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1 Beginning Concepts Invaluable Suggestions for Improvement of the Original Manuscript xiv PROLOGUE and production team. A number of anonymous reviewers provided 1 Beginning Concepts invaluable suggestions for improvement of the original manuscript. Dianne Bradley, Chuck Cairns, Dana McDaniel, Lucia Pozzan, and Irina Sekerina have provided guidance in a number of areas. We have also benefited from being part of the psychoIinguistics community in and around the CUNY Graduate Center and Queens College. We are fortunate to have students and colleagues with expertise in some of the languages we have used in examples throughout the book. For their help with these, we thank Yukiko Koizumi, Ping Li, Shukhan Ng, Irina Sekerina, Amit Shaked, IgIika Stoyneshka, and F. Scott Walters. Our primary. goal is not to provide our readers with a great many facts about language acquisition and use. As in all healthy empirical fields, data change with ongoing investigations. Instead, we hope to convey to our readers the amazing story of the unconscious processes that take place as humans use language. The Creativity of Human Language 2 Language as Distinct from Speech. Thought, Eva Fernandez and Communication 3 HelenCaims Some Characteristics of the Linguistic System 6 The Distinction between Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar 7 The Universality of Human Language 10 lmplications for the Acquisition of Language 10 How Language Pairs Sound and Meaning 11 Linguistic Competence and Linguistic Performance 15 The Speech Signal and Linguistic Perception 17 Origins of Contemporary Psycholinguistics 20 How This Book Is Organized 22 New Concepts 23 Study Questions 23 Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study in which the goals are to understand how people acquire language, how people use language to speak and understand one another, and how language is represented and processed in the brain. PsychoIinguistics is primarily a sub-discipline of psychology and linguistics, but it is also related to developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, neurolinguistics, and speech science. The purpose of this book is to introduce the reader to some of the central ideas, problems, and discoveries in contemporary 2 BEGINNING CONCEPTS BEGINNING CONCEPTS 3 psycholinguistics. In this chapter, we explore key concepts about of topics. Many mammals have complex sets of calls and cries, but they language that serve to distinguish it from related aspects of human can communicate only certain kinds of information, such as whether behavior and cognition, and we identify the basic characteristics of danger is coming from the ground or the air, who is ready to mate, language as a system. We also provide a brief account of how where food is located, and so forth. The philosopher Bertrand Russell psycholinguistics emerged as a field of inquiry. once said, "No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you his parents were poor but honest" (Gleason and Ratner 1993: 9). Language is so flexible that it not only allows people to say anything • The Creativity of Human Language they can think of; it also allows people to use language for a vast array of purposes. Language is used to communicate, to interact socially, to A good place to begin is by thinking about some of the unique features entertain, and to inform. All cultural institutions - schools, communi­ of human language. Language is a system that allows people immense ties, governments - depend upon language to function. Written and creativity. This is not the same creativity of people who write essays, audio-recorded language allows people to communicate and convey fiction, or poetry. Instead, this is the linguistic creativity that is com­ information - as well as interact and entertain - across vast spans of monplace to every person who knows a language. The creativity of space and time. It is probably the case that human dominance of the human language is different from the communication system of any planet has been possible because of the power of human language as a other animal in a number of respects. For one, speakers of a language medium for transmitting knowledge (Dennett 2009). can create and understand novel sentences for an entire lifetime. Consider the fact that almost every sentence that a person hears every day is a brand new event not previously experienced, but which can be • Language as Distinct from Speech, Thought, understood with little difficulty. Similarly, when speaking, people con­ and Communication stantly produce novel sentences with no conscious effort. This is true for every person who speaks or has ever spoken a language. We can Language is the primary communication system for the human extend this observation to every person who uses a signed language to species. In ordinary circumstances it is used to convey thoughts produce and comprehend novel sentences. through speech. It is a special system, however, that functions inde­ This remarkable ability to deal with novelty in language is possible pendently of speech, thought, and communication. Because one of the because every language consists of a set of principles by which arbi­ main themes of this book is to identify the unique aspects of the human trary elements (the sounds of speech, the gestures of sign language) are lingUistic system, it might be helpful to distinguish between language combined into words, which in tum are combined into sentences. and the other systems with which it usually interacts: speech, thought, Everyone who knows a language knows a relatively small number of and communication. principles, a small number of sounds put together to create words, and Before we discuss those other systems, let us emphasize that here a large but finite vocabulary. This finite knowledge provides the person and throughout this book our discussion of human language includes who knows a language with infinite creativity. The set of possible sen­ the signed languages of the deaf, unless explicitly noted. Sign languages tences for a given language is infinite. Everyone who has ever lived and are just as structured as any spoken language and are just as capable of known a particular language has produced and heard a miniscule conveying an unlimited range of topics (as discussed in the previous subset of that infinite set. Knowledge of language confers upon every section). Sign languages also operate under principles distinct from person the creativity to produce an infinite number of novel sentences. thought and communication. What differs between signed and spoken When that knowledge is shared with others in a given language com­ languages is the transmission mode: gestural for the former and articu­ munity, speakers and hearers are able to produce and understand an latory-phonetic (speech) for the latter. indefinitely large number of novel sentences. Speech ought not to be confused with language, though speech is A second important kind of creativity humans possess is that we can indeed the most frequent mode for transmitting linguistic information. use language to communicate anything we can think of. No other Other modes for transmission include the gestures used in sign lan­ animal communication system affords its users such an unlimited range guage and the graphic representations used in writing. Later in this 4 BEGINNING CONCEPTS BEGINNING CONCEPTS 5 chapter (and later in the book), we will address the differences between impaired their language ability. Moreover, many animals can think but the signal (speech, signs, written symbols) and the abstract information cannot communicate using language. In the language pathologies, we carried by that signal, and we will demonstrate that producing or per­ observe pronounced mismatches between level of intellectual devel­ ceiving a speech signal is possible and efficient because of knowledge opment and linguistic ability. Specific language impairment (SU) is of language. For now, consider the "linguistic" abilities of parrots and not a rare disorder in children without any neurological or motor computers. Both can produce speech that might sound very human­ pathology. In children with SU, language development lags far behind like (promising new technologies are also able to create gestural that of their peers. While there are numerous cognitive deficits associ­ sequences, using computer-animated figures, in sign language). But ated with children with SLI, their non-verbal intelligence is within animal or computer-generated speech (or signing) differs from true normal range and their cognitive deficits are not sufficient to account hu~an language production in one crucial respect: it is not based on for their language disorder (Leonard 1998). The flip side of SLI is knowledge of language as a finite system that yields an infinite set of Williams Syndrome, a genetically based disorder causing severe retar­ possible sentences. Notice in particular that parrot and computer speech dation. Children with Williams Syndrome are deficient in many other will fail to be creative in the senses described above. aspects of cognition. While some aspects of their language are impaired Another mode for transmitting linguistic information is writing, but Oacobson and Cairns 2009), these children have surprisingly good lan­ writing is markedly different from both speaking and signing. Writing guage skills, in both vocabulary and in the ability to form grammatical systems are invented by people who already use language, so the cen­ sentences (Lenhoff et al. 1997). PatholOgies such as SLI and Williams tral difference is that writing is a cultural artifact, while speaking and Syndrome, that demonstrate a dissociation of language and general signing are biological; we will examine this point in more detail in intelligence, are of interest because they demonstrate the independ­ Chapter 3. Writing is always dependent on spoken language, though ence of language and thought. the connection differs from language to language. In some languages, The thoughts that people have are distinct from the language (or lan­ like English, the written symbols - also called graphemes - are linked guages) in which they encode them. Bilinguals can use either of their to the language's sound system (consonants, vowels); in other lan­ languages to transmit the thoughts they want to convey.
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