evident zones, the shapes fracture in of contained information theplate treatment of motion rigorous a with more similarto setstogether magnetic technique (1997) of data Nankivell reconstruction in the the alternative have and Hoang, applied 2013) region Eagles recentOther (e.g. studies (Fig. 1). Amirante Trench at the aboundary the Seychelles convergent with of bearing plate a rotation small anti-clockwise related to plate, they which the within of someconvergence degree chron Ma) 22o required but to locally (49.427 athat closure combined platecircuit, prior closed in many found plates. that be data could andAntarctic They the of (Somali) Africa (Capricorn), India between motions for rotations Euler the sets of to four calculate combinations in different (SEIR) ridges Indian and Southeast (SWIR) Indian Southwest (CIR), Indian Central Carlsberg (CR), the used data The authors from andCande(2015). and Patriat Cande (2010) are etal. of those reconstructions such The of models mostup-to-date onthe sea floor. isochrons magnetic conjugate of fits making parameters tocalculate for best method of the of rotation (1981) inversion Hellinger use their of because picks isochron magnetic on afocus maintain reconstructions recent these Many of the area. of reconstruction tectonic coherent a to obstacles ways in the work overcome to different to reconstructions recent These more datahave helped data complementset. to isochron the magnetic viewof ocean floor the of structure the resolution give et 2014) and high- auniform al., Sandwell to materials (seesupplementary improvement subsequent their and 1980’s the in altimetry satellite from derived maps anomaly gravity air these problems,and their accuracysuffered accordingly (e.g. Molnar et al., 1988). The arrival of free- recognise fully not did of magneticisochrons the early Accordingly, reconstructions plate. Capricorn the surrounding zones plate boundary the broad of deformation regional younger and of theSeychelles motion and plate independent propagating of ridges, times,different theaction of o theasymmetric including recognised, Ocean ofhave Indian been the the in formation scale complexities regional this growing set, data of basis On the 2012). Jokat, & Leinweber 2010; & Jokat, König 2010; al., et Cande 1988; Segoufin, & & Norton Schlich,Patriat 1979; Sclater, 1971; (McKenzie &1982; andrefined Sclater, identified have more many been Over years, the al., 2002). et Basins and (Royer Arabian in the Somali East the late in were1960’s identified thestudy region in isochrons anomaly magnetic conjugate The first Work Previous 1.1 2015) fillhistory as well as the timing and distribution of petroleumsystem types (Tuck-Martinet al., 2016, tectonic their regional better basinsto individual and basin- understand of reviewprovide an in-depth ceanic crust to the African and Indian plates at plates andIndian African the to crust ceanic Accepted Article Somali Basin we used the directionally-filtered gravity anomalies of Phethean et al. (2016) to help Phetheanetal. (2016) of anomalies gravity we Basin the Somali used directionally-filtered in InWest the addition, and Eagles(2008). König to thanthedata available Larsen Seaset clearer Riiser and Mozambique basin the in seafloor the of parts oldest the in zones fracture of locations The 2a). set makes the new data set(fig. gravity data satellite etal.’s Sandwell of (2014) version recent most the in gradient vertical the from derived locations zone fracture of picks our denote black small triangles of Rows above. described Basin theWestin Somali as andreinterpreted (2010), Jokat and König of set data new thelarge for updated (2008), König Eaglesand and (1997) Nankivell by identified as isochrons magnetic of locations the represent 2 figure in symbols coloured The available. data become magnetic more reliable new and until finely balanced remain to set seems basinthus theWest Somali spreading in theseafloor of timing of The problem East theremainder of of Gondwana. tothe modelledgeometry adjustments large require follow-on do not and(ii) and Madagascar Africa between markers pre-fit of interpreted correlations preserve (i) that reconstructions date becauseenables it a extinction later preferred etal. (2016) Davis In contrast, gravity anomaly data than the slow (~26 km/Myr) ra in crest ridge the abandoned subdued of appearance arethe rather with more consistent extinction , and (ii) that its intermediate (~42 km/Myr) full seafloor spreading rates at a of motion largeand nounattested plates two just between motions that it relative requires (i) reasons: two for M10n around extinction of interpretation the weprefer (2008), König and Eagles Following possible. not are the basin in anomaly profiles magnetic available between correlations This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. altern two these regarding uncertainty ongoing the for 1983; et al., Eaglesreasonand König, 12Myr The ultimate 2008). M10n, around (Rabinowitz earlier location is also consistentwith alternative interpre ridge theextinct that show we 3, Figure In superchron. polarity normal Cretaceous the of the onset spread of a Cochran, 1988) seafloor sequence of 1980; can be new this consistent constraint that show (2016) Davis et al. 2016). etal., mid-ocean ridge (Phethean extinct in gravity asubtly-expressed imaging of improvements recent because of reinterpretation required picks the Basin, Somali West In the 2012). Leinweber and Jokat, 2010; and magnetic Jokat, (König recently-acquired data of interpretation the follows straightforwardly revision Inour been Basin, beshown to Mozambique unlikely. the and West Mozambique the in basins have picks Somali anomaly M-Series its that the basis on parts addressmodel not mostdid recent 100million years the of plate divergence, andrevises oldest its Jurassictimes.from Antarctica se since data This new of modelling for set Figure presents data the 2 2.1 New rotationmodel forANT-AFR plate motion Ma 183 from the day. history present to the to kinematic plate interpret which on basis andso a methodologically-consistent provide 2.3), and 2.2 (2013) and Eagles (sections models& Wibisono of Eagles similarly-derived (2013) & Hoang the spreading combine to data with seafloor of model to provideand up-to-date a quantitative Theis 2.1. intention section in below isdescribed times Jurassic since divergence Antarctica Africa – new modelfor method, a full plates. of this pairs Using of produced the by ocean divergence floor datathe in fracture of zones and isochron tothe locations sets and small segments of circle great them about of by rotation themisfits anglesand of poles rotation minimizing produces finite (2005), al. et and Livermore by (2004) Eagles asdescribed (1997), Nankivell of technique inversion The joint 2 Method t extends that of Eagles and König (2008), whose Eagles(2008), that of t extends andKönig tations of that sequence as ending close to isochron closeending sequenceisochron to that as tations of Euler rotations describing the separation ofAfrica tes at extinction intes the alternativeat extinction interpretation. ative is interpretations with existing models (e.g. Segoufin and Patriat, Segoufin existing models(e.g. with ing isochrons in the basin that ends shortly after after shortly ends inthe basin that ing isochrons that detailed waveform Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. rotation finite of migration the southwards by suggested is epoch newkinematic A plate boundary. until chron of30y, time the arrival whatwasDeccan become to the theIndia-Africa of beneath plume within error, of pole rotation, astationary rates accompany Slowing Madagascar. and beneath Atlantic South the plumesin Marion and/or the Bouvet of by arrivals about brought reorganisations boundary plate regional of mayeffects the This reflect again. slowing begins rate 33y, and divergence plate the locations begin to migrate towards the NW after ma96, again with statistical significance until chron Pole M9n. before spreading shortly seafloor by ceased opening have to we assume which Basin, velocity (figure2(c)). The onset of this epochcoincides with the loss of datafrom theWest Somali consistently towards the SSW.coincideswith an increase This in the relative divergence plate at95% one another and migrate level, from distinguishable hand, Ma),are ontheother statistically M9n and ma96between poles the rotation of (133-96 forces. The set locations driving equilibrated of governed an by were motions a system relative two-plate with whose is consistent circumstance This period. throughout this stationary pole essentially may have been rotation instantaneous WSB); the Ma; rotation (155-133 Basin spreadingSomali West the of in M22n between and the end period the in level confidence 95% the at coincident almost are Antarctica to respect with Africa uncertainties. locational overall The set full paraof the of estimates aboveas statistics misfit Gaussian best-fit using the calculated them, for ellipses confidence 95% poles and2-dimensional reconstruction of the finite locations Figureshows the 2(b) and Africa Antarctica. thanthoseany bearing plateother of scale large motion larger- describe these data that suggest not does themisfits of distribution Thegeographical 2007). al., et (Horner-Johnson plate the Antarctic to respect with plates Nubian and Somali the of motions to model enable the to largemostly too but picks, this, like comparable to a modelgeometry data set and for ranges expected are within km.These values and 6.9 has 1.0 misfits zone to thefracture that and km, 14.5 and 0.2 of deviation standard mean and has population misfit 0.4 km and the is 8.8 standard km. deviation The best Gaussian tofitting approximation the isochron zonethe is picks, mean is km.For deviation fracture standard 18.6 kmand is 1.1 their picks isochron magnetic the for misfits all of Themean (2012). Jokat and Leinweber of those or König (2008) regardless ofwhetherit is fromaapproached set iterations of after a few2 can begenerated figure tens like onethe in presented solution A stable scale. and geographical studies this temporal of than local rather for regional isof precision importance this show that (2015) Patriat and Cande 2007). al., et (Horner-Johnson periods younger setfor data thedenser of modelling by some targeted times thancanbeachieved for is less or some locations in thatitsquality the into such model misfits of larger tointroduce islikely populations conjugates without and isthatthe approach data sparse use of this of The disadvantage calculated. for continu enabling a solution corridors, useful the West of basin, thedata Africanflank Somali from using inblue.Theflowlines non-conjugat advantage in synthetic andthe symbols, asgrey outline isochrons magnetic rotated the showing by process this represents 2 Figure zone locations. fracture the to flowlines offset ridge-crest synthetic of misfits the of and corridors shared within neighbours and non-conjugate conjugate their and picks isochron magnetic between rotated of the misfits minimization by squares modelled The least setwas data 2007). al., et (Horner-Johnson Africa platesof component no attempt to reduce the data set to reflect the made have we here, presented model plate-kinematic the For zoneinterpretations. fracture our guide a priori estimates of locational uncertainty in isochron and fracture zone zone fracture and isochron in uncertainty locational of estimates Neogene relative motion of Somalian of Neogene andNubian relative motion ous plate motion since lateJurassic times tobe of initial testof rotations like those ofEagles and reliably resolve the small differences between the the between differences small the resolve reliably meters is listed in Table 1. The rotation poles for as well as as less well data in well-populated numerous e figurestarget is permits that it us toinclude Accepted Article rest of the inversion model. Eagles, Pérez-Díaz & Scarselli (2015) show that (2015) uncertainty the locational & Scarselli Eagles, model. inversion Pérez-Díaz the rest of picksinthe isochron inthe same as themagnetic Figure used AAM were way 2) estimates (labeled in These Basin. SeaandMozambique segments Riiser-Larsen inthe margin extended continental the at couplets anomaly gravity negative and positive the estimated from werelimits continental pre-stretching spreading, seafloor of onset the before times at reconstructions, oldest the very For datasets. inprevious clearly than more particular basins Somali in West theMozambique and from ridges and mid-ocean zones fracture Thesefossil image (2014). data used GoldenSoftware’s we dothis, data. arethe in To evident gravity zones fracture that within are preserved whose locations segments and paleo-transform inthe previous section thedescribed picks anomaly through magnetic passing segments paleo-ridge by digitizing generated were (Fig. The 4) plateboundary polygons 1). year at1 (Table intervals million interpolated 2.1., section andfrom Eagles (2013) Wibisono & Eagles & (2013), from Hoang are of plates taken motions the grdmath This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. an plateboundary polygons, isochronous data within bathymetric gridded cropping by generated mapswere reconstruction kinematic Plate Workflow Reconstruction Kinematic Plate 2.3 justify. interpretation difficult to thatmakeanomalies the amplitude are very made in low they because explicitly usepicks these not Wedo data. older madewith Ma) identifications (154.37 M25n chron the Ma) than 166 M41n; Basin ages (chron older much Mozambique ofthe sequence in the magneticto continuation isochron and a 1990), (e.g. Raillard, authors other coast by than estimated Mozambiquethe in Channel lies tothemuch closer that (COB) a identify data -Ocean-Boundary anomaly magneticto (2010) andJokat’s König further (2012) interpreted and Jokat In Leinweber the Basin, Mozambique Laxmi the picks from Basin. isochron view the and we use of greatly, nomagnetic uncertainty in vary These identifications Eagles2013). 1994; &Wibisono, etal., Bhattacharya schemes (e.g. various in to according Laxmithe Basin identified have been tentatively magnetic Further isochrons anomaly 2.1). section study(see this for interpreted newly were Basin Somali West the in Data Ridge). SWIndian the of flanks the (on (2010) al. et Cande and theMozambique Basin), (in and (2010) König Jokat basin), Somali the eastern (in Hoang (2013) andand Eagles (2010) et al. Cande Basin), the Mascarene (in (2013) Wibisono Eaglesfrom and anomaly maps picks magnetic include theThe building data reconstruction kinematic plate for used Sets Data Reconstruction Kinematic Plate 2.2 plates. sub- Nubian and Somalian into plate African the of rupture by circuit regional the to forces driving new of introduction the of ischaracteristic this that possible is It poles. rotation finite successive between shifts by northwards chron is 13y,and A epochbeginscharacterised with final 2013). Wibisono, Eagles & (Eagles & Hoang, 2013; spreadingthe in inthe endof Basin Mascarene resulted that crest jumpsof Ridge the Carlsberg of asa forces consequence introduced indriving changes overlap statistical changesignificant with in pole slower of 24yand a period and 21y, later chrons between ending parameters, change rapid rotation in period and13y.This 30y-28o chrons poles between from the GMT Suite of tools (Wessel et al., 2013). The rotation parameters describing the describing Theparameters rotation al., 2013). et (Wessel tools GMTthe from of Suite Didger 5 Didger digitizing software and the free-air gravity datafrom Sandwell et al. d rotating the datacropped d rotating using locations. This subdivision might be might to related subdivision This locations. might be broken down into an earlier period of period anearlier into down be broken might grdrotater , grdmask and and Accepted Article that did yetnot exist FITat this, times. Consistent with oftheplain’sbackstripping sedimentarythick be crust by underlain to magmatic plain the Mozambique coastal the overlap signifies suggested that Manyhave these authors of Davis 2016). Leinweber et 2012; al., & 2008; and Jokat, EaglesKönig, (e.g. reconstructions alternative numerous Maand 165 of 175 (Fig. andisa 5 (b)) feature (Fig. 5(c)), (MCP). plain Antarctica coastal and the Mozambique East between the FIT noting in overlap is the (Fig.Ma image 5(a)) 183-177 feature worth An obvious Eagles and (2014). Kenya) by Pérez-Díaz Sudanand Sudan, through South southern (which stretches from theMuglad-Anza rift suggested for as boundaries, plate intracontinental byshort-lived was accommodated that rifting diachronous thecontinentalof of aconsequence margins, as or extension consequence of as a interpreted overlap be might thenthe as are accepted reliable, rotations model If the model its interpretation. or significance of kinematic the plate for crust, meaning continental overlap the that is an observation Somalia (Fig. (a)). 5 of India with part northern and the microcontinent between overlap Seychelles the There is significant (4) conjugate East Africanand Antarctica margins (EA-ANT) (Fig. 5 (a)). Madagascanmargins (EA-MAD), the (3) corresponding margin West of Madagascar (MAD-EA) and West and conjugate African (2) East (EA-IND), and Margins Indian African conjugate East The following conjugate margin segments identified from reconstruction; initial been have this (1) Gondwana. tobreakuplead of phasewould that the rifting a separate of beginning new, end of the intracontinental Karoo riftingepisodes (C the marked events These platedivergence. of onset the of timing the determine to used been havenot basin Somali West the of margins the from rocks igneous contrast, In 2017). Jokat, and Ma; Mueller flowsMozambique (pre-169 the in Basin dipping seaward of andindirect dating 2013) Jokat, Leinweber Ma; 1996; Roeser & et al., (~165 magnetic isochrons from spreading rates of extrapolation counterparts in Antarctica (White McKenzie, & This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. initiation of new spreadingridges andthe the or jumps asridge such changes tectonic by major separated Ocean, Indian the of evolution of periods phaseswhich showdistinctive different as model new platekinematic four Wethe present plate circuit the Africa-India-Antarctica of kinematic 3 reconstruction High-resolution stage. earliest model's the into breakup conjugatemargins means ofthere isrisk propagating little errors from unrecognized diachronous of length The such ashort choice of set a rotations. of of is starting but theindependent itself location Williamstechniquesof that like (2011), etal. reconstruction palinspastic by boundaries quantitative continent-ocean of restoration way in tothe features numerical of uncertainty pickedinthis is similar Karoo volcanics in southeast Africa (Eagles & König, 2008, Encarnaci 2008, & König, (Eagles Africa southeast Karoo volcanics in of the have the eruption by been accompanied would divergence plate of that onset the assumption Ma).183-177 The the timeof is basedPhase timingthe on period thisreconstruction of (within 1 atthe of of beginning the Gondwana priorfragmentation to supercontinent their relative positions in system fully reassembled plate Africa-Antarctica-India thefuture of plates Figure the 5(a) shows basins. Mozambique and Somali thenewly West spreading created in and seafloor breakup onset of the eventually to and rifting continental to ledinitially America. andSouth This Africa from Westbearing Gondwana, Australia and Antarctica, East India, Seychelles, the Madagascar, of microcontinents and continents future the bearing Gondwana, East of separation the by characterised is phase platetectonic first The Gondwana and West East of Ma: Separation 183-177 at Starting – Phase1 3.1 Table2. in outlined are phases four The margins. West Madagascan and African

Hammond et al. (2013) documented that the Seychelles are underlain by documented underlain are thatthe Seychelles (2013) et al. Hammond

effect on the tectonic development of the conjugate East East conjugate the of development the tectonic on effect 1989). Alternative timings have been based on have on been based timings Alternative 1989). arboniferous to Lateto Tria arboniferous The persistsoverlap inthe reconstructions for ό n et al., 1996) and their andtheir Ferrar n et 1996) al., ssic/) and Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. Ba West Somali the from magnetic profiles wiggle using defended can beand popular remain plate, third a of motion require which Ma), 125.93 after M0 just to Basin spreading place the end(126.30– of theWest Somali anomalies the in magnetic of interpretations alternative previously, noted As Basin. Somali West the from constraints model of removal asthe to aof consequence explain mere seem longevity difficult and whoseconsistency path migration south-southwesterly a adopt poles rotation finite model’s our time, this After Gondwana. West and East large just of two plates, motions relative describe should that model the assumption the M10n Ma) of chron –133.5 consequence tosometime as anexplicit (~133.9 within reorganisation dates the model change debated. TheOur of boundary timing this East 6 isstill Antarctica (a)). (Fig. and Madagascar between Basin Enderby the West in onset eventual its and Basin West Somali the in spreading of seafloor cessation theIndian Ocean involved tectonic the The of in activity secondphase Antarctica of Separation Ma: 133 at Starting – Phase2 3.2 2). Ma) and figure 2.1, (155-133 section (see period poles time this rotation for finite by therelatively stationary asexhibited system twoplate astable describes model the tectonic Basin, Somali West boundarythe in plate the the of until abandonment spreading seafloor the of onset from phaseone, of remainder the For Madagascar. and Mozambique Tanzania, of between parts onthe transform Davie strike-slip by dextral accommodated was basins two the in spreading ridges Motionthe on 5 Gondwana (c)). West and (Fig. between East Basins andWest Mozambique Somali spreading the in seafloor by of phase followed and breakup theonset Thewas end main rift the of breakup. earlier imply would rates early Slower divergence plate boundary. continent-ocean the slopewhere alsoplaced Ma) they near the thebaseof anomaly continental (165.6 M41n of (2012) tentative identification Leinweber an Jokat’s suggest Ma, 167 age and of to comparable would oldestdatedstage (M25n-M22n) model’s of our extrapolation Linear ocean boundaries. agesof the continent magnetic towards basedonextrapolation Larsen isochron Sea canbeestimated Riiser and Basin Mozambique the in spreading seafloor of onset the and breakup to assigned age The 2008). et al., basins (Key theKaroo over discordantly superimposed were basins rift main the Africa East and in 2004) al., et Geiger 1997; (Clark, west migrated axis the rift Madagascar in example, For the havesame may margin segments followed orientations. not future the of trends stage, the regional the main later during However, 2005). rift etal., (Catuneau thePrecambrian basement of structures inherent and trends tectonic the regional followed Karoo Theearlier plate). Gondwana the East of parts (as andAntarctica Madagascar West and India, of Gondwana) (as part Africa East between plate zone along boundary future NNE-SSW kmlong a trending extension andtranstension 1000 demonstrate vectors plate 5 the and local motion plate phaseDuring kinematic (b)), rift (Fig. process. reconstruction the role its in limits the continent-ocean andstrongly accurately boundary locating reliably by continental extension. Clearly here, as main the great ti km as overlaps as for 270 reconstruction This 2016; controversy et implies Klimke etal., KlimkePhethean 2016). al., and 2016; 2016; Franke, et Turner 2012; et al, al, the Davie or oceanic around Zone of continental Fracture crust (Danforth extended of presence the regarding developed recently has controversy however, the shelves, matchshelf outlines the at sp seafloor times before and (2016) al. et Davis (2014), Reeves by presented Eaglesand andKlimke andKönig (2008) Franke (2016). Much tighter fitting reconstructions are and (1987), Rabinowitz Coffin and by to (1970), Hallam Smith those modelled similar positions relative to reconstruct Madagascar and Africa East of margins conjugate the rotations, our With or oceanicstretched,crust a thick with volcanic transitional cover. by isunderlain the whether the overlap Mozambique of side confirm to help data would Deep seismic Fonseca et et 2014). al., 2016; al., (Domingues crust oceanic for be thick unusually km, whichwould about 20 of thickness acrustal suggest investigations seismological However, recent (Watts, 2001). sequencesuggests lithosphere the underlying subsided atrates l ny other settings worldwide, the difficulty of of the difficulty worldwide, settings ny other reading constraints become available. Outboard Outboard readingof constraints become available. sin (e.g. Gibbons et al., 2013; Davis et al., 2016). 2016). al., et Davis 2013; al., et Gibbons (e.g. sin ghter-fit models, large models, tobeexplained implausibly ghter-fit Phethean et al. (2016), all of all Phethean etal. aim tocloselywhich (2016), Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. and between India Madagascar. oceanic occurred crust the in and relocations boundary changes tectonic major of number a phase, this of end the Towards . the in occurring folding andcontractional strike-slip faulting with Madagascar, activity western inthe basinsof tectonic renewed describes (1998) Clark Basin, theMascarene the of opening to Corresponding MAD-EA somemargins for indicating inversion potential strike-slipearlier of structures stage. in this vectors trended perpendicular to the N-S trending margin segments of the southern EA-MAD and or drift stage.ENE-WSW E-W during margin motion latepost-rift the plate development to local passive and quiescence tectonic of a phase indicating segments margin continental to the parallel mostly vectors oriented were motion plate and central local the EA-ANT segments, MAD, northern EA- northern EA-IND, oriented theNE-SW in Consequently, margin. Mozambique inthe direction toan in Somalia a margin E-Wthe northern direction NE-SW from vectors varied Local platemotion plate. African the of boundary along Mascareneeastern N-Sthe Ridge formed thenewly trending dominated byalong spreading likely more were margins Madagascan West and at tectonics African East the regional the north, inanalong the plates SWIR However, (Fig. further NW-SE approximately remained 7(b)). direction between the two direction Antarctica the with spreading boundary plate southeastern Along Africa’s 2013). Ma)& Wibisono, (Eagles 27n (61.65 chron of youngend the after shortly abandonment its until continued Mascarene Basin eruption is attributed to the arrival ofthe Marion (Fig. the 7(a)). Spreading in whose in et Madagascar, al 1997) are Ma(Storey ~89 the volcanics Morondava dated products its earliest but 2, section described in interpretations themagnetic by constrained mostly isochron is activity Basin (Fig. of Mascarenethe in The 7). and Madagascar separating Indiatiming associatedinitiationthe with ofa new spreadin the change was Ocean. This Indian in changea byactivity intectonic dramatic characterized is theSWIR, but spreading along seafloor of Antarctica-African phasesawThe the continuation third Madagascar Indiaand of Separation 89Ma: at Starting – Phase3 3.3 2014). (Mahanjane on theDavieZone Facture movement the end of followed uplift tectonic of period ashort-lived EA-MAD/EA-ANT) (southern inthe EA-MAD) Angoche whilst Basin in (southern the Rovuma Basin erosion extensive inland and rifting byrenewed wascontrolled deposition 2 phase early that suggest (2008) al. et Key 1988). Rabinowitz, & (Coffin segment MAD-EA northern the and 1992) (Bosellini, segment the EA-IND i.e. SomaliBasin the segments bordering themargin along this of phaseHauterivian/Barremian) (end start of onset the amarks unconformity major Accordingly, segments. thesealong margin deformation transpressional or strike-slip for potential the MAD-EA indicate EA-MADand the southern of to oblique margins the N-S trending vectors plate trending local motion NW-SE(Fig. oriented 6(a)). of vectorsthe the platethe EA-IND-MAD plateassemblyorientation motion andkinematics within strongly EA-IND-MAD andaltered EA-ANT centre between The new spreading trending ENE-WSW pl fewest (i.e. minimum-complexity the favour to continue anomaly data, we more magnetic setcoherent newand basis of the on up instantaneously.In theface ofall this, and untila se more-or-less achieved have been could it of south to of Madagascar north spreading seafloor the switch from scenario, In the this other extension. for aslocations basins Mannar andCauvery spre seafloor renewed to extension prior continental the8 In oneMyr-long scenario, 2010). be by gap might Basinthe Somali atal., (Jokat filled West 8Myr around spreading than the end spreading of later in until have seafloor seen to which seemsnot Basin, Enderby in western the patterns isochron magnetic with consistent canbetimings Both as seen ates) view of the regional development in times. times. early Cretaceous in development regional the view of ates) g andthe ridge oftheMascarene opening Basin, lf-consistent scheme interpretations ofisochron is ading south of Madagascar; Figure 6a suggests the suggests 6a Figure Madagascar; of south ading Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. and/orcontinental extension. boundary plate in be propagation of terms interpreted should model or margin of isadeficiency result Somali and the between ‘FIT’ aged the concludenot whether Seychelles to the or difficult overlap is notedabove, it as stages.we thanthelater aconsequence, As constrained confidently are less andso plate convergence more widespread involve motion this stages of early The and Seychelles. the zone Africa boundary between plate ‘diffuse’ a of low-strain-rate part of trench forming the is a result well. Our kinematic model and the rotation parametersfrom Eagles& Hoang (2013) suggest that as deformation this and convergent transverse itaccommodated but in its that earlier development 2013), Hoang, & (Eagles rates spreading seafloor ultraslow or slow at divergence plate accommodating was with a rough it occurred tilted arcuate not whilst trough basement, extinction but suggests its markedly asteep-sided, deep, trench, the of morphology The present-day plate. and African the plate the boundary part Seychelles between time, and, of the afor formed 7(c)), (Fig. short rotation this during its morphology present-day acquired platform Seychelles the Trenchof tothe southwest that islikely plate. arcuateIt the Amirante African becoming attachedthe to before independently rotated and islands moved the until plate, Indian the of apart been had Seychelles Ma) the 64.13 Up – (65.12 until 29n chron theunderstood. plate timing the anddetails of time, though, were poorly along For location. intra-oceanic and its composition crustal continental islands’ the for explanation as an suspected waslong 7(c)), a (Fig. of Seychelles plate small movement independent and Isolation Seychelles of microplate Rotation the Amirante3.3.2. of andOrigin Trench chron 30. to assigned the dates affecting a error timescale of be event might of terms in this A interpretation prosaic more plate. African ridgethe for push Basin Laxmi in of increase the proposed the the East direction plate, with opposing Antarctic its boundary of thelocation and plate area African the of great the because similarof terms, explain to in difficult is 2c) (Figure divergence Antarctic African-East in new the for model acceleration short-lived similar a the of to the basin. into The occurrence west of region the rapidly Carlsberg Ridge propagated asthe abandoned was Laxmi Basin the in boundary plate the until while short only a lasted for these They conditions that platemotion. unusually period fast suggested of to short the contributed force push ridge whichan from increased ridge, an mid-ocean of development high unusually the to led plume mantle Deccan-Réunion above the theregion to Laxmi Basin the to Mascarene the from India of andMadagascar the of boundary part between relocation (2013) suggested that Wibisono & edge. Eagles northern at its slab of a pull freely descending the to response purely in of the byIndianuntil it plate increased 150-200%, saw the speed acceleration – short-lived Ma), chron 68.196 30n (66.398 During a et further 2015). al., edge(Jagoutz northern at its double of theaction to or 2011) al., et Hinsbergen plate (van edgehas totheat the been the influence southern plume related the of This of Marion acceleration Basin. the of Mascarene opening the throughout northwards accelerating hadbeen ThePlate Indian and 64Mathe Laxmi 30) between 67Ma28n). here ismodelled Chron Basin as active (during (chron margins. continental andSomali Therefore, the Indian-Madagascan with Seychelles microcontinent (65.12 67 that LaxmiC29o Ma), 66MaItMa Basin: and 67Ma. was the minimized found of overlap C32n.1n usingand C34n three alternative assumed agesthe initiation for of plate divergence the in for were attempted alternative thereconstructions constrain Laxmi the ageof ToBasin, further interpreted termsin of much older seafloor spreading. and hadbeen short are in the Laxmi previously profiles magnetic anomaly where (Fig. Basin (c)), 7 the be to present crust missing identified of tentatively They the Carlsberg flanks Ridge. neighbouring of the part and in Basin very Mascarene the northern –India corridor the Seychelles lacking from betweenwasand 28n 30n chrons concludedaccretion oceanic thatevidence for Wibisono (2013) Ma).– 68.196 (66.398 Eagles& occurred30n during The boundarychron nextimportant relocation Plate Indian the of Speed the Laxmi and B was moving thanmight be possible faster thought Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. the SWIR of 8(b)). zones ontheflanks (Fig. inthe fracture curves pronounced NNE-SSWgiven rise to back again. This has to SE before reverting NW- NNE-SSW to approximately from changes motion relative the time, this During Ma. 53 to ~58 led considerableto complexity inthe relative move of System andthecollisions the Rift African East of development the include These plates. its of margins the other at occurring changes by but itself, Therest of thisphase is defined notby any signif Ma).58.38 and and C26n (61.65 C27n between chrons Plateau India andtheMascarene separating southwards, Ma) C28n chron of (63.10 end and propagated young the at ridge started onthe Carlsberg Spreading active today8). still whichare (Fig. Ridges Indian (CIR), and Central by onthe Carlsberg spreading accommodated Plateau, India of Mascarene and the separation the phase tectonic involves The fourth Plateau Mascarene the Indiaand of Separation 60Ma: at Starting – Phase4 3.4 reconstructions. toour todepict in small be usefully anytoo of component continental andthearea its journeyplume, the Deccan-Réunion over during thickening magmatic consequence of be a to theMascarene Plateau of thickness theanomalous crustal mostof weconsider As a result, (a)). Madagascar, the needwithout for anylarge significantly intervening blocks microcontinent (Fig. 7 and between close fit India model a shows ages, our the zircon of significance the Whilst accepting belts. geochronological data Moho and depth thickness, elastic isostasy, unnecessary theirmodelling a in supporting Madagascarbetween fit and India based onflexural be Mauritia to found (2014) Ratheesh-Kumar et al., 2016). etal., Davis 2013; al., et Gibbons (e.g. a microcontinent such for space less much leave margins conjugate Madagascan and Indian the of reconstructions other Most Mauritia. for itself, Madagascar as wide as almost Madagascar, and India between space alarge leaves that model kinematic a plate built They lavas. related plume by inCenozoic jumpsand isolated covered ridge crust, thick reason for the anomalously andthe thesexenocrysts of origin the for named Mauritia, they which microcontinent, Precambrian a suggest authors Thesame 2013). al. et (Torsvik Seychelles the towards arcan in northwards extends and Plateau, Mascarene the and underneath lies that crust thick anomalously of block connecting a show data gravity of inversion from maps thickness crustal Furthermore, lithospherecontinental and beneath Mauritius to the surfacebrought melts. by plume related ancient fragments of from assimilated were they concluded that (betweenages, and Ma)and 840 660 Ma) and Neoproterozoic (>1,971 Palaeoproterozoic zircons with numerous TheyPlateau. found theend of atthesouthern Mascarene Mauritius, on young volcanic from derived directly rocks sands beach from separated xenocrysts zircon ages of the ascertain to dating U-Pb used (2017) al. et Ashwal and (2013) al. et Torsvik recently, more However, margin. basin the close plume Réunion theDeccan- of passage the during emplaced were which , Cenozoic of that it comprised is wrote (1990) Duncan Hargreaves & isunclear. Plateau Mascarene the beneath of The crust the origin and Origin the position Mascareneof Plateau 3.3.3. – plate. Ma) 58.959 became African the to attached 26n (59.237 when it and motion during chron independent rotation between them The ceased Seychelles 7 (Fig. plate (c)). plate a small of isolation the to leading plateau, Seychelles the of side either on active were ridges which during 6 million about years aof was period there a result, to As the Carlsberg ridge. the jump Ma) 63.494 – (64.667 following at abandonment28n during Ma chron Basin approximately until 67 Laxmi the in Ma. spreading ~61 We at extinct date became Ridge The Mascarene ridge jumping. and aof of ridge combination the occurred as of propagation microplate Isolation result the Seychelles matching tectonic and lithologies tectonic lineaments, matching icant tectonic changes within the NW Ocean Indian within changes icant tectonic India and Africa with Eurasia. The latter changes changes The latter Eurasia. with India and Africa ment of Africa and Antarctica in the period from theperiod in Africa andAntarctica of ment Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. the context into ofour and inliterature placed plate subsequently described stratigraphic boundaries and the features and structural lithological on the based segments to is applied margin classification syn-rift, transitional, early post-rift, late post-rift and modern margin. This tectono-stratigraphic Main syn-rift, theKaroo dominantmegasequences: the following comprises This tectonostratigraphy basins the on various East Africa and West Mada this paper, chronostratigraphicthe utilises chart the atectono-stratigraphysimplified sedimentary of in correlation Figure 9.For in margin-scale panels the chart the of byarebackground coloured shown phase, in our model, kinematic precedingand the plate Karoo phasesidentified tectonic main The four scale. margin plate at correlations possible discuss we however, Here, margins. continental rifted Madagascan West the along formation and and East African their understand evolution better sedimentary to basins data geophysical from and geological integrating framework margin-scale tectono-stratigraphic will correlation chronostratigraphic This margin-scale Madagascar and Antarctica (Fig. 9). India, with Africa East margin of theconjugate segments of types events andmegasequence tectonic a of thebasis chronostratigra Indian Ocean form the Northwest stagesof evolutionary model and derivedThe platetectonic tectonic detailed plate 4 Discussion 2014)). Franke, & (Mahanjane thrust-belt deep-water--and- Rovuma the example for wedges, sediment prograding of collapse and loading and Uplift (ii) MacGregorincreased triggered (2015); may input by sediment havethe EARS ledto tothe by and linked domethe Wichura for et al. Kenya Mid-Miocene, (2011) the in by to as and doming the onsetof suggested Uplift rifting prior (i) largely local. Examples include: earlier rotation poles discussed finite of progression the in reflected may This be System(EARS). Rift East African neighbouring by the influenced tohave marginstrongly islikely theEastbeen of African Later inphase the 4, development a drop thespreadingto in rate. by 60°, north almost corresponding deviating from azimuth spreading 53Ma showsthe NW Figure (c) to N. back 2 to between 58 then N from to flip-flopped of plate rapidly the direction divergence south, Further this phase (b)). 9 (Fig. deformation in strike-slip or localplatemotion transpressional potential indicating trending vectors more oblique by characterised were margins andMAD-EA EA-MAD thesouthern segments of The margin N-S trending & Barchi, 2016). offshore Kenya (Cruciani belt water fold-and-thrust conditions. The start ofthis phase correlates with well the formation of the gravity-driven Lamu deep- continental margin segments (Fig. indicating 8(b)) and tectonic quiescence passive margin theve localplatemotion EA-ANTand segments, central EA-MAD, northern northern the EA-IND, in NE-SW oriented Accordingly, Ridges. Indian Central and the Carlsberg on spreading as active of aconsequence a NE-SWin were direction orientated vectors alon plate At this motion thelocal stage and Ridge Indian Central Indian Southwest the (SWIR). (CIR) the Ridge (CR), theCarlsberg existed; ridges At thebeginning spreading phase, active this three of Roberts (e.g. System Rift African the East in boundary anew plate to linked Ma),becould which influence rifting at 13y(33.147 beginning onset to the continental related of orientatio rotation polesa northwards adopts finite chron of 13, After theprogression 1997). collision (Nankivell, betweenand Europe Africa continental eventual the terms of andits stages in 2011), later & Stegman, (Cande boundary India plate theAfrican- the near plume of Deccan in influence the terms of beeninterpreted has slowdown initial chron Ma) Fig. 13y The 2). (see more 2.1, Section until Ma),slowly (33.147 and52.62 afterwards after chrons 30y (66.398 Ma– 28o Ma), –63.494 atfirst rapidly untilchrons 26y Ma 24y to (58.959 – the in migrateperiod southwards motion relative inour model Antarctic-Africa of Finite rotations g the East African and West Madagascan margins margins Madagascan West and g African theEast phic correlatingphic thefundamentalchart regional gascar margingascar segments, n. This abrupt change suggests a new tectonic anew tectonic change This abrupt suggests n. in in this section. However, seems it theeffects were in turn turn in form basisthe a moredetailed future for ctors were still oriented mostly parallel to the the to oriented parallel mostly still were ctors compiled fromliterature. et al., 2012). 2012). Accepted Article 2004; Mahanjane, 2012). Sediments were deposited under mostly shallow marine conditions the along conditions marine shallow mostly under deposited were Sediments Mahanjane, 2004; 2012). Geiger Mbede 1998; et Clark, al., & 1992; & 1988;Bosellini, 1997; Rabonowitz, (Coffin Dualeh, grabens half within withsediments accumulating faulting, extensional byis rift-related controlled sedimentation syn-rift Characteristically, Gondwana. West and East of thebreakup to led successfully rifting of that concise stage the distinct, with is associated megasequence The main syn-rift rift megasequencesare present all either orpartially present phase in this (Fig. 9). andearly transitional post- main syn-rift, syn-rift, Karoo 5 a-c). and (Fig. Somali Basins Mozambique West the in spreading seafloor subsequent and breakup eventual their and America), Africa/South (comprising Gondwana West and Madagascar/India/Antarctica/Seychelles) Gondwana (comprising East of Phase rifting tectonic3.2, 1 in the our modelincludes section of Asdescribed previously /MainSyn-Rift / BreakupPhase 4.2 / Transitional Latest Karoo 1: Rift /Early Post future more detailed work. basis of tobe the on seen remains rifting styles, Pangea asymmetrical of or break-up progressive the also reflect might it extent what To period. year a30 over sets data and varying techniques using studied sparselybeen have basins that seta of in be expected mightorder this Variability of 2012). Phase 1(Mahanjane, extends into megasequence the Karoo the segment EA-ANT margin However, in 1992). Ma 190 has at (Bosellini, approx. been and placed Karoo between syn-rift Main Along theEA-IND boundary the 9). Fig. platemargin (see Phase model onset of kinematic our of 1 and the et 2005) al. Jourdan Large (Cox Province 1992; Igneous the Karroo-Ferrar of emplacement the accompanying 2008;Geiger, at 2004), Ma &much later ~183 been Benvenuti, (Papini identified has it margin ontheMadagascan However, Key 2008). 1988; al., & et Rabinowitz, Ma~200 (Coffin at isdated theboundary Madagascar to conjugate margin segment African margins. the East Along along greatly the megasequence vary and between the Karoo theboundary Syn-rift Main Dates for Ma et al. 183-177 Jourdan the2005). 1992; (Cox Igneous within period Province time Largeof theeruption Karoo theearly and in Jurassic Gondwana culminated cause of the breakup events to Thesefailed 1991). rifting as (Wopfner, Madagascar south asfar and occurred, reached marine the Tethyan incursions from Sporadic North in the Ocean the basement. metamorphic of top on in unconformably anddeposited nature continental are predominantly The sediments Karoo and Africa India/Madagascar between transtension African/Malag the East that suggest basins apart pull- to Anumber north northwest smaller 2005). of trending (Catuneau etal., NElinear trending rifts discrete, fairly causing Belt Metamorphic the Mozambique e.g. trends, basement structural inherited mainly followed rifting Karoo Madagascar, West and margins East Along of Africa future the 2005). et al., maximum extent(Catuneanu its reached when Pangea had through the the Jurassic, andinto Early Permo-Triassic idea deposition oftheir during a phase rifting that the with consistent considerably, varies margin segments the in determined age Karoo sediments of The breakup reaching stage. the in final unsuccessful ultimately were which Pangea supercontinent This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. Phase The Karoo Karoo Pre-phase 1: 4.1 framework. chronostratigraphic derived margin-scale within newly the correlation and their and Antarctica Madagascar India, with Africa East segments of the in margin conjugate events the key tectono-stratigraphic briefly summarises section The following segments are shown by the black arrows. margin conjugate to relative vectors motion and plate ofaverage eachsegment the left margin bars along are the 3) as shown coloured (Chapter of vectors local model motion plate and orientation kinematic plate the from derived segment margin each of regimes tectonic The model. kinematic

refers tothe phase of intermittent, intracontinental rifting eventsthat affected the asyKaroo Basins were formedby left-lateral potentially stretched all the way from the Late the way from the all stretched potentially (Catuneau et al., 2005; Wopfner et al., 1993). 1993). Wopfner et al., 2005; et al., (Catuneau Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. 1992). (Bosellini, sediments Cretaceous event early removed erosional a pre-Aptian where major segment, the at EA-IND was this to observed exception The at of Cretaceous. the start the deposition and bysustained more consistent followed unconformities localised by punctuated of a number theEA arealong margin deposition segments stages post-rift Within Phase early of 1, initial the breakup. segments following the margin crust oceanicand the of continental stretched subsidence thermal of asaconsequence sediments todeep marine shallow-marine from environment depositional the of changes by characterised are sequences post-rift Early model. plate kinematic Phaseand Phase1through our Phase 2 into 3 of from stretches megasequence The Early Post-rift regional unconformities thatcan be suggested torelate to phases of tectonicuplift. major of occurrence the or vice versa, todeepand marine sediments shallow facies from depositional change in as sudden such the the of basins tectonic development or succession stratigraphic post-rift and modernmargin. These subdivisions are marked changesby significant inthe th into has subdivided been succession The post-rift margin segments. all along sediments was deposited post-rift of succession a breakup, thick Following Zone. Fracture become theDavie onwhatwasto transtension by characterised dextral segments MAD-EA and EA-MAD southern the are pattern this to Exceptions rifting. orthogonal Extension occurred in a NW-SE direction, perpendicular mostto margin segments, facilitating 5). 3(Fig. insection is described syn-rift main the during vectors of motion plate The orientations before stretching thebreakup. notion of aconsistent continental period of with longer-lasting crust continental stretched byplains as underlain of Mozambique coastal the Ma, Interpretations 160 than at theotheraround margin later segments. our whichEA-ANT plate model, with kinematic in occurs breakup agree broadly Both interpretations 2012). Ma approximately 157 of (Mahanjane, date later asomewhat evidence suggests stratigraphic whereas 2017), et al., Mueller 2012; and MaJokat, bymargin 164-166 had (Leinweber occurred at the EA-ANTbreakup that suggest Mozambiquethe in Basin isochrons phase. reversal Magnetic of sediments the rifting end at the younger duetoerosion of syn-rift or and removal unconformity, be dating identifying or theage breakup due toproblems could thesein of dates and discrepancy 1992). The Ma theCallovian ~165 (Bosellini, during occurred along EA-IND segment, the the north, to just breakup inSomalia suggest constraints Stratigraphic (Geiger, Ma 170 2004). approx. boundary, Aalenian-Bajocian the by age isrepresented its conjugate and breakup segmentthe MAD-EA for 1988) & Rabinowitz, Ma (Coffin ~174 theJurassic given endof at the been has EA-MAD segment the of age breakup The along margins. the also megasequence is diachronous the from early post-rift megasequence transitional) (or themain separating syn-rift thebreakup Theunconformity, ageof 2012). breakup occurred (Mahanjane, final sedimentsdepos mixedmarine/continental consists of it where only, segment theEA-ANT in identified been has megasequence transitional A characteristic segments. age EA-IND the along are found similar sediments of main syn-rift However, MAD- EAsegments. the than EA-MAD and younger inthe EA-ANT sediments are segment syn-rift main the breakup, staggered the As of a consequence rift first. basins inisolated happened onset its variable because is verydeposition 4.1 Bymain syn-rift above). the nature, 1 section the EA-ANTin (see margin phase into well continued deposition syn-rift Karoo and segments margin EA-MAD and the EA-IND in deposition began earlier beginning However,syn-rift main Phase our model. kinematic of 1of plate the to corresponds stage syn-rift themain of onset the margin, Madagascan conjugate Along the EA-MAD). (EA-IND, megasequence inothers MAD-EA), however, (e.g. identifiable easily megasequence is main syn-rift the segments, In somemargin 2014). etal., (Mahanjane along marine sediments EA-ANT and to Hudson shelf 1997; & Nicholas, Mbede2014), & Dualeh, 1988; & Rabinowitz, (Coffin EA-MAD along facies water shallow and transitional continental, witha Geiger, 2004), 1992; of mixture segmentsEA-IND (Bosellini, margin and MAD-EA it is difficult to distinguish from the Karoo or transitional crust (e.g. Leinweber et al, 2011) are are 2011) al, et Leinweber (e.g. crust transitional or ree distinct megasequences; early post-rift, late early post-rift, megasequences; ree distinct ited during an early post-rift sag phase before Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. in changes important tectonic with time overlap These unconformities MAD-EA segments. margin EA-MAD the andthe conjugatenorthern age toPaleocene in and northern segments EA-ANT margin EA-MAD southern EA-IND, inthe age Cretaceous) (Late Maastrichtian from ranging unconformity regional marked a major by is megasequences early andlatepost-rift the The boundary between uplift to renewed 1995). basement (Nyagah, linked EA-MAD inthe time segment northern at a besides corresponding an 9) roughly unconformity Madagascan margins. However, there iseviden little West and African East the have affected to Ridge theMascarene of initiation the expect We 1992; Key 2008). Bosellini, et al., & 1995; (Salman Abdula, sandstones and turbiditic mudstones marls, shales, e.g. sediments deep-water of consisting systems of depositional progradation basinward until Phase 4. stageThe slowergenerallylate post-rift subsidence thermal and by is dominated did start not sedimentation post-rift late EA-MAD segments, MAD-EAin the northern and margins However, by segments. EA-MAD southern theend and EA-ANTEA-IND, Phase margin the 3 in of Early into sedimentation the continued earlypost-rift stage ofPhase began 3. Late deposition post-rift Fig.7). 3.3, (Section Madagascar from India separating and Basin the Mascarene opening ridge Mascarene new the of the initiation by defined is model kinematic plate our in Phase3 of beginning The Post-rift and Late Early Phase3: 4.4 of . alternatively be related but might Key 1995; 2008) etal., Abdula, & (Salman limited toan surface Albian-Cenomanian are segmentsin the EA-MADand southern that EA-ANThave Those been identified unconformities theSWIR from SW tothe Madagascar. force of ridge push associated andweak youngage relatively unconformities that might be with this associated the potential for regional uplift and inversion tectonics during phase 2 (Fig. 6 (a), 9). Regional exposed to were thus which MAD-EA margin segments, andEA-ANT EA-MAD, northern northern the EA-IND, to perpendicular is orientation NW-SE. This to them rotating vectors, plate motion of the local caused achange inthe orientation relocation 4.2, boundary insection the As described 3.2). and 2.1 sections 2016; al. et Davis 2013; al., et (Gibbons Basin Somali West the in spreading seafloor of cessation Ma) 124.6 (post-M0r; later alternatively-advocated the pre-date unconformities of all the inour Inkinematic plate contrast, model. described the change boundary plate of effects far-field the to related canbe unconformities these timing, Giventheir 2014). Mahanjane, 1988; & Rabinowitz, years (Coffin and within 3million margin MAD-EAsegments inthe EA-ANT form unconformities Following Fig. 3.2, 6). reconfiguration, this (section East India Antarctica from and Madagascar separating Basin Enderby West the near or in onset its and Basin West Somali the in spreading seafloor of cessation the by caused Ocean NWIndian inthe reorganisation boundary a with c megasequence of the early post-rift Deposition Post-rift Early Phase2: 4.3 segments. IND andEA-MAD EA- the of development the effecting and Morley, 1994), (Bosworth accompanied activity tectonic was as AnzaRift neighbouring the In contrast, MAD margin besegments directly cannot correlated any ofthe with kinematic main model’s events. EA- northern the in and its neighbouring EA-IND unconformities early Cretaceous Jurassic-to Latest tectonics. strike-slip accommodating Zone Fracture Davie future the of segments plate boundary active close to whichremained segments, margin MAD-EA and southern EA-MAD are southern the Local exceptions quiescence. relative tectonic indicating sequence, margin passive undifferentiated an as characterised are sediments megasequence Post-rift Early the of most 1, Phase of the rest For to the ‘SOLIP’ formation at theAgulhassouth Plateau formation to the large province ‘SOLIP’ igneous ite of Berriasian-Barremian sedimentation ite ofBerriasian-Barremian sedimentation that ontinued throughout Phase 2 (Fig. 9). Phase 2 begins Phase2 9). (Fig. Phase 2 throughout ontinued possibility are rare, reflectingpotentially the ce forany effects thetectono-stratigraphy in (Fig. Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. on processes tectonic margin-wide impact of toanalyse enablethe future usin will margin segments specific for results and stratigraphic tectonic published with results kinematic plate of The synthesis microplates. and masses land separating between basins numerous ocean of growth the to leading reorganisations boundary plate multiple of area complex the its including evolution the describes modelthat The zone is a comprehensive result data. fracture and magneticapplied to isochron built using finite rotation poles byvisual generated Ma day was 183 Ocean present the to Indian Northwest from model the A of new platekinematic basin fillsequences. of related model a information and published of ontheresults new platekinematic based Madagascar and East segmentsof Africa margin the conjugate in events andmegasequences major tectonic of for the correlation framework chronostratigraphic a We margin-scale and presented have developed 5 Conclusions the Oligocene. its onset in since the regional tectonics thatthe it EARS controlled is likely (Tanzania/Mozambique)) Lamu Rovuma Basin (Kenya), Basin margin (e.g. African East the of the basins sedimentary in However, deformation. strike-slip for potential the to creating margin oblique the segments trend vectors motion plate local the where MAD-EA segments margin EA-MADand southern southern isthe exception The development. margin and ongoing passive quiescence tectonic indicating approximate vectors The are platemotion orientated 2014). al., et Mahanjane 2014; Franke, & (Mahanjane belts fold-and-thrust deep-water of formation the and currents, turbidity margins, shelf at wedges sediment of collapse andtriggered segments margin theEast to African input sediment increased theEARS has Ebinger that It is expected 2015; & Sleep, MacGregor, 1998). 2011; (Wichura etal., prior to System theAfar Rift theplume, East the onsetof African uplift of over African plate the todoming and a link suggests which of margin all (Oligocene) the segments, unconformity in timing themodern Themargin onsetof 2014). et Mahanjane al., (Mahanjane Franke, 2014; & driven deformation gravity- and deltas prograding large by characterised is meqasequence margin Themodern 9). (Fig. megasequences margin Modern the and Post-rift Late the separates boundary an unconformable 4, PhasePhase Within of the early 4. stage into continues megasequence of the latepost-rift Deposition Phase thepresent 4day. to whichcontinues throughout Fig. 8), 3.4, (see Section Mascarene Plateau and the India Ridge separating Indian and Central Ridge (CR) spreading(CIR) of onthe Carlsberg and onset Basin the spreading Mascarene inthe Phase of Theend byseafloor start 4is of the marked 4.5 Phase Late 4: Post-riftModern and Margin stage.drift or during the latepost-rift development margin quiescence tectonic passive and phase of EA-ANT marginis segments mostly to subparallel of the strike the margin segments consistent a with MAD-EA andthe EA-MAD,of northern Phase EA-IND, the northern vector motion 3for orientation Madagasc western of basins the to limited was and onregional scale basin was notrealised potential this that suggests unconformities lack regional of the though MAD-EAsegments, margin southern EA-MAD andconjugate southern alongtectonics the inversion for potential the suggests 3 phase during vectors motion plate local the of orientation The West Madagascan margins. and East the effects on African have hadfar-field may these All Ridge. Carlsberg the on spreading seafloor of the initiation and Basin the Laxmi of opening the plate, theSeychelles of rotation the Basin, Mascarene the spreading in seafloor of the end Plume, Deccan-Réunion the of activity 3.These events thearrival/peak section platetectonic include in detail in in model anddescribed our kinematic plate as the Indian Ocean identified throughout

megasequence within Phase 4 is again discernible by another major major another by discernible again is Phase 4 within megasequence ar (Clark, 1998; see section 3.3). The localplate 3.3). seesection 1998; ar (Clark, fitting and iterative joint inversion techniques as as techniques inversion joint iterative and fitting ly NE-SW, subparallel to most margin segments segments margin most to subparallel NE-SW, ly Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. funding. project for consortium the COMPASS thank liketo would We London. of University Holloway, at Royal &Stratigraphy) Structures Analysis, Margin Process (Continental consortium the industry COMPASS of project aPhD of part is research The presented Acknowledgements system elements. key and their petroleum of basins the for sedimentary correlation framework tectonostratigraphic develop to a margin-scale comprehensive along segments the margin sedimentary basins individual of structures and stratigraphy the of correlation and analysis in-depth more a provide will work Future 4 Phase 3 Phase 2 Phase 1 Phase area: the for are development recognised of phases Four tectonic requisitemargin-scale for a tectonostratigraphic framework basedplate on kinematic model data. the pre- is This margins. along the basin individual of structure and stratigraphy the in recorded been have Ocean Indian the of the opening during plate-reconfiguration of phases and changes the establish whether tectonic plate will synthesis the In addition, development. BOSELLINI, A. (1992), The continental margins of Somalia: structural evolution and sequence and sequence evolution structural Somalia: margins of continental The (1992), BOSELLINI, A. V. K. SARMA, K., SRINIVAS, S., P. G. MURTY, K., A. CHAUBEY, C., G. BHATTACHARYA, Miocene in Zircons Archaean (2017) T.H. &TORSVIK, M. WIEDENBECK, L.D., ASHWAL, References anonymous reviewers their constructive for comments thathave thequality ofthisimproved paper. – Starting at 60 Ma: Cessation of spreading on the Mascarene Ridge, spreading on the the on spreading Ridge, the Mascarene on spreading of Cessation Ma: 60 at Starting – the of opening Ridge, spreading onthe Mascarene Ma:at 89 seafloor Onsetof Starting – relocation boundary Basin, West Somali the in spreading of Cessation Ma: 133 at Starting – (including Gondwana East of Separation Ma: 183-177 at Starting – deposition of the modern margin megasequence. megasequence. margin themodern of deposition the to change the marked unconformity major a until continued deposition Late post-rift Plateau. theMascarene and India separating Ridges Indian and Carlsberg Central this phase. attheend to megasequence the late post-rift followed continued, megasequence of the early post-rift Deposition and Madagascar. India of separation and Basin Mascarene continued. of megasequence the early post-rift Deposition Antarctica. East and Madagascar/India of separation the and Madagascar of south the to Zone. Fracture theDaviealong deformation strike-slip and and Mozambique Basins theWestSomali spreading in seafloor breakup, After Fracture Zone. with Davie onthe dextral occurredRifting a transtension in direction ~NW-SE margins. Madagascan West and African East along the megasequences This sawphase thedeposition of the main syn-rift, and transitional early post-rift Basins. and Somali Mozambique the in spreading West seafloor by accommodated America) Africa/South (including Gondwana West and Madagascar/India/Antarctica/Seychelles) stratigraphy, spreadingin theLaxmi Basin,northeastern Arabian Sea, seafloor for Evidence (1994), S. K. & V. KRISHNA, SUBRAHMANYAM, L. N.S., 8, Mauritius. beneath Crust Continental Ancient Establish Rocks Oceanic 14086. 14086. Geol. Geophys. Cont. margins Cont. Geophys. Geol. , 185–205. , 185–205. Earth Planet. Sci. Sci. Lett. Planet. Earth

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155 The In: , , Accepted Article million yearsmillion areshown clarity.(OutlinesAfrica for for come Ocean in the Atlantic Pérez-Díaz from Figure 4: for the present-day oftheWest latitude a40°S. SomaliBasin of and paleo-latitude appropriate are inclinations Field (2004)). al. et GradsteinMa in (134.98 M10Nn.2r chron of the end at stops Model spreading 2016). etal., (Phethean valley median extinct proposed alignedare onthe all Figure 3: andAntarctica. Africa/Madagascar between line) (red years million km per in rates the spreading and line), (blue north from clockwise degrees in directions of thespreading Plot (c) clarity. aid to labelled are poles all not picks, isochron the As for ellipses. confidence 95% and their poles rotation the of locations set. (b) gravity data satellite (2014) etal.’s Sandwell from gradient the vertical is background In the (SWIR). ridge crest present-day line: grey Thick time. constrained each at dots white with flowlines, synthetic lines: Blue gravity. from picks zone fracture triangles: Black asgrey outlines. appear magnetic picks anomaly Figure 2: 1997). 1997). &Gordon, Plate”(Royer – Diffuse “Capricorn shaded area (CP) 2005); et al., LIP (Jourdan Karoo Plains; Coastal Mozambique – MCP High; Beira – BH Fault; Seagap – S.F. System; Rift African East – EARS Bank; – Nazareth NB Salhade MayaBank; SM– Seychelles; – India; S – Ind –Africa; Afr Mad Southwest Ridge;Ridge; – Madagascar; SWIR – Indian Ridge; SEIR –Southeast Indian Indian Figure 1: This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. (2015) G. &EAGLES, J. ADAM, L., A. TUCK-MARTIN, for Framework Tectono-Stratigraphic A (2016) G. & EAGLES, J. ADAM, L., A. TUCK-MARTIN, WOPFNER, H. (1994), The Malagasy Rift, a chasmTethyanThethe Gondwana, of WOPFNER, Rift, margin in H.(1994), Malagasy Full &MÜLLER, (2011), WHITTAKER, R.D. J.M., WILLIAMS, S.E., M. H. & M. R. TRAUTH, STRECKER, R., OBERHÄNSLI, R., BOUSQUET, H., WICHURA, WHITE, R. & MCKENZIE, D. (1989), Magmatism at rift zones: The generation of volcanic of generation zones:The atrift Magmatism (1989), D. WHITE, MCKENZIE, & R. Generic F.(2013) WOBBE, F. & J. LUIS, R., SCHARROO, F., H. W. SMITH, WESSEL, P., WATTS, A. (2001), Gravity anomalies, flexure and crustal structure at the Mozambique rifted rifted Mozambique at the crustal structure and flexure anomalies, Gravity WATTS, A. (2001), R. GASSMÖLLER, & V. P. DOUBROVINE, B., STEINBERGER, J., J. D. VAN HINSBERGEN, offshore mini-basins, syn-breakup of Structure (2016) &KUSZNIR, FOUM,N. A. J., TURNER, Inset: Showcase Abstr. Vol., Abstr. Showcase Basins, Sedimentary African the East Asian Earth Sci. Earth Asian doi:10.1029/2011TC002912. Australian conjugate the of reconstruction 357 Kenya, flow, lava Yatta phonolitic the of the emplacement from modelinferred topographic apre-rift Plateau: EastAfrican TheMid-Miocene (2011), scale stress simulations and regional sedimentary basin fill histories. histories. fill basin sedimentary regional and simulations stress scale plate- models, plate kinematic Combining Margin: high-resolution along African the East continental margins and basalts,flood released, version Improved Mapping Tools: Conference onAfricanE&P Vol., Abstr. margin, margin, mantle of collision, plumes andcontinental Roles Cretaceous: the since convergence India- of anddeceleration Acceleration (2011), Tanzania and Kenya. Plate outlines usedfortheisochrons or kine Rotated names). chron key (see for picks anomaly magnetic isochron symbols: (a) Coloured Magnetic isochron models for five profiles crossing the West Somali Basin. The profiles Theprofiles Basin. Somali West the crossing five profiles modelsfor isochron Magnetic Overview of the present day Northwest Indian Ocean and key features. CIR – Central CIR Ocean Indian – Central and key features. day the Overview of present Northwest (1), 285–300. (1), Present day plate boundaries. boundaries. day Present plate Mar. Pet. Geol. , 9 (4), 451–461.(4), The Roberts Conference – Passive Margins Abstr. Vol., Vol., Abstr. Margins –Passive Conference Roberts The p. 50. p. , 18 (4), 445–455. 445–455. (4), J. Geophys. Res. Geophys. J. pp. 125 – 126. 126. – 125 pp. PETEX – Petroleum Geoscience Collaboration Collaboration Geoscience PETEX– Petroleum J. Geophys. Res.J. Geophys. EOS Trans. AGU Trans. EOS matic reconstructions. Only outlinesmatic reconstructions. every 10 Antarctic margins,

Correlating tectono-stratigraphic events events tectono-stratigraphic Correlating , 94 (B6), 7685. 7685. (B6), , Geol. Soc. London, Spec. Publ. London, Soc. Geol. 116 , 94 (B6), B06101. B06101. (B6), , 409-410, 2013. 2013. 409-410, , Tectonics The 14 The fit, palinspastic fit, palinspastic 77 , th HGS/PESGB HGS/PESGB 30 J. Southeast , TC6012, TC6012, , , Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. Ridge. C-LR Chagos-Laccadive – Ridge; Indian Central CIR – Ridge; Carlsberg – CR Trench; – Amirante AmT Bank; Nazareth – NB Bank; Mayade Salha SM – MasP Plateau; MasRBasin; Mascarene Junction; Triple – Mascarene – Mascarene Ridge; – MasB RTJ SEIR Ridge; Rodriguez – Ridge; Indian SWIR Indian – Southeast Islands; Southwest Comoros – – C.Is Plateau; Madagascar MadP – Plateau; MozambiqueMozP – Basin; West Enderby WEnB – Enderby – Ridge; GR EnB – Basin; Larsen RLS Sea; Gunnerus – Plains; Riiser Mozambique Coastal BH Ridge; – MCP DFZ Zone;Fracture High; Walu – DWR Beira – Basin; Davie Davie – LB MB WSBLaxmi Basin; Lanka; S.L.– Mozambique Basin; – Antarctica; West Somali – Sri – – S –Seychelles; –India; Ant Ind Mad Afr Africa; – Ridges. –Madagascar; Central Indian and Carlsberg on 33Ma spreading Mature Ridge, (c) /established Indian andCentral Carlsberg Ridge 55Ma (b) Seychelles of on Ridge and abandonment spreading plate, Spreading onthe Mascarene end of Ridge, the 60Ma Spreading (a) Carlsberg on Plateau. and separated India Mascarene the Ridges Indian Central and Carlsberg the on spreading Basin, Mascarene the in ended spreading Figure 8: Ridge. Indian –Central Trench; CR Ridge; CIR Carlsberg – Amirante – AmT Bank; Nazareth – NB Bank; Maya de Salha – SM Plateau; Mascarene – MasP Basin; MasBMascarene – MasR Ridge; – Mascarene – IndianJunction; Ridge; RTJ Triple Rodriguez MadagascarPlateau; C.IsComoros – Islands;SW – MadP Plateau; Mozambique – MozP Basin; Enderby West WEnB – Basin; Enderby – EnB LarsenRidge; –Gunnerus Coastal GR –Riiser Plains; RLS – Sea; MCP High; Beira – Mozambique Mozambique Basin;LB – Laxmi Basin; DFZ – Davie Fracture Zone; DWR – DavieWalu Ridge; BH MB– Basin; Somali West Lanka; WSB – Sri S.L.– Antarctica; – Ant India; – Ind Seychelles; S – – Mad –Madagascar; Afr Africa; Seychelles of 63Ma microplate. (c) Rotation Mascarene Basin, the spreading in Ma75 Established (b) and between India Madagascar, before breakup Madagascar on volcanics Morondava of eruption and plume Marion of arrival phase 3, of Ma Onset 89 (a) Madagascar. and India and separated Basin Mascarene the opened Ridge Mascarene spreading onthe Figure 7: C.Is Islands – MadP Plateau; Comoros –Madagascar WEnB Ridge; – EnB WestMozPGunnerus EnderbyEnderby Plateau; Basin; – –Mozambique Basin; Walu Sea;GRRLS Larsen – High;MCPRidge; BH Plains; –Riiser – Beira –Mozambique Coastal DWR Zone; Fracture DFZ MB –Davie Basin; WSB Basin; West–Mozambique Davie – – Somali –Africa; S 2. Afr MadSeychelles; – – Madagascar; relocated Westto ceasedBasin, inthe Somali spreading has 2.Seafloor Ma: phase (a) 133 of onset and Antarctica. separating Madagascar/India thesouth of Madagascar to boundary relocated the Basin, Somali West inthe ceased spreading Figure 6: Plains. BHFracture Zone;– –Beira DWR–DavieWaluRidge; Davie MCP Coastal –Mozambique High; DFZ Basin; Mozambique MB – Basin; Somali West WSB – Lanka; Sri – S.L. Antarctica; – Ant India; Ind –Africa; S Mad – Afr Seychelles; – spreading. Madagascar; – 150 (d) Ma,seafloor established Basins, spreading andWest in Somali seafloor Mozambique onsetof with 165 Ma after breakup, just (c) LIP (b) Ma 175 rifting, continental 2006), maximum during et al., Karoo-Ferrar extentof (Riley Ma, 183-177 possible with Gondwana supercontinent within the positions their to this study of all the platesin fit (a) Fully reassembled in with Africa present-day its location. fixed projection andtheMercator data day bathymetry maps present All use Basins. Mozambique and West Somali the spreading in seafloor and subsequent rifting by accommodated separated, America) Africa/South (including Gondwana West and Madagascar/India/Antarctica/Seychelles) Gondwana (including Figure 5: America. South – S.Am Antarctica; – Lanka;Ant Sri Afr –Africa; Ind –Arabia; – India; SL Mad Arb S & Seychelles; – Eagles, 2014). – Madagascar; – Plate reconstruction maps showing the main stages of development in Phase 4. Seafloor Seafloor 4. Phase in development of stages main the showing maps Plate reconstruction Seafloor 3. Phase in development of stages main the showing maps Plate reconstruction Seafloor 2. Phase in development of stages main the showing maps Plate reconstruction East 1. Phase in development of stages main the showing maps Plate reconstruction western Enderby Basin, (b) 100 Ma: established phase phase established 100 Ma: (b) Basin, Enderby western IR – Southwest Ridge;IRSouthwest SEIRIndian – –Southeast Ind – India; Ant – Antarctica; S.L. – Sri Lanka; Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. figures corresponding 2: Table separation. Margin African-Antractic AAM – extinction; WSB SomaliBasin Superchron; –West polarity Normal –Cretaceous CNS Fig. 2. are depictedin 2 andazimuth) 1and (axes ellipses east.confidence 95% Only of anticlockwise indegrees ellipsoid confidence the of 95% theorientation to refers Azimuth right-handed. rotations All plate. Antarctic West basins, Somali andRiiser-Larsten for reconstruction Sea of African plate with respect to East 1: Table West Madagascan margin segments. and the EastAfrican conjugate along events and megasequences tectonic regional kinematic model, Figure 9: Finite rotations modelled from the flanks of the , Mozambique and and Mozambique Ridge, Indian theSouthwest of the flanks from modelled rotations Finite Summary of the 4 phases of tectonic development of the Northwest Indian Ocean and their and their Ocean Indian Northwest the of development tectonic of phases the 4 Summary of Chronostratigraphic diagram correlating the main tectonic phases derived from the plate plate the from derived phases main tectonic the correlating Chronostratigraphic diagram 140.42 0.12 17.65 0.28 0.05 0.03 49.55 34y 83.64 83.64 34y 74.309 79.54 49.55 71.449 33y 0.03 33o 66.398 32y 0.05 50.19 49.19 17.65 63.494 30y 0.28 0.04 50.39 0.03 0.12 140.42 28o 0.10 0.05 50.48 0.08 13.82 -0.19 137.87 15.59 58.959 0.77 0.12 0.05 45.44 0.54 12.89 1.46 137.36 52.62 0.93 0.15 0.03 26y 11.68 1.52 136.79 45.724 1.13 0.20 24y 36.60 11.00 0.98 136.48 42.301 1.49 21y 0.02 51.75 0.96 137.71 38.615 20y 0.32 0.03 49.20 -3.52 137.73 10.41 33.147 18y 1.70 0.18 0.04 48.61 -9.08 138.74 10.01 25.099 13y 0.96 0.19 0.04 44.73 18.748 -14.75 134.78 8.42 8y 0.90 0.26 0.05 41.34 9.786 -13.18 137.15 6y 7.55 1.29 0.21 0.04 40.32 -14.19 136.13 2,581 5y 6.89 41.08 0.89 0.22 0.06 -17.17 135.19 2Ay 5.52 0.05 40.31 0.93 0.36 -12.26 138.79 3.81 0.48 0.03 39.38 1.49 Chron -9.73 140.62 2.80 Azimuth 2.18 0.93 0.02 Axis 3 -8.29 138.59 1.43 Axis 2 3.96 0.16 Axis 1 -7.46 136.68 angle0.44 1.37 latitude longitude 95% confidenceellipsoid Finite rotation parameters 145.38 2.87 46.31 0.09 0.03 0.02 36.34 M16n 142.06 142.06 133.9 –133.5 M16n WSB 136.44 M11n 36.34 44.23 133.14 0.02 36.94 0.06 M9n 130.8 0.03 0.03 0.13 46.31 M5n 0.09 0.03 46.64 0.27 44.13 43.34 2.87 145.38 0.11 0.03 45.11 124.61 3.22 3.06 145.55 0.05 0.02 M0r 119 42.37 145.22 0.27 0.04 CNS 45.22 100 41.27 1.90 144.55 0.21 ma96 0.03 53.83 1.52 144.27 0.04 0.02 46.12 -0.07 143.53 38.87 0.21 0.14 0.02 -1.20 143.65 36.49 0.19 0.07 -2.85 142.61 27.15 0.19 Age Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. Allrights copyright. 4 3 2 Figures Tectonic Events 1 Age Phase present day day present Ma ~60 to Ma 89 Ma ~60 to 89 Ma to Ma ~133 Ma ~133 to Ma 183-177 145.77 6.57 56.27 0.57 0.07 0.06 33.27 AAM 183 183 AAM 154.37 – M25n 33.27 150.21 177 M22n 0.06 32.35 145.95 M19n 0.07 0.03 28.24 56.27 0.57 0.04 0.03 31.71 52.09 6.57 145.77 0.14 0.04 0.03 50.19 4.38 146.62 0.13 0.03 48.02 3.14 145.66 0.10 2.45 145.06 Cessation of spreadingon the Madagascar and India of separation and Basin Mascarene the of opening Ridge, the Mascarene on spreading seafloor and subsequent Rifting Madagascar. India and of and separation Basin Mascarene the of opening Ridge, Mascarene the on spreading and seafloor Rifting basins and Mozambique Somali theWest spreading in seafloor by accommodated America) Africa/South (comprising West Gondwana and ychelles) Madagascar/India/Antarctica/Se (comprising Gondwana East of and breakup drift Rifting, Mascarene Plateau. Plateau. Mascarene the India and separating Ridges Indian andCentral Carlsberg the on spreading Ridge, Mascarene seafloor spreading in the West Somali theWest spreading in Somali seafloor Ma: 150 Mature/established 5 (d). 165 5 (c). Ma: Breakup Ma: 175 phase 5 (b). Main rift supercontinent Gondwana the within reassembled FIT183-177 5 (a). plates Ma: All Central Indian Ridges Indian Ridges Central and Carlsberg the on spreading seafloor 8 (c). 33 Ma: mature/established ridge the along Carlsberg 55Ma:spreading 8 (b). established Ridge Carlsberg 8 (a). 60 Ma: early spreading on the rotation microplate Seychelles and opening Laxmi Ma: basin 63 (c). 7 Basin Mascarene 75Ma:spreading 7 (b). establishedin Basin) Mascarene in spreading to (extension phase 89 Ma:7 (a). reorganisation boundary spreading seafloor Ma: 100 phase 6 (b). 2 established WSB) in ends spreading (seafloor phase 133 Ma: 6 (a). reorganisation boundary Basins and Mozambique Ocean Accepted Article This by is protectedarticle reserved. 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