THE 'NATURAL Childbffith' MOVEMENT in RUSSIA: SELF-Representation STRATEGIES

THE 'NATURAL CHILDBffiTH' MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA: SELF-REpRESENTATION STRATEGIES

Ekaterina Belooussova

specifically Russian connotations of "being natural." "Natural childbirth"(NC) is the tenn referring to a special system of ideological and practical The increasing popularity of such a attitudes concerning birth management and baby marginal movement as NC is to a large extent care. I This system may be regarded as an caused by reactions to the situation in Russian alternative to shared patterns of medical care and State maternity hospitals. During the Soviet baby rearing. The ideology of "natural childbirth", period no private hospitals existed, and now there or "conscious childbirth", supposes that giving are only a few of them, mostly in big cities, and birth is a very special spiritual experience which they are unaffordable for the majority ofRussian demands both parents' personal responsibility that population. As the interviews I conducted during cannot be shared with the authoritative institutions my work on hospital birth in Russia have revealed, such as maternity care units. NC activists suggest women's rights are roughly violated in State that the parents should be prepared for the hospitals, at all possible levels. Most of the childbirth physically and spiritually by means of a women express their strong disappointment with series of c~rtain techniques and practices. As for the violent separation ofmothers from their the delivery, the common point is that the mother, newborn babies, ignoring their opinion while the father, and the baby are equal participants in making decisions on the methods of treatment, the process. The other principal point is the prohibition to meet their husbands and relatives, necessity to avoid any kind ofmedical intervention abusive medical intervention into the process of and to integrate labor pain in one's consciousness birth, rude treatment, and bad conditions. Here are to provide the baby the most comfortable physical some references to these human rights violations and psychical conditions to be born. typical ofRussian State maternity system: According to R. Davis-Floyd, American They told me nothing about my baby - all NC discourse is attempting to mediate the the doors were closed, you couldn't get oppositions between dominant (technocratic) and info from anyone (Tania). alternative (holistic) models ofmedicine (Davis They bring him [baby] swaddled, and Floyd 1992:155). The American concept ofNC is there is no possibility even to have a look associated with the name of Grandy Dick Read at him naked, you can't see if he is clean, (Dick Read 1933; Dick Read 1984; Dick Read and what he looks like, and if he is taken 1997) and implies laboring without pain-killers care of (Sveta). and certain sympathy towards holistic values. In Russian tradition, those who identify themselves Through all my life, when I asked what with the NC movement sound considerably medicine am I taking, they used to answer engaged by what R. Davis-Floyd calls the holistic me in a rude manner. Therefore, I became model of medicine. It is important that while already kind of allergic to hospitals, and American NC is supposed to occur in a hospital this time [at the maternity hospital] I tried and allows medical intervention in general, the not to ask questions at all (Anonymous). strong point of its typical Russian proponents is There were only two days in a week, homebirth and waterbirth. The following words when they allowed relatives to visit us, are ascribed to the "father" of Russian NC and only at definite hours. You had to movement, Igor Charkovsky: "I remember her shout out of the ward window (Angelina). [midwife] citing his words: 'Let the Soviet woman give birth anywhere - any place would be better My husband was standing under the than a maternity hospital'" (Katia). window at the moment, and when my daughter was born, he shouted: "Who was In this article I concentrate on the NC born?" - and they shouted him back that community's self-representation and self he had a daughter (Nina). description, which makes it necessary to discuss

Vol. 20, No.1 2002, Page: 11 They just deceived me. They said: "Don't The American concept ofNC reflects a worry, we won't prick you anywhere," general cultural tendency to identify the female because I had already asked them not to body with primordial nature as opposed to the [perfonn an amniotomy]. < ... > The male body viewed as a "perfect machine." Robbie woman doctor said: "See my hands, I have Davis Floyd deconstructs this shared perception of nothing in them, I only got to have a look." male/female bodies: "The male body is And there she pricked me for an metaphorized as a better machine than the female amniotomy (Asya). body, because in fonn and function it is more machine-like - more consistent and predictable, They [maternity hospital medical stuff] take less subject to the vagaries of nature (i.e., more us for pigs. They didn't care a damn. I cultural and therefore 'better'), and consequently mean, they treat us like cattle (Lyudmila). less likely to break down" (Davis-Floyd, Robbie The Russian version of waterbirth appeared in 1992:52). the early 1980s: the first four water deliveries took Correspondingly, in the American place in spring 1980 in Moscow and were arranged feminist movement, including the struggle for NC, as an experiment (Irina Martynova 5:2). This as well as in scholarly analyses of the topic, any technique got to be known abroad as "the Russian kind of medical intervention into the process of method." In comparison, the first reported childbirth is described as "male waterbirth in America took place in the fall of practice/malpractice.,,2 1981, that is 1.5 years later (Ray 1985: 117 -119; Rei 1985:40-41). Igor Charkovsky, the dissident In the Russian cultural context, the term childbirth assistant, is traditionally considered to "NC" has been considerably alienated from its be the pioneer ofthe movement. He had a number American feminist connotations. Traditionally in of successors, who used to work with him Russia, the vast majority of physicians in general personally, and who are now the main agents of and ob-gyns in particular were women. That's the waterbirth tradition in Russia. why the opposition "male practitioner vs. female patient" is not equally relevant in the Russian case. The NC movement meets certain obstacles Significantly, in many stories about him, because the authorities had prescribed bearing Charkovsky looks quite a phallic figure, and this children in the State maternity hospitals since the image has mostly positive connotations. beginning of the Soviet period. Thus, the tradition According to one of these stories, Charkovsky was of having babies born in maternity hospitals is accused of sexual harassment while practicing in much older than in America. It is necessary to say the United States. The episode is described as a that while in most American states direct-entry false accusation, a misunderstanding, or as a plot midwifery is officially permitted, in Russia it is of American technocrats serving the interests of completely prohibited. However, nowadays a medical businesses. In Charkovsky's remarks, a number ofNC educational and preparatory centers strong male perspective is obvious: once, for are functioning in Russian cities. For example, in instance, he referred to women as to sheep Moscow about 15 registered NC centers are supposed to obey their shepherd: "Women are practicing. These centers are officially permitted unable to think and they don't want to understand by the State in spite oftheir nonconformist anything. They behave like does and act in approach to the birth management. Officially, accordance with ancient instincts, which come these centers are functioning as preparatory only, from the animals. They don't even know why they but in fact the instructors of some centers also can't catch such easy things. That's why a man illegally assist in home deliveries. There are also a has to prepare everything in advance ... however number of unregistered independent NC assistants. men do nothing, while women behave like a Both employed and independent NC assistants flock..." (Akva: 24). Thus, although later in the identify themselves as "spiritual midwives." This history ofNC movement women took over tenn was borrowed from an American "farm midwifery practice and the female line inside the midwife," Ina May Gaskin's book "Spiritual community won out, originally this movement did Midwifery," translated into Russian and published not sound like any kind of struggle for women's by "Akva" NC center in 1986 (Gaskin 1977; rights par excellence. Gaskin 1986). Currently, there are several branches ofNC movement, each one possessing its In Russian NC discourse, female identity own interpretation ofbirth management and its is considered not in political perspective but rather own ideological preferences. in the context of a New Age paradigm that regards

Vol. 20, No.1 2002, Page: 12 13 sexual intercourse, conception, and childbirth as a natural way and, preferably, in natural settings" complex holistic experience of a woman and a (Sargunas). Here we find the word "natural" used family as a whole. From this point of view, in two different meanings. "In a natural way" medical intervention is harmful as it destroys the means without medical intervention. "Natural woman's sexual identity and her spiritual settings" in this context means "waterbirth." experience in the course of such an important Significantly, waterbirth proponents, referring to process and event as childbirth. Referring to one NC history in Russia, assert that the idea of ofher own hospital childbirth experiences, waterbirth preceded the idea of homebirth. One of "spiritual midwife" Marina Dadasheva said: "In the first enthusiasts of the NC movement in Russia fact, all those medical inspections of women after believes that people started practicing homebirth birth, you know ...They do check them, but they because it was impossible to arrange waterbirth in don't care at all about their femininity, their hospital settings: "First of all, the idea appeared to sensitivity, the birth canal. .. The body of a woman give birth in water ~ well, there was Charkovsky is rather sensitive, but when they start to turn your and his crowd. As hospitals provide no possibility core out with all those metallic tools ..." to give birth in water, they naturally came to the The other context relevant for the NC idea of home birth" (Ilya). discourse both in American and Russian cultures is Thus, the ideology of the Russian NC the following opposition: "natural" patterns for movement presupposes not only that waterbirth is health care vs. utilitarian approaches to it. The natural, but also that it is the most natural way to commonplace of all anti-medical discourses is that give birth. Charkovsky claims: "Properly medical theory and practice have developed from proceeded birthgiving in water is totally a natural nature-centered attitudes to the culturally act, based on nature" (Charkovsky a). Male constructed "human interests." Here is a typical midwife Oleg Tutin asserts in his interviews to the reference to contemporary medicine as "unnatural" "Speed-Info" newspaper: "They [parents] often in the context of childbirth: "Gradually, it practice waterbirth - this is more natural and softer [medicine] left behind its original natural entity for the baby" (Podkolodny b). He also said, and became more and more artificiaL .. Birth "Some people prefer waterbirth, for women fmd it assistance finally stopped seeing childbirth as a more natural, and they are quite right" natural process, and started seeing pregnancy as (Podkolodnya). an illness and childbirth as a dangerous operation (Ilya). The opponents ofthe waterbirth ideology try to prove that this thesis is logically incorrect. One of the main meanings of the Russian Dr. Ailamazian, professor of Saint-Petersburg word "jestestvennyj" ("natural") is "normal," State University, says: "Among the mammals only "typical," "accepted," "straight," as opposed to whales, dolphins and hippopotami give birth in "unnatural," "abnormal," "odd," and consequently, water, that is the species spending most time in "wrong." The adjective "normal'nyj" ("normal") water and well adapted in it. But this is not true as is often used as well to gain higher status for the far as a man is concerned. From this point of view NC ideology. Another basic meaning of the word we can rather call waterbirth "unnatural" 'jestestvennyj" is "related to nature," "essentially (Ajlamazjan). belonging to nature," "primordial" as opposed to "artificial," "culturally constructed," "invented by However even some opponents of mankind." By using this word, the NC movement waterbirth ideology consider waterbirth to be appeals to Nature as to an authoritative instance. "closer to nature." They say that our As far as the Russian language is concerned, the contemporaries have changed too much since they Russoist concept "l'homme nature 1" was mostly were natural people," and that now they probably translated as "jestestvennyj chelovek," and that is need some more "unnatural" settings to give birth why this word sounds quite natural in the context in. A woman, who had preferred to give birth at ofthe dichotomy "naturaVcultural" and in the home but in bed, says: "That's why we left the context of "back-to-nature" discourses. bathtub - we just didn't want to prevent our child from having this [gravitation] shock. Because it is There are also some contextual meanings disputable - whether it is good or bad. Maybe, of the word "natural." "Spiritual midwife" Tatiana people have left their original natural condition so Sargunas says: "By normal women we mean those far behind, that probably it's better to experience who have been trained in special spiritual this shock nowadays" (Lyubov). midwifery centers and taught to give birth in

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Nevertheless, the activists of the Charkovsky appears here as a warlock, a sorcerer, waterbirth movement suggest that it is capable ofreading old Egyptian manuscripts, contemporary human nature rather than the way of though he is far from being an Egyptologist. giving birth that is to be changed by means of a Second, and most important, is the idea of special set of attitudes toward body and health. all life on Earth as originating in water. Thus, the Xenia Ryndich, the Director ofthe former "Family ~riginal human ancestors, "truly natural" beings, Ecology" center, said: "Birth fInally became so hved and gave birth in water. Many species were, problematic, because contemporary civilized according to Charkovsky, pushed from water to woman lost those qualities that she was supposed the land by certain monsters, and thus the fear of to have as a woman. It is necessary to return a water had been imprinted in human (and many woman into her natural condition" (Rebenok other animals') ancestors' mind. However, the rozhdaetsja 1992). breaking of taboos can help the brain to recollect A midwife, Irina Martynova, comments its ancient programs, which can provide the human on the very fIrst waterbirth that took place in being with certain inhuman abilities - bodily, Moscow in 1980: "We congratulated the new mom spiritual, and intellectual. and each other with the completion ofour The symbol of waterbirth, the totem and experiment though I don't like this word actually. protector ofthe waterbirth community, is a It would be better to call it return to natural birth dolphin. It is a live reminiscence of the lost w~thout medical intervention (Martynova 5:2). paradise. According to Charkovsky, pregnant Irma regards this particular moment, the fIrst women and women in birth should help their waterbirth, as the beginning of the return to nature babies to establish telepathic contacts with the in spite ofthe fact that unmedicated homebirths dolphins. Being connected to dolphins and had been already practiced in Moscow by a certain through them to the Natural World in general, a group of people. Referring to them, Irina said: human being is supposed to gain a powerful source They already had a feeling, that there was ofenergy and knowledge as well as to get rid of something wrong about our medicine, but it was herlhis essential fear ofwater. Here is not completely clear yet what was wrong with it in Charkovsky's comment on human-dolphin particular. Some ofthem tried to give birth at contacts: home on their owns, without the doctors' Water rearing of the children could have assistance. But not in water yet. <...> Having opened new perspectives in human evolution. come along with these people we found out that Establishing telepathic contacts with the dolphins they had a strong desire to deliver their children and their powerful bioenergy, relying on their help "in natural way," though they had neither methods in birth, communication and friendship - that is the worked out for such births nor the experts who way to create a new man with a higher physical could help in preparation to and assistance in such and probably even higher spiritual abilities birth (Martynova 5:2). (Charkovsky b). In an attempt to provide waterbirth with Thus the very important goal of the necessary authoritative background, the waterbirth is a certain contribution to Human proponents of waterbirth appeal to human Evolution, that is, the creation of a New ancestors of different historical periods that are Generation ofpeople, or as Charkovsky puts it, a supposed to be "truly natural." First of all, they "New Race." He says: "Prenatal training is not refer to some ancient exotic cultures. The only important for physical exercising but it also newspaper article about Charkovsky reads: helps to open the inner vision, the 'third eye,' that He found some historical witnesses about is the abilities, now called 'para-normal'" (Akva: waterbirth practiced in ancient Egypt to 16-17). In addition, "These abilities have to make the delivery easier. To say more, in become a norm, but now they still look like one of the manuscripts Charkovsky found something supernatural" (Akva: 27). the information that in the pharaohs' times In the waterbirth community, beliefs are there was a ritual of waterbirth that the common about waterbabies as superpeople. future priests' mothers were prescribed to "Spiritual midwife" Daria Streltsova claims that follow (Vasinsky 1994). waterbirth was used in antiquity in order to provoke special abilities in children who were supposed to form the elite and to fulfil some

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special mission: "They have some special abilities, Dadasheva herself comments on this issue: "It's waterbabies... Waterbirth used to be practiced important to communicate with the Cosmos, with long ago - not for everybody, but for the babies the Earth, and with Nature during pregnancy." supposed to know more than ordinary people There is a series of certain techniques, like, you know, pharaohs ..." Now that waterbirth supposed to help the members of the waterbirth has become "normal," the shared (hospital) way of community to achieve some special condition so birth is automatically interpreted as a wrong way. that pregnant women and the babies both inside Consequently, children born in a hospital are and outside were able to freely communicate with considered to be subnormal as opposed to "vodnye the Cosmos. These techniques include meditation, deti" ("waterbabies"). The article about "spiritual yoga, wet rebirthing, and winter diving, among midwife" Marina Dadasheva reads: others. The human body is considered to be Charkovsky and his successors regard cosmically oriented and axiologically children born in maternity hospitals as disabled, heterogeneous, having some "special" organs even ifthe doctors say they are healthy. And if we intended for cosmic communication. Thus compare "land-" and "waterbabies," we will see Charkovsky calls the womb the "resonator of that it is true. "Waterbabies" can swim from the cosmic communication" (Akva: 33). Tatiana very beginning, learn to stay and walk several Sargunas refers to the placenta as "the cosmic months before the common babies can do it, they aerial;" Irina Martynova calls it "an energy rarely get ill, and they have rapid intellectual generator." NC instructor from "Pearl" NC center, development and strong artistic abilities (Korovina Svetlana Abramova, interprets a pregnant woman's 1993). picture as a "cosmic" vision of the placenta and regards this image as the woman's insight: According to Charkovsky's theory, the extraordinary abilities of waterbabies were We were picturing childbirth. A very supposed to be used for the defense and beautiful meditation one of the girls had, development ofthe "natural" conditions in the the last time, it was gorgeous. She used to world, for establishing a new, ecological world be a silent one, one of those who never order. First of all, the people ofthis new told anything, no lively images, nothing. generation have a mission to protect the Earth And all of a sudden she came out with from ruin in case the world war begins. something really special. Shine, cosmic Charkovsky says: "These beings have a very space, stars, and at the same time a baby strong feeling of the world around, they feel, when was being born - so beautiful it was .. .It some malpractice against the planet Earth is taking must have been an image of the placenta. place and experience pain" (Akva: 14). Also, She compared the placenta to a "Such children have a stronger energy, stronger multicolored aster, kind of. psychical and physical abilities. Ifthe "atomic One ofthe most important practices in reaction" starts, and these programs will be waterbirth is the so-called "lotus birth" ritual. accepted by many people, these children will be Ideally, the cord is not cut off within the 24 hours able to conquer the arms race. That's why creation after the birth, so that some energy cycle can be of a New Race is considered to be so extremely completed. As a result of this practice, the child is important" (Akva: 38). supposed to receive some proper amount of The other side ofthis task is restoring the cosmic energy through the placenta. The latter is cosmic unity of the world, of the ruined "natural" regarded as a certain channel through which the connections, establishing a special "ecological" energy is transferred from the Universe. In and "holistic" reception ofthe World and attitude practice, this ritual is considered to be hard to toward the World. 3 Charkovsky says: "Entering perform and therefore it is reduced to several the world should be extremely gentle, harmonious, hours. Irina Martynova comments on this custom: humanistic, incorporated into the natural "Our ancestors, Slavs, practiced waterbirth. They connections" (Charkovsky a). The article about used to cut the cord at the sumise. The placenta "spiritual midwife" Marina Dadasheva reads: "The it's an energy generator, you know, and they were man was born, and at the same moment he solar people ... But we certainly have to conform received as a gift all the World, the Sky, and the to our life, to our conditions." Earth. Happy is the man who keeps the feeling of In general, ritual operations with the placenta inviolable connection with everything in the Sky are intended for "proper" redistribution of material and on the Earth" (Korovina 1993). Marina and energy in the Universe. The traditional

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Russian ritual ofburying the placenta is still most hospital [after homebirth], and there are typical for NC proponents. One of the women those special yellow bags there, which are who had the experience of burying the placenta, cremated in a special oven so that nothing refers to the belief that the placenta must be remains, absolutely nothing (Maya, buried, according to the gender of the baby, under personal communication). one of the trees that have symbolic gender Thus, the meaning ofthe term "natural" meanings in Russian culture: "In fact, you must makes it possible to see humankind in the bury it, the placenta, you know. A boy's one universal perspective involving the realm of under an oak, a girl's under a birch" (Natalia). animals, plants, the whole Earth and, fmally, The other NC enthusiast refers to a magic function cosmic space. In addition to its physical of burying the siblings' placentas together: "We representation, "cosmos" acquires transpersonal buried the placenta. Just buried it in a park, and and metaphysical connotations (interaction of that was all. Vasya's we buried in the Kuskovsky elements and energies, material, and spirit etc.). park, and Anyutka's - at the same place. Now they Here, one of the most important motives is will become friends" (Ekaterina). restoring balance, harmony, and reintegration of Some parents prefer to eat their baby's the whole world. This topic also has placenta in communion. This ritual provides the psychological and social perspectives, as applied opportunity to keep the renmants of birth inside to personal integrity and to the field of human the family and is supposed to restore physical and interactions. "energetic" balance of the parents after childbirth. The proponents of waterbirth ideology The following account illustrates this attitude: suggest restoring some particular kinds of the And, as far as eating placenta is "forcibly ruined" connections by means of "ideal concerned ... We actually ate ours. And birth" - such as the connection between body, when we were told - I've been told that it mind, and spirit inside a person, or links between happens - before the birth I was positively the members of the family. "Spiritual midwife" against that. But we fmally did it, and my Katia Ivanova says: husband also took part in it quite easily, I have two daughters - Masha and Dasha. although he is a vegetarian. Dasha I gave birth to Masha in a maternity ["spiritual midwife"] recommends to eat it hospital, and to Dasha - on my own. And after hard labor, just because it contains now when I feel sick, when I have a microelements that help to recover. headache or I am just worried - Masha, (Svetlana) the one born in a maternity hospital, The exclusive cases of eating "alien" behaves badly, as I am unable to properly placentas are described as an improper and react to her behavior. But Dasha, a home harmful act because it contradicts the ideas of one, - she feels my pain and feels sorry for preserving the family unity and of the sacred me. Our souls are not separated from meaning of the placenta. Therefore, the husband each other. That's because I have been of a NC activist disapproves her habit of eating the with her at the most terrible hour she ever placentas of women whom she assisted in had - the first hour of her life. And after childbirth: "She, actually, started to eat all those that I also didn't leave her. Our biological [other women's] placentas, like ordinary meat, fields remained united. I didn't betray which one probably should not do" (Ilya). her, and now she doesn't betray me. That's a psychological issue. In a One more ritual way to integrate the maternity hospital the baby is born, while placenta "properly" into the "cosmos" is its full at home thefamily is (Lyskov 1992). annihilation. A Russian American woman, a university professor, not involved in the NC "Spiritual midwife" Marina Dadasheva says: community, describes the recycling of the placenta "It simultaneously became obvious to me that the inritual terms: birth is a sexual process, rather than the process of separation from the male principle, from the What did you do with the placenta? It is husband, from the baby, from thefami/y." quite important, you know. If your midwife has not taken care of it, she must Consequently, the activists of waterbirth be a bad midwife, she should have taken it regard their coming into the profession as a certain with her. They have to take it to the spiritual path and their own activity as a heavenly

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nusslon. Irina Martynova comments on this issue: Belousova,lekaterina. "I appeared to be able to understand what the God 1999. "Predstavlenija i verovanija, wanted me to do. He led me toward the gentle, svjazannye s rozhdeniem rebenka: natural birth, and I was able to hear it" sovremennaja gorodskaja kul'tura." Ph.D. (Martynova 10:3). Marina Dadasheva explains her diss., Institute for the Advanced Studies professional and spiritual choice this way: "In in the Humanities, Russian State several days I understood that this was my path, University for the Humanities, Moscow. and all my family went that path and started to [Belooussova, Ekaterina. "Ideas and prepare. <...> And we promised that we just came Beliefs Conceming Childbirth: into this thing and that we will work." This kind Contemporary Russian Urban Culture."] ofmidwives' self-positioning additionally supports Charkovsky, Igor (a). the already existing legends about miraculous n.d. "Rozhdenie v vodnoj srede." Igor events that accompanied their activity. Charkovsky's Web Site Correspondingly, "spiritual midwives" become an http://charkovsky.chat.ruIframes.htm. object ofworship and even a cause ofpious [Charkovsky, Igor. "Childbirth in Water trembling inside the NC community. Environment. "] We have observed now a certain number of n.d. "Obshchenie s del'finami." Igor meanings and contexts most typical ofthe word Charkovsky's Web Site "natural" as a self-reference used by the http://charkovsky. chat.rul frames.htm. proponents ofNe. In addition to two basic [Charkovsky, Igor. "Human-Dolphin meanings ("normal" and "related to Nature") it has Communication. "] acquired some very specific implications, only Corea, Gena. relevant for NC-related oral talks and self 1985. The Hidden Malpractice. New representation narratives, such as "no medicine York: Harper and Row. homebirth" and "waterbirth." In all those meanings and contexts the same self Davis-Floyd, Robbie. 1992. Birth as an American representation strategy is reflected. To put it in Rite ofPassage. Berkeley - Los Angeles terms of the general binary opposition (common - London: University ofCalifornia Press. vs. alternative attitudes and patterns), the word Davis-Floyd, Robbie and Davis, Elizabeth. "natural" is used for a marked member ofthe 1996. "Intuition as Authoritative opposition, though it would be certainly more Knowledge in Midwifery and natural to use it as a neuter member. In other Homebirth." In The Social Production of words, to declare some new attitudes as natural, Authoritative Knowledge in Childbirth, a one has to start with declaring common and shared special edition of the Medical ones as unnatural. Using this strategy in the basic Anthropology Quarterly, Robbie Davis self-reference already, a marginal and challenging Floyd and Carolyn Sargent, eds. movement attempts to gain authoritative status. 10(2):237-269. References Dick Read, Grantly. Ajlamazjan, Eduard. 1933. Natural Childbirth. London: n.d. "Rody v vode." "Raduga" Active Heinemann. Birth Center's Web site. Dick Read, Grandy. http://www.raduga 1984. Childbirth without Fear: The birth.spb.ruirus/menu51 statl.html. Original Approach to Natural Childbirth. [Ajlamazjan, Eduard. "Waterbirth."] New York: Harper and Row. Akva. Dik Rid, Grantli. 1992. Akva: Besedy s Igorem 1997. Rody bez strakha: Original 'nyj Charkovskim. Rasskazy 0 rodakh v vode. podkhod kjestestvennomu rozhdeniju Sargunas Tatjana, Sargunas Alexej, eds. rebenka. SPb. - Moscow - Kharkov Moscow: T -Oko. [Akva: Talks with Igor Minsk: Piter. [Russian translation of: Charkovsky. Waterbirth Stories.] Dick Read, Grandy. 1984.]

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Gaskin, Aina Mei. Sargunas, Ta1jana. 1986. Dukhovnoe akusherstvo. Moscow: n.d. "Rasshirennye sostojanija soznanija v Akva. [Russian translation of: Gaskin, Ina rodakh: putevoditel'." Sargunas-Akva May. 1977.] Center Web Site http://www.geocities.comlHeartlandJPine Gaskin, Ina May. s/1860/indexl.html. [Sargunas, Tatjana. 1977. Spiritual Midwifery. Summertown, "Extended States of Consciousness in Tenn.: The Book Publishing Company, 1 Labor: a Guide."] ed. Vasinsky, Aleksandr. Korovina, Olga. 1994. "Kreshchenie po Charkovskomu." 1993. "Akva-Marina snova v Penni: Izvestija. No. 161. 08.24.1994. [Vasinsky, Sobytie dlja dvoikh." Znakhar·. No.4. Aleksandr. "The Baptism According to [Korovina, Olga. "Akva-Marina is Back Charkovsky. "] to Perm: Event for Two."] Lyskov, Aleksandr. 1992. "Kak babushki rozhali." Speed Info. No.7. [Lyskov, Aleksandr. "How I This article is a part of my larger project "Natural Grannies Gave Birth."] Childbirth Movement in Russia: the Martynova, Irina. Anthropological Perspective" supported by n.d. "Istorija vodnykh rodov v Rossii." Research Support Scheme Grant (RSS No.: Pts. 1-9. Mailing list Rozhdenie bez 99712000). The research is based on the materials nasi/ija. Podorova. Ksenija, ed. of my own field research in 2000-2001 in Moscow http://birth.ft.inc.ru.No. 1-77. 12.21.1999 and St.-Petersburg, such as participant observation - 05.22.2001. [Irina Martynova. "The materials as well as the interviews conducted with History of Waterbirth in Russia." Mailing "spiritual midwives" (15 interviews) and with list Birth without Violence]. people having experienced NC (40 interviews). These were in depth interviews conducted at the Mendelsohn, Robert. interviewee's place or at the NC preparatory 1981. Male [mal}practice: how doctors school, in a free-flowing style. Before that, in manipulate women. Chicago: 1995-1999, working at my dissertation (Belousova Contemporary Books. 1999), I have interviewed another group that Podkolodny Fjodor. 1992 (a). "Polovoj akt vo consisted of70 women who had experienced vremja rodov." Speed-Info. No.6. hospital childbirth (St.-Petersburg, Moscow, [Podkolodny Fjodor. "Sexual Intercourse Russian community in the Estonian cities Tartu during Labor."] and Tallinn). For this article, I also use books and 1992 (b). "Rozhdennye v orgazme." journals published by NC centers, as well as Speed-Info. No.7. [Podkolodny Fjodor. newspaper articles devoted to NC and the relevant "Born in Orgasm."] materials on the Russian Web. Where the quotation has no reference to a certain work, the Ray, Sondra. interviews from my personal archive are cited. I 1985. Ideal Birth. Berkeley: Celestial thank all my informants for sharing their Arts. experience and deliberations. "Rebenok rozhdaetsja". 2 C£ the pun inthe title of a book by Dr. Robert 1992. "Rebenok rozhdaetsja": Mendelsohn, an advocate for women's right to Roundtable. Moskovskij komsomolets. manage their bodies and health: Male 11.06.1992. ["The Baby is Being Bom."] [mal}practice: how doctors manipulate women. Rei Sondra, (Mendelsohn 1981); c£ also the title ofthe book 1985. Ideal'noe rozhdenie. Abbreviated by Gena Corea: The Hidden Malpractice (Corea translation by M[ihail] T[runov]. 1985). Moscow. [Russian translation of: Ray, 3 Cf. commentaries on how the concept Sondra. 1985.] "connections" is used in American midwives' narratives: Davis-Floyd, Robbie and Davis, Elizabeth. 1996, esp. pp. 246-248.

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