Tributaries

A Publication of the Maritime Steamer Mountaineer: History Council www.ncmaritimehistory.org The Identification of an Outer Banks Shipwreck

Spring 2019 Number 17 Modern Greece: A Revised History for the English Blockade Runner

Pirates of Morality: The British Navy’s Suppression of the Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century Tributaries A Publication of the North Carolina Council www.ncmaritimehistory.org

Spring 2019 Number 17 Contents

Members of the Executive Board 3

Lucas Simonds Steamer Mountaineer: 5 The Identification of an Outer Banks Shipwreck

Chelsea Rachelle Modern Greece: 20 Freeland A Revised History for the English Blockade Runner

Eric Walls Pirates of Morality: 33 The British Navy’s Suppression of the Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century

Call for Submissions 49

Tributaries Spring 2019 1 Tributaries A Publication Members of the North Carolina Maritime Chair Andrew Duppstadt Lynn B. Harris Joseph K. Schwarzer, II Education and Interpretation Supervisor Associate Professor History Council Director Historic Weapons Program Coordinator Program in Maritime Studies www.ncmaritimehistory.org North Carolina Maritime Museum Division of State and Historic Properties Department of History System (252) 526-9600 ext. 227 East Carolina University Tributaries P.O. Box 191 [email protected] Admiral Eller House, Office 200 Hatteras, NC 27909 Greenville, NC 27858 [email protected] Brian Edwards (252) 328-1967 College of the Albemarle [email protected] Vice Chair P.O. Box 2327 is published by the North Douglas Stover Elizabeth City, NC 27909 Nathan Richards Carolina Maritime History Cultural Resource Management (252) 335-0821 ext. 2206 Director Program in Maritime Studies Council, Inc., 315 Front Consultant [email protected] 227 Cobbs Way Department of History Street, Beaufort, North Nags Head, NC 27959 Charles R. Ewen East Carolina University Carolina, 28516-2124, and (252) 216-9399 Director Admiral Eller House, Office 100 is distributed for [email protected] Phelps Archaeology Laboratory Liaison Greenville, NC 27858 (252) 328-1968 educational purposes Queen Anne’s Revenge Conservation Laboratory [email protected] www.ncmaritimehistory.org Secretary Frances D. Hayden Professor Lori Sanderlin Program Registrar Department of Anthropology Museum Manager Chair North Carolina Maritime Museum East Carolina University North Carolina Maritime Museum at 315 Front Street Greenville, NC 27858 Joseph K. Schwarzer, II Southport Beaufort, NC 28584 (252) 328-9454 204 Moore Street (252) 504-7758 [email protected] Editor Southport, NC 28461 [email protected] (910) 477-5150 Chelsea Rachelle Chelsea Rachelle Freeland Senior Analyst, Cultural Property [email protected] Treasurer Freeland U.S. Department of State Christine Brin (Contractor) William Sassorossi Group and Volunteer Coordinator Washington, DC 20037 Maritime Archaeologist North Carolina Maritime Museum (202) 632-6368 Monitor National Marine Sanctuary Copyright © 2019 315 Front Street [email protected] Newport News, VA 23606 North Carolina Maritime Beaufort, NC 28584 (757) 591-7326 History Council (252) 504-7743 [email protected] [email protected]

North Carolina Maritime Tributaries History Council Spring 2019 2 3 Tributaries Steamer Mountaineer:

A Publication The Identification of an Outer Banks Shipwreck of the North Carolina Maritime by Lucas Simonds History Council www.ncmaritimehistory.org From the time of the loss of reason to believe Mountaineer remained the Pulaski in 1839 until the on the beach where it ran aground some beginning of the Civil War 160 years ago. It was first suggested by in 1861 the North Carolina Marc Corbett that the Winks Wreck, a coast was the scene of so many previously unidentified shipwreck lying shipwrecks that the majority a short distance off the beach in Kitty rated no more space in the Hawk, is likely the wreck of Mountaineer.2 newspapers of the day than do Additional research since that time has routine automobile accidents in strengthened the argument in favor of the contemporary press. this identification and also revealed a -- David Stick, Graveyard of the Atlantic surprising history of the ship in its career prior to wrecking on the Outer Banks. As On Christmas Day 1852, the steamship an easily accessible site to both SCUBA Mountaineer passed along the Outer and free divers, the wreck represents Banks of North Carolina en route to one of the more visible elements of the New Brunswick, Canada. The ship underwater cultural heritage of North had enjoyed a long career carrying Carolina. As such, the identification of cargo and passengers between ports in the wreck and its history should be of Great Britain, , and continental equal interest to academics, historical . Now, Mountaineer was headed enthusiasts, and divers alike. The history to what would likely be its final posting of Mountaineer and the argument for its – service as a tug and stock boat for a connection to the “Winks Wreck” are lumber company. Unfortunately, disaster therefore outlined here. Figure 1 – A lithograph of a painting by Samuel Walters depicting the ships Pennsylvania and struck that day somewhere along the Lockwoods in distress off Liverpool during the storm of January 7 and 8, 1839. Mountaineer (the Outer Banks, and Mountaineer never Before continuing with the history of small vessel immediately left of Pennsylvania) is depicted attempting to rescue members of the crew reached its destination. The ship ran the vessel, a brief note should be made of St. Andrew. (Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division [LC-DIG-pga-06334]) aground between 8 and 20 miles south concerning the sources on which the of Currituck Inlet, though the reason narrative is based. The most detailed for its loss is not documented. Although reports of the wrecking event provide the entire crew escaped with their lives, little information about the vessel, Mountaineer was declared a total loss.1 namely, that it was “of and from Liverpool,” “old,” and “196 tons.”3 Based Newspaper reports of the wreck mark on these details, it was concluded that the the last appearance of Mountaineer in Mountaineer of 196 tons listed in Lloyd’s the historical record. Like so many Register in 1849 is the same that wrecked North Carolina Maritime Tributaries ships lost off the Outer Banks in the in 1852. As that Mountaineer was listed History Council Spring 2019 nineteenth century, the fate of the as having been built in Bristol in 1835, it 4 5 wreckage after the event has remained has further been linked to a Mountaineer largely unclear. Despite the lack of listed in the Lloyd’s Register for 1835.4 historical documentation, there is good Beginning with reports on the launching of that vessel in 1835, its history has In his report, Drew noted Mountaineer century, 90% of British copper smelting many hours without a moment’s then been traced through nearly 750 measured 137 feet in length and 21 feet capacity was concentrated within a 20- cessation, sweeping down newspaper articles covering most months in breadth with a builder’s tonnage of mile radius of Swansea. Although copper chimneys and chimney pots, between April 1835 and December 1852, 262 tons. He further assigned the vessel ore was mined primarily in tearing up slates by thousands, as well as several additional archival an A1 rating, the best insurance rating and Devon, it was more economical to snapping in pieces large trees, sources. With differences in reported available.8 Not mentioned in the report smelt copper near the rich coal fields of casting down thick walls, driving tonnage, certain references do not is the vessel’s machinery, which was built South , as three tons of coal was vessels on shore, and spreading immediately appear to refer to the same by the Neath Abbey Ironworks near required to smelt a single ton of copper death and destruction on every vessel, but the historical trajectory of Swansea. Mountaineer was fitted with ore. Powering this trade, 150 vessels and side. We never remember a the vessel can be reasonably followed two simple side-lever steam engines at least 750 sailors were in operation night of more universal or well- based on other elements such as the once it reached Swansea from Bristol. to move approximately 120,000 tons of founded alarm.19 names of masters and geographic areas of Documentation of the original boiler has shipping annually to support the smelting operation. A summary history based on not yet been located.9 As evidenced by industry around Swansea in 1830.17 These It is not entirely clear where Mountaineer these sources is presented here. engineering plans from the ironworks, the figures surely grew, and they leave aside was during the height of the storm, but it vessel was driven by two side-mounted vessels such as Mountaineer, which were cannot have been far from the harrowing The Swansea and Liverpool Steam Packet paddlewheels.10 not directly involved in transporting ore scene in the waters off Liverpool. Company announced plans in August for the smelting industry, but rather were Loaded down with 110 tons of copper, 1834 to launch a steamer capable of Mountaineer was launched later on the involved in transporting the smelted Mountaineer was inbound to Liverpool carrying up to 120 tons of cargo between day of Drew’s survey. Reports from the copper to the industrial centers. As a during the storm. Attempting to enter the those two ports. Although not named day note that, “notwithstanding the component of this transport network, Rock Channel through heavy seas on the at the time, the primary cargo was to be unfavorable state of the weather, a large Mountaineer was involved in driving the morning of January 8, Captain Edwards copper from the burgeoning Swansea concourse of people assembled on the massive changes that came as a result of noticed several vessels in distress and copper smelting industry. This steamer, occasion. She went off in fine style.”11 the Industrial Revolution, particularly in turned back to help. The remainder of the Mountaineer, was built at the yard of After arriving in Swansea and being South Wales. day was spent fighting against the waves Patterson and Mercer in Bristol for the fit out,Mountaineer began a regular and passing between ships attempting to sum of £14,000.5 That the vessel was built service under command of Captain Apart from this regular service, the most rescue those in need. Finally, by 4:30 in by Patterson and Mercer is of note to John Edwards in July 1835.12 Although notable single event in Mountaineer’s the afternoon, they were able to take on the significance ofMountaineer . At the initially advertised as Swansea-Liverpool early years took place in the first week board seventeen from St. Andrew, a New time, William Patterson, co-owner of service, numerous smaller ports were of January 1839. The night of January 6, York packet that had run aground on the Patterson and Mercer, was a relatively added, and the typical route by mid-1836 1839, is known in Ireland as the Night of Great Burbo Bank. Making their way to unknown shipbuilder beginning his included stops at Tenby, Milford Haven, the Big Wind (Oíche na Gaoithe Móire) port, Mountaineer finally arrived safely career among the numerous other and Aberystwith, passing through the in memory of the worst storm to strike three hours later.20 yards crowding Bristol Floating between Great Britain and the island in the last 500 years – killing Harbour. Within a year, Patterson was , and a stop at Beaumaris before as many as 300 and causing widespread Despite the brave efforts of the crew of approached by Isambard Kingdom finally reaching Liverpool.13 The voyage destruction.18 After passing over Ireland, Mountaineer and many other ships that Brunel with an offer to build S.S. Great from Swansea to Liverpool was typically the storm hit Britain and, most relevant worked to rescue those in distress after Western, the first steamship designed accomplished in 26-30 hours, and both to the story of Mountaineer, Liverpool. the storm, it is estimated that more than expressly for regular transatlantic legs, including time for loading and There, it was recorded that: one hundred lives were lost in the waters passenger steam service. Patterson’s unloading could be complete in as few as off Liverpool. Significantly, the results of work on Mountaineer and another three days.14 By mid-1837, the route had Towards the close of the week the the storm led directly to the founding of steamer that same year, Lady Charlotte, been extended to include Bristol on one weather was rather boisterous, the Liverpool Shipwreck and Humane has been tied to Brunel’s decision to of three monthly voyages.15 One account but nothing beyond what is Society, with the goal of providing aid to select him for work on Great Western.6 of a voyage from this time praised the usual at this season of the year. those affected by the storm and rewards Although Brunel’s name is primarily operation of the vessel, noting that, During the whole of Sunday [Jan. to those involved in lifesaving, as well as remembered in connection to Great “the engines work so smooth and silent, 6] the wind blew strongly from better preparing for future disasters.21 Of Western, contemporary sources suggest that the passengers on board could not the south-east, and the glass fell additional note, this incident led to the that more credit for the innovations that perceive whether the machinery was at considerably, but many vessels, only known depiction of Mountaineer. A made that vessel a success is, in fact, work or not.”16 commanded by experienced painting by Samuel Walters (Figure 1) due to Patterson.7 Although indirect, captains, went to sea, and there depicts in the foreground Pennsylvania the small role Mountaineer thus played While the particulars of Mountaineer’s was nothing to indicate the and Lockwood, two other ships that in the development of the transatlantic early years are largely unremarkable, frightful storm which followed. ran aground on Great Burbo Bank steamship service lends additional these voyages carrying copper to the Suddenly, however, the wind during the storm. Unfortunately, little significance to the vessel. industrial centers in the North of England shifted to the south-west, and, detail is visible in the representation of were part of a network making possible North Carolina Maritime Tributaries increasingly rapidly, it became Mountaineer, which is dwarfed by the Mountaineer’s own career began April a significant shift in the economy of History Council Spring 2019 a perfect hurricane soon after other, larger, ships in the image. 30, 1835, when the vessel was inspected South Wales. From the late-eighteenth 6 7 midnight. It continued to blow by Edward Drew of Lloyd’s Register. century through the end of the nineteenth in this dreadful manner for Mountaineer returned to a largely passengers and crew into the lifeboats, vessels of such tonnage by Lloyd’s and Mountaineer made at least twenty-nine uneventful service following the events and no lives were lost. As the vessel the engines were still serviceable if a new documented voyages between of the Night of the Big Wind. Fatefully, remained on the rock for several days, boiler was installed.27 Repairs evidently and ports on the European continent as will be seen, the vessel was put up in there was initially hope it could be saved, took some time, as it was not until including primarily Harlingen; Tönning, Hayle in Cornwall from March through but it soon fell into a deeper area, where April 29, 1846, that Mountaineer was in Schleswig-Holstein, then ruled by May of 1840 to receive new boilers.22 In it was covered by six feet of water at low resurveyed by Lloyd’s in Bangor. Notably, Denmark; Groningen, ; and June of that same year, Mountaineer fell tide. The wreck was ultimately blamed at this survey the tonnage was listed as Hamburg, Germany.32 Cargoes at this in with Archimedes – the first steamship on poor guidance by the pilot and defects 196 47/100 tons rather than the 262 tons time consisted primarily of livestock driven by a screw propeller – while in the boiler, which Swansea papers were listed at the time of its launch in 1835. and produce. The vessel transported entering the channel for Milford Haven. quick to note had been made elsewhere Later that same day, the vessel steamed as many as 143 cows and 279 sheep at The two proceeded to race and, perhaps and not by the Neath Abbey Ironworks.25 through Menai Strait under the command one time, and 180 tons of potatoes on a unsurprisingly, Archimedes soundly beat of Richard Lewis, visiting the spot of its different voyage.33 The cargo of potatoes Mountaineer, completing a mile in thirty- While this seemingly would have marked earlier wrecking. Two days later, it was in particular was widely reported across four minutes.23 At the end of that year, the end of the vessel’s career, this was present at Beaumaris for the opening of the , and points to the Edwards, who had captained Mountaineer not the case for Mountaineer. In October a new pier.28 Mountaineer’s service for the significance of Mountaineer’s activity at since its launch, was elected harbour 1842, nearly two years after that fateful Welsh Steam Packet Company was not to this time. master of Swansea and gave up his post.24 night, Mountaineer was refloated with last, however, and only two other voyages Shortly thereafter, disaster struck. great difficulty. In an effort funded under Lewis are recorded. The first took Although known most famously in by Messrs. Haslam and Edwards and Mountaineer from Beaumaris to Belfast Ireland as the Great Famine (an Gorta Captaincy of Mountaineer passed to organized by Henry Fisher, chains were and Killybegs in Ireland. On the second, Mór), the simultaneous disruptions of Edwards’ son, whose name is recorded attached to the wreck from four barges by in July 1846, Lewis took Mountaineer the potato, rye, and wheat crops in 1845 only as H. Edwards in newspaper Thomas Jones, a diver from Bangor. As to London, where it was then listed for and 1846 led to a period known as the reports. On January 4, 1841, Mountaineer described at the time: sale.29 Hungry Forties across Europe. As the departed Liverpool under his command. effects of crop failures differed across the Although not definitively identified as Difficulties beset them at every From this point forward, Mountaineer continent, international trade in food his first voyage in charge of the ship, step; it was found that the vessel would be listed for sale many times, and became increasingly important at this Edwards could not have seen much had capsized in a hole or rather advertisements provide important details time. Leading the move toward more experience at the helm since his father a whirlpool out of which to raise not found elsewhere concerning the vessel open trade were the Netherlands and retired in December. After dealing her clear of the rock took 21 ½ as reconfigured after the 1841 wreck. An Denmark, notably the most common with engine trouble early in the day, feet of water-again, there was August 13, 1846, ad in Gore’s Liverpool destinations for Mountaineer at this the decision had to be made whether only one hour and a half, more General Advertiser notes that the vessel time. Although the trade in food could to wait in Bangor or Beaumaris or to or less, for work at low water, was, “copper fastened to the bends … do little to stem the crisis that unfolded, attempt passing through the Menai Strait during which the chains must she has lately been nearly rebuilt, all her changes made during this time led that same day. The strait was a typical be tightened and everything machinery taken out and examined, and generally toward more open trade, most part of the route for Mountaineer, but prepared for a further lift at high is fitted with new tubular boilers capable iconically through the repeal of the Corn the passage could be dangerous as the water; add to this, the keeping of supplying an abundance of steam.” Laws in the United Kingdom.34 As an change of tides through the day produces afloat a weight of about 200 The fact that Mountaineer was fitted with integral element of the shipping network ripping currents through the narrow tons specific gravity against a tubular boilers at this time is key to its that made these changes possible, waterway. Particularly dangerous is an rushing tide of awful force for connection to the Wink’s Wreck. A later Mountaineer was again involved in one of area of rocks in the center of the strait, a term of five hours, which not ad from the May 26, 1847, Public Ledger the more significant developments of the just west of . Known as unfrequently [sic] disarranged (London) adds the details that the vessel nineteenth century. the Swellies in English or Pwll Cerris in and undone [sic] everything had been “nearly rebuilt” in Chester in Welsh, a common Welsh phrase describes that had been previously 1846 at the cost of £6,000 and that it was Of additional significance, it is also the currents and whirlpools that form in accomplished, and some idea fitted with diagonal iron knees. possible that Mountaineer was involved the area as the “maddest of the mad” – may be formed of the Herculean in an outbreak of sheeppox (variola modern sailing directions recommend nature of the task, and the skill, Although advertisements continued ovina) in Britain in 1847. An outbreak of that passage through the area is only daring, and untiring perseverance to run for several weeks in August and the highly infectious disease in Datchet safe during the hour preceding slack requisite to surmount these September, Mountaineer had evidently was traced to merino sheep imported in tide. Relying on the advice of James manifold obstructions.26 been purchased by August 29, 1846, July 1847. Mountaineer was one of three Walters, a pilot brought in expressly to as at that time it is reported to have vessels transporting sheep at the time bring the vessel safely through the strait, Surprisingly, surveys in December 1842 arrived at Harlingen, in the Netherlands, identified as a possible source of the Edwards decided to make the passage and January 1843 by the Welsh Steam under command of Captain West for infection. Although claims that sheeppox that night. Unfortunately, facing a strong Packet Company, which purchased the Temperly Company.30 Command had never before been present in Britain tidal current, Mountaineer was smashed Mountaineer after it was raised, noted North Carolina Maritime Tributaries was soon transferred to a Captain C. were later disproven, the outbreak was against a rock just past Menai Bridge, that even after twenty-one months History Council Spring 2019 Spence and the vessel was resurveyed by nevertheless viewed at the time as a likely Swelly Rock, still marked on charts underwater, the vessel’s scantlings 8 9 Lloyd’s for repairs in September 1846.31 direct result of the increased trade in of the area. Acting quickly, Edwards got surpassed the strength required for Between August 1846 and October 1847, continental livestock.35 Mountaineer’s service following the its most significant role was ferrying author of a letter to the Waterford News is clear is that the voyage did not discontinuation of its continental trade in emigrants to Liverpool, where they could on August 8, 1851, wrote that: proceed as planned. After 40 days at October 1847 becomes rather irregular. It then seek passage to the United States. sea, Mountaineer crossed paths with began a route between Liverpool, Tenby, The report of its first voyage in July aptly I think it is but right to remark Rolla at approximately 23°25’ N 53°05’ and Newport in January 1848, but this summarizes most of its voyages during that the kindness of Captain W – roughly 940 miles southeast of service was ended after only one month.36 this period and the public opinion of the Gosson, of the Mountaineer, to ; 875 miles northeast of Puerto The vessel was then listed for sale in situation: the passengers on board his vessel Rico. As the vessel was short on supplies, Liverpool for the remainder of the year. is well worthy of praise. I have Rolla gave provisions to Mountaineer A December 14, 1848, advertisement At ten o’clock yesterday morning seen him ordering tea, coffee, &.c, before continuing on toward .49 in Gore’s Liverpool Advertiser adds the the Mars steamer left for gratis to children and other poor Mountaineer finally arrived in Nassau, detail that Mountaineer was “additionally Liverpool, with an immense creatures when taken ill on the in , on December 5, 1852, strengthened and more substantially cargo of cattle, &c. She had on passage. Very differently, in deed, seventy days after departing Ireland.50 fastened … for the transport of cattle,” board nearly three hundred are they treated on other vessels. The inordinate length ofMountaineer ’s after the 1846 rebuild. From January to passengers en route to America, crossing cannot be ignored. In 1838, April of 1849, the vessel was employed the majority of whom were very Here again, Mountaineer served as an Great Western made the transatlantic transporting cattle from to respectable looking people. On integral part of a transport network crossing in fifteen days, and by the mid- .37 Mountaineer was then the vessel hauling out from the making possible a shift that, in this case, 1850s, the average crossing had been again listed for sale through August quay the emigrants on board gave took on a truly global scale as the Irish reduced to eleven days.51 Given that 1849. The vessel is not mentioned at all three loud and hearty cheers, Diaspora came to have a transformative Mountaineer’s crossing lasted nearly in 1850 in the sources reviewed to date. It whilst their friends on shore, effect on the United States and numerous seven times longer than the average, then appears again in advertisements in with whom they had just parted, other countries. and the fact that the vessel arrived in the the Shipping and Mercantile Gazette in were lamenting bitterly their Bahamas rather than Canada, it is clear January, February, and March 1851. The separation. Viewed in any light, it Mountaineer’s final months in active a serious mishap occurred during the advertisement from the March 25 edition was a melancholy scene to witness service were spent traveling between voyage. Reports upon its arrival in Nassau of the Gazetter reveals several new so many stalworth fellows – the Liverpool and Ballina, Ireland, from only note, however, that it was “delayed facts. It is confirmed that the vessel still bone and sinew of the land – January to March 1852, before it was by the derangement of her machinery.” possessed its original engines at that time, flying from the inevitable misery auctioned for the last time in May of that The boiler present at the Wink’s Wreck as it is noted that “she is propelled by a that waited many of them had year.44 Although not specified at the time, appears to have exploded, and this may pair of condensing side-lever engines, they remained in this ill fated it was presumably at this time that the have been the cause of the delay assuming of 150 horse-power collectively.” The ad country. The tide of emigration vessel was purchased by the Canadian the identification of the Wink’s Wreck notes that the boilers, “have just been from this port is continuing to lumber company mentioned in the as Mountaineer is correct. That damage re-tubed and repaired,” and it is most flow faster every day. At 3 o’clock reports of its wrecking. On August 24, may also be related to the later wrecking likely they are the same installed in 1846. the Mountaineer, an opposition Mountaineer departed Liverpool on the at Kitty Hawk though, and it suffices to It is also noted that to accommodate steamer, which arrived here first leg of its voyage to New Brunswick, note that Mountaineer, clearly already cattle there were “houses erected on her on Wednesday, left also for arriving at the famous transatlantic point experiencing trouble before leaving deck to protect them from the weather.” Liverpool. She had a large cargo of departure, Queenstown (now Cobh), Ireland, suffered serious damage on the After more than a year sitting unused, of butter and other merchandise. the next day.45 The vessel reportedly voyage, forcing the vessel to sail with the Mountaineer was finally auctioned in There were nearly one hundred departed Queenstown in ballast for New wind and currents into the , March 1851 and began the final chapter of emigrants on board.41 Brunswick on August 28, but turned back rather than steaming directly to Canada. its career. at some point, and put into Waterford The flow of emigrants at this time was on August 31.46 This was likely the From Nassau, Captain Stickney decided On July 23, 1851, Mountaineer completed uneven, with as many as 600 and as result of mechanical issues, as the next to sail north, either to Hampton Roads or its first voyage from Liverpool to few as 90 departing aboard Mars and report notes repairs were underway in New York, in order to have the machinery Waterford, Ireland.38 The vessel would Mountaineer from Waterford in a single Waterford. Specifically, it is stated that repaired before continuing on to New spend the remainder of its career day.42 The flow as documented out of this “The Mountaineer … has taken down her Brunswick. Mountaineer’s “machinery traveling between Liverpool and various single port, however, is emblematic of funnel; there are some carpenters at work was detached and smokestack struck ports in Ireland. It plied regularly the massive outflow of people attempting to enable her to go out the more safely before sailing, and the hull was brig between Liverpool and Waterford in to escape the continued effects of the under canvas.”47 It is not clear if it was rigged.”52 The voyage would never be opposition to the steamer Mars from Great Famine. The number of people who intended to make the crossing entirely completed. For unreported reasons, July to September 1851 and again from emigrated during the famine has been under sail, or if these modifications were the vessel ran aground on the North late November to December of the same estimated as high as 2 million, while 4.5 merely a precaution given the state of the Carolina coast on December 25, 1852. year.39 This was only broken for a short million are thought to have emigrated machinery. In either case, Mountaineer Fortunately, the entire crew was rescued time in October and early November, between 1850 and 1913.43 Given their finally departed from Waterford for New and shortly thereafter taken to Norfolk in which the vessel served various small desperation, the treatment of emigrants North Carolina Maritime Tributaries Brunswick on September 27, 1852.48 to seek passage home. Stickney and his ports encircling Strangford Lough.40 at this time was often abhorrent, but History Council Spring 2019 wife elected to stay with the wreck until While Mountaineer was engaged in Mountaineer was a noted exception. The 10 11 The details of Mountaineer’s transatlantic it could be sold. As noted, this marks the transporting a variety of products, crossing are tantalizingly vague. What last historical mention of Mountaineer, but there is reason to believe the vessel shaft, which rises to within 5 ft. of the remained where it wrecked until it was surface. The shaft is approximately 9 in. largely destroyed by the waves, leaving in diameter, and stands upright out of only the durable metal machinery. The the sand. It is capped by a large (2-3 ft. Winks Wreck most likely represents those long) crank head. At the base, level with remains of Mountaineer. A short review the seafloor in 2012, is a round metal of research on the wreck and the evidence plate approximately 5 ft. in diameter, in favor of this identification will now be one of two that would form the core of considered. the paddlewheel hub. A number of rivets were visible in lines radiating from the Figure 2 – Detail of a Neath Abbey Ironworks engineering drawing depicting the plan view of a foundation plate for a In 2012, the East Carolina University center of the plate, indicating where the condensing side-lever engine built for Mountaineer. Note the rectangular area in the center, indicating the location of the Program in Maritime Studies conducted spokes of the paddlewheel would have condenser with gudgeons for the side levers and the circular area immediately to the right, indicating the location of the air an underwater archaeological field school been attached, but any extant remains of pump cylinder. (Image Courtesy of the West Glamorgan Archive Service: D/D NAI/S/35/3). on the wreck of USS Huron off Nags those spokes were buried at the time. Head. During this project, students were each assigned an unidentified wreck At the opposite end of the site, in the area to study and, if possible, approximately 30 ft. south-southeast of identify. It was through this assignment the paddlewheel shaft, two engines lie that a group of students including the parallel to the shore. At the northern end author conducted an archaeological of each is a large cylinder, measured at reconnaissance survey of the Winks 54 in. in diameter across the top of the Wreck. Online descriptions of the cylinder in 2012. The piston rod emerging wreck site at the time described it as from the cylinder of the east engine the wreckage of a barge. This initial is capped by a crosshead. Originally, survey was intended to assess the extent this would have been attached by drive and nature of the wreckage, which was rods on either side to large levers at the believed to be a small section of hull base of the engine, the typical feature remains. If time permitted, the crew of the side-lever type steam engine. intended to also take basic measurements Although these levers were mostly and identify features that might aid buried at the time, they were partially in identification. Following online visible at the seafloor. The east engine Figure 3 – Detail of a Neath Abbey Ironworks engineering drawing depicting the profile view of the condenser (left) and directions, divers entered from the shore is largely collapsed south of this main air pump (right) for a condensing side-lever engine built for Mountaineer. Note area on condenser indicating location of and located an element of the wreck, first cylinder, but several additional features gudgeon for side lever. (Image Courtesy of the West Glamorgan Archive Service: D/D NAI/S/35/3). thought to be a steering column but later were noted on the west engine, which identified as a paddlewheel shaft. From measured approximately 15.6 ft. in there, circle searches were conducted to length. Immediately south of the cylinder, locate other features, through which two the metal frame of the engine comes to a engines and the remains of a boiler were peak at its highest point, approximately located. With limited time remaining, 11 ft. above the seafloor in 2012. Beyond divers then divided into teams of two this is a box-like component believed to take measurements and produce to be the condenser. A second cylinder rough sketches of the engines and boiler measuring approximately 28 in. in respectively. diameter and capped by a crosshead sits after the condenser, thought to be the air The Winks Wreck lies approximately 100 pump. A short distance beyond this, the yards offshore of Kitty Hawk between two side levers at the base of the engine Eckner Street and Luke Street, near the are joined by a crosstail, which would Winks Grocery Store, which inspired have connected the motion of the engines Figure 4 – Detail of a Neath Abbey Ironworks engineering drawing depicting the plan and profile views of a side lever the name of the site. In 2012, the site to the drive shaft for the paddlewheels for a condensing side-lever engine built for Mountaineer. Note that the right end is the connection to the main cylinder, was in 15 ft. of water with visibility of through a drive rod in its center. while the left end is the connection to the paddlewheel shaft. Two gudgeons are also indicated, one on the right to drive 4-5 ft. The seafloor around the site is the radius crank and bilge pump, and one on the left to drive the air pump. (Image Courtesy of the West Glamorgan the undulating, sandy bottom typical of The remains of a boiler are located Archive Service: D/D NAI/S/35/5). the inshore waters of the Outer Banks. between the engines and paddlewheel Because of this, coverage of the site varies shaft but further east and closer to North Carolina Maritime Tributaries greatly over time as the sands are shifted the paddlewheel shaft, measured as History Council Spring 2019 by storms. The most easily locatable approximately 30 ft. from the engines. 12 13 element of the wreck is the paddlewheel The boiler is heavily damaged and Figure 5 – Detail of a identification among the documented vessel. It should also be noted that while Neath Abbey Ironworks wrecks at Kitty Hawk. Corbett further both side-lever engines and tubular engineering drawing argues that, as the side-lever type steam boilers were common, and would depicting a section of engine was almost exclusively used in normally serve as strong evidence for the hull of Mountaineer British rather than American vessels, that vessel identification, the combination of including the main a British-built ship such as Mountaineer the two was not common, even among cylinders of the two would be the most likely identification. British vessels. The side-lever engine condensing side-lever Although the reported distance south was the first type commonly used on engines. Note that rim of Currituck Inlet does not align exactly steamers, but beginning in the 1840s it of cylinder extends with the location of the Winks Wreck, he was largely replaced by smaller, more past the diameter of further notes that it is not uncommon to efficient engine types, such as double- the main cylinder wall. 54 Note also that motion find such inaccuracies in reports from the cylinder and oscillating type engines. of the piston carries time, as distances along the coast were A type of tubular boiler identified as the crosshead above not always easily determined. the precursor to Scotch type boilers was the deck. Additional patented in 1831, but the larger flue type drawings from the Corbett also describes several additional boiler remained most common among series indicate iron features of the site that were not visible merchant vessels until the 1860s, and boxes were placed during the 2012 survey. Wooden tubular types were only infrequently on the deck to cover hull remains fastened with bronze used beginning in the late 1830s and the area where the or copper fasteners are sometimes through the 1850s.55 Thus, while the crossheads emerged. visible underneath elements noted in type of engines and boiler present at the (Image Courtesy of 2012. Further north from the upright Winks Wreck existed contemporaneously, the West Glamorgan paddlewheel shaft, the corner of a large they would not commonly be observed Archive Service D/D metal box is sometimes seen. To the east together, as side-lever engines fell out of NAI/S/35/38). of the engines, a paddlewheel assembly common use nearly two decades before lying on its side and including both tubular boilers became common. It hub plates, the remains of at least one would, therefore, be unlikely to find this spoke, and the shaft with crank head, combination of machinery apart from has sometimes been observed. Sand a vessel such as Mountaineer, which was coverage on the site varies greatly over built during the heyday of the side-lever time, and Corbett notes that depth at the engine, but was fitted with a new boiler site varies from as deep as 20 ft., revealing when the tubular type was becoming the sections of the hull that are normally more common. appears to have possibly exploded. The to have wrecked in the area proved buried, to as shallow as 6 ft., covering iron plates forming its outer shell flay out fruitless until conversations with Marc most of the wreck. Although the recorded wrecking location in multiple directions and other features Corbett, a diver and historian from and machinery of Mountaineer match are severely misshapen. The poor state of Wanchese, NC, who shared his research Historical research since 2012, has the features of the Winks Wreck, there the boiler made measurements difficult, into the wreck. Corbett was the first to rendered additional details about is reason to pause at this time in making but it was measured as approximately draw connections between the Winks the vessel, which may be correlated a definitive identification. In late 2017, 14 ft. by 9.5 ft., rising approximately 7 Wreck and Mountaineer, which he later to the features of the Winks Wreck, the author located engineering drawings ft. above the seafloor in 2012. A cluster discussed in an article published on the strengthening the argument first from the Neath Abbey Ironworks for of what appeared to be fire tubes was DiveHatteras website. In identifying forwarded by Corbett. At a basic level, Mountaineer’s engines (Figures 2-5), visible in the upper portion above what the wreck, his reasoning begins with the machinery present on the site which depict engines of a similar appeared to be a cylindrical furnace. a list of ships known to have wrecked matches that known to have powered layout, but with measurements that Its features most closely correspond around Kitty Hawk. David Stick, in his Mountaineer. As noted, Mountaineer was do not exactly match those recorded to a return tubular type boiler, but the book Graveyard of the Atlantic – perhaps a side-wheel steamer, which matches the in 2012.56 The plans depict engines damage makes its shape difficult to the most comprehensive accounting two paddlewheels with long drive shafts with 45 in. diameter main cylinders at distinguish, and it could be either a box of ships lost off the North Carolina at the Winks Wreck. It was powered by the stern end. Forward of this, in the type or the cylindrical Scotch type. coast – lists only three ships as having a pair of condensing side-lever steam center of the engine, is the box-shaped wrecked in the area: Tzenny Chandris, engines, like those on the site. Further, in compressor with gudgeons for the side Unfortunately, time constraints of the Bladan McLaughlin, and Mountaineer.53 1846 its original boiler was replaced with levers, measuring 57.6 in. at the widest field school limited field research on the Corbett quickly dismisses two of these a tubular type boiler, like that on the site. point. The cylinder for the air pump sits Winks Wreck to the single dive described vessels, noting that Tzenny Chandris is directly forward of the compressor, and above, and no additional information too large and modern to correspond to North Carolina Maritime Tributaries As discussed by Corbett, the side-lever measures 29 in. in diameter. The overall about the wreck was gathered first-hand. the Winks Wreck, and that the engines of History Council Spring 2019 type steam engine was not commonly length of the foundation plate for the Initial efforts at correlating the features Bladan McLaughlin were salvaged. This 14 15 used in American ships, and immediately engine, which was fitted around large of the Winks Wreck to vessels known leaves Mountaineer as the only viable suggests the wreck is that of a British engine timbers, is 21 ft. Drawings of the side levers show that the distance from In summary, the location of the Winks If the identity of the wreck as Mountaineer Endnotes the crosshead of the main cylinder to Wreck fits with the reported wrecking is confirmed, then that role was indeed the center gudgeon was 6 ft. 8 in., while location of Mountaineer, the type of a significant one, albeit primarily in 1. “Disasters &c.,” Marine Journal, Boston the crossbar for the air pump connected machinery present at the Winks Wreck British rather than American history. Atlas, December 29, 1852; “Disasters,” Marine another 3 ft. 5 in. forward of that. Overall, matches that known to have been used Mountaineer is directly associated with a News, American Beacon (Norfolk, VA), the length from the crosshead of the main on Mountaineer, and the uncommon number of significant historic events and December 29, 1852. cylinder to the crosstail at the forward combination of side-lever engines with trends in the nineteenth century. From 2. Marc Corbett, “Wreck of the Steamer Mountaineer: The Paddle Wheel Steamer end was 13 ft. 10 in. For comparison, a tubular boiler means it is unlikely the beginning, it appears to have played at Kitty Hawk,” DiveHatteras, http://www. three measurements were recorded on the another ship with the same combination a role in William Patterson’s selection divehatteras.com/steamermountaineer.htm complete west engine in 2012: the overall would have wrecked in the area. However, to construct Great Western, a significant (accessed January 12, 2019). length of the engine from the stern end given presently available measurements, vessel in the history of the transatlantic 3. “Disasters,” Marine News, American Beacon of the main cylinder to the crosstail was the identification of the wreck cannot steam service. It was involved in the (Norfolk, VA), December 29, 1852; “Disasters 15.6 ft.; the air pump cylinder measured be considered definitive, as they differ booming copper smelting industry &c.,” Marine Journal, Boston Atlas, January 1, 28 in. in diameter; and the main cylinder significantly in some places from those of South Wales, which dramatically 1853. measured 54 in. in diameter. It was also shown in engineering drawings for transformed that region through the 4. Lloyd’s Register of British and Foreign noted at that time that the main cylinder Mountaineer’s engines. These differences nineteenth century. It was in the water Shipping: From 1st July 1849 to 30th June was thought to be the widest point of the likely stem from inadequate rigor saving lives during the Night of the Big 1850 (London: J. & H. Cox Brothers engine. during the short, student-led survey in Wind, one of the worst storms to strike 1849), https://books.google.co.uk/ 2012, and all are close enough that the the British Isles in the past 500 years. It books?id=Mz0SAAAAYAAJ&lr; Lloyd’s The difference of 1 in. between the identification cannot be ruled out solely was part of the network that opened trade Register of British and Foreign Shipping: From diameter of the air pump cylinder as on this point. As such, a more definitive with the continent during the Hungry 1st July 1835 to the 30th June 1836 (London: J.L. recorded in 2012 compared to the plans identification of the site will require Forties, as Europe was rocked by the Cox and Sons, 1835), https://books.google. is not significant, but the other two further, more rigorous survey to more events that led to the Great Famine in co.uk/books?id=UzoSAAAAYAAJ&lr. measurements give pause. Given the thoroughly document the site. The thirty- Ireland. In the aftermath of that famine, 5. The Cambrian(Swansea, UK), August two diameters of the main cylinder – 54 eight pages of drawings from the Neath it then ferried hundreds of emigrants on 16, 1834, https://newspapers.library.wales/ in. recorded in 2012 and 45 in. in the Abbey Ironworks provide measurements the first leg of their voyage out of Ireland. view/3328310/3328313; “Recovery of the Wreck of the Mountaineer Steamer,” engineering drawings – it is possible for myriad parts from the engines, all of While many vessels were involved in North Wales Chronicle, October 18, the measurement was transposed or which could be compared to new, better any one of these events, the story of 1842, https://newspapers.library.wales/ misunderstood by divers during the field measurements to better answer the a single vessel that worked through view/4518873/4518876/31. survey. It is also possible the 54 in. question of the identity of the Winks all of them is uniquely compelling. 6. Graham Farr, Shipbuilding in the Port of measurement is correct, but that it does Wreck. As such, if the identity of the Winks Bristol (Greenwich, UK: National Maritime not correspond to the diameter of the Wreck as Mountaineer is true, it expands Museum Maritime Monographs and Reports, cylinder itself. A profile drawing of the Such research is well warranted given its significance as a direct, physical 1977), 8. engine cylinders among the engineering the nature of the site and its potential connection to not only the history of 7. “The Great Western.--Steam Ship,” The drawings depicts that the rim of the significance if the identity asMountaineer the Outer Banks as the Graveyard of the Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle cylinder extends further than the is confirmed. As Corbett notes in his Atlantic, but many of the most important (1837): 618-623, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/ main section, measuring 49 in. rather article, because the wreck is located such events in Europe in the nineteenth nyp.33433057700233. than 45 in. in diameter. As the 54 in. a short distance offshore, it has long been century. With this in mind, as research 8. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, Survey Report measurement was taken across the top popular among free divers and spear on the site continues, nomination to BRS 99 (Bristol) (Manuscript, Lloyd’s Survey of the cylinder, it is possible that enough fishers, and is equally easily accessible the National Register of Historic Places Reports collection on loan from Lloyd’s material has been added to the rim by SCUBA divers. Such easily accessible, and designation as a Historic Shipwreck Register, National Maritime Museum, through corrosion and concretion to inshore sites are vital links to the heritage Preserve or Heritage Dive Site to provide Greenwich, UK, 1835). add an additional 5 in. to the diameter, of North Carolina. The concept of the better opportunities to preserve and 9. Laurence Ince, Neath Abbey and the producing the 54 in. measurement. In the Graveyard of the Atlantic is integral to the interpret the site for the public should Industrial Revolution (Briscombe Port, UK: Tempus 2001), Appendix Three. case of the overall length of the engine, history and identity of the Outer Banks, also be considered. 10. “Plans of ship: Mountaineer,” the radius of the cylinder must be added and as noted by one columnist writing Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering to the 13 ft. 10 in. length from the center about a dive on the Winks Wreck, “The Plans, Neath Abbey Ironworks Collection, of the cylinder to the crosstail shown in wrecks that dot our coast and the lives West Glamorgan Archives, Swansea, the plans in order to render the full length that were saved from the surf provide http://www1.swansea.gov.uk/calmview/ from the stern end of the cylinder, which a direct physical link to a part of our TreeBrowse.aspx?src=CalmView. is 14 ft. 8 in. This is still nearly a foot state and national maritime and cultural Catalog&field=RefNo&key=DD%20 shorter than the length recorded in 2012, history.”57 Given this, it is important to NAI%2F5%2F33%2F3. but as the measurement was made with a not only understand the wreck as another 11. “Sihp[sic] Launch,” The Cambrian fiberglass measuring tape, the tendency victim of the Graveyard of the Atlantic, North Carolina Maritime Tributaries (Swansea, UK), May 9, 1835, of such tapes to stretch and move but also to understand what role it played History Council Spring 2019 https://newspapers.library.wales/ underwater may explain the difference. before that tragic end. 16 17 view/3328500/3328503/13. 12. “Swansea and Liverpool,” The Cambrian 24. “Swansea,” Local Intelligence, The 33. “Foreign Produce,” The Southern 45. Ship News, The Standard (London, UK), (Swansea, UK), June 27, 1835. Glamorgan, Monmouth, and Brecon Gazette Reporter, September 26, 1846; “Importations August 25, 1852; Lloyd’s List, August 27, 1852. 13. “Steam Conveyance to and from Swansea, and Merthyr Guardian (Merthyr Tydfil, UK), of Potatoes,” The Bradford and Wakefield 46. “Queenstown,” Ship News, Cork Examiner, Tenby, Milford, Aberystwith, through the December 12, 1840. Observer, April 29, 1847. August 30, 1852; Maritime Extracts, Shipping Menai Straits, Beaumaris, and Liverpool,” 25. “Loss of the Mountaineer Steamer,” 34. Eric Vanhaute, Richard Paping, and and Mercantile Gazette (London, UK), The Cambrian (Swansea, UK), July 16, Bristol Mercury, January 23, 1841; Cormac ó Gráda, “The European subsistence September 3, 1852. 1835, https://newspapers.library.wales/ “Loss of the Mountaineer Steamer,” crisis of 1845-1850: a comparative 47. Maritime Extracts, Shipping and view/3328810/3328811/3/. The Cambrian(Swansea, UK), January perspective,” paper presented at the XIV Mercantile Gazette (London, UK), September 14. “The Mountaineer Steam Packet,” 23, 1841, https://newspapers.library. International Economic History Congress, 14, 1852. The Cambrian (Swansea, UK), May 21, wales/view/3329985/3329988/12/; “The Helsinki, Finland, 21 to 25 August 2006, 48. Ship News, The Standard (London, UK), 1836, https://newspapers.library.wales/ Mountaineer Steamer,” The Silurian http://www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/papers3/ September 29, 1852. view/3328770/3328773/15; The Standard, July (Brecon, UK), January 23, 1841; Vanhaute.pdf, 1, 20. 49. Shipping Intelligence, Belfast News-Letter, 7, 1836. “Information about the Swellies,” Bad Achub 35. “Botley and South Hants Farmers’ December 14, 1852. 15. “Liverpool & Bristol,” Bristol Mercury, May Biewmares (Beaumaris Station), C lu b,” Southampton Herald, March 17, 50. “Late from Nassau,” North American 13, 1837. accessed January 14, 2019, http://www. 1849; “Review: The Principles and Practice and United States Gazette (Philadelphia), 16. “Quick Steam Passage from Swansea to beaumarislifeboat.com/local/swellies.htm. of Veterinary Medicine,” The British and December 23, 1852. Liverpool,” Liverpool Mercury, August 14, 26. “Recovery of the Wreck of the Foreign Medico-Chirugical Review or Quarterly 51. “Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times, 1835. Mountaineer Steamer,” North Wales Chronicle, Journal of Practical Medicine and Surgery, 1833-1952 (in days),” in The Geography of 17. Stephen Hughes, Copperopolis: Landscape October 18, 1842. Vol. 55 (1875), https://books.google.com/ Transport Systems, ed. Jean-Paul Rodrigue of the Early Industrial Period in Swansea 27. “Welsh Steam Packet Company,” North books?id=AlBYAAAAMAAJ&dq, 422. (New York: Routledge, 2017), https:// (Aberystwyth, UK: Royal Commision on the Wales Chronicle and Daily Advertiser, 36. “Steam to Tenby and Newport,” Steam transportgeography.org/?page_id=2135. Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales, December 19, 1843, https://newspapers. Navigation, Liverpool Mercury, December 52. Marine Journal, Boston Atlas, January 1, 2000), 16; R.O. Roberts, “The development library.wales/view/4519963/4519966/21; 31, 1847; The Welshman(Carmarthen, UK), 1853. and decline of the copper and other non- “The Welsh Steam Packet Company,”North February 4, 1848, https://newspapers.library. 53. David Stick, Graveyard of the Atlantic: ferrous metal industries in South Wales,” Wales Chronicle and Daily Advertiser, January wales/view/4346534/4346537/12. Shipwrecks of the North Carolina Coast (Chapel Transactions of the Hounourable Society of 2, 1844, https://newspapers.library.wales/ 37. “Liverpool,” Shipping Intelligence, The Hill, NC: UNC Press, 1989), 246, 255. Cymmrodorion (1956), 78, 99. view/4518928/4518931/27. Public Ledger (London, UK), January 2, 1849; 54. Richard Sennet, The Marine Steam Engine: 18. Frank Watters, “The Night of the Big 28. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, Survey Report “Southampton,” The Morning Advertiser A Treatise for Engineering Students, Young Wind,” “Before I Forget...” Journal of the LON 12823 (London) (Manuscript, Lloyd’s (London, UK), April 19, 1849. Engineers, and Officers of the Royal Navy and Poyntzpass and District Local History Society, Survey Reports collection on loan from 38. “Waterford,” Outports, Shipping and Mercantile Marine (London: Longmans, no. 7 (1994), 73-82. Lloyd’s Register, National Maritime Museum, Mercantile Gazette (London, UK), July 26, Green, and Co., 1899), 2-4; Edgar Charles 19. Narrative of the Dreadful Disasters Greenwich, UK, 1846), 1; The Chronicle, 1851. Smith, A Short History of Marine and Naval Occasioned by the Hurricane, which Visited North Wales Chronicle and Daily Advertiser, 39. “Emigration,” The Evening Mail (London, Engineering (Cambridge University Press, Liverpool and Various Parts of the Kingdom, on May 5, 1846, https://newspapers.library. UK), September 1, 1851; “Opposition 1938), 145. the Nights of Sunday and Monday January 6th wales/view/4519538/4519541/15; “Opening Again,” Waterford News, November 14, 1851; 55. Thomas Main,The Progress of Marine and 7th, 1839 (Liverpool, UK: Egerton Smith of the New Pier at Beaumaris,” North “Emigration,” The Waterford Mail, December Engineering from the time of Watt until the and Co. 1839), https://books.google.com/ Wales Chronicle and Daily Advertiser, May 20, 1851. Present Day (New York: Trade Publishing Co., books?id=zSpWAAAAcAAJ&dq, 3. 5, 1846, https://newspapers.library.wales/ 40. “Steam Communication between 1893), 19. Sennet, Marine Steam Engine, 132- 20. “The Saint Andrew,”Sheffield Independent, view/4519538/4519541/16. Liverpool and Strangford Lough,” Liverpool 133. January 19, 1839; “The Late Hurricane,” 29. Shipping Intelligence, Belfast Mercantile Mercury, September 30, 1851; Shipping 56. Plans of ship: Mountaineer, Shipbuilding The Cambrian(Swansea, UK), January 26, Register and Weekly Advertiser, June 16, 1846; Intelligence, Downpatrick Recorder, November and Marine Engineering Plans, Neath Abbey 1839, https://newspapers.library.wales/ Ship News, Belfast News-Letter, June 12, 1846; 8, 1851. Ironworks Collection, West Galmorgan view/3329465/3329468/9/; “Welsh Steam “Griffin’s,” Wharfs, Shipping and Mercantile 41. “Emigration,” Freeman’s Journal (Dublin), Archives, http://www1.swansea.gov.uk/ Packet Company,” The Cambrian(Swansea, Gazette (London, UK), July 20, 1846. July 30, 1851. calmview/Record.aspx?src=CalmView. UK), December 19, 1843, https://newspapers. 30. “Harlingen,” Outports, Shipping and 42. “Emigration,” Waterford Chronicle, August Catalog&id=DD+NAI%2f5%2f33, accessed library.wales/view/4519963/4519966/21/. Mercantile Gazette (London, UK, September 9, 1851; “Emigration,” The Waterford Mail, February 9, 2019. 21. “History,” Liverpool Shipwreck and 3, 1846. December 20, 1851. 57. Tom Coyne III, “MOA: Wrecks off Human Society, accessed January 14, 2019, 31. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, Survey Report 43. Joel Mokyr, “Great Famine,” Encyclopaedia OBX are link to maritime, cultural https://liverpoolshipwreckandhumanesoc. LON 12823 (London) (Manuscript, Lloyd’s Britannica, accessed January 14, 2019, https:// history,” Daily Advance, July 17, 2016, org.uk/history. Survey Reports collection on loan from www.britannica.com/event/Great-Famine- http://www.dailyadvance.com/Lifestyles- 22. Coast Intelligence, The Public Ledger Lloyd’s Register, National Maritime Museum, Irish-history; Timothy J. Hatton and Jeffrey Columnists/2016/07/17/MOA-2.html, (London, UK) March 7, 1840; Coast Greenwich, UK, 1846), 2. G. Williamson, “After the Famine: Emigration accessed February 9, 2019. Intelligence, The Public Ledger (London, UK) 32. Maritime Extracts, Shipping and from Ireland, 1850-1913,” The Journal of May 28, 1840. Mercantile Gazette (London, UK), October 5, Economic History 53, no. 3 (1993), 575. 23. Bristol Ship News, Bristol Mercury, June 6, 1846; Ship News, The Evening Mail (London, 44. “Steam Communication with Ballina,” 1840; “Steam Navigation,” Literature, Science, UK), November 6, 1846; Ship News, The Mayo Constitution, January 20, 1852; “The and Varieties, Gloucestershire Chronicle, June Morning Post (London, UK), December 8, North Carolina Maritime Tributaries Port of Ballina,” Connaught Watchman (Mayo, 20, 1840. 1846. History Council Spring 2019 UK), March 10, 1852; Vessels by Auction, 18 19 Gore’s Liverpool Advertiser, April 29, 1852. the ship’s importance to not only Civil out of London.12 Modern Greece makes War history, but also the history of its way into this account as a new ship underwater archaeology and waterlogged bought from Richardson, Duck & Co. in artifact conservation, accurately 1860 to grow Xenos’ shipping fleet.13 assessing the ship’s timeline is a valuable contribution to continued work on Xenos’ narrative continues after this, Modern Greece and its cargo. glossing over the individual ships Modern Greece: involved in his Danube and Levant A Revised History for the English Blockade Runner Modern Greece in England trading routes, and instead focusing on his interpersonal communications with The first indications ofModern Greece various lenders and stockholders. The in the historical record are listings in next mention of Modern Greece comes when Xenos mortgaged the ship against by Chelsea Rachelle Freeland Tributaries Lloyd’s Register and the British Mercantile List for 1860.5 These sources indicate the loans made to the company Overend, A Publication shipbuilding firm of Richardson, Duck Gurney, and Co. This company is the in a salvage excavation to partially Introduction of the North & Co. in Stockton-on-Tees, England, focus of the book, and Xenos does recover artifacts from the hundred- built the ship in 1859. It had a registered not portray it in a favorable light. It is year-old wreck, which had been exposed Carolina Maritime The English blockade-runnerModern tonnage of 753 tons under the “old obvious, however, that Xenos mortgaged from its resting place by a violent spring History Council Greece ran aground just outside www.ncmaritimehistory.org system,” but 512 tons under the new, put Modern Greece, along with several other storm.2 Early conservators treated some Wilmington, North Carolina, at Fort into place January 1, 1836. This “New ships, to this company in order to provide artifacts, and placed the rest into wet Fisher on June 27, 1862, during the Measurement” came from the Acts 5 credit to continue running his trading storage containers in the ground that 14 . The ship attempted & 6 William IV, c. 56, and dropped the business. Overend, Gurney, and Co. were open to the elements for roughly to break through the Federal blockade, tonnage of most ships to 2/3 or 1/2 their then offered to sell the mortgaged ships to fifty years. In 2012, the North Carolina which stretched from Cape Henry, tonnage under the old system.6 Lloyd’s Zachariah Pearson, a local merchant from State Underwater Archaeology Branch , to the Mexican border at its lists both tonnages, while the Mercantile Hull. Pearson paid £80,000 for Modern (NCUAB), in cooperation with East 15 weakest point: the port at Wilmington. List only has the new measurement. Greece and five other “large steamers.” Carolina University (ECU) students, Wilmington was the last Confederate Throughout the historical record, At this point, sometime between 1860 catalogued and rehoused thousands of port to fall during the Civil War. Because however, it is usually listed at roughly and 1861, Stefanos Xenos was no longer artifacts from the wreck.3 This sparked of its location twenty-eight miles up the 750-1000 tons, suggesting that the old in control of Modern Greece, as the ship a renewed interest in the conservation , it was easily defendable system was still the most recognizable was transferred to Pearson, backed by of these objects and their archaeological and saw a large volume of blockade- measurement.7 Modern Greece was a Overend, Gurney, and Co. value for both North Carolina and Civil runner traffic. , which sits “mechanically certified” steamer with War studies. at the edge of Cape Fear, protected the a screw propeller system running at Zachariah Charles Pearson was a port city. Unfortunately, the ship was ill 120 horsepower.8 The ship also had prominent figure in his town of Hull, The purpose of this research is to track designed for blockade running, drafting four bulkheads. The overall length was England. He held several political offices, the early history and movements of more than 17 ft., and ran aground just 210–224 feet, with a 29-foot beam.9 It is including High Sheriff in 1859 and Mayor Modern Greece as the ship crossed the 16 outside the mouth of the Cape Fear River. clear that the original function of Modern of Hull in 1861. His prominent place Atlantic on its final voyage into the Greece was as a merchant cargo vessel, in English society, even on a local level, Confederacy in 1862. Leslie Bright, the The ship was an important vessel for given its large size. meant that newspapers consistently the Confederate Army as it carried primary conservator for the Modern published his exploits. These articles are a Greece cargo, published a catalog cannon, smaller guns, and ammunition The original owner was Stefanos valuable source of information regarding detailing some of the ship’s contents and desperately needed to defend Theodoros Xenos, a Greek shipping his financial standing and the fate of his the ongoing process of conservation for Wilmington. Because of this, the men merchant based in London, who owned ships. He was the managing director the different material types. According at Fort Fisher salvaged many guns the Greek & Oriental Steam Navigation of the Intercolonial Royal Mail Steam 1 to Bright, “Little is known of the vessel immediately following the wreck. This Company. This company traded Company: the company his new ships prior to her sinking.”4 This work is the included a few small cannon and rifles. along the Danube and throughout the joined. only source dedicated to Modern Greece Approximately 200 tons of gunpowder, Mediterranean.10 Xenos wrote a book and serves the purpose of the book, but along with the rest of the supplies about his business, giving details about Pearson presumably put his ships into is limited by its scope and age. Most (including other ), however, his fleet and shipping routes unrivaled by the blockade-running trade because of publications referring to the ship cite remained on the seafloor. In addition to other sources. Though inherently biased the potential profit. Early in the war, the Bright’s work and thus have limited munitions, the blockade-runner carried against businesses that stifled his trade blockade was not nearly as effective as potential for differing interpretation. luxury goods for sale at auction including empire, this source provides information it was in later years, meaning that more The recent digitalization of British clothing, spices, and liquor. Some of these about the vessel’s early history.11 blockade-runners could avoid the Federal and American newspapers, along with North Carolina Maritime Tributaries 17 were salvaged upon wrecking and sold Additionally, other scholars have used cruisers. Browning asserts that, during dedicated archival research, allows for a History Council Spring 2019 in Wilmington soon thereafter. In 1962, this book to account for records of Greek 1862, blockade-runners had only a 1/8 more nuanced history of the ship from divers from the Naval Ordnance School 20 21 shipping along the Danube and in and chance of sinking or falling victim to the at Indian Head, Maryland, participated England to Wilmington. Because of Federals.18 In addition to a high first-time success rate, authors consistently cite During the Civil War, it was common listed port after Port Nelson was Halifax, Running Aground blockade-runners as being extremely for large merchant vessels to take bigger . Instead, the crew and their profitable in their enterprises: importing cargo loads to Bermuda or the Bahamas ship made the run to Wilmington, North Scholars have previously attempted necessary munitions and luxury goods where representatives would distribute Carolina, to challenge the blockade.31 to recreate the events that transpired to the Confederacy and exporting cotton the goods to smaller, faster vessels to at Fort Fisher on the morning of June to England.19 Xenos offers an additional run the blockade.24 In 1862, however, There is a limited amount of information, 27, 1862, when Modern Greece ran explanation for Pearson’s bold decision to blockade-runners were not yet being from the owner or otherwise, about aground. The most relevant of these is put his ships at significant risk: purpose-built for the task, as evidenced the decision to run to Wilmington. the aforementioned historical overview by Modern Greece’s history as a merchant Wilmington was neither the largest, nor of Modern Greece’s wrecking by Bright. Pearson, who had not a regular vessel.25 Modern Greece was large enough the most active of the Southern ports, Bright’s report comes almost exclusively line, but merely ran his steamers to cross the Atlantic with ease, allowing even on the Atlantic, falling well behind from the reports of the Union blockaders on simple jobs to the sea – here Pearson and Lawrence to control the Charleston. While the city later became USS Cambridge and USS Stars and Stripes. was he, I say, at the head of an cargo on their end in Hull and Liverpool. the “most important blockade-running This focus excludes some accounts and armada far larger than he could The ship loaded coal in Cardiff, guns and port of the Confederacy,” in 1862, it is necessarily narrow, as the blockaders find work for, pay, or manage… other military cargo in Liverpool, and was not yet the main hub for overseas never landed at Fort Fisher, were not And what was the result? It luxury goods in Hull, Pearson’s home commerce.32 Modern Greece’s draft was involved in the salvage of the ship, was not long before Zachariah city.26 It then sailed out of Falmouth on also too deep for entry into the port. and relied heavily on second-hand Pearson saw his real position. He the southwestern tip of Britain towards Drafting more than 17 ft., the large vessel information for their reports.37 Bright determined upon a coup de main Madeira, a Portuguese island. Vandiver’s was already in danger of grounding at presents a more detailed account of the that would at once seal his fate. Confederate Blockade Running Through the shallow entrance, even without the salvage endeavor, this time relying on The American War was then at Bermuda: 1861–1865, a well-known, added pressure of a nighttime run past the Official Records of the armies and its height. He resolved to run the though not comprehensive, source for the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron. navies and local newspaper reports from blockade of the Southern ports. Caribbean transfers, does not have a Wise states that the entrance to the Old Wilmington. Some of my former vessels were record of the vessel.27 This is not to be Inlet was 10-15 ft. to the sandbar, while to be employed in this service.20 interpreted as clear evidence that the ship the New Inlet was even shallower.33 This section attempts to piece together a did not transfer goods in Bermuda, but it McKean says ships that drew 12 ft. could more complete story from the blockaders’ In 1862, English and Scottish firms, may indicate that the ship did not stop in pass through New Inlet, while Old Inlet reports, as well as information from the rather than Confederate businesses, Bermuda. Crewmembers’ accounts of the was slightly deeper, corroborating Wise.34 crew of Modern Greece and the soldiers were almost exclusively the investors voyage support this inference as there is In either case, Modern Greece would have stationed at Fort Fisher involved in the for blockade running expeditions.21 no reference to the island.28 needed a high tide and a few more feet of defense and salvage of the ship. Equally In this vein, it was common for an water to pass safely into the port city. helpful sources include records of 11th English merchant to attempt to run the An account from the crew of Modern Regiment North Carolina Troops and blockade for enormous gain. Pearson Greece, however, states that the ship Additionally, Modern Greece suffered more in-depth accounts from local collaborated with Caleb Huse, the docked in the Caribbean, even if it from an accident of timing. In June 1862, newspapers about the nature and main Confederate supply agent in did not pick up supplies there.29 The before the ship steamed for Wilmington, reasoning behind the salvage. Bright Britain, to supply the Confederacy crewmembers who returned to England the admiral in charge of the North states that the blockaders’ accounts with military and luxury goods.22 Once after the ship wrecked gave a detailed Atlantic Blockading Squadron, Louis are not fully reliable due to their Pearson made this decision, however, testimony about the vessel’s route and Goldsborough, increased the number of necessary distance from the fort and he had to secure funding and supplies their activities in Wilmington. The ship ships present on the coast of Wilmington the proceedings.38 This section explores for the expedition. Edward Lawrence left Hull on April 23, 1862, ostensibly to nine.35 Previously, only three ships had the difference between the four sides was hired as the charterer for the trip: bound for the neutral ports of the West covered both inlets (one steamer and two of this story: the Union blockaders, the securing financial backers and cargo.23 Indies. The vessel’s engines failed about sailing vessels), making passage fairly easy English crew of Modern Greece, the North William Joshua Grazebrook, a Liverpool fifty miles off St. Thomas, then owned through either channel, particularly if one Carolina soldiers at Fort Fisher, and the merchant, and Horace Chavasse, a by Denmark, but now part of the U.S. of those three was off to coal or transport local civilians in Wilmington. sword manufacturer from Birmingham, Virgin Islands. The decision to stop at St. supplies in Hampton Roads, Virginia. By bought arms and ammunition to sell at Thomas was not accidental. The island May 1862, this number increased up to Of the sources, the Union naval records a profit onceModern Greece made it to was the headquarters of the Royal Mail six steamers, and finally to nine by June of are the most complete in their coverage the Confederate States. Thomas Barrett Steam Packet Company and boasted that year.36 This change in the blockading of the wrecking event.39 The blockade Powers was the supercargo for the vessel, some of the best repair facilities in pattern may have been instrumental in commanders also completed these the representative for the owners of the the Caribbean.30 At St. Thomas, local changing the fate of Modern Greece; the reports shortly after the event, perhaps cargo responsible for its eventual sale. engineers repaired the engines quickly, trip went from an almost assured success, one month later. The blockader captains, He probably traveled with the ship from and the crew steamed for the Bahamas. to significantly more dangerous. however, wrote these reports to defend England to the North Carolina, but there The crew mentions nothing at this time their actions to their superior officers, is no indication for this in the historical about loading cargo onto the ship in North Carolina Maritime Tributaries including the reason that Modern Greece record. either St. Thomas or Port Nelson in the History Council Spring 2019 was able to pass through the blockade Bahamas, again suggesting that all the 22 23 and Confederate soldiers were able to freight came directly from England. Their retrieve some of the cargo. In this way, the reports are exaggerated when describing propeller, schooner-rigged, and about Meanwhile, the crewmembers were Lieutenant Macon Bonner’s account gives the amount of damage they inflicted on 1,000 tons burden, was descried under making for Fort Fisher through the low little credit to the Union soldiers, saying: the steamer and their continued actions the land about three miles from Federal shoals and up the beach. The newspaper to prevent salvage. The account from Point batteries.”45 At this sighting, his account states that, “the Yankees The Yankees came within two the crew of Modern Greece should be gunboat began the chase, shooting at continued firing…the shots still flying miles. We fired at them struck the most accurate as they were on the Modern Greece with a Parrot rifle. After about in all directions,” suggesting that, one in the bow and…hit a shell ship, made the decision to ground the this primary attack, the blockade-runner in addition to aiming for Modern Greece, between the masts of the other. vessel, and participated in the salvage raised the English flag and moved quickly they were also trying to prevent the crew The dastardly cowards turned operation.40 It is important to note, to the channel, where Commander Parker from reaching the fort.51 At this time, heels and …We fired [guns] however, that this account comes almost states that the ship “necessarily beached, however, the soldiers at Fort Fisher were Three Times, now they are lying a full year after Modern Greece’s wreck in consequence of our continually firing aware of the ensuing conflict off the point, off about four miles, looking at in Wilmington. Once the crewmembers upon her,” giving little credit to the as they were returning heavy fire at the the “Rebels” unloading.56 had returned to England, they described captain of the steamer in his decision to Union ships. The crew account confirms the account for a newspaper, and such ground the vessel.46 The Federal cruisers that the Union shots were ill placed, and Regardless of the attempts made against a long time-delay may have altered the then saw the crew take the lifeboats to did not injure or kill any of the crew the ship, Modern Greece did not catch fire series of events. Macon Bonner’s account shore, though the report does not include on their way up the beach; they were or explode from its cargo of gunpowder. from 1862, written in a letter home to any mention of passengers. “harmless.”52 Bonner’s account corroborates the crew his wife, is dated June 29, making it the in saying that the Union ships did not contemporaneous source on the subject.41 Commander Parker also reports that the Commander Parker states that they do any serious damage to the ship’s It is closer to the time of wrecking than ship was painted slate gray, thus enabling struck the ship several times, a fact structure, and that the Confederate shots even most of the newspaper accounts. it to blend into the hazy sky along the contested by the crew, who said, “the did little to damage it either, preserving Bonner’s unique perspective as a soldier coast as it sailed towards the channel.47 gunboats did not succeed in doing much the cargo intact. stationed at Fort Fisher and involved in Flag-Officer L.M. Goldsborough, who damage to the ship, for they only put the salvage makes his account reliable, reported to the Secretary of the Navy, one shot on board, having to pay some Salvage of Goods excluding perhaps some exaggeration Gideon Welles, requested additional attention to the fort, which kept them 53 concerning the fort’s triumph over the information about the encounter. This off .” The naval records are possibly a The biases of most of the sources relating Union blockaders. came from Lieutenant R. S. McCook, of more accurate source than the crew in to the salvage have been discussed the USS Stars and Stripes, corroborating this instance, however, the ships were previously, but their differences become Modern Greece approached Wilmington the story of Commander Parker, again much too far away from Modern Greece more pronounced after the initial via the New Inlet into the Cape Fear River due to the “success” of Modern Greece at this time to truly distinguish their own wrecking event is over. This highlights 42 48 early in the morning of June 27, 1862. in slipping past the blockaders. Under shots against those coming from the fort. the problems the had with These records do not indicate why the the command of the USS Cambridge, intelligence in Confederate territory. heavy ship chose the shallower entrance. McCook’s ship also began firing on After the pause in firing for breakfast, Additionally, there are distinct differences The sailors on-board the ship said that Modern Greece as soon as it came into the commanders of USS Cambridge and in the accounts from the crew, the two of the Union blockaders were actively view. McCook’s account matches that USS Stars and Stripes conferred about locals in Wilmington, and the soldiers patrolling the entrance, saw Modern of Parker to the point where the crew of their future course of action. After at Fort Fisher regarding the length of 43 Greece immediately, and began firing. Modern Greece left the ship. coming to the conclusion that they would time dedicated to the salvage of Modern They also stated that none of the shots be unable to severely damage the ship Greece. Adding to the confusion is the fact fired while they were still on the ship hit After the crew abandoned the ship, the from their current positions, given the that Fort Fisher switched commanders the vessel. Several burst above the deck, two Federal gunboats continued firing fort’s heavy artillery fire, they discussed during the salvage period. Eight days and some flying shrapnel caused damage on Modern Greece and the crew, as the possibility of sending light boats to afterModern Greece ran aground, Colonel to windows, but the shots of the Federal reported by both Commander Parker and burn the ship. This was dismissed as the William Lamb relieved Major John 49 gunboats did not penetrate the hull at Lieutenant McCook. In an attempt to light boats would certainly be hit by the Jackson Hedrick as the commanding this time. Captain Parker, of Modern sink the ship, making recovery of supplies guns at Fort Fisher, probably without officer at the fort, essentially taking 54 Greece, fearing further attacks, “found impossible, the two Union ships tried to doing damage to Modern Greece first. over the project of cargo retrieval mid- [it] necessary to run the vessel ashore approach the grounded vessel. The guns Commander Parker dismissed alternative action.57 This creates an awkward record 44 close under the fort.” After the ship of Fort Fisher chased them off, preventing strategies, such as leaving Lieutenant gap between the two commanders, had grounded, the crew and passengers the two Union ships from getting close McCook to shell the blockade-runner leaving no official account of the wreck retreated to land in the lifeboats. enough to inflict serious damage to the while he went to retrieve reinforcements and salvage from Fort Fisher. hull of Modern Greece.50 McCook states because of logistical and time concerns. The navy records tell a more detailed that at least two of his shots might have After a while, both ships simply steamed Other secondary sources that have story of their own actions, though they entered the hull, but off a ricochet rather out of range of Fort Fisher and attempted attempted to unravel this story are are necessarily limited in scope by their than a direct broadside hit. The barrage to shell Modern Greece during the course conflicted as well. Blockade Runners of viewpoint and audience. Commander continued until 7:00 a.m., roughly North Carolina Maritime Tributaries of the day as the soldiers tried to salvage the Confederacy, by Hamilton Cochran, 55 William A. Parker, of USS Cambridge, 2.5 hours after the first shot, when History Council Spring 2019 cargo from the ship. In fact, Confederate is an excellent example of the problem reported “on the morning of the 27th Commander Parker ordered them to stop 24 25 with scholarship preceding the 1962 of June, at 4:15 o’clock, a large steam firing for breakfast. Modern Greece excavation. Cochran’s book, published in 1958, states that Hedrick. He did not stay, however, to representative for Zachariah Pearson may means that the salvage operations may Modern Greece “was blown to smithereens see the end of the salvage operation, have been able to assist in determining have continued past July 14 without the by a well-placed shell from the fort. requesting a transfer effective on July which goods were salvaged and sold in ship’s crew. It was a grand explosion, for she was 4, 1862, just eight days afterModern Wilmington. The prime candidate for this carrying 1,000 tons of gunpowder Greece grounded off the fort.63 His would have been the supercargo, Thomas A few other pieces of information can for the Confederate Army.”58 After replacement was Colonel William Barrett Power. There is no evidence for date the process. Two officers of the 11th retrieving cargo from the ship in 1962, Lamb, who took command over the this, however, or mention of Pearson’s North Carolina were court-martialed for archaeologists know this is not the operation immediately. It is he, and not involvement in the salvage. their behavior during the salvage.74 The case.59 Oddly, historical sources also Hedrick, who receives most of the credit reports indicate that their transgressions disprove this statement, making this in scholarly works for the recovery of Timeline for salvage happened on June 28 and 29. During this source distinctly unreliable in this case. goods.64 This is in part due to his journals, time, the ship was still high enough above Civil War scholarship will benefit greatly which reference the salvage, and his later The next objective is to establish a water that a sentry could be posted inside from a more detailed look at the salvage use of the Whitworth rifle guns recovered timeline for the retrieval of cargo, the ship to guard the door of the cabin to 75 process, including the decisions by from Modern Greece in keeping the Union including the start of the salvage, prevent theft. Lamb’s involvement in the 65 commanders and the roles of soldiers. blockaders a solid five miles off the fort. its duration, and Lamb’s decision to salvage is unquestionable. He mentions abandon the project. The crewmembers it in his journals, and scholars attribute 76 Major participants in the salvage Another prominent figure in the story on-board were the first line of action. the bulk of the “heavy lifting” to him. is Colonel Collett Leventhorpe of the They report that, immediately upon This means that, at the very earliest, the The first aspects of the salvage to consider 11th Regiment North Carolina Infantry. grounding the vessel, “no provisions salvage would have ended on July 5, the are the people involved in the process. He and his regiments (11th and 49th were saved, but the men saved their day after he arrived at Fort Fisher. It is A number of high-ranking officers North Carolina) were stationed briefly clothes.”69 This corroborates the reports much more likely that Lamb continued participated in the salvage of Modern at Camp Lamb near Wilmington during of the blockaders, as they were still firing with the operation well after that. A Greece’s cargo. During the months of June this time. It is clear from army records on Modern Greece, making abandoning newspaper from Fayetteville reports that and July, however, there was a shuffle of that these troops were involved in the ship for the fort the most reliable by July 6, most of the “valuable” cargo 77 officers in the Cape Fear area, resulting salvage operation as some of them solution for survival. Additionally, the had been removed from the ship. The in disjointed records and inconsistencies were court-martialed after the fact crew may have been concerned, like newspaper report does not list the salvage 66 with the salvage operation. The highest- for stealing goods from the vessel. the Confederate troops, of the powder as complete by this time, so presumably it ranking officer in the area was Brigadier On July 17, Colonel Leventhorpe was catching fire and exploding the vessel. continued past that date. General Samuel Gibbs French, who advanced to command of Wilmington Reports from the Union blockaders make held command of the District of the after the transfer of General French. His it clear that Confederate troops began TheWilmington Daily Journal promoted Cape Fear, which encompassed Forts continued involvement in the area is salvage attempts immediately after the a sale for July 8; it claimed to have Fisher and Caswell and the town of well documented, though not in direct wrecking event, presumably as or after the entire cargo of Modern Greece for 67 78 Wilmington. He arrived on March connection to Modern Greece. the crew of the vessel reached the fort. auction. This is indicative that a large 22, 1862, and was responsible for the Both ships record efforts on their part enough volume of goods had been delegation and personnel assignments It is slightly more difficult to ascertain to delay salvage by continuously firing removed by this time to precipitate an of Modern Greece’s salvage, though he which regiments were involved in the on the troops on the beach.70 Later that auction. Additionally, this information had little personal involvement in the salvage process. There are records day, around noon, the fort’s defenses implies that officers at the fort may have operation itself.60 General French was of which groups were stationed in prevented the blockaders from further examined the goods by this time. It is transferred quickly on July 15 of the Wilmington and Fort Fisher at the attempts to destroy the ship, and the clear that Fort Fisher confiscated any same year, creating several problems for time, but that does not guarantee their salvage operations continued without arms, ammunition, and gunpowder the area. First, French was not replaced involvement in the operation. The two interruption.71 The Daily Picayune retrieved from the ship. The items for immediately, creating a power vacuum regiments that were certainly involved reported that the shelling stopped sale at the auction in Wilmington were of temporary commanders who did not were Colonel Leventhorpe’s 11th North completely on July 3, after which the civilian goods, such as clothes, hardware, know the military operations or strategies Carolina and the 3rd North Carolina salvage operation started in earnest.72 and alcohol. of the fort. Second, loss of the general Artillery (40th Regiment North Carolina There is no indication that the ship was 68 dropped the status of the area and the Troops) Companies A and B. The 3rd available to salvage by anyone other Seven additional auction announcements Cape Fear lost its standing as a district, North Carolina Artillery was under than the soldiers from the fort and follow the first, for July 15, July 17, July 79 possibly creating confusion in the chain the direct control of Hedrick, then surrounding areas. 19, July 26, and July 31. Most of these of command.61 Lamb. Macon Bonner, 1st Lieutenant in other announcements list much smaller Company B, wrote letters home to his The duration of these salvage attempts is amounts of cargo for sale, some even The ranking officer at Fort Fisher during wife describing the wreck, placing himself a matter for debate. The crew states they combining cargo from multiple steamers. the time of Modern Greece’s wreck was and his company in direct involvement. were involved in salvage for seventeen Major John Jackson Hedrick, stationed days after the wrecking, which would there for several months prior.62 The The crew of the vessel also participated North Carolina Maritime Tributaries make July 14 the last day of the operation. commands regarding the Confederate in the salvage, though there is no History Council Spring 2019 It should be noted, however, that the shelling of the ship, as well as the initial indication of whether or not they were 26 27 crew were also interested in leaving the instructions for salvage, came from part of the decision-making process. A area quickly to return to England.73 This The exception is the auction realistic timeline of weeks, such as Cole but they probably would have been addition, Pearson lost two ships in his announcement from July 21: and Foley’s work Collett Leventhorpe, The subjected to discipline from the officer Baltic trade in 1861, and another burned English Confederate: The Life of a Civil core, rather than a full court martial in dock on the Thames. The capture, Port Wardens Sale. On War General, 1815–1889, which details hearing. Second, this may highlight a lack wrecking, and burning of over half Wednesday 30th inst., at 12 his particular involvement.84 The salvage of necessary footwear for the 11th North his fleet signaled an end to Pearson’s o’clock, M., I will sell, on the operation took at least three weeks, Carolina at this time. North Carolina business. He declared bankruptcy in Beach, near Federal Point, under possibly longer, allowing the soldiers to was the only state to clothe its own September of 1862. It is due primarily to Inspection of the Port Wardens, remove a large portion of the goods on- soldiers, so supply problems here may be this fact that there are published records for account of whom it may board. indicative of larger issues within the state about Modern Greece. concern, the HULL, SPARS, or Confederacy.87 Last, this case certainly RIGGING, ANCHORS, AND Salvage operations presents the fact that the Modern Greece There are a variety of claims about the CHAINS, with all appurtenances salvage operation was not necessarily trials of Modern Greece and its owner in attached to the British Iron Screw The next step is examining the actual a model of decorum. A similar case the newspapers of England. Some are Steam Ship MODERN GREECE, operations during this salvage and to demonstrates the same point. blatantly false, such as the report that of Hull, 512 Tons Register, as she differentiate between the soldiers’ orders the ship had safely entered Wilmington, now lies stranded near New Inlet and the actual events that transpired. To Captain William L. Hand was charged sold its cargo, picked up some cotton, and 93 . A Steamer will leave here this end, there are no remaining records on two counts: one the same as Captain was returning to England. This example on the morning of the sale at 9 of the formal orders to begin or end Haynes, the other “conduct unbecoming exacerbates the need to accept published 88 o’clock. Tickets can be obtained at salvage. There are several reasons for this. an officer and a gentleman.” The accounts with a grain of salt, particularly 80 my office, No. 2 Granite Row. The first is that the ship did not come specification deserves a full quotation: trans-Atlantic communications. safely into harbor. The cargo manifests Earlier sources indicate that early during may have been lost as the ship avoided Hand…while the British Steamer Whatever the actual value of his missing the salvage process, attempts were made capture, rather than following protocol (“Modern Greece”) was lying cargo, the wreck of Modern Greece had a to save the ship, not just the cargo. The entering the area. Additionally, this aground near Fort Fisher, North dramatic impact on Zachariah Pearson’s Semi-Weekly Raleigh Register reported nighttime entry would have demanded Carolina went clandestinely into life. By October of 1862, he had resigned news from Colonel Leventhorpe on June immediate attention from the fort, the cabin of said steamer where his post as mayor of Hull, and he declared 94 30: “[the colonel] has already got out and regardless of higher orders dictating many articles of value were bankruptcy before the end of 1863. landed a large quantity of arms, &c. If the resources. There may have been standing stored…and did not restrain He claims in an interview that, “all his weather continues favorable during the orders for protecting incoming blockade- certain Enlisted men, then and blockade-running ventures had come day, he thinks he will be able to save all runners, and Modern Greece required there under his command from to grief, and declared he was persecuted 81 the cargo, and the vessel also.” Clearly, little special attention until the point pilfering said articles of value: by the ‘Yankees,’ who knew that he 95 Colonel Leventhorpe had abandoned that of salvage. Another logistical issue has the same being the property of was favourable to the Confederates.” 89 goal by July 21. This gives us a clearer date been the lack of available quartermaster British subjects. Whether this is true or not, the loss for the end of salvage. The dismantling and customs receipts from the city of of Modern Greece, among his other of the ship as well as the closing auctions Wilmington. The highlight of this hearing is that blockade-runners (Circassian, Stettin, shortly thereafter indicate that the salvage Captain Hand was accused of climbing Phoebe, Merrimac, and Peterhoff) forced efforts ended near that time, about three Two sources highlight the differences into the cabin of the vessel through the him into financial instability and eventual weeks into July 1862. between official orders regarding the skylight in order to avoid the sentry ruin. 90 salvage plans and the actual events. Both posted at the door. The sentry guarded TheFayetteville Observer posted an article are court martial decisions about the the door “expressly for the purpose of It is clear from the source material that dated July 24 that said, “the Modern behavior of officers in the 11th Regiment keeping all persons out until the cargo the story of Modern Greece’s wrecking and Greece excitement is completely over and North Carolina Infantry during the there stored should be discharged,” thus salvage is complicated and patchy. This the blockaders have not favored us with salvage of Modern Greece. The first is an the charge for behavior unbecoming of an research focused on the story and process 82 91 a shot in many days now.” This is the indictment of Captain A.S. Haynes for officer. The court found Captain Hand to clearly indicate the vessel’s history only source for an obvious terminal date “conduct prejudicial to good order and not guilty. from building to salvage. As for why the on the salvage operation. This could have military discipline.”85 The court charged process ended in late July, the Fayetteville been for lack of resources, or because Captain Haynes with allowing his enlisted Observer stated that, “all [cargo] will be Conclusion 96 the ship had taken on enough water to men to steal one of the boxes of shoes saved if possible.” This suggests that make it unsafe to board to retrieve any from Modern Greece and distribute them Newspapers provide a wealth of the overall goal was, in fact, to save the other goods. Additional sources have amongst themselves, “the same being the information about the circumstances of bulk of the cargo before circumstances made claims for the ship’s immediate property of British subjects.”86 He was his loss of Modern Greece and estimates prevented the soldiers from retrieving sinking, within three days of the first found not guilty on the charge. This can for its value, but the story continues the rest. If this is true, the published 83 shots fired. This claim, that the salvage be interpreted in several different ways. back in England. It was not the loss of historical record is missing the piece of only lasted for three days before the First, though the court found Captain North Carolina Maritime Tributaries this vessel that was Zachariah Pearson’s information that explains the reason water and sand overtook the ship, is Haynes not guilty, it may be that his History Council Spring 2019 downfall, however, but his loss of six for stopping the salvage as a whole. This clearly false after reviewing the source enlisted men were guilty of the crime. 28 29 other ships to the Union blockaders corrected timeline, however, allows for material. Other sources present a more There is no mention of this in the records, between May and August of 1862.92 In a more nuanced look at early blockade- runners in the Confederacy. Looking Endnotes 18. Robert M. Browning Jr., “The Blockade 38. Ibid., 14. towards future research, multiple of Wilmington, North Carolina: 1861–1865,” 39. Official Records of Union and Confederate questions arise. What was the protocol 1. Leslie Bright, The Blockade RunnerModern (master’s thesis, East Carolina University, Navies in the War of the Rebellion for fort assistance of grounded blockade- Greece and her Cargo (Raleigh: Underwater 1980), 170. (Washington: Government Printing Office, runners? Why did Colonel Lamb decide Archaeology Branch: North Carolina 19. Stanley Lebergott, “Wage Trends, 1800– 1894-1927) (hereinafter cited as “ORN”), to stop the salvage with cargo still on Department of Cultural Resources, 1977), 1900,” in Trends in the American Economy in Series I, Vols. 7,8. the vessel, and what does that say about 12-19. the Nineteenth Century, The Conference on 40. “Adventures of Some of the Crew,” The 2. Ibid., 19-20. Wilmington during the first years of the Research in Income and Wealth (Princeton: Hull Packet and East Riding Times. 3. Marion Blackburn, “A Cargo Twice Princeton University Press, 1981), 867; Chris 41. Macon Bonner, “Letter to his wife,” June Civil War? Hopefully continued research Dug: Fifty Years after they were Salvaged E. Fonvielle Jr., “‘The Last Rays of Departing 29, 1862, Macon Bonner Papers, North on Modern Greece and its place in the and Placed in Wet Storage, the Contents Hope’: The Battles of Fort Fisher, the Fall of Carolina State Archives, Raleigh, NC. Civil War will add to the historical and of a Confederate Blockade Runner have Wilmington, North Carolina, and the End of 42. ORN Series I, Vol. 7, 516. archaeological understanding of this Reemerged,” Archaeology (Sept/Oct 2012): the Confederacy,” (PhD diss., University of 43. “Adventures of Some of the Crew,” The vessel as its cargo continues to undergo 42-43. South Carolina, 1994), 16. Hull Packet and East Riding Times. conservation with the North Carolina 4. Bright, The Blockade Runner, 3. 20. Xenos, Depredations, 153. 44. Ibid. Underwater Archaeology Branch. 5. Lloyd’s of London, Lloyd’s Register of British 21. Ella Lonn, Foreigners in the Confederacy, 45. ORN Series I, Vol. 7, 514. and Foreign Shipping. From 1st July, 1860, to the (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina 46. Ibid. 30th June 1861, (London: Cox and Wyman, Press, 1940), 299. 47. Ibid., 516. 1860); J.H. Brown, ed., The Mercantile Navy 22. Watts, “Phantoms of Anglo-Confederate 48. Ibid., 517. List and Annual Appendage to the Commercial Commerce,” 126. 49. Ibid., 515, 517. Code of Signals for All Nations. (London: 23. Montagu Chambers, Francis Towers 50. Ibid., 517. Bradbury and Evans, and William Mitchell, Streeten, and Freeman Oliver Haynes, 51. “Adventures of Some of the Crew,” The 1860). eds., “Cases on Appeal in Bankruptcy: Hull Packet and East Riding Times. 6. Grahame E. Farr, ed., Records of Bristol Westbury, L.C. – Ex parte CHAVASSE, in re 52. Ibid. Ships: 1800–1838 (Vessels over 150 tons), GRAZEBROOK” in The Law Journal Reports 53. ORN Series I, Vol. 7, 515; “Adventures of (Bristol: Bristol Record Society’s Publications for the Year 1865 (London: Edward Bret Ince, Some of the Crew,” The Hull Packet and East v. XV, 1950), 12. 1865), 17. Riding Times. 7. Stefanos Xenos, Depredations, or Overend, 24. Gordon P. Watts Jr., “Runners of the 54. ORN Series I, Vol. 7, 517-518. Gurney & Co., and the Greek and Oriental ,” Archaeology 42, no. 5 (1989): 55. Ibid., 518. Steam Navigation Company, (London: 34; Fonvielle, “The Last Rays of Departing 56. Bonner, “Letter to his wife.” Published by author, 1869), 16. Hope,” 18. 57. H.J. Keith, Guns of the Cape Fear: Civil 8. Lloyd’s of London, Lloyd’s Register. 25. Xenos, Depredations. War Defenses of Wilmington, North Carolina. 9. Gordon P. Watts Jr., “Phantoms of Anglo- 26. Watts, “Phantoms of Anglo-Confederate Vol. I: The First Nineteen Months, (Eagle, ID: Confederate Commerce: An Historical and Commerce,” 128. Confederate Imprints, 2011), 138. Archaeological Investigation of American 27. Frank E. Vandiver, ed., Confederate 58. Hamilton Cochran, Blockade Runners of Civil War Blockade Running” (PhD diss., Blockade Running through Bermuda, 1861– the Confederacy, (Indianapolis: The Bobbs- University of St. Andrews, 2007), 222; Stephen 1865, (Austin: The University of Texas Press, Merrill Company, 1958), 278. R. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade 1947). 59. Bright, The Blockade Runner. Running during the Civil War, (Columbia: 28. “Adventures of Some of the Crew of the 60. Keith, Guns of the Cape Fear, 137. University of South Carolina Press, 1988), Late Hull Steamer ‘Modern Greece,’” The Hull 61. Ibid., 138. 313. Packet and East Riding Times (Hull, England), 62. Ibid. 10. Xenos, Depredations, 1-3. March 6, 1863. 63. Ibid., 134. 11. Ibid., iii–vi. 29. Ibid. 64. Bright, The Blockade Runner; William R. 12. Gelina Harlaftis,A History of Greek-Owned 30. Erik Goebel, “Management of the Port of Trotter, Ironclads and : The Civil Shipping: The Making of an International Tramp Saint Thomas, Danish West Indies, during the War in North Carolina, The Coast, (Winston- Fleet, 1830 to the Present Day (New York: Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,” Salem, NC: John F. Blair, Publisher, 1989), Routledge, 1996), 347-348. The Northern Mariner VII, no. 4 (1997): 54. 279. 13. Ibid., 16. 31. “Adventures of Some of the Crew,” The 65. Trotter, Ironclads and Columbiads, 279- 14. Ibid., 140-142. Hull Packet and East Riding Times. 280. 15. Ibid., 155. 32. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy, 124. 66. Ellen Poteet, transcriptionist, General 16. “The Court,”Daily News (London), 33. Ibid., 16. Order Book, 1862–1863: 11th “Bethel” Regiment November 13, 1858; “The Mayor’s Banquet 34. Brenda Chambers McKean, Blood and War North Carolina Troops, (Charlotte, NC: Olde Last Night,” The Hull Packet and East Riding at My Doorstep: North Carolina Civilians in the Mecklenburg Genealogical Society, 2006), 35, Times (Hull, England), December 6, 1861. War Between the States, vol. I (Bloomington, 39. 17. David G. Surdam, Northern Naval IN: Xlibris Corporation, 2011): 913. 67. Keith, Guns of the Cape Fear, 140. Superiority and the Economics of the American 35. Browning, “The Blockade of Wilmington,” 68. Craig S. Chapman, More Terrible – Victory: Civil War. Columbia: University of South North Carolina Maritime Tributaries 125-126. North Carolina’s Bloody Bethel Regiment, 1861- Carolina Press, 2001), 4-5. History Council Spring 2019 36. Watts, “Phantoms of Anglo-Confederate 1865 (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 1998). 30 31 Commerce,” 46-47. 69. “Adventures of Some of the Crew,” The 37. Bright, The Blockade Runner, 12-14. Hull Packet and East Riding Times. 70. ORN Series I, Vol. 7, 518. 92. John D. Bennett, The London Confederates: 71. “For the Observer, Camp Hale, near Fort The Officials, Clergy, Businessmen and Fisher, July 6, 1862,” Fayetteville Observer Journalists Who Backed the American (Fayetteville, NC), July 14 1862. South During the Civil War (Jefferson, NC: 72. “The Firing at New Inlet this Morning McFarland and Company, 2008), 108. – Vessel Ashore,” The Daily Picayune (New 93. “Mercantile Ship News,” The Standard Orleans, LA), July 13, 1862. (London), August 27, 1862: 7. 73. “Adventures of Some of the Crew,” The 94. “Local Intelligence,” The Hull Packet and Hull Packet and East Riding Times. East Riding Times (Hull, England), October 3, 74. Poteet, General Order Book, 35, 39. 1862. 75. Ibid., 39. 95. No title, The Dundee Courier and Argus 76. Keith, Guns of the Cape Fear, 137. (Dundee, Scotland), January 19, 1864. 77. “For the Observer, Camp Hale,” 96. “Firing at New Inlet – Vessel Ashore,” Pirates of Morality: Fayetteville Observer. Fayetteville Observer (Fayetteville, NC), June Tributaries The British Navy’s Suppression of the Slave Trade in the 78. “Auction Sale,” Wilmington Daily Journal 30, 1862. (Wilmington, NC), July 2, 1862. A Publication Nineteenth Century 79. “Auction Sales,” Wilmington Daily of the North Journal (Wilmington, NC), July 15, 1862; Carolina Maritime “Auction Sales,” Wilmington Daily Journal by Eric Walls (Wilmington, NC), July 17, 1862; “Per History Council Steamer ‘Modern Greece,’” Wilmington Daily www.ncmaritimehistory.org In 1807, Britain sought to rid the world maritime powers in the seventeenth and Journal (Wilmington, NC), July 19, 1862; of the trade in human beings from eighteenth centuries. “Modern Greece,” Wilmington Daily Journal used as slave labor in the vast (Wilmington, NC), July 21, 1862; “Through plantation economies of the Atlantic An array of forces stood in the way of the blockade,” Wilmington Daily Journal World. This development represented the suppression. Britain faced recalcitrant (Wilmington, NC), July 26, 1862; “Closing culmination of a decades long battle by a imperial rivals who often cynically sales of wines, liquors, &c,” Wilmington Daily small but powerful group of abolitionists viewed the Royal Navy’s efforts as an Journal (Wilmington, NC), July 26, 1862; within the halls of British government.1 example of British haughtiness and “Auction Sales,” Wilmington Daily Journal Concurrently, it was the inauguration of condescension as well as a cover for (Wilmington, NC), July 31. an even longer ideological, economic, British world hegemony. Their navy 80. “Modern Greece,” Wilmington Daily diplomatic, and military battle between stalked an entrenched international Journal. Britain and the rest of the Western slave-merchant elite who sought to 81. “Important Arrival at Wilmington,” The world. Relying on the strength of a preserve their livelihoods at any cost. As Semi-Weekly Raleigh Register (Raleigh, NC), July 2, 1862. navy that had emerged as the largest one historian of the slave trade argued, 82. “For the Observer,” Fayetteville Observer and most powerful in the world by the attempting to outlaw the international (Fayetteville, NC), July 31, 1862. end of the Napoleonic Wars, Britain slave trade was as if “the government 83. Marian Shaw, “Pearson and his Park,” coupled its need to protect its economic today were to prohibit the trade in oil, Historic Gardens Review 18 (2007): 6-11; security and hegemonic ambitions and throw the whole oil tanker fleet out of 2 Cochran, Blockade Runners of the Confederacy, with a moral conviction that the trade business.” As a result, a worldwide cabal 278. was inhuman and unjust in order to of clandestine slave merchants emerged, 84. Timothy J. Cole and Bradley R. Foley, justify an ambitious project of slave who often had the tacit approval of home Collet Leventhorpe, the English Confederate: trade suppression that lasted for nearly governments, which frequently looked The Life of a Civil War General, 1815–1889 a century. Britain hoped invocations the other way as merchants and dealers (Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company, of morality would shame its rival conducted business despite agreements 2007), 72. powers into accepting this new reality, with Britain to police such activities.3 85. Poteet, General Order Book, 35. regardless of quibbles over economic or Combating these forces placed Britain 86. Ibid. hegemonic ambitions. In the process, on dubious legal ground. The piratical 87. John G. Barrett, The Civil War in North Britain devoted enormous economic and ethos that had developed over centuries of Carolina (Chapel Hill: The University of North political capital in an attempt to achieve naval warfare provided Britain with not Carolina Press, 1963), 28; McKean, Blood and its goal of ending the lucrative traffic in only the internal mechanisms to conduct War at My Doorstep, 345; Wise, Lifeline of the African slaves. To prosecute its policies and incentivize its policing operations, Confederacy, 27. of suppression, the Royal Navy continued but also self-justification for its actions 88. Poteet, General Order Book, 39. 89. Ibid. a legacy of piratical strategies and tactics against those it viewed as morally corrupt 90. Ibid. of often questionable legality inherited despite the amorphous legal situation from centuries of piratical tradition, surrounding the slave trade and its 91. Ibid. North Carolina Maritime Tributaries internalized into the official naval suppression. History Council Spring 2019 32 apparatus, and honed during Britain’s 33 many wars with European Britain’s legacy of utilizing piratical with would-be aggrieved Englishmen, war, the navy operated on the fringes of, slave trade, and the abolition movement strategies to achieve its hegemonic and boarding, ransacking, maiming, and often and sometimes outside, international was first recognized by historian Eric imperial ambitions emerged in the days destroying any foreign vessel and her l aw.” 15 The dominance of the large British Williams in his still controversial work, of Queen Elizabeth I as she attempted crew they could lay their hands on,” using fleet allowed it to prosecute its “war Capitalism and Slavery. The “Williams to project power on the world stage. “whatever means they could to obtain by economic means” with unmatched Thesis” posits that British abolition only Elizabeth was confronted by the Spanish their prizes.”9 For English sailors, “[t]he vigor.16 Self-justified by the necessities occurred because it was economically Inquisition’s depredations against only thing that sustained many of them of war, Britain practiced policies that beneficial for Britain. Its transition to English merchants in the mid-sixteenth was the promise of prize money or booty were essentially state-sanctioned piracy. an industrial society necessitated the century in the name of eliminating – not patriotism or an unswerving loyalty Through such policies, Britain secured its advancement of more modern capitalist “Lutheranism.” Elizabeth, lacking the to the authority of the crown...”10 The lure hegemony of the seas, and sailors, most policies such as free trade and wage labor, large and highly organized professional of prize money, and the potential for the from the lowest classes of British society, which were at odds with the slave-labor- naval force that became a feature of attainment of great wealth as a result, secured the opportunity to gain wealth based plantation economies of its colonies British hegemony in later centuries, thus became the basis for the motivations of beyond their dreams. and imperial rivals.21 Williams argues resorted to unleashing private English English sailors, especially considering the that Britain abolished the slave trade merchant sailors armed with letters of inherent dangers of seafaring in the Age The cargoes of many merchant vessels because it wanted to break the power of marque and reprisal to try to recoup of Sail and the poor pay and miserable detained and seized by the Royal Navy its own West Indian sugar plantations their losses and inflict financial and conditions to which they were subjected. during the wars of the late eighteenth and to apply its policies of suppression political damage on the Kingdom of Without such motivating factors, most and early nineteenth centuries often to others to placate the ire of those Spain.4 Although this was technically saw little justification for such a harsh and included slaves.17 By 1794, Britain’s same colonial planters.22 The changing considered privateering, the difference dangerous mode of employment.11 efforts against French shipping all but tides of British economics then led to between piracy and privateering was one destroyed the French slave trade.18 After an overall ambivalent attitude toward of degree, not kind. Privateering had this As the British navy became more the British abolitionist movement finally slavery, reflected in its often conflicting thin veneer of legality to give it a pseudo- organized and professional in the succeeded in passing the Abolition Act policies. On one hand, Britain sought legitimacy. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, of 1807, Britain’s actions against slavers to suppress the slave trade and coerce the government’s reliance on a private intensified. The new law “sanctified the other nations to do the same. On the The advent of privateering as a legitimate force of semi-legal pirates to project Navy’s role as moral guardian of Africa other hand, its rising industrial machine practice dates to the medieval period. its hegemonic ambitions waned. Yet, rather than sly buccaneer preying on relied on products of slave labor such as During that era, European powers sought the piratical ethos that undergirded French commerce.”19 It was this moral cotton and sugar procured through the to curb piratical activities by formalizing English foreign policy in the sixteenth shield that Britain used to justify its burgeoning networks of international free procedures for capturing ships at sea into and early seventeenth centuries was actions against the slave trade even trade.23 Since their inception in the 1940s, a model acceptable to the international transferred almost in whole to Britain’s after the end of the Napoleonic Wars Williams’ ideas have been debated by status quo, but consensus on legitimate professional naval forces in the eighteenth in 1815, despite the fact that such scholars, with no clear consensus. and illegitimate actions at sea was and nineteenth centuries. The Convoys convictions stood at odds with the laws constantly in flux.5 As noted by historian and Cruizers [sic] Act of 1708 officially of foreign nations. British suppression Early historians of British slave trade Kenneth R. Andrews, the distinction sanctioned the capture of ships as prizes of the international slave trade was suppression lean more toward accepting between piracy and privateering was by the Royal Navy and established the indeed “born of war” and “rested on the British claims of morality as the prime more often than not amorphous and open judicial procedures to adjudicate prize threat of violent force.”20 Suppression motivating factor, even while at least to interpretation. “International law,” claims.12 This form of institutionalized methods, and the base motivations of tacitly acknowledging the historical and Andrews wrote, “was in its infancy and piracy “became not just an adjunct of the sailors involved, were rooted in historiographical debates as to which governments freely manipulated what law war, but one of the prime instruments of the same piratical-ethos policies that factor reigned supreme – morality or there was to suit the political needs of the strategy.”13 By the time of the Napoleonic Britain utilized during war, which were economics. The two earliest historians moment.”6 The constant manipulation Wars, the system of officially sanctioned themselves the legacy of both Elizabethan who tackled this topic were both British, and amorphous nature of international prize money awarded for the capture of privateering and their piratical forebears. and their bias shows throughout their law regulating maritime activities became enemy ships was fully integrated within works. The first, Christopher Lloyd, the very crux of the debates over the the British naval apparatus. During those Such methods and motivations, writing in 1949, lauded the enterprise as British suppression of the slave trade in long wars, the Royal Navy operated under however, conflicted with the primary the Royal Navy’s “most admirable work,” the nineteenth century.7 the auspices of “wartime belligerent motivation that Britain claimed lay one which “sharpened the conscience of rights,” taking ships and cargoes from the behind its policies and practices of slave the civilized world.”24 He claimed Britain From the beginning of privateering’s use merchant fleets of its enemies with near trade suppression. There was immense was “perfectly virtuous” in its motives.25 as a foreign policy tactic by Elizabeth impunity.14 tension between Britain’s claims of moral Suppression helped the “African negro… I, the lines between privateering superiority as the saviors of a persecuted to embark on the quest of what we are and piracy blurred to the point of Although such naval policies were people and its wartime polices of pleased to call civilization.”26 Britain’s near transparency. In the words of indeed practiced by the other navies of contested legality during times of peace reward for its efforts was that suppression Elizabethan-era historian Susan Europe as well, their legality remained North Carolina Maritime Tributaries that appeared to other world powers as a helped to lay the foundations of empire in 27 Ronald, English privateering “became dubious and hotly contested by all sides. History Council Spring 2019 smokescreen to mask British economic East and West Africa. The second, W.E.F. a devastatingly blunt instrument.”8 The As historian Robert Burroughs writes, 34 35 and imperial ambition. The relationship Ward, writing in 1969, was not quite seas of Europe “became positively choked “There is little question that during the between British economic expansion, the so overt in his characterizations (or so imperialistic or racist in his conclusions), human agents of Britain’s anti-slave trade significant wealth from slave bounties to capture slavers and collect bounties.53 but he also viewed British actions in initiative as three-dimensional beings alone in the early years of slave trade The aforementioned Consolidating Act an exceedingly positive light. The Navy acting in a moment of complicated suppression. of 1824 reduced headmoney to a £10 “carried out its duties with patience and historical change.”37 Huzzey contended flat rate, regardless of age or sex of the diplomacy, as well as with its traditional that moral arguments constantly pushed Beside the financial incentive of captured slave. This decrease was at least gallantry.”28 He decried the limitations by abolitionist forces in Britain were not headmoney, the equipment, cargos, and partially mitigated by the formalization of placed on the anti-slave squadrons by the merely smoke and mirrors, but it was even the ships themselves were legitimate the distribution of money from the sale of constant legal and diplomatic wrangling also “impossible to ignore the question of prizes under British regulation, and the cargoes and ships of condemned slavers.54 between Britain and other world powers. economic advantage and British strategic proceeds of the sale of seizures were also In 1830, headmoney was cut even further Yet, despite such limitations, “the Navy calculation.”38 Those abolitionists’ distributed, after fees and payments to to £5 per slave.55 Such reductions greatly fought a campaign against the trade arguments, which Lloyd described as other agents and government officials, reduced the motivation and morale of which brought glory to the officers and “one of the greatest feats of propaganda among officers and crews.48 In addition the anti-slave squadron, particularly as men engaged in it, and to the fleet in in history,” did have a lasting effect.39 to bounties offered to crews, a cabal Britain began to introduce the Equipment which they served.”29 According to Huzzey, the morality of of British merchants provided further Clause in its treaties with foreign nations slave trade suppression served to “feed… incentive by conspiring to depress in the 1830s, which allowed the seizure of A recent historian, Sian Rees, took a Britons’ presumption of their superiority prices at auction so they could purchase ships outfitted for slaving even if they did more balanced approach in her 2011 and the ultimate benevolence of their confiscated goods for resale cheaply.49 not have slaves on board. Concerns were work, Sweet Water and Bitter: The Ships dominance of international commerce Procedures for the allocation of money quickly raised over reticence by officers that Stopped the Slave Trade. Although and international relations.”40 for the sale of ships and cargoes became and crews of the anti-slave squadron’s to British herself, she acknowledged the formalized by the Consolidation Act of capture ships without any slaves on board questions of moral and legal ambiguity The British quest to end the slave trade 1824, which allocated half the proceeds due to the decrease in prize monies.56 that British policies of suppression raised began as soon as Parliament passed the of the sale of the ships and goods to the more so than either of her predecessors. Abolition Act of 1807. The Act established captors.50 This is reflected in the record In response to these concerns, Suppression faced an “ regulations regarding the distribution of British Parliamentary proceedings, Parliament passed the Tonnage Act of entrenched interests and legal of prize money, including the practice of which kept detailed logs and descriptions of 1838 to compensate crews for the uncertainties.”30 The still developing Law “headmoney.”41 It stipulated payments to of all seizures adjudicated by the courts. loss of headmoney and encourage the of Nations “was a morass of uncodified British crews that “shall not exceed the In one such record, covering the period seizure of empty slave vessels.57 Under and developing practice.”31 Britain’s Sum of Forty Pounds lawful Money of from January 1827 to 1828, twenty-one this legislation, bounties were allocated “declared motives” were “derided by Great Britain for every Man, or Thirty ships were condemned by the Mixed according to the tonnage of the captured other maritime nations who saw their Pounds of like Money for every Woman, Commission Court in Sierra Leone. vessel. Officers and crews were owed £5 merchant shipping being seized by or Ten Pounds of like Money for every Many of these, such as the entry for per slave and £1 10s per ton for a ship British officers.”32 She alluded to the Child or Person not above Fourteen Years the condemnation of the Brazilian with slaves aboard, and £4 a ton for empty legacy of piracy, privateering, and war, old.”42 These sums were generous and brigantine Providencia in April of 1827, vessels.58 By the late 1830s, Britain began claiming that Britain “brought to the served as a substantial encouragement to include such language as “the Court… to steer away from the outright sale of new era the mindset of the old.”33 The a force of mostly men pressed into service condemned her, and her Tackle, Apparel, condemned slave vessels as they were British conducted, “legal, semi-legal, and from the lowest rungs of British society.43 and Furniture, as well as the Goods, often purchased at auction by slavers downright illegal bounty-hunting on Historian Mary Wills, who studied the Wares, and Merchandise laden on board, and re-entered into the slave trade.59 If West African coasts.”34 She furthered this motivations and concerns of British as good and lawful prize to His Majesty’s the captured ship was destroyed instead line of analysis by noting the alignment sailors involved in the suppression of the Ship ‘Maidstone’…”51 Such additional of sold, the captors were “entitled to a between the desires of abolitionists, slave trade, argued that “financial gain” incentives further reinforced the base bounty of £1 10s per ton, to compensate namely “detection, emancipation, and was “clearly more important than acting motivations of naval officers and crews them for the estimated loss they would trial,” and their naval equivalents of against the slave trade” or any “belief in and contributed to an underlying piratical sustain by the vessel being destroyed.”60 “chase, bounty, and forfeiture.”35 Rees the virtues of the anti-slavery cause.”44 ethos that guided much of their activity A case from 1839 illustrates the claims of concluded, however, that the British Knowing that abolitionist attitudes had against slavers. As historian Sian Rees the officers and crew of HMSCharybdis . “largely stayed on the right side of the yet to fully filter into the mass of British observed, “[b]ounty hunting was easily In that year, Charybdis filed a claim for law,” and their efforts provided the society, Britain used financial incentives disguisable as law enforcement.”52 compensation for five empty slave vessels foundation of the modern system of that implicitly supported a piratical captured the previous year: Matilde, international law.36 ethos in the capture of slavers. Between As the slave trade continued into the Cantabra, Tridente, El Mismo, and General 1807 and 1815, when the Napoleonic second, third, and fourth decades of the Ricafort. In total, after expenses and fees, Other recent historians such as Robert Wars ended, Britain paid £191,000 in nineteenth century, and, in fact, increased Commander Mercer and the crew of M. Burroughs and Richard Huzzey, cited headmoney.45 The biggest single payout by the 1830s proportionally to its extent Charybdis cleared approximately £4,338 above, were even more nuanced in their was for £13,180 to HMS Protector, prior to British attempts at suppression, based on the tonnage of the vessels per interpretations. Burroughs accepted commanded by Lt. G. Mitchener in the British government began to reduce the 1838 law, still a hefty sum by any 46 moral motives “as one contingent and 1812. The most successful ship during North Carolina Maritime Tributaries the financial reward in response to the standard and quite the incentive for those 61 conditional factor, among several others, this period was HMS Thais, commanded History Council Spring 2019 volume of seizures and as a way to try to involved. including less savory incentives such by Capt. E. Scobell, clearing a total of 36 37 reign in naval officers and crews that often as prize monies,” thus treating “the £20,475.47 Clearly, it was possible to gain showed too much zeal in their attempts The central legal issue that stymied Louis was promptly condemned per the The judge destroyed the argument that all the more telling. The British ship British efforts to end the slave trade was Abolition Act of 1807.67 the slave trade is an international crime involved was not even a Royal Navy ship, the “right to search.”62 Britain sought and thus every nation “has not only a but a privateer commissioned by the to enforce its will by claiming the right Protesting such flagrant violations right, but a duty, to prevent in every place governor of Sierra Leone, a commission to search any vessel it encountered of sovereignty, the French owners the commission of crime.”76 He wrote: that the judge also found dubious.83 He that appeared to be conducting slaving appealed the decision to the High Court chastised the motives of the captors while activities. During the Napoleonic Wars, of Admiralty in December of 1817.68 What are the proximate simultaneously questioning the legality of Britain not only enforced the right to The arguments made in the case and circumstances which confer the seizure. He wrote: search enemy vessels of , Spain, the conclusions reached by the judge on you the right of intruding and the Netherlands per its “wartime outlined the key issues that framed the yourself into a foreign ship, over In the first place the Prize belligerent rights,” it also detained international debate over the suppression which you have no authority Interrogatories calculated for the ships of the United States and Denmark of the slave trade for the rest of the whatever, or of demanding the transactions of war are, instantly under the auspices of enforcing those nineteenth century. Questions over the submission of its crew to your on bringing in, applied to this nations’ anti-slave trade laws on their “right to search” were at the center of the inquiry, whether they mean to transaction, which however, behalf.63 This initiated a virulent High Court’s objections to the original deal in the traffic of slaves, not denominated a capture, and international legal firestorm as nations ruling. The judge based his decision on in your country, but in one with with whatever fatal violence balked at Britain’s invasion of national “two principles of public law.” The first which you have no connexion accompanied, is in truth a sovereignty in prosecuting its anti-slave was “the perfect equality and entire [sic]?77 transaction of peace.84 trade initiatives. Historian Sian Rees independence of all distinct States.” The summarizes the feelings of most nations: second was “all nations being equal, all “No nation,” he added, “can privilege Essentially, the judge acknowledged that “[a]llowing foreign warships to board have an equal right to an uninterrupted itself to commit crimes against the law of the motives were purely financial and that one’s own was as hateful as allowing a use of the unappropriated parts of the nations, by a municipal regulation of its the laws and practices of war do not apply foreign army to occupy one’s country. ocean for their own convenience.”69 These ow n .” 78 during times of peace. He also chastised Who would grant such power…if not were the fundamental foundations of the Britain itself and warned against the forced to it by bribery and threat?”64 Law of Nations as the judge understood The judge also refuted the other central “perpetual irritation and the universal Britain’s zeal in suppressing the slave them based on centuries of precedent. argument in the case: that the trade hostility which are likely to ensue” if trade risked international incidents that In the circumstances of Le Louis, the was illegal per French law and that the Britain were to continue: often verged on outright war.65 Such central question was “whether the party, French granted the British the right extra-legal activities only encouraged who demanded, had a right to search; for to search in their treaty ending the To press forward to a great perceptions of Britain engaging in if not, then not only was the resistance Napoleonic Wars. In fact, at the Congress principle by breaking through officially sanctioned piratical actions, lawful, but likewise the very fact on of Vienna following that conflict, all the every other great principle using claims of humanitarianism to cloak which the other ground rests is totally signatories condemned the slave trade, that stands in the way of its more sinister underlying motives. re m ov e d .” 70 but did not make it explicitly illegal, establishment, to force the way and all rejected the right to search as a to the liberation of Africa by Even after the end of the Napoleonic Upon reviewing the facts of the case, violation of the sovereignty of nations.79 trampling on the independence Wars in 1815, the Royal Navy extended its the judge stated that the only legitimate The Court of High Admiralty judge of other States in Europe; in “wartime belligerent rights” to peacetime grounds upon which Le Louis could noted that the edict of Napoleon banning short to procure the eminent by continuing its near indiscriminate have been captured “must be upon the the French trade expired when he was good by means that are unlawful, seizure of slaving vessels. The issue of ground that she was taken legally as a deposed after his crushing defeat at is as little consonant to private the “right to search” came to a head in pirate [emphasis in the original].”71 Pirates Waterloo. 80 He found dubious the British morality as to public justice.85 the case of the French vessel Le Louis were “the enemies of every country, and contention that promises issued by Prince in 1817.66 Sighted off the coast of Cape at all times; and are therefore subject to Talleyrand, Minister of France, in July To move forward, the British must Mesurada (or Mesurado), the site of the extreme rights of war.”72 The judge 1815 amounted to a de facto law against “abandon privateering and be placed, modern Monrovia, Liberia, in West proceeded to demolish such a legal basis, the trade as such promises were never defensibly, within the law.”86 The judge Africa on March 11, 1816, a British vessel invoking Britain’s own laws which did not codified and French traders continued in the Le Louis case did provide some attempted to stop Le Louis to search for label slave trading as a “capital offense,” to conduct their voyages without protest guidance as to how Britain could continue signs of slave trade activity. Le Louis as was piracy.73 As to the legality of the from their own government.81 its crusade against the slave trade. Only refused to heave to and attempted to slave trade itself as per international law, through the establishment of mutual escape. A “severe engagement” ensued, in the judge found “difficulty in maintaining Based on the evidence and established treaties between nations specifically which twelve British and four French lives that the traffic is legally criminal” as it precedent of the Law of Nations, the granting the “right to search” to all parties were lost. The British emerged victorious had been legal from “the earliest and judge overturned the ruling of the lower would Britain be able to navigate its and seized their prize. They hastily took most authentic records of the human Vice Admiralty Court and ordered Le efforts back into the realm of enforceable the ship to the British Vice Admiralty race.”74 It stood, “without opposition, Louis restored to its rightful owner.82 legality. Without such treaties, the Court in Sierra Leone and found it to be except the protests of a few private North Carolina Maritime Tributaries Essentially, his judgement all but accused exercise of any claimed “right to search” in violation of the French law prohibiting moralists, little heard, and less attended History Council Spring 2019 the British ship of piracy itself, which was essentially a piratical action in all but the slave trade based on equipment found to, in every country, till within these very 38 39 makes his arguments condemning the name. Yet, he provided another note of on board commonly used in the trade. Le few years, in this particular country.”75 equation of the slave trade with piracy warning as to the delicate nature of such of these stipulations proved to be on the threat of violent force.”101 There but an agreement for the United States to agreements: huge loopholes that allowed slavers to was little most nations could do but supply its own token force of anti-slavery creatively bypass the treaties and escape acquiesce to British demands on paper. patrols, much like the agreement reached But treaties, it must be detainment.93 Portugal was also paid Most governments, however, continued with France in 1841.107 In 1843, The remembered, are perishable £300,000 in restitution for previously to look to other way as their citizens United States begrudgingly acknowledged things, and their obligations are illegally detained ships.94 The Spanish conducted clandestine business. As a the “right to visit,” which allowed Britain dissipated by the first hostility. were paid £400,000 as an incentive to result, an extensive international cabal the ability to stop ships to determine if The covenants, however solemn, sign their treaty with Britain, money it of illegal and semi-legal slave merchants they were legally flying American colors. for the abolition of the trade, needed to assist its own navy to combat and investors emerged who constantly The American flag was frequently used or for the exercise of modes of the burgeoning independence movements confounded British efforts to suppress by slavers of many nationalities to try prevention, co-exist only with the in Latin America.95 These treaties also the trade. Investors and merchants from to evade British anti-slave squadrons, relations of amity.87 were the first to establish new Mixed across the Atlantic world pooled their but the 1843 agreement was not fully Commission courts, which took the resources in an investment model known formalized until 1859 and the United Britain was embarrassed by the court’s judicial authority over slave trade cases as “freighting.” This practice reduced States still did not relent to British decision in the Le Louis case and took the away from the British Admiralty Courts the overall risk to individual investors demands for the “right to search.”108 judge’s recommendations to heart. Britain and into the hands of specially appointed through splitting the investments between immediately embarked on a decades- judges from Britain and the other “ship” investors, who purchased the ship, The Americans were indeed the most long diplomatic mission to coax, coerce, signatories of the treaties.96 outfitted it with equipment, and hired vocal in their opposition to the “right cajole, and bribe all nations still engaged the crew, and “cargo” investors whose to search” under any circumstance in the trade, explicitly or implicitly, to Once Britain laid the foundations for main role was to purchase and maintain and, given their history as a former sign treaties condemning the slave trade the form and function of their bilateral the slaves themselves.102 Slave merchants British colony, the most wary of British and granting Britain the coveted “right to treaties with other nations, it continued conducted their business through a clever hegemony of the seas that seemed to search,” which Rees described as “the holy to refine and reinforce treaties from the but highly complicated practice of using be increasing through British efforts grail of Britain’s anti-slave campaign.”88 1820s through the 1860s. It attempted “mongrel” vessels. These slave ships to suppress the slave trade and the Britain had already attempted a bilateral another multilateral agreement in 1822 carried multiple flags on board to confuse powers granted to them through various treaty with Portugal in 1811, but the at the Congress of Verona, but this too anti-slave patrols and take advantage treaties. In 1841, in part as a response Portuguese essentially ignored it and their failed to coerce other European nations of holes in the various international to the Quintuple Treaty, American slave traders continued their business as as a group into a binding agreement.97 treaties. They also carried multiple ambassador to France, Lewis Cass, wrote usual, souring Britain on such treaties Britain and France reached limited captains, crews, and ships logs on board a scathing indictment of British slave and illustrating the judge’s warning in bilateral agreements in 1831, 1833, and for the same purpose, the captain and trade suppression.109 Cass “denounced the Le Louis case of the fragility of such 1845, but France never submitted itself crew presented as in charge depended on British demands for the right to search agreements.89 The experience of the to Britain’s demands for the “right to the location they were stopped and the as a conspiracy, unrelated to supposed Congress of Vienna, and the inability s e a rc h .” 98 The British 1822 treaty with treaties in effect.103 anti-slave operations.”110 He argued to secure any binding agreement with the Dutch was the first to include an that Britain’s true aim was to give itself the major powers of Europe on the slave “equipment clause,” which stipulated that Throughout this continual process of legal “virtual supremacy of the seas” as the size trade, also frustrated Britain and led it to ships that were merely outfitted for the and diplomatic attacks on the trade and and might of the British navy, compared continue its unilateral operations against trade could be detained, whether they had illegal and semi-legal evasion, the “right to the relative weakness of the navies the trade.90 AfterLe Louis, however, slaves on board or not.99 This drastically to search” continued to be a divisive point of other nations, guaranteed that “that Britain seemed to understand that if changed the game and Britain tried to of contention. The United States and ninety-nine times out of a hundred they continued their modus operandi insert this clause into every subsequent France in particular were wary of British it would be her cruisers which would of unilaterally infringing upon the treaty. Britain was finally able to secure a meddling and feared the extension of search the vessels of other nations.”111 sovereign rights of their fellow nations, multilateral treaty, the Quintuple Treaty, British hegemony, so they lobbied for an Sir William Gore Ouseley, in his reply then they could face severe international with the five major powers of Europe unmitigated freedom of the seas for all to Cass’ work, sheepishly countered repercussions. in 1841. Once again, however, France nations.104 The United States was still sore that “England has more merchant ships refused to ratify the treaty, although it did over the issue of impressment, a vestige of liable to be searched, than perhaps all Beginning the same year as the Le agree to send a token anti-slave squadron the legacy of the War of 1812, and loathed other nations collectively,” without Louis decision, Britain signed bilateral of its own to the West African coast.100 any suggestion that it allow Britain free acknowledging that no other nation agreements with the Netherlands, reign to board its ships.105 The two nations was likely to take advantage of any Portugal, and Spain allowing for a Although this diplomatic wrangling was did negotiate a treaty in 1824 that would mutual right of search for fear of British mutual right to search, but stipulating clearly an attempt by Britain to establish have allowed a mutual “right to search,” retaliation.112 In fact, the historical record that slavers could only be detained if a sound legal basis for the suppression but neither ratified, so it quickly became a does not seem to show any instance of a they actually had slaves on board.91 A of the slave trade, the size and might of dead letter.106 The British tried to include foreign government exercising its right to special stipulation in the Portuguese Britain and its navy in the nineteenth a slave trade clause in the 1842 Webster- search British ships. treaty allowed Portugal to continue the century was a constant reminder to all North Carolina Maritime Tributaries Ashburton treaty, whose main purpose trade anywhere south of the equator nations that Britain always held the History Council Spring 2019 was to establish the border between the Cass acknowledged that the American to allow it to provide slaves to its still upper hand in any negotiations and 40 41 United States and then still British-held flag, and sometimes even American growing sugar colony of Brazil.92 Both their coercion to comply always “rested Canada, but failed to secure anything citizens, were involved in the slave trade, but countered, “[a] crusade of or robbery. There were cases where slave suspected slave vessels. In 1826, Brazil trade south of the equator, although it benevolence cannot be carried on against traders occasionally practiced piracy as gained independence from Portugal; still was not able to secure Portuguese any nation because its laws are sometimes a way to supplement their income or to therefore the treaty with Portugal that agreement to the equipment clause. violated and its flag abused.”113 He echoed fill their holds with slaves collected by previously covered the Brazilian trade no Despite this development, Portuguese the infamous decision in the Le Louis other slavers when they had difficulties longer applied. Britain made recognition governors in Mozambique and Angola case: in procuring them on their own, but this of Brazil’s sovereignty contingent upon a unilaterally suspended the law as ruinous was not the norm.117 commitment to end the trade. The treaty to their economies.127 Britain attempted No nation can exercise a right of the two nations negotiated stipulated that to revise the treaty in 1837 to include visitation and search upon the TheLe Louis decision, however, Brazil had until 1830 to end its citizens’ the equipment clause, but to no avail.128 common and unappropriated brought to light a legal aspect of which participation in the slave trade.123 Frustrated yet again, in 1839 Parliament parts of the ocean except upon Britain sought to take advantage in its passed the Palmerston Act, officially a belligerent claim. No nation prosecution of its suppression policies. That stipulation came with a caveat, known as the “Act for the Suppression has the right to force their way If it could not secure the end of the slave however, as Brazilian Viscount of the Slave Trade.” This act completely for the liberation of Africa by trade by forcing the rest of the world to D’itabayana reminded British Foreign bypassed any treaty agreement and trampling upon the independence recognize slaving as a capital crime per se, Secretary Lord Aberdeen in November Britain unilaterally granted itself the right of other states, on the pretence of legally equating slaving with piracy was of 1828. “The stipulation respecting the to search and detain Portuguese ships an eminent good, by means that the next best thing as piracy was already slave trade,” wrote D’itabayana, “should with or without slaves on board, whether are unlawful, or to press forward considered a crime against humanity by become void and of no effect, if during Portugal liked it or not, essentially a great principle by breaking all nations. In an ironic twist, it was the that interval… Brazilian vessels engaged stripping Portugal’s right to legislate through other great principles United States that was the first to legally in this commerce, should suffer any and enforce its own laws.129 In a letter to which stand in their way.114 associate slaving with piracy in 1820, interruption from the Cruizers [sic] of British foreign consuls across the globe, although no one was prosecuted under any other Nation.”124 He was sad to report, Foreign Secretary Viscount Palmerston Cass decried the underlying piratical this law until 1862.118 Britain followed “the anticipated case of interruption has made it clear that this new law did not ethos of British officers in their efforts suit in 1824.119 At the Congress of Verona, unfortunately taken place, since British grant the navy “any new right of search to suppress the trade. He warned that Britain tried to get this stipulation Cruizers [sic] have detained…many as to any vessel sailing under the flag of granting the right to search “permits a put into the proposed agreement, but Brazilian vessels” without any slaves on a State with which Britain has no Treaty foreigner, under the pretense of settling failed.120 It made the equation of slaving board, in contravention of the treaty.125 granting a mutual right of search.”130 the national character of a vessel, and as piracy a part of its negotiations with D’itabayana continued to argue that he The fact that Palmerston included such the objects of her cruise, to indulge his Brazil in 1826.121 It did eventually succeed had a “right to demand fulfillment” of language in his communications alludes antipathies or his love of gain, by seizing in securing a multilateral acceptance the clause cancelling the treaty under to the continued issues Britain faced with the ship and its cargo, and imprisoning of slaving as piracy in the Quintuple such circumstances, but Brazil “has such the often questionable, and piratical, the crew.”115 Cass went further, stating, Treaty of 1841, which made it much respect for the faith of Treaties” that it actions of its cruisers at sea. “the hatches will be broken open, the more difficult for slavers to hide behind only demanded “a short extension of the cargo overhauled, property dilapidated any nation’s flag, as was a common period stipulated for the definite abolition Britain’s new law did not sit well with [sic], and many articles will be taken practice at the time.122 It is not readily of the Slave-trade.”126 Not that Brazil was many Portuguese. In August of 1839, – as they have been taken – without apparent if contemporaries of the day in any position to flex its muscle to defy a litany of articles appeared in various permission and without compensation.”116 saw the irony in utilizing piratical tactics Britain openly and only paint a bigger Portuguese newspapers and journals Cass, much like the judge in the Le and motivations in order to suppress a target for the anti-slave squadrons on lambasting the British for their actions. Louis case, tacitly accuses Britain of trade that was only considered “piracy” their merchants’ backs. The fact that TheDiario de Governo of criticized conducting a program of semi-legalized through a manipulation of the law. Brazil was a newly minted nation with the new law in its August 8, 1839, issue as piracy, girded by military might and limited resources compared to the might “a manifest violation of the law of nations, manipulation of the legal system. Although Britain tried to maintain a of the severely limited and of the principles on which rest the veneer of legality in its suppression any overt bravado. Such diplomatic security and peace of Europe.”131 The Indeed, piracy was a constant theme in of the slave trade after 1817, constant communications showcase both British article contends that Portugal previously the arguments and negotiations over frustrations from foreign governments willingness to circumvent its own treaties only agreed to end the trade “gradually,” the suppression of the slave trade. The reluctant to enforce the laws and the and flirt with piracy in the name of its with no set date of completion. The 1836 Le Louis case first brought forth the idea endless machinations of slave traders cause, as well as the hesitancy of weaker agreement was the first where Portugal of the equivalency of piracy and slave determined to evade British ships and powers to stand against British coercion. agreed to completely end the trade. trading, which the judge summarily continue the lucrative trade allowed the According to treaty obligations from disparaged. Indeed, it was difficult to underlying piratical ethos to remain Britain’s dealings with Portugal were 1817, carried forward with the 1836 equate slave trading with piracy as the a tactical and strategic feature of slave even more flagrant in the violation agreement, Portugal had until 1852 to objects and methods of the two were not trade suppression. The situation between of sovereign rights. In 1836, Britain meet its obligations.132 It also claimed that the same. One was the lawless attacking Britain, Portugal, and Brazil is a case in negotiated a new treaty with Portugal. Britain altered the treaty terms without 133 of ships and shore from the sea with the point and illustrates Britain’s, or at least North Carolina Maritime Tributaries The influence of Britain’s intervention consulting Portugal first. On August th intent to rob the victim of their goods the Royal Navy’s, continued willingness History Council Spring 2019 in the recent Portuguese civil war 10 , the Correio de Lisboa argued that and/or wealth; the other was essentially to contravene its own agreements with 42 43 was finally successful in obtaining an the revised treaty negotiations in 1837 smuggling and did not involve attacks other sovereign nations and illegally seize agreement from Portugal to close the were rejected by the Portuguese minister because he objected to the use of the term Foreign Secretary Lord Aberdeen, which £80,000 worth of trade goods.146 This trade. The lesson learned from theLe “piracy” in describing slave traders.134 was similar to the 1839 law against mission, and others like it, amounted Louis case forced Britain to try to cloak TheO Nacional of Lisbon stated the law the Portuguese.142 The Aberdeen Act to little more than pirate raids that its mission in the trappings of legality, “amounts to a declaration of war against effectively declared all Brazilian ships defied the sovereignty of African lords but frustrations over the stubbornness us” and that Britain has “exhausted our suspected of engaging in the trade to be and deprived them of their goods and of other governments and merchants country of profit.”135 pirates and stated they should be treated livelihoods. involved in the trade led the country to as such; essentially declaring uninhibited often bypass legal frameworks completely, Some commentators went even further war on the Brazilian trade. Much like the The trans-Atlantic slave trade finally and/or to creatively and unilaterally in their condemnation of Britain and the Portuguese response to the Palmerston sputtered to a stop in the 1860s. A key invent its own legal framework to justify new law. On August 30, 1839, Joao Santa law six years prior, many voices in moment was when the United States its actions. Casting aside the various legal Clara de Silva Lemos proclaimed: Brazil vociferously argued the new law finally agreed to a treaty with Britain in machinations and manipulations involved was contrary to the spirit of the Law of 1862 and began to seriously prosecute in the suppression of the slave trade, when I declare that on the first insult Nations.143 offenders.147 Ending slavery in the United ships at sea actively hunt and capture which the Portuguese flag shall States at the close of the American Civil other ships and their goods, whether they suffer from any British naval Further examples of British frustration War was the beginning of the end for be human or material commodities, for force, I will immediately swear with the treaty process and the Royal African slavery throughout the rest profit and/or for the benefit of one set eternal war against the English Navy’s willingness to operate outside of the , and the demand for of economic and political concerns over and against their commerce, the legal framework include numerous new imports from Africa fell to almost another, those actions are imbued with offering myself as captain or instances between Britain and the nothing. Brazil and Cuba finally ended the same piratical ethos that has been a soldier of the first privateer that multitude of African chiefs on the coasts slavery in their territories in the 1880s, part of the maritime experience ever since may be fitted out.136 of West Africa who made their livings and British abolitionist pressures had humankind first took to the seas. from the slave trade. In the 1840s, Britain much to do with both outcomes. British Such vitriol essentially accuses Britain gave its naval commanders in West suppression efforts continued for several of piracy and urges a response in kind. Africa the authority to negotiate treaties more decades as Britain shifted its This response further illustrates the with African leaders.144 These treaties, focus from West Africa to East Africa, underlying thread of a piratical ethos that however, were built on shaky foundations concentrating on the Muslim and Asian continued to circumscribe naval warfare as the political climate in West Africa was trade in that part of the world.148 in general during this period, of which always in flux and chiefs often did not the British were just the most visible have complete authority over the areas There is plenty of evidence to support transgressors due to their overwhelming they claimed. Treaties often became null both the moralistic and economic naval superiority compared to their and void by the time the ink was dry as motivations for Britain’s suppression of contemporaries. “The English,” wrote African chiefs who signed them were the slave trade in the nineteenth century. one commentator, “then, by treading frequently deposed by rivals as soon as Which reigned supreme in the minds on the law of nations, have put us under the British ships sailed away. Many chiefs of the British varied by individual, the necessity of doing likewise.”137 Calls who signed never intended to honor the by circumstance, and over time.149 came in Portugal for the government to treaties and merely used them as tools to Given this vacillation over the primary issue letters of marque against the British, placate the British while they continued motivation, it is small wonder there although there was question as to whether their business.145 was corresponding vacillation between Portugal had the naval strength to make pursing legal and extra-legal methods good on such threats.138 The connection Given the amorphous nature of African in prosecuting its mission to destroy the of British actions to piracy went even politics and sovereignty, it is easy to trade. Also given the legacy of piracy further in the August 26th edition of understand British frustrations, yet upon which the entire edifice of British the Procurador de Povos. “Portugal,” the frequently the Royal Navy’s response maritime law and naval practice rested, it author wrote, “when prosperous did not betrayed their proclaimed allegiance and is no surprise that many of the methods regard the wretched, faithless English; adherence to the values of law and order. utilized by the Royal Navy to suppress the she despised them as pirates.”139 The same Especially when African chiefs were slave trade, even when they fell within the author accused the British of “trying to intransigent in acceding to any treaty, the limits of proscribed law, had more than enslave the world,” caring “nothing for British were not above using unlawful a whiff of an underlying piratical ethos. the negroes,” and whose “system is pillage force to achieve their goals. A case in The use of prize money as an incentive and destruction.”140 point is the example of the missions was at its core a legacy of piracy, and against Cabinda and Ambriz in Angola in its allure often led officers and crews to In 1845, Brazil was once again the target 1841. Vexed by chiefs that would not sign creatively circumvent the law to enrich of British ire for allowing its treaty treaties, the British naval commander in themselves. Such an underlying piratical with Britain to expire and closing the the region, Lt. Matson, marched on both North Carolina Maritime Tributaries ethos attached to slave trade suppression 141 Mixed Commission court in Rio. chiefdoms, confiscated slaves waiting to History Council Spring 2019 served as an additional example of the The British responded by passing the be sold, burned the barracoons used to 44 45 perceived hypocrisy of Britain’s moral Aberdeen Act, named after then British house them to the ground, and seized stance against slavery and the slave Endnotes 18. Ibid., 18. 46. “An Account of All Sums…,” 291. 79. “Copy of the Judgement delivered by the 19. Ibid. 47. “An Account of All Sums…,” 288-295. Judge of the High Court of Admiralty, in the 1. The abolition movement in Britain is 20. Ibid., 17. 48. Wills, 78. case of the French ship Le Louis…,” 36, 38; attributed to the 1772 “Somerset Case,” which 21. Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery 49. Tara Helfman, “The Court of Vice Ad- Banks, 43-44; Rees, 35; Allain, 356. stipulated that any slave who reached British (Chapel Hill: The University of North Caro- miralty at Sierra Leone and the Abolition of 80. “Copy of the Judgement delivered by the shores was automatically granted freedom. lina Press, 1994), 209-212. the West African Slave Trade.” The Yale Law Judge of the High Court of Admiralty, in the See Lloyd Banks, The Navy and the Slave Trade: 22. Ibid., 169-177. Journal 115, no. 5 (2006): 1144-1145. case of the French ship Le Louis…,” 38. The Suppression of the African Slave Trade in the 23. Ibid., 169. 50. Lloyd, 80. 81. Ibid. Nineteenth Century (London: Cass, 1968), 10. 24. Lloyd, xi-xii. 51. “Abstract of the Proceedings under the 82. Ibid., 39. 2. W. E. F. Ward, The Royal Navy and the 25. Ibid., xiii. British and Portuguese Mixed Commission 83. Ibid., 29. Slavers: The Suppression of the Atlantic Slave 26. Ibid., 12. at Sierra Leone from the 1st of January 1827 84. Ibid., 30. Trade (New York: Pantheon Books, 1969), 59. 27. Ibid., xiii. to the 1st January 1828,” Irish University Press 85. Ibid., 37. 3. For an examination of the international 28. Ward, 228. Series of the British Parliamentary Papers: Slave 86. Rees, 47. network of slave merchants and investors, 29. Ibid. Trade, Vol. 62. (Shannon: Irish University 87. Ibid., 29. see John A. E. Harris, “Circuits of Wealth, 30. Sian̂ Rees, Sweet Water and Bitter: The Ships Press, 1968), 3. 88. Ibid., 42. Circuits of Sorrow: Financing the Illegal that Stopped the Slave Trade (Durham, N.H: 52. Rees, 32. 89. Ibid., 3. Transatlantic Slave Trade in the Age of University of New Hampshire Press, 2011), 53. Banks, 61, 80. 90. Allain, 356; Banks, 44. Suppression, 1850–66.” Journal of Global 14. 54. Ibid., 80. 91. Allain, 358. History 11, no. 3 (2016): 409-429. 31. Ibid., 20. 55. Ibid. 92. Ibid., 366. 4. Susan Ronald, The Pirate Queen: Queen 32. Ibid. 56. Ibid., 82. 93. Jennifer Louise Nelson, “Slavery, Race, and Elizabeth I, Her Pirate Adventurers, and 33. Ibid., 18. 57. Ibid., 81. Conspiracy: The HMSRomney in Nineteenth- the Dawn of Empire. 1st ed. (New York: 34. Ibid., 26. 58. Lloyd, 81. Century Cuba.” Atlantic Studies 14, no. 2 HarperCollins, 2007), 56-62. 35. Ibid., 17. 59. Ward, 128-129; Rees, 62, 120. (2017): 177; Ward, 122. 5. J. R. Hill, The Prizes of War: The Naval Prize 36. Ibid., 308. 60. “Copies of any Applications made on 94. Rees, 48. System in the Napoleonic Wars, 1793-1815 37. Burroughs, 6. behalf of the Captors of the Spanish and 95. Ibid. (Portsmouth, England: Royal Naval Museum 38. Huzzey, 18, 45. Portuguese Vessels Lafayette, General Ricafort, 96. Allain, 359. Publications), 1998, 5-6. 39. Lloyd, 10. El Mismo, Cantabra, Tridente, and Matilde, for 97. Ibid., 357. 6. Kenneth R. Andrews, Elizabethan 40. Huzzey, 45. the payment of several Bounties under the Act 98. Ibid., 362-364. Privateering: English Privateering during 41. Banks, 79; Wills, 78; Rees, 16. 1 & 2 Vic. c. 47; and also Copies of any Replies 99. Rees, 75. the Spanish War, 1585-1603 (Cambridge: 42. “An Act for the Abolition of the Slave that may have been given to the same,” Irish 100. Ward, 162; Lloyd, 46; Burroughs, 23-24. University Press, 1964), 5. Trade, 25th March 1807,” Electronic Scholarly University Press Series of the British Parliamen- 101. Huzzey, 17. 7. For an analysis of the development Publishing Project, Electronic Scholarly Pub- tary Papers: Slave Trade, Vol. 87. (Shannon: 102. Harris, 416. of international law in response to the lishing, accessed November 18, 2018, http:// Irish University Press, 1968), 2. 103. Rees, 54-55. For an extensive study on suppression of the slave trade by the British, www.esp.org/foundations/freedom/holdings/ 61. Ibid. the large and complex international network see Jean Allain, “The Nineteenth Century Law slave-trade-act-1807.pdf, 5. 62. Lloyd, x. of slave traders, also see Michael Zeuske and of the Sea and the British Abolition of the 43. Ward, 22. 63. Huzzey, 4. Steven Rendall, Amistad: A Hidden Network Slave Trade,” British Yearbook of International 44. Mary Wills, “A ‘Most Miserable Business’: 64. Rees, 42. of Slavers and Merchants (Princeton: Markus Law 78, no. 1, 2008, 342-388. Naval Officers Experiences of Slave-Trade 65. Lloyd, 54. Wiener Publishers, 2015). 8. Ronald, 60. Suppression,” in The Suppression of the Atlantic 66. Burroughs, 4; Huzzey, 19; Rees, 46-57; 104. Allain, 368. 9. Ibid., 60-61. Slave Trade: British Policies, Practices and Rep- Helfman, 1150. 105. Ibid. 10. Ibid., 61. resentations of Naval Coercion, ed. Robert M. 67. “Copy of the Judgement delivered by the 106. Ibid., 370. 11. Ibid. Burroughs and Richard Huzzey (Manchester, Judge of the High Court of Admiralty, in the 107. Allain, 370; Huzzey, 24; Ward, 149; Rees, 12. Hill, 8-9. UK: Manchester University Press, 2015), 73, case of the French ship Le Louis, December 236. 13. Ibid., 7. 78, 87. For additional discussion of the mo- 15, 1817; as it appeared in one of the Morning 108. Allain, 374-375. 14. Robert Burroughs, “Suppression of the tivating factor of prize money, see Banks, 79; Papers of December, 1817,” Irish University 109. Banks, 52. Atlantic Slave Trade: Abolition from Ship to Burroughs, 7; and Rees, 16. Also see, Emma Press Series of the British Parliamentary Papers: 110. Burroughs, 24. Shore” in The Suppression of the Atlantic Slave Christopher, “‘Tis Enough That We Give Slave Trade, Vol. 63 (Shannon: Irish University 111. Lewis Cass, An examination of the ques- Trade: British Policies, Practices and Representa- Them Liberty’? Liberated Africans at Sierra Press, 1968), 28-29. tion, now in discussion, between the American tions of Naval Coercion, ed. Robert M. Bur- Leone in the Early Era of Slave Trade Suppres- 68. Ibid., 28. and British governments, concerning the right of roughs and Richard Huzzey (Manchester, UK: sion,” in The Suppression of the Atlantic Slave 69. Ibid., 31. search (H. Fournier, 1842). Sabin Americana, Manchester University Press, 2015), 4. Trade: British Policies, Practices and Representa- 70. Ibid. 1500-1926, http://tinyurl.galegroup.com/ 15. Ibid., 4. tions of Naval Coercion, ed. Robert M. Bur- 71. Ibid., 33. tinyurl/8Kb9Y6. Accessed 19 Nov. 2018, 8. 16. Richard Huzzey, “The Politics of Slave roughs and Richard Huzzey (Manchester, UK: 72. Ibid., 32. Trade Suppression,” in The Suppression of the Manchester University Press, 2015), 58. 73. Ibid., 33. Atlantic Slave Trade: British Policies, Practices 45. “An Account of All Sums of Money Paid 74. Ibid., 34-35. and Representations of Naval Coercion, ed. or Claimed Under the Acts Passed for the 75. Ibid., 35. Robert M. Burroughs and Richard Huzzey Abolition of the Slave Trade,” Irish University North Carolina Maritime Tributaries 76. Ibid., 34. (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press Series of the British Parliamentary Papers: History Council Spring 2019 77. Ibid. Press, 2015), 18. Slave Trade, Vol. 62 (Shannon: Irish University 46 47 78. Ibid., 35. 17. Ibid., 17. Press, 1968), 288-295. 112. William Gore Ouseley, Reply to an 136. “From the Procurador dos Provos, Lisbon, “American’s examination” of the “right of search”: August 30, 1839,” Irish University Press Series with observations on some of the questions at is- of the British Parliamentary Papers: Slave Trade, sue between Great Britain and the United States Vol. 18 (Shannon: Irish University Press, and on certain positions assumed by the North 1968), 130. American government. (J. Rodwell, 1842) The 137. “From the Procurador dos Provos, Lisbon, Making of the Modern World, http://tinyurl. August 26, 1839,” Irish University Press Series galegroup.com/tinyurl/8Kb9h5. Accessed 19 of the British Parliamentary Papers: Slave Trade, Nov. 2018, vi. Vol. 18 (Shannon: Irish University Press, 113. Cass, 13. 1968), 133. 114. Ibid., 14. 138. Ibid., 131. 115. Ibid., 17. 139. Ibid., 133. 116. Ibid., 19. 140. Ibid., 132-133. 117. Ward, 134; Lloyd, 33, 64. 141. Ward, 163. Tributaries 118. Ward, 73, 222; Lloyd, 51, 175; Allain, 370. 142. Burroughs, 25. 119. Lloyd, 11, 42; Ward, 73. 143. Ward, 142, 163-164; Allain, 367. A Publication 120. Rees, 75. 144. Lloyd, 150. of the North 121. Ibid., 145, 150. 145. Ibid., 152. Carolina Maritime 122. Allain, 363. 146. Rees, 220. 123. Rees, 145, 150. 147. Allain, 375; Harris, 419. History Council www.ncmaritimehistory.org Tributaries 124. “Viscount D’itabayana to Lord Aberdeen, 148. Allain, 378-386. Published by the North Carolina Maritime History Council November 17, 1828,” Irish University Press 149. Burroughs, 44. Series of the British Parliamentary Papers: Slave Tributaries seeks to support continuing All manuscripts should conform to the Trade, Vol. 12 (Shannon: Irish University historical, archaeological, and cultural Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition) Press, 1968), 58. research by publishing articles and – endnotes citation style. Please consult 125. Ibid. 126. Ibid., 58. reviews related to the maritime history the Chicago Manual for citations, 127. Rees, 185. and culture of North Carolina and the capitalization, abbreviations, numbers, 128. “Counter Project of Treaty to prevent Eastern seaboard. The journal accepts a and other grammatical uses. If your the Traffic in Slaves, sent with a note dated range of articles in the field of maritime manuscript does not conform to the style 4th May 1837, by Viscount de Se da Bandeira, studies. All members of the maritime guide, it may be returned for additional to Lord Howard de Walden,” Irish University history community, including students and editing before it can be considered. Press Series of the British Parliamentary Papers: independent researchers, are welcome to Photographs, tables, charts, and maps are Slave Trade, Vol. 18 (Shannon: Irish University submit articles and reviews. Contributors welcome and encouraged. Press, 1968), 208-212. need not be members of the NCMHC 129. Rees, 187; Allain, 366; Burroughs, 25. or live in the state of North Carolina. Tributaries will not reprint or republish 130. “Viscount Palmerston to Her Majesty’s Commissioners, Foreign Office, November 2, Manuscripts submitted for consideration articles submitted to and accepted by 1839,” Irish University Press Series of the Brit- must be based on original research and other publications. Once a manuscript is ish Parliamentary Papers: Slave Trade, Vol. 18 analysis, and all manuscripts are subject accepted for publication, it becomes the (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1968), 7. to a peer review process at the editor’s property of the NCMHC and may not be 131. “From the Diario de Governo, Lisbon, discretion. reproduced elsewhere without NCMHC’s August 8, 1839,” Irish University Press Series of permission. Requests for reproduction the British Parliamentary Papers: Slave Trade, Submissions should be addressed to the rights should be addressed to: Chair, North Vol. 18 (Shannon: Irish University Press, editor: Carolina Maritime History Council, 315 1968), 119. Chelsea Freeland, [email protected]. Front Street, Beaufort, NC 28516. 132. Ibid., 119. 133. Ibid. 134. “From the Correio de Lisboa, August Submissions should be no longer than 30 If you have any additional questions about 10, 1839,” Irish University Press Series of the pages, including citations. On the cover the submission process, please contact the British Parliamentary Papers: Slave Trade, Vol. page, please provide: article title; author’s editor: 18 (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1968), names, positions, institutional affiliations, Chelsea Freeland, [email protected] 120-121. and physical business addresses; and a 135. From the O Nacional, Lisbon, August 7,” contact telephone and email address for Irish University Press Series of the British Parlia- the corresponding author. Authors should mentary Papers: Slave Trade, Vol. 18 (Shannon: keep the editor informed of any address Irish University Press, 1968), 123. North Carolina Maritime Tributaries changes. If the article was presented at a History Council Spring 2019 conference, please supply the name and 48 49 date of the conference on the cover page.