WATER IS THE BASIS OF LIFE AND THE BLUE ARTERIES OF THE EARTH…EVERYTHING IN THE NON – MARINE ENVIRONMENT DEPENDS ON FRESHWATER TO SURVIVE….

Sandra Postel Global Water Policy Project, Grist Magazine Water Wisdom Book, 2006

I Water Studies Institute `s Permanent Staff:

Ziad Mimi, (PhD), Director Rashed Al-Sa’ed, (PhD) Nidal Mahmoud, (PhD) Maher Abu-Madi, (PhD) Omar Zimmo, (PhD) Nadine Sinokrot, (MBA) Saleh Suleiman, (BSc) Dona Zarour, (secretary)

Water Studies Institute `s Affiliated Staff:

Issam Khatib, (PhD), Birzeit University Jamil Harb, (PhD), Birzeit University Khaled Swaileh (PhD), Birzeit University Marwan Ghanem, (PhD), Birzeit University Mazen Hamed, (PhD), Birzeit University Uraib Sayrafi, (PhD), Birzeit University Amjad Aliewi, (PhD), House of Water and Environment

Our Mission

Education, training, research and consultancy for the planning, provision and management of water and environmental aspects.

II FOREWORDFOREWORD

Water Studies Institute (WSI) at Birzeit University is always concerned with the management and development of water and environmental related projects as well as the education and training of professionals, students and employees working in these areas.

The WSI`s role could be regarded as an effective intermediate between various societal bodies including ministries, municipalities, educational institutions, governmental/non governmental organizations, public and private institutions locally and internationally - through the increasing number of projects that it was able to conduct; therefore the WSI`s outreach is being increased in both quantity and quality in the last two years.

Due to recent political changes in Palestine this year, the WSI is facing new challenges that form obstacles in its way towards attaining its mission. Despite these challenges, the WSI is still going on with its mission and trying to increase its outreach by the variety of training programs that it organizes especially in the year 2006. The first training program in this year was held in February 2006 on water net design through e-learning. Then, in May 2006; the WSI started a series of six training blocks for Palestinian professionals through the EMWater project. In addition, another training program on vocational trainings on water management in water and sanitation sectors was organized in July – August, 2006.

This issue of the BWD includes five new articles that were published in refereed journals in the areas of integrated water resources management (IWRM), sanitation, chemistry and metal pollution. In addition, updates on the WSI`s activities and staff news are also included.

Ziad Mimi Director, Water Studies Institute

III IV 1

Water Conservation and Its Perceptions in Palestine, a Case Study

Ziad Mimi, Mohammad Ziara and Hani Nigim

The article can be quoted as:

Mimi, Z., Ziara, M., and Nigim, H. (2003) “Water Conservation and Its Perception in Palestine - A Case Study”. Water and Environmental Management Journal, Published for the Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management (CIWEM), 17(3): 152-156

1 ABSTRACT WATER CONSERVATION This paper describes a pilot project, based upon a specific approach for encouraging effective water use in schools. The project included (a) AND ITS PERCEPTION IN constructing two low-cost sewage-treatment plants for irrigation water re-use in two schools, and (b) conducting an awareness campaign for PALESTINE: A CASE STUDY effective water use in fifteen schools in the Jenin rural area. Data show that the campaign increased the pupils’ knowledge of water and positively impacted on attitudes and practices. Z. A. Mimi, BSc, MSc, PhD, ABSTRACTStatistical analysis demonstrates that good knowledge and positive This paper describes a pilot project, based upon a specific approach for M.WA Ziara,TER BSc, CONSERVATIONMSc, PhD, and attitudes in students will result in improved effective water use. encouraging effective water use in schools. The project included (a) The schools with pilot sewage-treatment plants for irrigation water H. H. Nigim, , BSc, MSc, PhD* constructing two low-cost sewage-treatment plants for irrigation water AND ITS PERCEPTION IN re-use benefited the most and encouraged students to modify their re-use in two schools, and (b) conducting an awareness campaign for water-use practices. PALESTINE: A CASE STUDY effective water use in fifteen schools in the Jenin rural area. Data show that the campaign increased the pupils’ knowledge of water and Key words: Awareness campaign; Palestine; re-use; schools; water con- positively impacted on attitudes and practices. servation. Z. A. Mimi, BSc, MSc, PhD, Statistical analysis demonstrates that good knowledge and positive attitudes in students will result in improved effective water use. M. Ziara, BSc, MSc, PhD, and *Assistant Professor, Associate Professor and Professor, respectively, Faculty of The schools with pilot sewage-treatment plants for irrigation water H. H. Nigim, , BSc, MSc, PhD* Engineering, Birzeit University, Birzeit, Palestine. re-use benefited the most and encouraged students to modify their water-use practices. Water Conservation and Its Perceptions in Palestine, a Case Study Key words: Awareness campaign; Palestine; re-use; schools; water con- servation. ABSTRACT 1 through2 various schemes, including3 water transfers from other basins INTRODUCTION Ziad Mimi , Mohammad Ziara and Hani Nijim This paper describes a pilot project, based upon a specific approach for Palestine is located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and and desalination; WA these schemesTER areCONSERVATION expensive and face daunting *Assistant Professor, Associate Professor(2) and Professor, respectively, Faculty of encouraging effective water use in schools. The project included (a) 1 comprises two separate areas: Gaza Strip and the West Bank (Fig. 1). In logistical and political barriers . In recognition of the water scarcity and Associate Professor, Water Studies Institute, Birzeit University,Engineering, Birzeit West University,AND Bank, Birzeit, PalestineITS Palestine. PERCEPTION IN constructing two low-cost sewage-treatment plants for irrigation water this part of the world there are two distinctive climatic seasons, i.e. a wet inevitable population growth in the region, the conservation of existing 2 ABSTRACT re-use in two schools, and (b) conducting an awareness campaign for Associatewinter andWA Professor, a dryTER summer BirzeitCONSERVATION – the University, rainy season West extending Bank, from Palestine Thiswater paper sourcesP describesALESTINE: is becoming a pilot project, imperative. based A Savingupon CASE a water,specific rather approach STUDY than for the mid-November to the end of April. Annual average rainfall in the West development of new water-resources and supply projects, might prove to effective water use in fifteen schools in the Jenin rural area. Data show 3 Professor, Birzeit University, West Bank, Palestine encouraging effective water use in schools. The project included (a) that the campaign increased the pupils’ knowledge of water and Bank andAND Gaza is 450ITS and 400PERCEPTION mm, respectively. January is the INcoldest constructingbe the optimal two policy. low-cost Also, sewage-treatment it is advisable (for plants environmental for irrigation reasons) water to month with average temperatures in the range 8-12OC, while August is minimise leakage, prevent pollution, and reduce sensitivity to positively impacted on attitudes and practices. throughre-use in various two schools, schemes, and including(b) conducting water an transfers awareness from campaign other basins for INTRODUCTIONthe warmest month with temperatures ranging 22-34OC. The Jordan river emergencies, e.g.Z. drought.A. Mimi, BSc, MSc, PhD, Statistical analysis demonstrates that good knowledge and positive PalestinePALESTINE: is located on the eastern A shoreCASE of the MediterraneanSTUDY and andeffective desalination; water use thesein fifteen schemes schools are in the expensive Jenin rural and area. face Data daunting show system is the only surface-water resource in the West Bank. There are two The supplyM. and Ziara, management BSc, of MSc, water resourcesPhD, and wastewater attitudes in students will result in improved effective water use. ABSTRACTcomprises two separate areas: Gaza Strip and the West Bank (Fig. 1). In logisticalthat the and campaign political increased barriers(2) . theIn recognition pupils’ knowledge of the water of scarcity water andand aquifers shared by Palestine and Israel: the mountain aquifer underlying remain a key priorityH. H. for Nigim, Palestine; ,26% BSc, of households MSc, PhD* are mainly located The schools with pilot sewage-treatment plants for irrigation water WATER CONSERVATION Thisthis partpaper of describesthe world athere pilot are project, two distinctive based upon climatic a specific seasons, approach i.e. a wetfor inevitablepositively impactedpopulation on growth attitudes in theand region, practices. the conservation of existing the West Bank and the coastal aquifer underlying Gaza. in rural areas which are not connected to a piped water supply. Only 29% re-use benefited the most and encouraged students to modify their encouragingwinter Z. and A. effective a Mimi, dry summer water BSc, use – MSc, in the schools. rainy PhD, Theseason project extending included from (a) waterStatistical sources analysis is becoming demonstrates imperative. that Saving good knowledge water, rather and thanpositive the of the population in the West Bank and Gaza Strip are connected to a water-use practices. AND ITS PERCEPTION IN constructingmid-NovemberM. Ziara, two to low-cost the BSc,end sewage-treatmentof April.MSc, Annual PhD, average plants and rainfallfor irrigation in the water West developmentattitudes in of students new water-resources will result inand improved supply projects, effective might water prove use. to sewerage system. Crude sewage continues to be diverted into cesspits re-useBank and in twoGaza schools, is 450 and (b)400 conducting mm, respectively. an awareness January campaignis the coldest for beThe the schools optimal with policy. pilot Also, sewage-treatment it is advisable (for plants environmental for irrigation reasons) water to H. H. Nigim, , BSc, MSc, PhD* or percolating pits. The cesspits are emptied by vacuum trucks, and Key words: Awareness campaign; Palestine; re-use; schools; water con- PALESTINE: A CASE STUDY effectivemonth with water average use in temperatures fifteen schools in inthe the range Jenin 8-12 ruralOC, area. while Data August show is minimisere-use benefited leakage, the prevent most and pollution, encouraged and students reduce to sensitivity modify their to (in most cases) their contents are disposed of in nearby valleys – posing servation. thatthe warmest the campaign month with increased temperatures the pupils’ ranging knowledge 22-34OC. The of Jordan water andriver emergencies,water-use practices. e.g. drought. an environmental hazard to the underground aquifers (the main water positivelysystem is impactedthe only surface-water on attitudes resourceand practices. in the West Bank. There are two The supply and management of water resources and wastewater Keyresource). words: A wareness Only a fewcampaign; small Palestine; sewage-treatment re-use; schools; plants water have con- been *Assistant Professor, Associate Professor and Professor, respectively, Faculty of Z. A. Mimi, BSc, MSc, PhD, aquifersStatistical shared analysis by Palestine demonstrates and Israel: that the good mountain knowledge aquifer and underlying positive remain a key priority for Palestine; 26% of households are mainly located(3) constructed in Palestine for the protection of the aquatic environment . Engineering, Birzeit University, Birzeit, Palestine. the West Bank and the coastal aquifer underlying Gaza. in rural areasservation. which are not connected to a piped water supply. Only 29% M. Ziara, BSc, MSc, PhD, and attitudes in students will result in improved effective water use. The wastewater-related problems are continuously increasing, of the population in the West Bank and Gaza Strip are connected to a H. H. Nigim, , BSc, MSc, PhD* The schools with pilot sewage-treatment plants for irrigation water resulting in the gradual increase of nitrates in groundwater wells and sewerage*Assistant system. Professor, Crude Associate sewage Professor continues and Professor, to be diverted respectively, into Facultycesspits of re-useABSTRACT benefited the most and encouraged students to modify their freshwater springs. This paper describes a pilot project, based upon a specific approach for orEngineering, percolating Birzeit pits. University, The Birzeit, cesspits Palestine. are emptied by vacuum trucks, and WATER CONSERVATION water-use practices. Major water and wastewater development projects and strategies for encouraging effective water use in schools. The project included (a) (in most cases) their contents are disposed of in nearby valleys – posing Palestine are urgently needed. As emergency measures, international aid constructing two low-cost sewage-treatment plants for irrigation water an environmentalINTRODUCTION hazard to the underground aquifers (the main water through various schemes, including water transfers from other basins AND ITS PERCEPTION IN Key words: Awareness campaign; Palestine; re-use; schools; water con- donor agencies and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have funded re-use in two schools, and (b) conducting an awareness campaign for resource).Palestine Only a is few located small on sewage-treatment the eastern shore plants of the have Mediterranean been and and desalination; these schemes are expensive and face daunting servation. several small water and wastewater projects; studies of long-term (2) PALESTINE: A CASE STUDY effective water use in fifteen schools in the Jenin rural area. Data show constructedcomprises in Palestine two separate for the protectionareas: Gaza of Stripthe aquatic and the environment West Bank (3)(Fig.. 1). In logistical and political barriers . In recognition of the water scarcity and projects are also being undertaken. However, strategic planning for water INTRODUCTIONthat the campaign increased the pupils’ knowledge of water and throughThe wastewater-related this various part schemes,of the world including problems there are water two are distinctive transfers continuously fromclimatic other increasing, seasons, basins i.e. a wet inevitable population growth in the region, the conservation of existing *Assistant Professor, Associate Professor and Professor, respectively, Faculty of and wastewater management for rural communities is still lacking. Major Palestinepositively impacted is located on on attitudes the eastern and practices. shore of the Mediterranean and andresulting desalination;winter in the andgradual these a dryincrease schemes summer of arenitrates – expensive the in rainygroundwater and season face wells daunting extending and from water sources is becoming imperative. Saving water, rather than the Engineering, Birzeit University, Birzeit, Palestine. international funding agencies(2) such as the United States Agency for comprisesStatistical two analysisseparate demonstrates areas: Gaza Strip that andgood the knowledge West Bank and (Fig. positive 1). In logisticalfreshwatermid-November and springs. political barriers to the end. In ofrecognition April. Annual of the average water scarcity rainfall andin the West development of new water-resources and supply projects, might prove to Z. A. Mimi, BSc, MSc, PhD, Fig. 1. Location map of study area International Development (USAID) and the Department for International thisattitudes part of inthe students world there will are result two distinctive in improved climatic effective seasons, water i.e. ause. wet inevitableMajorBank waterpopulation and and Gaza wastewater growth is 450 in andthedevelopment 400region, mm, the projectsrespectively. conservation and Januarystrategies of existing is forthe coldest be the optimal policy. Also, it is advisable (for environmental reasons) to M. Ziara, BSc, MSc, PhD, and Development (DFID), financed by the UK, have recognised the importance winterThe schools and witha dry pilot summer sewage-treatment – the rainy plants season for extending irrigation water from waterPalestine sourcesmonth are urgently iswith becoming average needed. imperative.temperatures As emergency Saving in measures, the water, range international rather8-12O C, than while theaid August is minimise leakage, prevent pollution, and reduce sensitivity to H. H. Nigim, , BSc, MSc, PhD* Palestine, Israel, Jordan and most other mid-eastern countries have of supporting small community-based water and sanitation projects to mid-Novemberre-use benefited to the end most of andApril. encouraged Annual average students rainfall to modifyin the theirWest developmentdonor agenciesthe warmest of andnew non-governmentalwater-resources month with temperatures and organisations supply ranging projects, (NGOs) 22-34 might haveOC. prove Thefunded Jordan to river emergencies, e.g. drought. Banklimited and waterGaza is resources, 450 and 400 and mm, future respectively. population January projections is the coldest in these beenhance the optimal rural policy. planning Also, andit is sustainableadvisable (for development; environmental thus reasons) they have to water-use practices. (1) several system small wateris the only and surface-water wastewater projects;resource in studies the West(4) of Bank. long-term There are two The supply and management of water resources and wastewater INTRODUCTION throughmonthcountries with various placeaverage schemes, severe temperatures demands including inon water thealready range transfers fragile 8-12 O fromC,reserves while other August. Palestine basins is minimisefunded several leakage, water-supply prevent pollution, and wastewater and reduce projects sensitivity. Through thisto 3 projects areaquifers also beingshared undertaken. by Palestine However, and Israel: strategic the mountain planning aquifer for water underlying remain a key priority for Palestine; 26% of households are mainly located will experience a serious deficit (271 million m )O by the year 2020. study, Birzeit University has demonstrated an effective and innovative Palestine is located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and andtheKey warmestwords: desalination;A warenessmonth thesewith campaign; temperatures schemes Palestine; are ranging expensive re-use; 22-34 andschools;C. The face Jordanwater daunting con-river emergencies,and wastewaterthe West e.g. management Bankdrought. and the for coastal rural communities aquifer underlying is still Gaza.lacking. Major in rural areas which are not connected to a piped water supply. Only 29% There are numerous studies(2) and plans for expanding water resources approach for encouraging effective water use in schools. It has been comprises two separate areas: Gaza Strip and the West Bank (Fig. 1). In logisticalsystem is andtheservation. onlypolitical surface-water barriers . resourceIn recognition in the ofWest the Bank. water There scarcity are andtwo internationalThe supply funding and management agencies such of water as the resources United States and wastewater Agency for of the population in the West Bank and Gaza Strip are connected to a this part of the world there are two distinctive climatic seasons, i.e. a wet inevitableaquifersFig. 1. Location shared population mapby Palestine ofgrowth study andinarea the Israel: region, the themountain conservation aquifer ofunderlying existing remainInternational a key priorityDevelopment for Palestine; (USAID) 26% and ofthe households Department are for mainly International located sewerage system. Crude sewage continues to be diverted into cesspits winter and a dry summer – the rainy season extending from water sources is becoming imperative. Saving water, rather than the THE JOURNAL V17 N3 AUGUST 2003 152 the*Assistant West Bank Professor, and the Associate coastal Professor aquifer andunderlying Professor, Gaza. respectively, Faculty of inDevelopment rural areas (DFID),which arefinanced not connected by the UK, to havea piped recognised water supply. the importance Only 29% or percolating pits. The cesspits are emptied by vacuum trucks, and mid-November to the end of April. Annual average rainfall in the West developmentEngineering,Palestine, Birzeit of Israel, new University, water-resourcesJordan Birzeit, and Palestine. most and other supply mid-eastern projects, mightcountries prove have to of thesupporting population small in community-basedthe West Bank and water Gaza and Strip sanitation are connected projects to toa (in most cases) their contents are disposed of in nearby valleys – posing sewerage system. Crude sewage continues to be diverted into cesspits Bank and Gaza is 450 and 400 mm, respectively. January is the coldest belimited the optimal water policy. resources, Also, andit is advisable future population (for environmental projections reasons) in these to enhance rural planning and sustainable development; thus they have an environmental hazard to the underground aquifers (the main water O (1) or percolating pits. The cesspits are emptied by vacuum(4) trucks, and month with average temperatures in the range 8-12 C, while August is minimisecountries place leakage, severe prevent demands pollution, on already and fragile reduce reserves sensitivity. Palestine to funded several water-supply and wastewater projects . Through this resource). Only a few small sewage-treatment plants have been the warmest month with temperatures ranging 22-34OC. The Jordan river emergencies, e.g. drought. 3 (in most cases) their contents are disposed of in nearby valleys – posing will experience a serious deficit (271 million m ) by the year 2020. study, Birzeit University has demonstrated an effective and innovative constructed in Palestine for the protection of the aquatic environment(3). an environmental hazard to the underground aquifers (the main water system is the only surface-water resource in the West Bank. There are two ThereThe are supply numerous and management studies and ofplans water for resources expanding and water wastewater resources approach for encouraging effective water use in schools. It has been The wastewater-related problems are continuously increasing, resource). Only a few small sewage-treatment plants have been aquifersINTRODUCTION shared by Palestine and Israel: the mountain aquifer underlying remainthrough a variouskey priority schemes, for Palestine; including 26% water of households transfers are from mainly other located basins resulting in the gradual increase of nitrates in groundwater wells and constructed in Palestine for the protection of the aquatic environment(3). thePalestine West Bank is located and the on coastal the easternaquifer underlying shore of the Gaza. Mediterranean and inand rural desalination; areas which theseare not schemes connected are to a expensive piped water and supply. face Only daunting 29% THE JOURNAL V17 N3 AUGUST 2003 152 freshwater springs. comprises two separate areas: Gaza Strip and the West Bank (Fig. 1). In logistical and political barriers(2). In recognition of the water scarcity and The wastewater-related problems are continuously increasing, of the population in the West Bank and Gaza Strip are connected to a Major water and wastewater development projects and strategies for this part of the world there are two distinctive climatic seasons, i.e. a wet inevitable population growth in the region, the conservation of existing resulting in the gradual increase of nitrates in groundwater wells and sewerage system. Crude sewage continues to be diverted into cesspits Palestine are urgently needed. As emergency measures, international aid winter and a dry summer – the rainy season extending from water sources is becoming imperative. Saving water, rather than the freshwater springs. or percolating pits. The cesspits are emptied by vacuum trucks, and donor agencies and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have funded mid-November to the end of April. Annual average rainfall in the West development of new water-resources and supply projects, might prove to Major water and wastewater development projects and strategies for (in most cases) their contents are disposed of in nearby valleys – posing several small water and wastewater projects; studies of long-term Bank and Gaza is 450 and 400 mm, respectively. January is the coldest be the optimal policy. Also, it is advisable (for environmental reasons) to Palestine are urgently needed. As emergency measures, international aid an environmental hazard to the underground aquifers (the main water projects are also being undertaken. However, strategic planning for water month with average temperatures in the range 8-12OC, while August is resource).minimise Onlyleakage, a few prevent small pollution, sewage-treatment and reduce plants sensitivity have been to donor agencies and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have funded O several small water and wastewater projects; studies of long-term and wastewater management for rural communities is still lacking. Major the warmest month with temperatures ranging 22-34 C. The Jordan river constructedemergencies, in e.g. Palestine drought. for the protection of the aquatic environment(3). projects are also being undertaken. However, strategic planning for water international funding agencies such as the United States Agency for system is the only surface-water resource in the West Bank. There are two TheThe wastewater-related supply and management problems of water are resourcescontinuously and increasing, wastewater and wastewaterFig. 1. Location management map offor study rural areacommunities is still lacking. Major International Development (USAID) and the Department for International aquifers shared by Palestine and Israel: the mountain aquifer underlying resultingremain a keyin the priority gradual for Palestine; increase 26%of nitrates of households in groundwater are mainly wells located and international funding agencies such as the United States Agency for Development (DFID), financed by the UK, have recognised the importance the West Bank and the coastal aquifer underlying Gaza. freshwaterin rural areas springs. which are not connected to a piped water supply. Only 29% Fig. 1. Location map of study area InternationalPalestine, Development Israel, (USAID) Jordan and and the most Department other mid-eastern for International countries have of supporting small community-based water and sanitation projects to of theMajor population water and in wastewater the West Bank development and Gaza projects Strip are and connected strategies to for a 2 Developmentlimited (DFID), water financed resources, by the and UK, have future recognised population the projections importance in these enhance rural planning and sustainable development; thus they have Palestinesewerage aresystem. urgently Crude needed. sewage As emergencycontinues tomeasures, be diverted international into cesspits aid or percolatingPalestine, Israel, pits. TheJordan cesspits and most are other emptied mid-eastern by vacuum countries trucks, have and of supportingcountries small place community-based severe demands water on alreadyand sanitation fragile reservesprojects(1) .to Palestine funded several water-supply and wastewater projects(4). Through this donor agencies and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have funded (inlimited most watercases) resources,their contents and are future disposed population of in nearby projections valleys – in posing these enhance will rural experience planning aand serious sustainable deficit development; (271 million thus m3) by they the have year 2020. study, Birzeit University has demonstrated an effective and innovative several small water and wastewater projects; studies of(1) long-term (4) ancountries environmental place severe hazard demands to the undergroundon already fragile aquifers reserves (the main. Palestine water funded severalThere are water-supply numerous studies and wastewater and plans projects for expanding. Through water this resources approach for encouraging effective water use in schools. It has been projects are also being undertaken. However, strategic3 planning for water resource).will experience Only a a serious few small deficit sewage-treatment (271 million m ) plants by the have year 2020. been study, Birzeit University has demonstrated an effective and innovative and wastewater management for rural communities is still lacking. Major constructedThere are numerous in Palestine studies for the and protection plans for of expandingthe aquatic water environment resources(3). approach for encouraging effective water use in schools. It has been THE JOURNAL V17 N3 AUGUST 2003 152 international funding agencies such as the United States Agency for The wastewater-related problems are continuously increasing, Fig. 1. Location map of study area Internationalresulting in theDevelopment gradual increase (USAID) ofand nitrates the Department in groundwater for International wells and THE JOURNAL V17 N3 AUGUST 2003 152 Developmentfreshwater springs. (DFID), financed by the UK, have recognised the importance Palestine, Israel, Jordan and most other mid-eastern countries have of supportingMajor water small and wastewatercommunity-based development water andprojects sanitation and strategies projects forto limited water resources, and future population projections in these enhancePalestine ruralare urgently planning needed. and sustainable As emergency development; measures, international thus they have aid (1) (4) countries place severe demands on already fragile reserves . Palestine fundeddonor agencies several and water-supply non-governmental and wastewater organisations projects (NGOs). Through have funded this will experience a serious deficit (271 million m3) by the year 2020. study,several Birzeit small University water and has wastewater demonstrated projects; an effective studies and of innovative long-term There are numerous studies and plans for expanding water resources approachprojects are for also encouraging being undertaken. effective However, water use strategic in schools. planning It has for water been and wastewater management for rural communities is still lacking. Major international funding agencies suchTHE as JOURNAL the United V17 N3 States AUGUST Agency 2003 152 for Fig. 1. Location map of study area International Development (USAID) and the Department for International Development (DFID), financed by the UK, have recognised the importance Palestine, Israel, Jordan and most other mid-eastern countries have of supporting small community-based water and sanitation projects to limited water resources, and future population projections in these enhance rural planning and sustainable development; thus they have countries place severe demands on already fragile reserves(1). Palestine funded several water-supply and wastewater projects(4). Through this will experience a serious deficit (271 million m3) by the year 2020. study, Birzeit University has demonstrated an effective and innovative There are numerous studies and plans for expanding water resources approach for encouraging effective water use in schools. It has been

THE JOURNAL V17 N3 AUGUST 2003 152 *Journal Paper 2387 7/22/03 5:37 PM Page 2

based on the principal of wastewater re-use and an awareness campaign AWARENESS CAMPAIGN for effective water use. The effectiveness of the approach has been The aim of most water-education programmes is to (a) inspire young demonstrated by measuring knowledge, attitudes and practices of people to take an interest in water resources and (b) become active students related to water topics. A pilot project has been implemented in environmental stewards. The water-education programme should consider many schools in the District of Jenin (Fig.1) by the University, with close many principles to inform and motivate young people to take action. These collaboration and financial support of an Italian NGO, the Civil Volunteer principles include clear educational goals, a link to community water Group (GVC). issues, matching youth education needs with desires, and an appropriate message which should not be too specialised, narrow in relevance, or too STUDY APPROACH technical(5,6). Using these principles, relevant educational material was The approach was to construct a low-cost sewage-treatment plant prepared and taught to the trainers. The trainers were carefully selected adjacent to the main school of each of the rural villages to enable students from Birzeit university, who were either studying for an MSc in wastewater re-use. The aim was to determine the effectiveness of the Water Engineering or were final-year engineering students. awareness campaign, using and not using pilot sewage-treatment The prepared educational material comprised three main parts: (i) a plants in schools in the West Bank. The objectives were to: theoretical background on water education and water-promotion approaches and theories used in schools; (ii) water topics, including (i) Convey the significance of the best use of available water resources lectures on the elements of a local watershed, water resources, water through the construction of low-cost treatment plants and the re- demands and possible water-conservation measures, and (iii) the use of wastewater; necessary tools for project implementation and the use of an active (ii) Minimise the risk of environmental hazards associated with existing learning methodology. The theme of the educational modules was the unhealthy sanitation practices; same for all grades, although the means for conveying the message was (iii) Use awareness campaigns which are designed to create interest, varied to match each age group. Modules were interdisciplinary, with and promote information on the need to use water more efficiently; prepared lesson plans in various subjects including science, art, religion (iv) Encourage student participation in the solution of water problems; and and social science (Table 1). Leaflets, photographs and posters were (v) Determine the degree of improvement of the students’ knowledge, prepared and given to the students. A pre- and post-study questionnaire attitudes and practices related to water issues, after implementing was used to assess the cognitive effectiveness of the water-awareness the two components of the approach. campaign activities. Each questionnaire contained three sets of questions aimed at assessing (a) the general background of the student TREATMENT PLANTS and his/her knowledge with respect to water issues, (b) the student’s The low-cost treatment plants were designed to be simple, efficient and attitudes towards putting this knowledge into practice, and (c) a self flexible. Operational requirements mainly related to electro-mechanical report about adopting effective water use. tasks, and maintenance was minimal. The plant comprised a septic tank, two biological filters, a sand filter and a storage tank. Fig. 2 shows Table 1. Sample lessons of education modules the pilot sewage-treatment plant which was constructed at Jaba school. Sewage flows into the two-compartment septic tank by gravity. Organic Discipline Sample lessons material, which is retained at the base of the septic tank, undergoes Science/ecology Water resources, water demand and impacts of facultative and anaerobic decomposition and is converted into more humans on water, and conservation problems stable compounds and gases. Septic-tank effluent is distributed evenly with small populations. to the bottom of the up-flow anaerobic gravel filter. Filter effluent is Art/photograph Water in art, painting, and nature photography. collected at its surface and applied to the surface of the down-flow Religion Water in the Holy Koran, the role of water in aerobic gravel filter – the resulting effluent being applied to the sand- ancient cultures, and religious laws pertaining bed filter to remove bacteria and viruses. Filter effluent is discharged to to the protection of nature. a collection tank, then pumped to a storage tank on the roof of the school Social and political How different groups view water and nature for ultimate use in irrigation of the school gardens and nearby fields. sciences (national, economic, religious, demographic), trans-border water and environmental problems. PILOT PROJECT The pilot project with its two components (i.e. the treatment plant and the awareness campaign) commenced in late 1999 in fifteen villages in Jenin District, which depends upon groundwater as the main sources for domestic and agricultural water supply and where 61% of the population have access to piped water and 52% have their own wells(7). The project was implemented in close collaboration with a committee from the Palestinian Ministry of Education, Birzeit University and the GVC Group. The selected villages lacked sewerage systems and depended mainly on cesspits as a primary method of sewage disposal. In the first phase of the pilot project, only two sewage-treatment plants were commissioned at two schools, but the awareness campaign Fig. 2. Jaba school pilot sewage-treatment plant was held in the fifteen schools. Eighty-eight classes from grades 7-12

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were included (approximately 2500 students) from male, female and Table 3. Percentage of correct answers co-education schools. Each student was exposed to two 1-h lectures, and data collection regarding the impact of the awareness campaign Group A Group B was carried out in two stages. The first-stage survey (pre-test) Theme Correct knowledge answers Pre- Post- Pre- Post- was carried out before implementation of the awareness campaign test test test test and included a random sample of 462 students from the fifteen Water Septic tanks can pollute 65.3 87.9 62 89.1 schools. The second-stage post-test survey was conducted at the pollution groundwater end of the awareness campaign and included a random sample of Treated Treated wastewater can be 40.3 90.1 35.1 92.4 450 students. wastewater used for restricted irrigation Water Water can be imported in 30.3 92.1 38.5 92.5 EVALUATION OF APPROACH resources tankers from other countries Efficiency and Standards for Sewage-Treatment Plants Sustainability Water is a finite and 45.4 88.5 48.4 85.5 The sewage-treatment plant at Jaba School (Fig. 2) was used to of water vulnerable resource describe the relevant standards and efficiencies which were achieved resources in the pilot study. The average flow was 15 m3/d, and the organic Water-saving Water-saving devices are 66.3 87.6 70.5 85.3 loading for the septic tank, anaerobic upflow gravel filter and aerobic devices applicable in Palestine downflow gravel filter, was 8, 6, and 1.8 kg BOD/d respectively. Average 53.0 89.1 54.4 90.2 Composite samples of influent and effluent were analysed for total suspended solids (TSS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), Attitudes

ammoniacal nitrogen (amm. N), nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N), total Changing attitudes through an intervention awareness campaign nitrogen (tot. N) and faecal coliforms (FC)(8). The treatment plant was is important: positive attitudes towards effective use of water might designed to meet Palestinian standards (1998) for landscape indicate good intentions of the target students to modify practices. irrigation areas where there is public access, i.e. the BOD and TSS of Attitudes in the pre-test ranged from 65.3% to 77.1% for Group A the effluent should be less than 45 mg/l. Table 2 demonstrates that and 66.1-75.3% for Group B. These improved attitudes ranged from the effluent quality met the targets for landscape irrigation; faecal 75.1% to 84.1% for Group A and 85.8-94.5% for Group B in the post- coliforms were within WHO acceptable limits (<1000/100 ml)(9). test. Table 4 shows the proportions of the students who had positive The schools planned and implemented special agricultural attitudes in all themes, before and after the intervention. programmes to utilise the treated wastewater. The treatment plants also reduced existing environmental hazards in the school areas Practices caused by previous wastewater disposal practices. Further Effective water-use practices constituted the key variable among significant environmental improvements could still be achieved if the three components of knowledge, attitudes and practices. Abu- such plants were used for treating the sewage from all the villages. Taleb and Murad(5) considered practices as the hardest characteristic that can be influenced by any awareness campaign; therefore, Effectiveness of Campaign significant outcomes are difficult to achieve in a short period of time. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data which were Practices in the pre-test were low and ranged from 15.1% to 45.0% obtained in the two surveys. The frequency distribution of correct for Group A and 20.1-49.3% for Group B. Significant improvements in answers was broken down by the three components under study, i.e. effective water-use practices resulted following the completion of the knowledge, attitudes and practices. Data and results of the awareness campaign – as demonstrated by the improved scores awareness campaign are presented separately for the two types of ranging from 50.5% to 78.7% for Group A and 80.1-93.3% for Group schools, i.e. Group A - schools with no pilot sewage-treatment plant, B. After the campaign, students started to talk about the water crises and Group B - schools with a pilot sewage-treatment plant. in their villages, practising water-conservation measures, trying not to pollute water and commencing to install water-saving devices at Knowledge their homes. Table 5 shows the frequency distribution of improvement In the pre-test, the proportion of students who answered in all grades before and after the intervention. The results of pre-test knowledge questions correctly ranged from 30.3% to 70.5% for Group analysis for both groups indicate that students seem to have good A, and 35.1–72.0% for Group B. In the post-test, students basic knowledge and positive attitudes towards effective water use. demonstrated their improved knowledge by scoring 87.6-92.1% for The post-test analysis showed that the awareness campaign Group A and 85.3-96.2% for Group B (Table 3). succeeded in influencing student knowledge, attitudes and practices to a satisfactory extent in both Groups (Table 6). When comparing the Table 2. Jaba School sewage-treatment plant analysis and efficiency results of the two groups, it can be seen that the proportion of students in the post-test stage who correctly answered the Analysis knowledge, attitudes and practices questions for Group B, was higher BOD TSS Tot. Amm. NO -N pH than Group A. Component 3 (mg/l) (mg/l) N N Influent 530 490 99 86 4 7.2 Effluent 31 25 10 4 8 7.8 Removal (%) 94 95 89 95 25

4 THE JOURNAL V17 N3 AUGUST 2003 154 *Journal Paper 2387 7/22/03 5:37 PM Page 4

Table 4. Percent of positive response Table 7. Group A multiple regression

Group A Group B Dependent variable: effective water-use practices Theme Positive attitudes about Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre-test Post-test test test test test B SE B T Sig. T B SE B T Sig. T Water Importance of talking 70.5 82.1 69.3 90.2 Knowledge 0.6 1.14 0.7 0.43 0.4 1.3 0.9 0.1 crises about water crises Attitudes 0.8 0.04 1.2 0.2 0.6 0.9 1.5 0.3 Citizen Importance of practising 65.3 75.1 66.1 85.8 Age 0.03 1.1 0.8 0.09 0.23 1.3 1.7 0.19 duties water conservation Female 1.1 0.9 1.3 0.11 1.5 1.05 0.9 0.04 Awareness Importance of water- 70.4 78.6 71.5 89.6 Multiple R 0.63 0.65 campaign awareness campaign R square 0.54 0.6 Effect of Importance of religion 77.1 83.7 75.3 94.5 F 70.43 78.44 religion on water conservation Sig F 0.00 0.00 Water-saving Importance of water-saving 66.1 84.1 67.1 89.0 devices devices at homes Note: B = regression-coefficient values Average 69.9 80.7 69.9 89.8 SE B = standard error of regression coefficient T = observed significance level based on statistics Table 5. Percent of correct answers for actual practices Sig. T = 2-tailed significance levels for explanatory variables Multiple R = absolute value of the correlation coefficient Group A Group B between the dependent variable and the independent variable and the Theme Practices Pre- Post- Pre- Post- correlation coefficient between values predicted by the regression group and test test test test the observed values Water I am talking about water 20.4 50.5 24.3 93.3 R square = % of dependent values explained by independent values crises crises with people F = ratio of mean square for regression to mean square for residual, and Citizen I am practicing water- 45.0 65.1 48.1 90.4 Sig. F = observed significance level. duties conservation measures Awareness I will join any possible 30.4 67.3 33.2 90.6 Table 8. Group B multiple regression campaign future water-awareness campaign Dependent variable: effective water-use practices Water I am trying to avoid 50.1 78.7 49.3 90.5 Pre-test Post-test pollution water pollution B SE B T Sig. T B SE B T Sig. T Water-saving I will try to install 15.1 55.1 20.1 80.1 Knowledge 0.8 1.2 0.9 0.6 1.2 1.04 0.92 0.03 devices water-saving devices Attitudes 1.1 0.07 1.4 0.1 1.05 0.65 1.1 0.05 in my home Age 0.3 1.3 0.5 0.15 0.9 1.11 1.32 0.1 Average 32.2 63.3 35.0 88.9 Female 0.9 1.1 1.05 0.12 1.6 0.91 0.9 0.04 Multiple R 0.62 0.78 Table 6. Average percent of correct answers for knowledge, attitude and R square 0.52 0.62 practices questions F 74.32 82.65 Sig F 0.00 0.00 Group A Group B Correct knowledge answers Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Note: B = egression coefficient values test test test test SE B = standard error of regression coefficient Correct answers for knowledge questions 53.0 89.1 54.4 90.2 T = observed significance level based on t statistics Positive response for attitude statement 69.9 80.7 69.9 89.8 Sig. T = 2-tailed significance levels for explanatory variables Correct answers for actual 32.2 63.3 35.0 88.9 Multiple R = absolute value of the correlation coefficient between the practices questions dependent variable and the independent variable and the correlation coefficient between values predicted by the regression group and the Multiple regression analysis observed values Multiple-regression analysis techniques, using SPSS-X computer R square = % of dependent values explained by independent values software�, were used to analyse the data. Effective water-use practices F = ratio of mean square for regression to mean square for residual, and were taken as the main dependent variable in this research, while Sig F = observed significance level knowledge, attitudes, age and gender were taken as independent variables. Tables 7 and 8 show the relationship between the effective female gender could significantly predict practising effective water use water-use practices and the explanatory variables for Groups A and B, in the post stage of the survey. respectively. Table 7 (Group A) shows that only the female gender was ‘Multiple R’ values in Tables 7 and 8 (0.62-0.79) are close to 1, strongly correlated to effective water-use practices in the post-test stage therefore the regression groups fit the data well. The mean squares are (Sig. T value is less than 0.05); therefore, it is the only variable that the sums of squares divided by their respective degrees of freedom. appears to be of significance in predicting effective water-use practices. Large F values suggest that there is a linear relationship between the two Table 8 (Group B) shows that good knowledge, positive attitudes and variables. The F value in Tables 7 and 8 are from 70.43 to 82.65, and the

THE JOURNAL V17 N3 AUGUST 2003 155 � Statistical Package for Social Sciences, SPSS inc., Chicago, USA 5 *Journal Paper 2387 7/22/03 5:37 PM Page 5

observed significance levels (Sig. F) associated with them are less low building costs and have minimum land, operational and than 0.00005; therefore the regression for both groups fits the data maintenance requirements. well. The R square values are from 0.52 to 0.62 (Tables 7 and 8), *Journal thereforePaper 238752-62% 7/22/03 of the dependent 5:37 variable PM Page (effective 5 water use) can ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS be explained by the independent variables (knowledge, attitudes, age The authors wish to acknowledge the helpful assistance and review and gender). The results of the multiple-regression analysis of the provided by numerous researchers, including Prof. K. Sabri, and Mr. K. N. two groups indicate that good knowledge and positive attitudes in the Eldeen. Also, the financial support received from the Italian CVG Group post-test stage might not predict changes that are conducive to an is acknowledged. effective water use (Group A), and that good knowledge and positive observedattitudes significancecould significantly levels predict(Sig. F) the associated practising with of effectivethem are water less REFERENCESlow building costs and have minimum land, operational and thanuse (Group0.00005; B). therefore The existence the regression of the treatmentfor both groups plants fits within the data the (1) maintenance LONERGAN, C. requirements.AND BROOKS, D. Watershed: The Role of Fresh Water well.school The yard R square (Group values B) support are from and 0.52 help to the 0.62 students (Tables in 7 adoptingand 8), in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. International Development thereforeeffective 52-62% water-use of the practices dependent Therefore, variable a(effective special water effort use) should can ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSResearch Centre, Ottawa, 1994. be explained made with by the regard independent to the schoolvariables environments (knowledge, inattitudes, any future age The(2) authors CAMP, D RESSER wish to AND acknowledgeMCKEE INTERNATIONAL the helpfulCO. Comprehensive assistance and Planning review andawareness gender). campaigns. The results of the multiple-regression analysis of the providedFramework by numerous for researchers, Palestinian including Water Prof. Resources K. Sabri, Development. and Mr. K. N. twoOne groups of indicate the basic that assumptions good knowledge of the and implemented positive attitudes awareness in the Eldeen.CDM, Also,Design the financial Report, Task support 4, Rammallah, received from 1997. the Italian CVG Group post-testcampaign stage (and mightcampaigns not predict in general) changes is that areimplementation conducive to willan is(3) acknowledged. MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION. Regional Plan for the effectivehelp to createwater use interest (Group in A), and and inform that good people knowledge about and using positive water West Bank Governorates: Water and Wastewater Existing situation. attitudesefficiently. could As people significantly gain new predict and more the practisingknowledge, of they effective will develop water REFERENCESMOPIC, Rammallah, 1998. usemore (Group positive B). attitudes The existence towards of thewater treatment conservation plants and, within finally, the (1)(4) L AONERGANL-SA-ED, , C. R., AND MIMIBROOKS, Z. , AND D. WNatershed:AWAHDAH, A.The New Role development of Fresh Water in schoolwill adopt yard new (Group practices B) support which make and help sense the to studentsthem. Basically, in adopting it is indecentralised the Israeli-Palestinian sanitation systems Conflict for Palestinian. International rural communities. Development effectiveeasy to promote water-use ideas practices and knowledge, Therefore, a but special it is effort difficult should and ResearchIn: 2nd INCO-MED Centre, WaterOttawa, Conf 1994.., Amman, 2001. betime-consuming made with regard to change to the attitudes school and environments habits that in people any future have (2)(5) C AAMPBU-T, ALEBDRESSER, M. AND MCURADKEE, INTERNATIONAL M. Use of focusCO. Comprehensive groups and surveys Planning to awarenessacquired over campaigns. their life-time. Frameworkevaluate water for conservation Palestinian campaign. Water J. Resources Wat. Res. Plng. Development. & Mangt., One of the basic assumptions of the implemented awareness CDM,ASCE,Design 1999, 125Report,, (1), Task 94. 4, Rammallah, 1997. campaignCONCLUSIONS (and campaigns in general) is that implementation will (3)(6) M MINISTRYOHAN, OF K.P LANNINGAND SA ANDYWELLINTERNATIONAL, D. EffectiveCOOPERATION environmental. Regional Plan education for the help1. The to treatment create interest plants in and and re-use inform of water people in about irrigation using acted water as Wconstraintsest Bank Governorates: and prerequisites. Water W andaterlines Wastewater, 1994, Existing13, (2), 19.situation. efficiently.reinforcing As people factors gain in new supporting and more the knowledge, water-awareness they will campaign develop (7) MOPIC, APPLIED Rammallah,RESEARCH I1998.NSTITUTE, JERUSALEM. Environmental Profile moreand positive helped to attitudes achieve optimal towards water water conservation. conservation and, finally, (4) AforL-S theA-E WestD, R., Bank: MIMI Jenin, Z. DistrictAND NAW. VolumeAHDAH, A.7, ARIJ, New Bethlehem, development 1996. in will2. Wateradopt educationnew practices should which be recognised make sense as toa pertinentthem. Basically, and integral it is (8) decentralised AMERICAN PUBLIC sanitationHEALTH systemsASSOCIATION for Palestinian, AMERICAN rural Wcommunities.ATER WORKS nd easypart to of promote the daily ideaslife of Palestinian and knowledge, schools. but it is difficult and In:ASSOCIATION2 INCO-MED AND WATER WaterPOLLUTION Conf., CAmman,ONTROL F EDERATION2001. . Standard Methods time-consuming3. Improving attitudes to change and attitudes practices andof effective habits waterthat people use can have be (5) AforBU -TtheALEB Examination, M. AND MURAD of Water, M. Use and of Wastewater focus groups. (18th and Edn.) surveys APHA, to acquiredachieved over through their life-time. action-oriented methods in water education and evaluateAWWA, AND water WPCF, conservation Washington campaign. DC, 1992. J. Wat. Res. Plng. & Mangt., out-of-classroom oriented approaches and activities. (9) ASCE, WORLD 1999,HEALTH 125O,RGANISATION (1), 94. . Health Guidelines for the Use of CONCLUSIONS4. On-site anaerobic-aerobic treatment technologies have proved to be (6) MWOHANastewater, K. ANDin AgricultureSAYWELL, D.and Effective Aquaculture. environmental Technical Report education Series 1. Thefeasible, treatment with high plants organics and re-useremoval of efficiency; water in they irrigation are simple, acted with as constraints778, WHO, Geneva,and prerequisites. 1989. Waterlines, 1994, 13, (2), 19. reinforcing factors in supporting the water-awareness campaign (7) APPLIED RESEARCH INSTITUTE, JERUSALEM. Environmental Profile and helped to achieve optimal water conservation. for the West Bank: Jenin District. Volume 7, ARIJ, Bethlehem, 1996. 2. Water education should be recognised as a pertinent and integral (8) AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN WATER WORKS *Journal Paper 2387 7/22/03 5:37 PM Page 5 part of the daily life of Palestinian schools. ASSOCIATION AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL FEDERATION. Standard Methods 3. Improving attitudes and practices of effective water use can be for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. (18th Edn.) APHA, achieved through action-oriented methods in water education and AWWA, AND WPCF, Washington DC, 1992. out-of-classroom oriented approaches and activities. (9) WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION. Health Guidelines for the Use of 4. On-site anaerobic-aerobic treatment technologies have proved to be Wastewater in Agriculture and Aquaculture. Technical Report Series feasible, with high organics removal efficiency; they are simple, with 778, WHO, Geneva, 1989. observed significance levels (Sig. F) associated with them are less low building costs and have minimum land, operational and than 0.00005; therefore the regression for both groups fits the data maintenance requirements. well. The R square values are from 0.52 to 0.62 (Tables 7 and 8), therefore 52-62% of the dependent variable (effective water use) can ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS be explained by the independent variables (knowledge, attitudes, age The authors wish to acknowledge the helpful assistance and review and gender). The results of the multiple-regression analysis of the provided by numerous researchers, including Prof. K. Sabri, and Mr. K. N. two groups indicate that good knowledge and positive attitudes in the Eldeen. Also, the financial support received from the Italian CVG Group post-test stage might not predict changes that are conducive to an is acknowledged. effective water use (Group A), and that good knowledge and positive attitudes could significantly predict the practising of effective water REFERENCES use (Group B). The existence of the treatment plants within the (1) LONERGAN, C. AND BROOKS, D. Watershed: The Role of Fresh Water school yard (Group B) support and help the students in adopting in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. International Development effective water-use practices Therefore, a special effort should Research Centre, Ottawa, 1994. be made with regard to the school environments in any future (2) CAMP, DRESSER AND MCKEE INTERNATIONAL CO. Comprehensive Planning awareness campaigns. Framework for Palestinian Water Resources Development. One of the basic assumptions of the implemented awareness CDM, Design Report, Task 4, Rammallah, 1997. THE JOURNAL V17 N3 AUGUST 2003 156 campaign (and campaigns in general) is that implementation will (3) MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION. Regional Plan for the help to create interest in and inform people about using water West Bank Governorates: Water and Wastewater Existing situation. efficiently. As people gain new and more knowledge, they will develop MOPIC, Rammallah, 1998. more positive attitudes towards water conservation and, finally, (4) AL-SA-ED, R., MIMI, Z. AND NAWAHDAH, A. New development in will adopt new practices which make sense to them. Basically, it is decentralised sanitation systems for Palestinian rural communities. easy to promote ideas and knowledge, but it is difficult and 6 In: 2nd INCO-MED Water Conf., Amman, 2001. time-consuming to change attitudes and habits that people have (5) ABU-TALEB, M. AND MURAD, M. Use of focus groups and surveys to acquired over their life-time. evaluate water conservation campaign. J. Wat. Res. Plng. & Mangt., ASCE, 1999, 125, (1), 94. THE JOURNAL V17 N3 AUGUST 2003 156 CONCLUSIONS (6) MOHAN, K. AND SAYWELL, D. Effective environmental education 1. The treatment plants and re-use of water in irrigation acted as constraints and prerequisites. Waterlines, 1994, 13, (2), 19. reinforcing factors in supporting the water-awareness campaign (7) APPLIED RESEARCH INSTITUTE, JERUSALEM. Environmental Profile and helped to achieve optimal water conservation. for the West Bank: Jenin District. Volume 7, ARIJ, Bethlehem, 1996. 2. Water education should be recognised as a pertinent and integral (8) AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN WATER WORKS part of the daily life of Palestinian schools. ASSOCIATION AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL FEDERATION. Standard Methods 3. Improving attitudes and practices of effective water use can be for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. (18th Edn.) APHA, achieved through action-oriented methods in water education and AWWA, AND WPCF, Washington DC, 1992. out-of-classroom oriented approaches and activities. (9) WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION. Health Guidelines for the Use of 4. On-site anaerobic-aerobic treatment technologies have proved to be Wastewater in Agriculture and Aquaculture. Technical Report Series feasible, with high organics removal efficiency; they are simple, with 778, WHO, Geneva, 1989.

THE JOURNAL V17 N3 AUGUST 2003 156 2

Sustainability Assessment of Onsite Sanitation Facilities in Ramallah – Albireh District with Emphasis on Technical, Socio – Cultural and Financial Aspects

Rashed Al -Sa`ed and Sana Mubarak

The article can be quoted as:

Al-Saed, R. and Mubarak, S. (2006) “Sustainability Assessment of Onsite Sanitation Facilities in Ramallah – Albireh District with Emphasis on Technical, Socio –Cultural and Financial Aspects”. Management of Environmental Quality, Emerald Group Publishing, 17 (2): 140-156

7 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/1477-7835.htm

MEQ 17,2 Sustainability assessment of onsite sanitation facilities in SustainabilityRamallah-Albireh Assessment of Onsite Sanitationdistrict Facilitieswith in Ramallah – 140 Albireh District with Emphasis on Technical, Socio – Cultural and Financial emphasis onAspectstechnical,

socio-culturalRashedand Al-Sa`edfinancial1, Sana Mubarak2 aspects

1 Rashed Al-Sa’ed Water StudiesWater Institute,Studies BirzeitInstitute, University,Birzeit PalestineUniversity, Birzeit, Palestine, and

2 Graduate student, Water Studies Institute,Sana’ BirzeitMubarak University, Palestine UNRWA (United Nations Relief and Works Agency), East Jerusalem, Palestine

Abstract Purpose – This paper seeks to evaluate the present onsite sanitation systems in Palestinian rural areas in Ramallah-Albireh district with special emphasis on technical, socio-cultural and financial aspects. Design/methodology/approach –A specialized questionnaire was developed and distributed to 200 households in four randomly selected villages with less than 5,000 persons and having onsite sanitation facilities. WAWTTAR software package was used to evaluate 16 different treatment systems and to select a sustainable onsite treatment system for these rural areas based on technical, environmental, financial and socio-cultural considerations. Findings – Major findings indicated that most of the respondents were in favor of using treated grey wastewater and equally rejected the use of mixed treated effluent for agricultural irrigation. More than 50 percent of the respondents were against having new onsite treatment systems and favored centralized wastewater treatment options, as only 18 percent showed willingness to participate partially in construction costs. The WAWTTAR data analysis on feasible onsite treatment alternatives revealed that the septic tank-subsurface wetland system offers a higher level of sustainability to rural communities in Ramallah-Albireh district. Finally, the social and economical aspects have an equal status in technical and financial issues. Practical implications – The results obtained can be utilized by local and international experts seeking a carrier in the planning and design of sustainable sanitation facilities in developing countries or for those who have newly filled a post in governmental, non-governmental or academic institutions. Originality/value – This paper highlights adequate tools for the selection of sustainable onsite sanitation systems in Palestinian rural communities. Methodology and dissemination of the obtained results can be applied to other rural communities in developing countries. Keywords Palestine, Sewerage,Economic sustainability, Sanitary appliances Paper type Research paper

Introduction

Management of Environmental Wastewater management in Palestine has been a neglected issue over the past years. Quality: An International Journal Due to financial constraints, inadequately equipped lab facilities and un-trained lab Vol. 17 No. 2, 2006 pp. 140-156 personnel no comprehensive data on wastewater characteristics and amounts q Emerald Group Publishing Limited discharged are yet available. Similarly, the effectiveness of the current urban treatment 1477-7835 DOI 10.1108/14777830610650465 facilities is usually constrained by limited capacity, poor maintenance, process

8 malfunction, poor maintenance practices, and lack of experienced or properly trained Onsite sanitation staff. In some districts of the West Bank (Nablus, Jenin and Hebron), where farmers facilities have limited access to available water resources, raw or partially treated wastewater discharged into the wades (seasonal small streams) is used for irrigation purposes. The situation of the sewerage system is extremely critical. About 73 percent of the households in the West Bank have cesspit sanitation and almost 3 percent lack any sanitation facilities, where less than 2 percent of the households in small communities 141 are connected to sewerage networks (Abu-Madi et al., 2000). The 2000 Census indicated that 192,000 households used onsite systems or cesspools. Data on systems failure rate is lacking and no national estimate is available (PCBS, 2000). Lack of financial national funds and inequitable political power placed domestic wastewater management in Palestinian rural communities at a second priority within the Palestinian water strategy. With donor financial aids, some local non-governmental organizations as the Palestinian Hydrology Group (PHG) and Palestinian Agricultural Relief Committees (PARC) have provided onsite sanitation facilities in some Palestinian small communities. Despite the huge efforts made by some local non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the initial decision to install a particular onsite treatment system was primarily made within the NGOs by non-experienced developers based on principles of low-cost treatment systems and NGOs profitability. In small communities, developers often chose onsite systems which could be easily installed for each dwelling. Once the onsite systems were installed, they were usually rarely examined again or maintained unless an emergency situation evoked. In some cases wastewater was either leaking or backing up into land; hence they were contributing to pollution of ground water and nearby surface waters bodies. In all Palestinian small communities, existing onsite sanitation facilities are inadequately designed, poorly sited, and rarely maintained over their service life cycle. Furthermore, the lack of experienced technical staff by the water related Palestinian institutions responsible for technical review and licensing as well as the outdated local municipal regulatory codes still facilitate and promote the continued use of such onsite systems (Al-Sa’ed, 2004). The water quality of groundwater wells and some freshwater springs is experiencing signs of gradual nitrate pollution (Mukhallalati and Safi, 1995; Alawneh and Al-Sa’ed, 1997). Among the nitrogen pollution sources is untreated municipal sewage from urban areas, domestic discharges and septic tanks from Palestinian rural communities and Israeli colonies, excessive fertilizer usage, leachate from solid waste dumpsites (UNEP, 2004). The newly issued Palestinian Environmental Law aiming at the environment improvement imposes stringent penalties for polluters. However, regulations for effluent quality standards for sewage works, industrial discharges, and wastewater and biosolids reuses are still undefined (PNA, 1999). Most of the rural sanitation facilities installed recently entail trickling filters, anaerobic and rapid filters as well as natural treatment systems (algal and duckweed pond systems) preceded by septic tanks (Theodory and Al-Sa’ed, 2002). Until now, all implemented small rural sewage treatment plants showed positive removal rates of organic matter and suspended solids but were poor in nitrogen removal (Al-Sa’ed and Zimmo, 2000). While selecting the treatment technology no attempts were made to assess the socio-economic aspects of the suggested treatment technology. The result is

9 MEQ often system failure and an unsustainable solution in achieving safe and affordable 17,2 wastewater treatment facilities. A recent study (Al-Sa’ed, 2005) conducted on the socio-economical aspects of decentralized sanitation in small Palestinian communities revealed that about 85 percent of the people accepted the idea while about 60 percent of them refused small onsite sanitation systems. The major reason behind these findings is that most (80 percent) of the respondents did not show willingness to pay or 142 participate in construction costs. According to Al-Sa’ed (2004), both PHG and PARC implemented onsite wastewater treatment systems of different types and sizes in the range between 5 and 1,000 inhabitants over the last five years. The established onsite sanitation systems are illustrated in Figure 1. Sustainable development definitions vary according to which it is applied. Even in the evaluation of onsite wastewater treatment systems presented in this research, the relative weights for the sustainability criteria are affected by the values of the specific communities using the system. For example, environmental and climatic features, the neighborhood and other social factors, and the ability of the users to pay for the system and other economic factors affect the relative importance of each criterion. Key factors to success in formulating rural community wastewater management programs should include public acceptance and local political support, funding availability and reasonable costs, visibility and accountability of local leaders (USEPA, 1994). Unfortunately, there are many examples of wastewater systems that do not relate to the local conditions; some of them are working despite their lack of suitability to the local environment, while other such systems fail altogether. Examples of the latter are some of the so-called ecological plants that work well in warmer climate, but without sufficient heat and sunlight they have no or very little effect or demand a lot of energy to work. Other examples are the projects where the users are not properly informed about the vulnerability of a plant to the contents of the wastewater. Van der Graaf et al. (1990) has conducted a study on small community wastewater treatment systems but did not investigate the socio-economical impact on the technology selection and comparison. Therefore, sustainability must be assessed in a local context. The main goal of this study was to evaluate rural onsite sanitation systems from the perspective of the community with special emphasis on technical, socio-cultural, environmental, and financial aspects.

Methodology Social-cultural impacts on sustainability of rural sanitation facilities Sustainable development must be environmentally friendly, socially acceptable and financially viable. It is widely agreed that progress towards sustainable services requires the integration of these three elements into the decision making process. For this purpose, a work plan has been prepared to identify the impact of socio-cultural issues on the existing rural onsite sanitation facilities of randomly selected four Palestinian rural communities in Ramallah-Albireh district (Figure 2). The selection of these rural communities was based on the population number (less than 5,000 persons); the existence of onsite treatment systems and incremental nitrate pollution signs in groundwater and surface water bodies (PWA, 2004). A unified questionnaire format was developed and distributed during field technical site visits to the rural communities under study. Site visits were conducted in

10 Onsite sanitation facilities

Onsite sanitation 143 facilities

143

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of Figure 1. onsite wastewater Schematic diagram of treatment systems in rural onsite wastewater treatment systems in rural Palestine Palestine

11 MEQ 17,2

MEQ 17,2 144

144

Figure 2. Figure 2. West Bank districts- West Bank districts- Ramallah-Albireh study Ramallah-Albireh study area with nitrate pollution area with nitrate pollution signs signs

12 November 2003 to the rural communities in Ramallah-Albireh district. Facilities were Onsite sanitation chosen in four villages: Billein, Rammun, Kober and Ni’llin, where only Billein village facilities has an onsite treatment system, the rest have septic tanks. The questionnaire was distributed to rural areas inhabitants of all ages. The selection of a random sample (50 households for each village) was made; then, a one person from each household was chosen and interviewed. The questionnaire focused on the following main issues: 145 . Is the sanitation system socially and culturally acceptable to the community? . Is the system affordable with respect to capital and annual running costs? . Which type of waste management is it preferable: centralized or decentralized? . Do you have benefits of wastewater separation; grey and black wastewaters? . Would you be willing to buy vegetables irrigated with treated effluent? . Is it safe for you to have an onsite treatment system?

Selection of financially sustainable onsite treatment systems The choice of an adequate solution should be based on an integrated assessment of the local technical, environmental and social aspects. The selection of existing onsite sanitation facilities in the study area was based solely on a financial basis. In this study, technology and environmental impacts and appropriateness, in the context of the availability of skilled personnel to operate and maintain it, as well as socio-cultural factors were taken into account (Figure 3). Capital costs are an important item in the selection of an appropriate treatment technology. Decision makers need to be aware of the relative costs of technologies, so that a decision to select a particular technology can be based on sound financial and economic considerations. For this purpose,WAWTTAR software package was used to assist in technology selection and comparison based on environmental, social and economical aspects (Finney and Gearheart, 1998). The main use of WAWTTAR, as a tool for individuals with a technical background, is not to design but to screen and investigate possible wastewater treatment options. The user accomplishes this by examining the public health status, water resource requirements, material availability, cost structures and ecological conditions of a particular community. The program assesses these combined factors to generate a set of comparable and feasible technical sanitation solutions.

Results and discussions Socio-cultural aspects and public participation Figure 4 illustrates the distribution of rural population and households in all districts of the West Bank (PCBS, 2000). About 38.1 percent (609,203 capita) of the total population in the West Bank is concentrated in small rural communities, where the Ramallah-Albireh district has the most rural areas among the West Bank districts. Ramallah/Al Bireh rural areas occupy about 21.8 percent (133,084 capita) of small communities with around 8.3 percent of the total rural population in the whole West Bank. In the study area, the average population for each village is shown in Table I, where the families have around 10 persons per household. Large family size may be related to

13 MEQ MEQ 17,2 17,2 MEQ 17,2 146 146 146

Figure 3. Flow sheet for the selection of a preferable onsite treatment system Figure 3. Figure 3. Flow sheet for the Flow sheet for theselection of a preferable selection of a preferableonsite treatment system onsite treatment system

Figure 4. Distribution of rural communities in the West Bank districts

Figure 4. Distribution of rural general trends in poverty levels and fertility, and to proximity of the villages to one communities in the West Bank districts another. Figure 4. The data gathered were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively (Table II). Data Distribution of rural analysis shows that the level of knowledge regarding hygiene is high in all the communities in the West communitiesgeneral trendscoveredin povertyduring thelevelsresearch.and fertilityHoweve, r,andthistoknowleproximitydge isofnotthepracticedvillagesforto one Bank districts a number of reasons: another. The data gathered were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively (Table II). Data analysis shows that the level of knowledge regarding hygiene is high in all the general trendscommunitiesin povertycoveredlevelsduringandthefertilityresearch., andHoweveto proximityr, this knowleofdgetheisvillagesnot practicedto onfore another. a number of reasons: The data gathered were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively (Table II). Data analysis shows that the level of knowledge regarding hygiene is high in all the communities covered during the research. However, this knowledge is not practiced for a number of reasons:

14 . Lack of financial means to ensure a more hygienic life style. Onsite sanitation . Most of the people in rural communities do not have enough water to bath daily facilities . Lackor provideof financiahand-washingl means tofacilitiesensure aatmorethe existinghygienictoiletslife style.available. Onsite sanitation . . MostLack ofoftheknowlepeopledgein ruralon cause,communitiestransmissdo ionnot haveand enoughpreventiwateon ofr towaterbobath dailyrne facilities ordiseasesprovide. Thehand-washinglevel of knowlefacilitiesdge regardingat the existingthe treatmenttoilets available.of these diseases is high because the incidences of these diseases are high. The knowledge regarding . Lack of knowledge on cause, transmission and prevention of waterborne 147 the treatment of these diseases was obtained mostly from clinic and hospital diseases. The level of knowledge regarding the treatment of these diseases is personnel. high because the incidences of these diseases are high. The knowledge regarding 147 the treatment of these diseases was obtained mostly from clinic and hospital personnel. Name of village Average population (capita) Average family size (capita/household)

Billein 1,631 14.8 Table I. NameRammunof village Average population2,983 (capita) Average family size9.2(capita/household) Population and family Kober 3,411 10.1 size distribution in the BilleinNi’lin 1,6314,414 14.88.5 villages underTablestudyI. Rammun 2,983 9.2 Population and family Kober 3,411 10.1 size distribution in the Ni’lin 4,414 8.5 villages under study No. Item Mean Std Dev. Percentage

I. Open-ended questions No.1. ItemAge (year) Mean37.6 Std11.2Dev. Percentage 2. Gender a (%) 73.0 0.5 b I.3. Open-endedEducation questions(%) 62.5 1.3 1.4. AgeChildren(year)(under 18 years age) (capita) 37.64.3 11.22.6 2.5. GenderRooms numbera (%) per household (rooms) 73.03.9 0.50.9 3.6. EducationAverage incomeb (%) (US$/month) 400.062.5 75.01.3 c 4.7. ChildrenEmpty cost(underrate18(US$/eachyears age)pumpage)(capita) 10.04.3 2.63.0 5. Rooms number per household (rooms) 3.9 0.9 II. Awareness (people concerned about the project) 6. Average income (US$/month) 400.0 75.0 1. People agreed completely to use treated wastewater 25% 7. Empty cost rate c (US$/each pumpage) 10.0 3.0 2. People refused completely to use treated wastewater 75% II.3. AwarenessAccepting decentralized(people concernedsystemabout the project) 75% accepted 1.4. PeopleAcceptedagreedonsitecompletelysanitationtowithuse reservationstreated wastewater 40%25%accepted 2. People refused completely to use treated wastewater 75% III. Social criteria 3. Accepting decentralized system 75% accepted 1. Interference with customs 75% interfered 4. Accepted onsite sanitation with reservations 40% accepted 2. Contradiction with cultural tradition 65% contradicted III.3. SocialParticipationcriteriain new onsite sanitation 55% refused 1.4. InterferenceSeparation blackwith andcustomsdomestic 75%63%interferedagreed 2.5. ContradictionWastewater irrigationwith cultural tradition 75%65%withcontradictedwastewater 3. Participation in new onsite sanitation 55%irrigationrefused 4. Separation black and domestic 63% agreed IV. Economic criteria 5. Wastewater irrigation 75% with wastewater 1. Readiness to pay the full construction costs 82% not ready irrigation 2. Pay only the construction costs 75% refused IV.3. EconomicCentralizedcriteriasewerage network construction 85% agreed Table II. 1.4. ReadinessSafe disposalto payto valleysthe full construction costs 82%65%notagreedready Questionnaire data and 2. Pay only the construction costs 75% refused Notes: a Gender: Male I, female O; b Education: consists of five classes, from illiterate to university results on socio-cultural 3. Centralized sewerage network construction 85% agreed graduate; c Cost of emptying the cesspool and economical issues 4. Safe disposal to valleys 65% agreed Table II. Questionnaire data and Notes: a Gender: Male I, female O; b Education: consists of five classes, from illiterate to university results on socio-cultural graduate; c Cost of emptying the cesspool and economical issues

15 MEQ Table II illustrates the results of the site visits and data analyzed from the 17,2 questionnaire distributed in the study area. Initial results showed that household status (income, education and occupation) has an impact on water consumption rates. Households of higher status tended to use more water than those households of lower status. It was also clear that most (75 percent) of the respondents have rejected wastewater reuse for agricultural applications. This rejection stems from socio-cultural 148 considerations, where 55 percent of the interviewed people were even against the establishment of new onsite facilities. Against our technical advice, 85 percent of the Table II illustrates the results of the site visits and data analyzed from the respondents agreed on having a centralized wastewater management facility, as their MEQ financial share will be minimal due to donor countries financial and technical support. 17,2 questionnaire distributed in the study area. Initial results showed that household status (income, education and occupation) has an impact on water consumption rates. Households of higher status tended to use more water than those households of lower Financial and economic issues The basic information obtained from the questionnaire (Figure 5) with regard to status. It was also clear that most (75 percent) of the respondents have rejected willingness to pay, revealed that the willingness to pay only extended to what users wastewater reuse for agricultural applications. This rejection stems from socio-cultural saw as a benefit or priority and were not willing to pay neither full investment costs (82 148 considerations, where 55 percent of the interviewed people were even against the percent) nor partial construction cost (75 percent). Hence, complementary financing establishment of new onsite facilities. Against our technical advice, 85 percent of the will always be necessary to ensure the sustainability of the services. This may be done respondents agreed on having a centralized wastewater management facility, as their through a variety of taxes. However, tax collection in many developing countries is not financial share will be minimal due to donor countries financial and technical support. efficient or effective and, moreover, a large part of the population do not pay taxes that can be used for sewage management (Nisipeanu, 1998). The costs of managing onsite wastewater treatment systems are mostly determined Financial and economic issues by the local conditions and the corresponding types of wastewater treatment The basic information obtained from the questionnaire (Figure 5) with regard to technologies used. In areas with deep, permeable soils, septic tank-soil absorption willingness to pay, revealed that the willingness to pay only extended to what users systems can be used. In areas with shallow soils to a limiting condition, very slowly saw as a benefit or priority and were not willing to pay neither full investment costs (82 permeable soils, or very highly permeable soils, more complicated onsite systems will percent) nor partial construction cost (75 percent). Hence, complementary financing will always be necessary to ensure the sustainability of the services. This may be done through a variety of taxes. However, tax collection in many developing countries is not efficient or effective and, moreover, a large part of the population do not pay taxes that can be used for sewage management (Nisipeanu, 1998). The costs of managing onsite wastewater treatment systems are mostly determined by the local conditions and the corresponding types of wastewater treatment technologies used. In areas with deep, permeable soils, septic tank-soil absorption systems can be used. In areas with shallow soils to a limiting condition, very slowly permeable soils, or very highly permeable soils, more complicated onsite systems will

Figure 5. Public opinion towards onsite treatment and agricultural wastewater reuse

Figure 5. Public opinion towards onsite treatment and agricultural wastewater reuse

16 be required.Most of the costs come from the salary and benefits needed for the services Onsite sanitation of the operator. All systems will require periodic septic tank pumping and for some facilities systems, worn out pumps and other parts will have to be repaired or replaced. be required.Most of the costs come from the salary and benefits needed for the services Onsite sanitation of theEvaluationoperator. Allandsystemsselectiowilln ofrequire a cost-effectiveperiodic septicwastewatertank pumpingtreatmentandtechnologyfor some facilities systemsDecisio, wornn makerout pumpss in developiand otherngpartscounwilltrieshavearetochallengbe repaireded withor replaced.the fact that poor urban residents cannot afford and reject costly conventional sewage treatment systems. 149 EvaluationFortunaandtely,selectioa broadn of arangecost-effectiveof cost-effewastewaterctive treatmenttechnologicaltechnologyoptions are available to Decisioresponn makerd tos ithen developidemandsng counof triesurbanare consumerschallenged withbeyondthe factthethaturbanpoor urbancentre, with the 149 residenpotentiats cannotl to reduceafford costsand rejectto thecostlyorder conventionalof US$ 100 persewagehousehold.treatmentThesystems.UNDP/World Bank FortunaWatertely,anda broadSanitarangetion Progrof cost-effeam hasctiveworketechnod withlogicalmanyoptionscounaretriesavailableover thetopast decade responto ddevelop, to the demandsdemonstrate,of urbandocumentconsumersand beyondreplicatethemanyurbanofcentre,these withlow-cothest sanitation potentiaoptions.l to reduceIn Palestine,costs to thethereorderisofaUS$need100forpersuchhousehold.programsThe UNDP/Worldin the smallerBankcommunities, Water and Sanitation Program has worked with many countries over the past decade to develop,where recentldemonstrate,y a studydocumentfundedandbyreplicatethe WorldmanyBankof theserevealedlow-cothatst sanitatisubsurfaon ce wetland options.systemIn Palestine,was identifiedthere isaasneed a low-cofor suchst treatmentprograms optionin the smallerfor smallcommunities,communities (PWA, where2004).recently a study funded by the World Bank revealed that subsurface wetland system Inwasthisidentifiedstudy,a asseptic a low-cotankst treatmentsystem servingoption forassmalla pre-treatmecommunitiesnt stage(PWA,followed by 2004).various post-treatment alternatives were investigated based on the relative cost values Inandthisanalystudyzed, a septicto choostanke systemthe bestservingalternative.as a pre-treatmeTable IIIntshowsstage followedthe differbyent types of variouwastewaters post-treatmtreatmentent alternativessystemswere investigatedthat can bebaseduseondthe in relativsmalle communities.cost values Capital and investmanalyzedentto costschoosefortheeachbestoptionalternative.wereTableestimateIII showsd and the differpreferabent letypestreatmentof option wastewaterwas identifiedtreatmentusingsystemsthe WAWTTARthat can be softwareused in smallpackage.communities. Capital investmInformatioent costs forneach on capitaloptioncostwereandestimatethe costd andfortheoperationpreferableandtreatmentmaintenaoptionnce for a wide was identified using the WAWTTAR software package. Informatiorange of ntechnologies on capital costthatandarethenotcostavailablefor operationin Palestineand maintenacan bencederivedfor a widefrom experience rangeinofa technologieslimited numberthat areof countriesnot available. Extrapolationin Palestine canof thebe deriveddata tofromotherexperielocationsnce is fraught in a withlimiteddifficultynumber of. Relativecountriescosts. Extrapolationmay be ofsufficientthe data totoothernarrowlocationsthe choiceis fraughtof technology, withalthoughdifficulty.itRelativeshould becostsbornemayinbemindsufficientthat theto narrowrelativthee valueschoicemayof technolochangegy,from location althoughto location,it shoulddependbe borneentinofmindspecificthat thelocalrelativconditione valuess. Costmay chanof landge fromandlocationlabor in particular to location, dependent of specific local conditions. Cost of land and labor in particular Number Code Treatment system option Number Code Treatment system option 1 A Septic tank 12 A B Septic tankBlackwater-holding tank and greywater-septic tank 23 B C Blackwater-holdingBlackwater-compostingtank and greywater-septictoilet and greywater-septictank tank 3 C Blackwater-composting toilet and greywater-septic tank 4 D Blackwater-incinerating toilet and greywater-septic tank 4 D Blackwater-incinerating toilet and greywater-septic tank 55 E E AeratedAeratedtanks (aerobictanksunits)(aerobic units) 66 F F Septic tank-intermittentSeptic tank-intermittentsand filtersand filter 77 G G Septic tank-recirculatingSeptic tank-recirculatingintermittentintermittentsand filter sand filter 88 H H Septic tank-subsurfaceSeptic tank-subsurfacewetland systemwetland system 9 9 I I Septic tank-anaerobicSeptic tank-anaerobicfilter-intermittentfilter-intermittentsand filter withsandrecirculationfilter with recirculation 10 10 J J Septic tank-tricklingSeptic tank-tricklingfilter withfilterrecirculationwith recirculation 11 11 K K Septic tank-rotatingSeptic tank-rotatingbiologicalbiologicalcontactor withcontactorrecirculationwith recirculation 12 12 L L Septic tank-anaerobicSeptic tank-anaerobicfilter to tricklingfilter tofiltertricklingwith recirculationfilter with recirculation 13 13 M M SeparatedSeparatedgray andgrayblackwaterand blackwaterdenitrificationdenitrificationsystems systems 14 N Textile filter pressure dosed dispersal system Table III. 14 N Textile filter pressure dosed dispersal system Table III. 15 O Septic tank-sequencing batch reactor (SBR) Onsite systems evaluated 16 15 P O Septic tank-wetland/tricklingSeptic tank-sequencingfilterbatch reactor (SBR) using WAWTTAROnsite systems evaluated 17 16 Q P Septic tank-wetland/moundSeptic tank-wetland/tricklingsystem filter software packageusing WAWTTAR 17 Q Septic tank-wetland/mound system software package

17 MEQ can vary considerably. The information provided here should therefore be used only as 17,2 a guide of the relative costs needed. Actual costs for a particular location and community should be ascertained from suppliers of equipment, materials and labor. Detailed calculations and assumptions made on capital costs of onsite wastewater treatment systems can be found elsewhere (Mubarak, 2004). Figure 6 shows clearly that the preferable option is the Septic tank–subsurface 150 MEQ wetland (Numbercan vary8, considecode H;rably.TableThe informationIII) comparedprovidwithed hereallshouldothertherefore16 researchbe usededonly as 17,2 alternatives. Usinga guidetheofWAWTTARthe relative costssoftwareneeded.packagActuale revealedcosts forthata thisparticularoptionlocatiowas n and financially feasiblecommunity(US$should4000)beandascertainedhad thefrommostsupplierseconomicof alequipbenefitsment, material(US$ 6000)s and labor. determined asDetailedthe netcalcpresentulationsvalueand(NPV)assumoverptionsa 2made0 yearson lifecapitalcyclecostsperiod.of onsite wastewater The performatreatmentnce ofsystemsthe leastcan beexpensivefound elsewheresystems(Mubawasrak, 2004).compared for every criterion. Each Figuresystem6 wasshowsassigneclearlydthat a score,the preferabwith fivele optiobeingn is thethe Septicmost desirabletank–subsurface 150 and one the leastwetlanddesirable(Number. For8, thiscodeanalysis,H; TableexperIII) comparedience and withjudgmentall otherwere16usedresearched to establish thealternatives.performaUsingnce score.the WAWTTARThe final softwarescore perpackagassete revealedwas normalizedthat this optionby was dividing the financiascore perlly assetfeasibleby(US$the number4000) andofhadassets.the mostThe individualeconomical performancbenefits (US$e 6000) determined as the net present value (NPV) over a 20 years life cycle period. and related scoresTheareperformaprovidednce inofTablethe leastIV. Theexpensivesum ofsystemsthe overallwas sustainacomparedbilityfor every scores for thecriterionconventional. Each systemsepticwassystemsassignewasd a score,11.42 withand five13.55beingfor thethemostsepticdesirable tank-subsurfacande wetlandone the leastsystemdesirable(most. feasiblFor thise oanalysis,ption). Theseexperiencescoresandarejudgmentrelativewere to used each other andto establiare notsh meantthe performato suggestnce score.an overallThe finalsustainabiliscore pertyassetscorewasfornormalizedeither by of these systemsdividingas thecomparedscore pertoassetsomebyabsolutethe numberscoreof assets.for sustainaThe individualbility (whichperformance does not existand), orrelatedas comparedscores are toprovidedother inonsiteTablesystemsIV. The orsumcentrali of thezedoverallcollectionsustainability and treatmentscoressystemsfor .the conventional septic systems was 11.42 and 13.55 for the septic A detailedtank-sucomparisonbsurfaceofwetlandthe twosystemoptions(mostsuggestsfeasible othaption).t a Theseprincipalscorestrade-offare relative to between the twoeachsystemsother andis thatare notthe meantwetlandtofiltersuggestsysteman overallincreasessustainabiliinitial installationty score for either as well as operationsof theseandsystemsmaintenanceas comparedcosts, towhilesomeproducingabsoluteascorehigherforqualitysustainaeffluentbility (which that can be reuseddoes notfor landscapexist), oreasirrigation.comparedEffluentto otherreuseonsitehassystemsenvironmor entalcentralibenefitszed collection and treatment systems. of reducing the discharge of pollutants to surface water and using the nutrients for the A detailed comparison of the two options suggests that a principal trade-off growth of landscapebetweenplantsthe two. systems is that the wetland filter system increases initial installation For this particularas well asexample,operationstheandhighesmaintenancet weightedcosts,socialwhilecriteriaproducingare fora higherprotectioqualityn ofeffluent human healththat(weightedcan be reusedscorefor of 10)landscapand preserve irrigation.ationEffluentof culturalreusetraditions,has environmwaysentalofbenefits of reducing the discharge of pollutants to surface water and using the nutrients for the growth of landscape plants. For this particular example, the highest weighted social criteria are for protection of human health (weighted score of 10) and preservation of cultural traditions, ways of

Figure 6. Estimated capital cost of onsite wastewater treatment systemsFigure 6. analysed Estimated capital cost of onsite wastewater treatment systems analysed

18 ) ) Onsite sanitation 4 3 2.5 5 4 4.5 4 5 3.5 4.5 3.90 Onsite sanitation Score 4 3 2.5 5 4 4.5 4 5 3.5 4.5 3.90 Score facilitiesfacilities continued the ( continued the is ( high and is high and and has and design promote has High and not design promote High lifestyles, challenge trenching aesthetics pumpage. life and not lifestyles, challenge with trenching aesthetics pumpage. life lining with for A lining of for A are capital often system achieved of development. are capital often long-term system widely achieved soil development. rural long-term widely lower soil rural is field No visual lower but is the field No costs way visual potential unlikely. for but

septage 151 the costs way potential unlikely. for by

septage 151 low of owner required used by settlement is low of owner required used settlement is cost. density how is and cost. density how is and erode quality not reduce maintained. Reuse higher agencies erode quality not reduce maintained. Reuse Performance higher Disposal agencies home low Unsuitable wetland odors Performance Disposal be home low Unsuitable wetland odors human are score be promote balanced possible the human are at score may higher promote may manager balanced possible the at may responsible rinsing higher may manager sense. is responsible rinsing advance health sense. is are effluent advance is must health and the are effluent is must understand in and the sizes sense understand in by disposal produce filter sizes is demand. sense by disposal produce filter resources. is systems demand. systems reuse density resources. support systems lot cost systems weighted to reuse dispersed subsurface density support lot cost weighted to dispersed promoted subsurface owner failure higher – promoted owner failure higher – area likely area can ownership likely can ownership equipment septage equipment septage Much Consumers supported Allows smaller Septic Costumer has ownership Less housing rainfall Wetland Effluent but Modest Wetland & newly costs investment is Pump Periodical Overall Home less repair/replacement; financial Much Consumers supported Allows smaller Septic Costumer has ownership Less housing rainfall Wetland Effluent but Modest Wetland & newly costs investment is Pump Periodical Overall Home less repair/replacement; financial 3.5 3 5 4 4 3 5 5 4 3.87 3 Score 3.5 3 5 4 4 3 5 5 4 3.87 3 Score cost. with goes rural and cost. with goes rural may and may septic septic reuse and cost reuse and cost will density ownership investment financial will density system and challenge ownership modest investment financial health system and challenge and widely and modest health a and widely and long-term impacts at a Most long-term has space. associated has impacts at high by is Most has settlement space. associated has how high by installation is density ownership settlement how for installation density Maintenance ownership rainfall capital for used, Maintenance rainfall limits capital and used used, of cost. limits and used open of often cost. low no open often low lifestyles no usually lifestyles high human support usually high human disposal support groundwater Performance and and is disposal sense widely groundwater Performance and supported and is widely sense widely supported score well widely rural equipment modest tank understand capacity score well quality with rural manager equipment modest tank understand capacity lots responsible quality with the are Environmental manager cost not are lots responsible of the are enter Environmental systems, promotes cost not are cannot required for involvement. of enter systems, is promotes cannot to required for and involvement. the is septage to and little the is soils are dispersed septage little is The soils are dispersed is and large and The leaking is and large odors. and leaking weighted for odors. operating aesthetic weighted and for system systems system operating treatment limits systems tank, owner or aesthetic and system systems system treatment limits systems tank, owner or is is pathogens individual resident’s trenching advance pathogens individual resident’s trenching advance tank Septic Consumers works agencies Allows opportunities livelihoods Costumer sense; No create Promotes produce reduce Unsuitable lifestyles Septic development Septic available, in to As Septic Overall No septic repair/replacement, Home resources. lining tank Septic Consumers works agencies Allows opportunities livelihoods Costumer sense; No create Promotes produce reduce Unsuitable Septic lifestyles development Septic available, in to As Septic Overall No septic repair/replacement, Home resources. lining 0.13 0.19 0.15 0.21 0.17 0.17 0.19 0.24 0.21 0.17 Norm 0.13 0.19 0.15 0.21 0.17 0.17 0.19 0.24 0.21 0.17 Norm weight Criteria 6 9 7 8 8 8 9 7 weight Criteria 6 9 7 8 8 8 9 7 10 10 10 10 Value Value and and and fund and fund and health and public to life, health public to the life, potential the necessary necessary potential necessary of necessary necessary necessary of of the audible initial of the audible initial the the public or as the the environments and public or as environments and ways decisions highest ways decisions members highest members such odors such finance finance odors costs finance finance resource-based costs protects maintenance attain resource-based considering protects capacity No to to replacement maintenance attain considering capacity No to to replacement values informed to values traditions, informed to virtues and traditions, virtues and and community and natural system community Table IV. local natural space).

system Table IV. local space). makes ability financial capacity capacity Sustainability evaluation makes ability financial capacity capacity Sustainability evaluation most aesthetically-valued repair cultural societal most aesthetically-valued repair cultural societal heritage between septic tank and open

heritage between septic tank and reflect implementation of operation open improvement, reflect implementation of operation criteria improvement, septic tank-wetland criteria population

treatment septic tank-wetland population treatment

appropriate systems

appropriate systems trust Promotes Criteria The physical Preserves actions Community Preserves (beauty, impacts development as Community system Social Ability system Community Community capital final system long-term Community trust Promotes Criteria The physical Preserves actions Community Preserves (beauty, impacts development as Community system Social Ability system Community Community capital final system long-term Community

19 MEQ 5 5 5 4.5 3 3.5 5 4.5 5.24 MEQ 4.41 Score 5 5 5 4.5 3 3.5 5 4.5 5.24 4.41 17,2 Score

17,2 be be and by be area. be and of by odors. of can soil, area. of levels filter. odors. water, of can soil, promote as financial may crops levels filter. in water, water promote as financial may crops but in value; water soil usage; larger but cause Subsurface impacts value; well might may soil usage; recharge, larger cause Subsurface food impacts through quality salts devices well might may trenches recharge, toxics food the through surface systems quality not permits low-risk salts devices trenches through over toxics lines the protection surface of systems not permits low-risk

152 potential through over conservation lines reuse. protection by at of do

152 potential attenuate reduce works conservation reuse. bioslimes by at property do water landscape system from attenuate reduce effluent works most drip bioslimes property water landscape system to from but effluent and irrigated shallow most drip to many will but and irrigated shallow Wetland by Performance with many will This household wetland Wetland groundwater by Performance with the dispersed This promote conservation score score systems self-cleaning household wetland groundwater significant provided reused; the wetland from dispersed within of treated promote conservation score score systems have self-cleaning is in significant provided reused; distance conservation clog wetland from within of increased treated attenuate which have is distance in accumulation distance conservation of clog increased attenuate which distance accumulation of to have gain water to have may gain reuse reuse to energy systems minimized water conservation Promotes may reuse if feasible wetlands reuse reuse intermittently promotes ecosystems. weighted weighted to energy impacts, provides subsurface effluent systems minimized systems well conservation Promotes reuse if feasible treatment wetlands limited sprawl intermittently promotes ecosystems. weighted weighted resource – impacts, provides subsurface withdrawals. emissions effluent systems is well adequate promote treatment lines limited sprawl resource – withdrawals. emissions is adequate promote lines impacts. Textile Works With Wetland May Usually Recirculation When quality consume system through benefits System root-zone urban water however improvements added treated aquatic promote economical Drip designed emitted water root-zone Some reuse Septic Overall Overall impacts. Textile Works With Wetland May Usually Recirculation When quality consume system through benefits System root-zone urban water however improvements added treated aquatic promote economical emitted Drip designed water root-zone Some reuse Septic Overall Overall 2.5 3 4.5 3.5 1.5 3.5 5 5 3.57 3.98 Score 2.5 3 4.5 3.5 1.5 3.5 5 5 3.57 3.98 Score pH the and only pH the to and and only odors to and and odors The water, produce might septic and The no water, bioslimes produce which might promote septic septic no bioslimes which surface promote benefits salt but septic of the impacts, surface withdrawals. benefits salt but gravity of the conservation conservation; impacts, with ecosystems. withdrawals. gravity The greywater conservation conservation; surface sprawl soil with ecosystems. The greywater cost, from localized. surface sprawl reuse soil both cost, from groundwater localized. systems reuse both clog is water reuse ventilation groundwater systems quality well. conservation lines conditions, clog except resource is water reuse from to ventilation impacts, quality well. conservation lines unless conditions, except of resource urban aquatic from to by promote promote impacts, unless of urban reuse, may aquatic by promote promote modest use promote Performance Septic reuse, may allow distance modest use promote leach water not not of Performance Septic lack water allow eliminate distance works score score leach problem water not not of lack water eliminate works quality score score promote not altered problem or do do may distance distance allow protect emissions the are quality promote well. operating Lining not altered but impacts promote or do do may distance distance allow protect the emissions the recharge are energy well. operating Lining do but in impacts promote not the recharge not air energy not do in not not system air no adequate water not but may attenuate system no adequate water pumpage do but weighted weighted works does may attenuate conditions reduce normal system systems systems systems pumpage do systems systems weighted weighted to toxic works does adequate conditions adequate reduce normal system systems systems systems systems systems time to toxic permits adequate adequate produced, septic time recreational permits dispersed normally produced, septic recreational dispersed normally Septic groundwater system is Septic attenuate cause is and would septage Systems no over water are accumulation. the permit permits system septic Septic Normally Septic Septic Under Overall Overall With Assumed With Septic groundwater system is Septic attenuate cause is and would septage Systems no over water are accumulation. the permit permits system septic Septic Normally Septic Septic Under Overall Overall With Assumed With 0.19 0.11 0.13 0.18 0.11 0.18 0.16 0.14 Norm 0.19 0.11 0.13 0.18 0.11 0.18 0.16 0.14 Norm weight Criteria 8 6 7 6 9 8 weight 10 10 Criteria 8 6 7 6 9 8 10 10 Value Value quantity quantity community quantity quantity community objectives and the objectives and and the and criteria quality criteria quality quality supports quality ecosystems supports ecosystems criteria development criteria ecosystems development water use ecosystems water use system quality quality system Table IV. quality Table IV. quality economic Criteria The Surface Economic Groundwater Aquatic Land-based Soil Air Energy Environmental economic Criteria The Surface Economic Groundwater Aquatic Land-based Soil Air Energy Environmental

20 life, and physical heritage (weighted score of 9). Based on the analysis summarized in Onsite sanitation Table IV, it is obvious that the application of the various criteria could result in facilities tradeoffs when selecting a real system. However, that is a typical dilemma for treatment technologies and environmental infrastructure. The value of this type of decision making is that it is based on a balanced approach, providing equal importance to the three types of community capital. Given the long-lasting effects of environmental infrastructure, the sustainability analysis provides a basis for making credible 153 tradeoffs. Overall, advanced onsite wastewater systems, such as the septic tank- subsurface wetland filter system, offer a higher level of sustainability to users, the community, and the environment. At the same time, reductions in sustainability may occur because such systems will allow for higher housing densities in rural communities. Given the prevailing political and economic conditions in Palestine, a pragmatic and step by step approach is recommended to improve wastewater management and water reuse agenda in rural areas. Sustainable solutions for wastewater management building upon pollution prevention at the source, low cost alternatives as subsurface wetlands are essential. In addition, public-private partnerships should be investigated as an important management potential if the Palestinian governing regulatory system is strong enough (PWA, 2004).

Management options for onsite sanitation facilities In the rural areas, village councils provide water and sanitation services. These institutions are weak for many reasons, but particularly due to their lack of autonomy, inadequate performance incentives, no access to capital, and human resource constraints. Several non-governmental organizations (NGOs) executed several water and sanitation projects and engaged in research and development. However, most the rural water and sanitation projects are on a small scale, where the main NGOs include the Palestinian Hydrology Croup (PHG), Palestinian Agricultural Relief Committees (PARC), Birzeit and Alquds universities. Some municipal water departments and utilities prepared master plans several years ago. However, these plans have rarely been implemented. The staff involved with municipal services lack motivation and have little to no opportunity to improve their skills. The co-ordination among the municipal departments, and between the water utilities themselves, is poor. A possible unified administrative structure is suggested and illustrated in Figure 7. Policies of the wastewater authority will be determined by a board, composed of representatives from the Palestinian National Authority. Representatives of the municipalities and/or users will also be included in this board and, the authority will include planning, financial and technical units. Although wastewater treatment regulations have been imposed by the different agencies and NGOs in the West Bank, it appears that in rural areas there has been little concern within the institutional and administrative structures to support the necessary changes. The traditional bureaucratic services have proven inadequate, both in terms of supervision effectiveness and the lack of experience of the existing personnel. The technical shortfalls are only one side of the problem. The willingness of the institutional structure to implement new nationwide policies is perhaps the major concern. Thus, for such policies to be effective and viable there must be concomitant changes at the institutional level. These changes should be continuously monitored

21 MEQ 17,2

154

MEQ 17,2

154

Figure 7. Suggested management framework for onsite sanitation facilities

and evaluated. It is proposed that a single national authority should be in charge of the water sector to provide more effective control, to promote wastewater treatment and to avoid a conflict of roles and overlapping responsibilities (Figure 7). In addition, inter-municipal enterprises for sanitation should be established between municipalities within the watershed area. Finally, certification of on-site system service providers should be considered. Site evaluations by geotechnical scientists are the foundation of subsequent on-site system Figure 7. design and installation. An inaccurate soil evaluation can negate all other attempts to Suggested management construct and maintain an effective treatment system. Certification should also be framework for onsite considered for individuals who provide for the operation and maintenance of the sanitation facilities on-site systems. Certification will not overcome all of Palestinian’s problems, but it will provide evidence that on-site professionals meet a minimum level of expertise. It also serves as an avenue to inform and train personnel. Many donor countries have already recognized this need and suggested certification of onsite system contractors and and evaluated.operatoIt rs.is proposedThis maythabet adonesinglmoree nationaleffectivelyauthorityon ashouldstatewidebe inbasis.charge of the water sector to provide more effective control, to promote wastewater treatment and to avoid a conflict of roles and overlapping responsibilities (Figure 7). In addition, inter-municipal enterprises for sanitation should be established between municipalities within the watershed area. Finally, certification of on-site system service providers should be considered. Site evaluations by geotechnical scientists are the foundation of subsequent on-site system design and installation. An inaccurate soil evaluation can negate all other attempts to construct and maintain an effective treatment system. Certification should also be considered for individuals who provide for the operation and maintenance of the on-site systems. Certification will not overcome all of Palestinian’s problems, but it will provide evidence that on-site professionals meet a minimum level of expertise. It also serves as an avenue to inform and train personnel. Many donor countries have already recognized this need and suggested certification of onsite system contractors and operators. This may be done more effectively on a statewide basis.

22 Conclusions Onsite sanitation Existing onsite wastewater systems in small Palestinian communities are facilities unsustainable as they were mainly constructed based on the low-cost alternative, which was not necessarily the most appropriate solution. Respondents were aware of the impacts of poor sanitation services and had major fears as to pollution problems adversely affecting their health. In addition, they had doubts about projects liability and were not ready to pay for on-site sanitation facilities. Sustainable development 155 incorporates social, economical and environmental factors into the evaluation and selection of wastewater management options. An assessment approach was developed and applied to evaluate in detail two systems using these factors. By considering various sanitation alternatives and their combinations, the WAWTTAR software package was an adequate tool to identify the most feasible and cost-effective sanitation system for a variety of site conditions and community goals. The septic tank-subsurface wetland system offers a higher level of sustainability to users in Ramallah-Albireh rural areas. As new and improved onsite wastewater treatment technologies are developed, decentralized management of domestic wastewater in rural communities offers greater sustainability, reliability and flexibility.

References Abu-Madi, M., Al-Sa’ed, R., Braadbart, O. and Alaerts, G. (2000), “Selection criteria for appropriate sanitation in the Palestinian rural and semi-urban communities”, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Water Sector Capacity Building and Research in Palestine, Birzeit University, Birzeit. Alawneh, M. and Al-Sa’ed, R.M. (1997), “Review on water quality in Palestine: groundwater and surface water”, Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Energy and Environment, An-Najah University, Nablus. Al-Sa’ed, R. (2004), “Technical and socio-cultural assessment of urban and rural wastewater treatment facilities in Palestine”, International Journal on Environmental Pollution (accepted). Al-Sa’ed, R. (2005), “Sustainability and efficacy of oxidation and mechanized aerated ponds for domestic and municipal wastewater treatment in Palestine”, Water International. Al-Sa’ed, R. and Zimmo, O. (2000), “Process performance evaluation of the contact stabilization system at Birzeit University”, International Journal on Environmental Pollution, Vol. 21 No. 5, pp. 511-18. Finney, B.A. and Gearheart, R.A. (1998), A User’s Manual for Water and Wastewater Treatment Technologies Appropriate for Reuse (WWTTAR), Environmental Resources Engineering, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA. Mubarak, S. (2004), “On the sustainability of rural wastewater management systems in Ramallah-Albireh district”, MSc thesis, Birzeit University, Birzeit. Mukhallalati, L. and Safi, J. (1995), “Nitrate pollution of groundwater in the Gaza Strip”, Proceedings of the Symposium of Birzeit Agenda, Birzeit University, Birzeit. Nisipeanu, P. (1998), Privatisierung der Abwasserbeseitigung: Optimierung der kommunalen Abwasserbeseitigung durch Umorganisation und Neukonzeption, Parey Buchverlag, Berlin. Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) (2000), Wastewater Statistics in the Palestinian Territory, Ramallah.

23 MEQ Palestinian National Authority (PNA) (1999), Environmental Law No. 7, Ministry for 17,2 Environmental Affairs, Albireh. Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) (2004), “West Bank and Gaza wastewater treatment and reuse policy note, document of the World Bank submitted to PWA”, West Bank. Theodory, J. and Al-Sa’ed, R. (2002), “Performance evaluation and monitoring of an appropriate low-cost wastewater treatment technology for small Palestinian communities”, 156 Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, Iraklio. United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) (2003), “Desk study on the environment in the occupied Palestinian Territories”, N-4808, Arendal. US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (1994), “Planning for small community wastewater treatment systems”, Draft document of the United States EPA, Middle East Peace Process Multilateral Working Groups on Environment and Water Resources, Cairo. Van der Graaf, J.H.J.M., Fastenau, F.A. and Martijnse, G. (1990), “Comparison of various systems for on-site wastewater treatment”, Water Science and Technology, Vol. 21, pp. 1-12.

Further reading Mustafa, J. (1996), “Onsite wastewater treatment disposal and reuse”, MSc thesis, IHE, Delft.

Corresponding author Rashed Al-Sa’ed can be contacted at: [email protected]

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected] Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

24 3

Removal of Cadmium from Polluted Water Using Decaying Leaves – Effect of Acidity

Oraib Sayrafi, Sami Sayrafi and Salim Radi

The article can be quoted as:

Sayrafi, O. Sayrafi, S. and Salim, R. (1999) “Removal of Cadmium from Polluted Water Using Decaying Leaves – Effect of Acidity”. Environmental Science Health, Published by Marcel Dekker Inc, 34(4): 835-851

25 Removal of Cadmium from Polluted Water Using Decaying Leaves – Effect of Acidity

Oraib Sayrafi1, Sami Sayrafi1 and Salim Radi2

1 Chemistry Department, Birzeit University, Palestine

2 Chemistry Department, An-Najah University, Palestine.

ABSTRACT The effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from aqueous solutions by dry leaves has been studied. Reed leaves showed a high capability of cadmium adsorption at almost any pH. The adsorption was particularly high at pH = 1. Cypress, oak and pine leaves showed lower adsorption of cadmium ions at low pH values and this adsorption increased steadily at higher pH values. Reed and oak leaves have been found more efficient for removing cadmium from aqueous solutions than cypress and pine leaves in acidic, neutral or basic media. Reed was particularly efficient at very low pH which makes it suitable for removing cadmium from polluted water affected by acid rain. Almost all of the cadmium present in solutions having concentrations 10mg/L was removed by reed leaves within 24 hours.

INTRODUCTION Pollution of water with toxic metals has been a matter of great concern for the past several years. The need for controlling this pollution and finding ways for removing it from polluted water has been recently a subject of great interest to environmental scientists.

Cadmium is one of the most toxic metals affecting the environment. It is, thus, considered among the group of pollutants designated by the European Economic Community as “ priority pollutants” (Barbur,1983). Cadmium has a high and cumulative toxicity, its excretion from the body is very slow with a t1/2 of about 20 to 40 years (Friberg et al.,1974), therefore, even low levels of contamination with cadmium presumably contributes to its accumulation in the body. The total cadmium body burden at birth is less than 1 µg and it gradually increases with age to about 30 mg as indicated by U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1990). Cadmium is especially dangerous because it combines synergistically with other toxic substances (e.g. Zn)( Cherimisinoff and Habib,1972). Toxicity of cadmium may result in serious cardiovascular diseases (Cherimisinoff and Habib,1972; Fassett,1975), bone diseases (The U.S. Department of Health, 1990 ; Waldbott,1973 ), anemia (The U.S. Department of Health , 1990; Fassett,1975), liver damage (The U.S. Department of Health

26 , 1990), carcinogenic effects (Lemen et al.,1976), hypertension (Shroeder,1965; Nagawa and Kido,1990), formation of kidney stones (Kazantzis et al., 1963) and reproductive disorders (Ragan and Mast,1990) .

Several methods have been suggested for the removal of cadmium and several other toxic heavy metals from polluted water. These include precipitation (Scott,1977), ion exchange (Fane et al.,1992) ,complexation (Wing and Rayford,1978), ozonation (Shambaugh and Melnyk,1978), electroplating (Fane et al.,1992), cementation (Gould et al.,1987) and foam fractionation (Huang and Talbot,1973). However, most of these methods require the use of chemicals which make them costly and hardly accepted by the public. A large number of publications have recently suggested methods using living and nonliving algae (Volesky and Prasetyo,1994; Volesky and Holan,1995), bacteria (Grapelli et al.,1992; Hao et al.,1994), lichens (Nieboer et al., 1978; Ramelow et al.,1991) and yeast (Volesky and May-Phillips,1995) for accumulation and removing heavy metals from polluted water. However, application of this research has the disadvantage of the high cost required for growing the necessary cultures of cells and microorganisms and for separating these microorganisms from water.

Common and low-cost adsorbents such as activated carbon (Huang and Bowers,1978), pulverized coal (Bhattacharya and Vencobachar,1984), fly ash (Yadava et al.,1987), zeolite (Kesraouiouki et al.,1994), geothite (Balistrieri and Murray,1982), pumice (Hara et al.,1979), clay (Jonse and William,1981) and coconut shell carbons (Bhattacharya and Vencobachar,1984), and other biological-originated adsorbents such as peat (Gosset et al., 1986), hair (Tan et al., 1985; Wilhelm et al., 1989), silk and wool (Kobayashi and Nishi,1974) have been examined for their adsorption capabilities for removing toxic heavy metals from polluted water.

Aquatic plants have been also used to remove heavy metals. These included duckweed (Ornes,1994; Kwan and Smith,1990), water hyacinth (Hardy and O`Keeffe,1985; Chigbo et al., 1982), seaweed (Ramelow et al., 1992) , water velvet (Jain et al., 1990) and aquatic microphytes (Rai et al., 1995). The efficiency of metal removal by these aquatic plants is low because of their small size and slow- growing roots, also their high water content complicates their drying process.

The potential use of agricultural based products and modified products as simple, cheap and acceptable methods which can be applied to remove many problem metals has been proposed by several authors. Doshenkov et al.,(1995) made use of indian mustard, roots of sunflower and grass roots to remove heavy metals. Other products used for that purpose included maize (Okieimen et al.,

1986), shea butter seed husks (Eromosale and Otitolaye, 1994), apple wastes (Maranon and Sastre, 1991), modified cellulose (Okieimen et al., 1985; Okieimen and Orhorhoro, 1986), thiolated maize (Okieimen and Okundaye , 1989), treated rice hulls (Suemitsu et al., 1986), treated oil palm pressed

27 fibers (Low et al., 1993; Low et al., 1996) and starch xanthate (Chaudhari and Tare, 1996). Dry roots were found less effective in removing metals from solution than live roots (Doshenkov et al.,1995). EDTA modified cellulosic materials showed greater sorption of cadmium, copper and lead than untreated materials (Okieimen et al.,1985; Okieimen and Orhorhoro, 1986). Rice hulls coated with dyes led to more efficient removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions (Okieimen and Okundaye,1989). Treating oil palm fibers also greatly enhanced their capabilities for adsorption (Low et al., 1993; Low et al., 1996). Using starch xanthate gave the ability for the selective adsorption and recovery of mercury, copper, cadmium and nickel (Chaudhari and Tare, 1996).

Decaying leaves have been proposed as a simple, cheap, available and very acceptable method for removal of toxic metals such as aluminum (Salim and Robinson,1985a; 1985b), nickel (Salim, 1988a; 1988b), lead (Salim et al., 1994), and cadmium (Salim et al., 1992; Sayrafi et al., 1996). Finding a suitable type of leaves efficient for removing toxic metals can give the option of planting the required trees around a water source allowing the falling leaves to alleviate possible of this source by toxic heavy metals . The removal process using leaves, has been found to be dependent on several factors such as pH, type of leaves, concentration of metal ions, concentration of leaves, way of drying and crushing leaves, and the presence of foreign ions. The amounts of aluminum removed from solution by leaves were very dependent on pH (Salim and Robinson,1985a). Maximum removal of nickel was reported using pine leaves at pH~6.7 (Salim, 1988a) while maximum adsorption on cypress leaves was at pH~8.5 for nickel and pH~6.7 for lead (Salim ,1988b; Salim et al., 1994). Maximum removal of cadmium using beach leaves was at pH~5.0 (Salim et al., 1992).

In a previous paper (Sayrafi et al., 1996), the effects of the type of leaves and of the concentration of cadmium in solution were studied for the removal of cadmium by the leaves of cypress, oak, pine and reed. The results of the paper showed an exceptionally high capacity of reed leaves in removing cadmium from unacidified polluted water. The aim of the present paper is to study the effect of the acidity on the capacity of the above four types of leaves for removing cadmium from polluted water.

EXPERIMENTAL

Treatment of Leaves: Samples of dry cypress, pine and oak leaves were collected from the neighborhood of the campus of Birzeit University. Reed samples were collected from the Dead Sea coast ( El-Fashkha). To assess the cadmium content of the various leaves, each type was soaked in 1 M HNO3 for two days and the solution was analyzed for cadmium. The cadmium

28 content was found to be negligible. Leaves used in the removal experiments were washed well with distilled water and left to air dry at room temperature. Dry leaves were crushed roughly and used as such.

:Treatment of containers

Polyethylene bottles ( 500 mL ) were used. These were decontaminated by soaking in 0.1M HNO3 for two days and then washed thoroughly with distilled water before being used. Adsorption of cadmium on these bottles was determined experimentally from solutions similar in concentration to those used in this work and was found to be negligible.

:Measurements of Removal of Cadmium Removal of cadmium from solution was measured by following the loss of concentration of cadmium from solution in presence of 20 g/L dry leaves. The pH of the leaf suspensions was adjusted to the desired value by careful addition of a very small amount of concentrated NaOH or HClO4 (as may be needed) and the pH was monitored by a pH-meter. It was necessary to adjust the pH several times through any particular run to bring it back to its initial value. Two milliliter aliquots of solution were taken periodically. The aliquots were taken more frequently during the early stages of any run, but at later stage one could afford longer periods between one aliquot and another. To each aliquot, 8 mL of 0.01M HClO4 were added [ this medium was found previously to be suitable for analysis of cadmium by anoding stripping voltammetry] (Salim, and Cooksey,1979) and then analyzed by the method of differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry.

To attain deaeration, nitrogen was bubbled through each solution for 4 minutes. This was followed by the usual preconcentration step in which the cadmium ion from the stirred solution was deposited into the mercury drop. After the deposition, the stirring was stopped for a rest period and the potential was scanned positively and Cd was stripped back into solution. Quantitative analysis was achieved from the magnitude of the peak currents. The evaluation method used was a pre-established calibration graph. This was checked several times during each experiment. Each reading was repeated three times and the average of these readings was recorded. The maximum allowed relative standard deviation of the readings was 10%.

:Apparatus The instrument used was a Polarographic Analyzer Model 174 A supplied by Princeton Applied Research Corporation, New Jersey. The electrodes used were: hanging mercury drop electrode with a drop weight of 7 mg as a working electrode, a platinum wire as the counter electrode and an Ag/ AgCl electrode as the reference electrode.

The Electrodeposition potential used was -0.85 V, the scan rate was 5 mV/ sec and the deposition

29 time was 2 minutes. The stirring rate was 300 rpm and the rest period was 30 seconds. The pH measurements were recorded using a Corning pH meter 140.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During the first part of our study, we examined the effect of pH on loss of cadmium from 1 ppm solutions in the presence of oak and reed leaves as indicated by Figures 1-2. The results indicated that reed leaves were capable of efficient removal of cadmium from solutions with very little dependence on pH values.of ef fUndericient remsimilaroval conditions, of cadmium oak from leaves solutions showed with efficient very little removal dependence of cadmium on ions in neutral or basic solutions. However, loss of cadmium was supressed at low pH values. It was thought pH values. Under similar conditions, oak leaves showed efficient removal of prudent to increase the concentration of cadmium (to 10 ppm) in the hope of magnifying the effect of pH. cadmium ions in neutral or basic solutions. However, loss of cadmium was

Cd in 1.0 Figure 1

Solution 0.8

ppm 0.6 pH = 2.23

0.4 pH = 11.0

0.2 pH = 9.1 pH =7.0

0 5 10 15 20 25 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 1 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry oak leaves.

Figures 3-6 show the loss of cadmium from 10 ppm solutions at various pH values in the presence of cypress, oak, pine and reed leaves. It is worth noting that experiments carried out at pH higher than Cd in 1.0 8.5 were complicated by the precipitation of cadmium hydroxide. Attempts to study the effect of pH at values higherSolution than 8.5 0.8were aborted. TheFigure general 2 trend pH: emerging 1.0, 7.0,from 9.1,this study2.23 indicated that the rate loss of cadmium started high but slowed down after a period of contact with the leaves. The length of ppm this period 0.6 varied from one plant to another. Reed leaves showed the same trend that was observed in dilute (1ppm) solutions. The percentage of cadmium adsorbed was high at almost 0.4 any pH. The adsorption was particularly high (96%) after 120 hours at pH = 1 and its minimum value (73%) after 120 hours was 0.2 observed at pH = 3.4. The other three plants showed lower adsorption of cadmium ions at low pH values and this adsorption increased steadily at higher pH values .

30 0 5 10 15 20 25 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 1 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry reed leaves . of efficient removal of cadmium from solutions with very little dependence on

pH values. Under similar conditions, oak leaves showed efficient removal of

cadmium ions in neutral or basic solutions. However, loss of cadmium was

Cd in 1.0 Figure 1

Solution 0.8

ppm 0.6 pH = 2.23

0.4 pH = 11.0

0.2 pH = 9.1 pH =7.0

0 5 10 15 20 25 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 1 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry oak leaves.

Cd in 1.0

Solution 0.8 Figure 2 pH: 1.0, 7.0, 9.1, 2.23

ppm 0.6

0.4

0.2

0 5 10 15 20 25 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 1 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry reed leaves .

The amount of cadmium removed by a constant weight of leaves was plotted against pH (Figure 7) for cypress, oak, pine and reed leaves. The amount of cadmium was chosen for each type after 120 hours. This time represented the region of slow change in cadmium concentration and would avoid magnified experimental errors. In very acidic solutions ( pH < 2 ), the amount of cadmium removed by the leaves followed the . order: Reed >> Oak > Pine > Cypress

Cd in 10 Figure 3

Solution 8 pH = 2.05

ppm 6 pH= 1.02

4 pH = 3.42

2 pH= 4.28, 5.91, 7.12

pH= 8.43

0 50 100 150 200 250 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 10 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry cypress leaves .

31

Cd in 10 Figure 4

Solution 8 pH : 2.05 , 1.02, 3.42, 8.43 , 4.28, 7.12

ppm 6

4

2

pH= 5.91

0 50 100 150 200 250 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 10 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry oak leaves . Cd in 10 Figure 3

Solution 8 pH = 2.05

ppm 6 pH= 1.02

4 pH = 3.42

2 pH= 4.28, 5.91, 7.12

pH= 8.43

0 50 100 150 200 250 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 10 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry cypress leaves .

Cd in 10 Figure 4

Solution 8 pH : 2.05 , 1.02, 3.42, 8.43 , 4.28, 7.12

ppm 6

4

2

pH= 5.91

0 50 100 150 200 250 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 10 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry oak leaves .

Cd in 10 Figure 5

Solution 8 pH : 2.05 , 1.02, 3.42, 4.28, 8.43 , 5.91, 7.28

ppm 6

4

2

0 50 100 150 200 250 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 10 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry pine leaves .

32

Cd in 10 Figure 6

Solution 8 pH : 3.42, 2.05 , 4.28, 8.43 , 1.02, 5.91, 7.12

ppm 6

4

2

0 50 100 150 200 250 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 10 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry reed leaves . Cd in 10 Figure 5

Solution 8 pH : 2.05 , 1.02, 3.42, 4.28, 8.43 , 5.91, 7.28

ppm 6

4

2

0 50 100 150 200 250 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 10 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry pine leaves .

Cd in 10 Figure 6

Solution 8 pH : 3.42, 2.05 , 4.28, 8.43 , 1.02, 5.91, 7.12

ppm 6

4

2

0 50 100 150 200 250 hours

Effect of pH on the removal of cadmium from 10 ppm aqueous solutions using 20 g/L dry reed leaves .

Cd lost 10 Reed Figure 7

From 8

solution 6 Oak

ppm 4 Pine

2 Cypress

2 4 6 8 10 pH

Relation between pH and amounts of cadmium eliminated from 10 ppm solutions after 120 hours of contact with leaves.

In acidic solutions of the pH range of 2-6, the general trend was: 33 Reed , Oak > Cypress > Pine .

In neutral solutions, the amount of cadmium removed by the leaves followed

the order: Reed > Oak > Pine > Cypress .

In weakly basic solutions , the general trend was:

Reed > Oak , Cypress > Pine .

CONCLUSION

Cadmium ions can be removed from polluted water using decaying plant leaves. About 96% of the cadmium present in aqueous solutions containing 10 mg In acidic solutions of the pH range of 2-6, the general trend was: Reed , Oak > Cypress > Pine .

In neutral solutions, the amount of cadmium removed by the leaves followed the order: Reed > Oak > Pine > Cypress .

In weakly basic solutions , the general trend was: Reed > Oak , Cypress > Pine .

CONCLUSION

Cadmium ions can be removed from polluted water using decaying plant leaves. About 96% of the cadmium present in aqueous solutions containing 10 mg Cd2+ were removed within 24 hours using 20 g/L suspensions of dry reed leaves in very acidic solutions. This might be suitable for removing cadmium from polluted natural waters exposed to acid rain. The removal of Cd ions by reed leaves was affected by pH changes to a small degree. Cypress, oak and pine leaves removed Cd ions but showed a distinct pH dependence. The removal was small at very low pH but showed steady increase at higher pH values.

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37 38 4

Monitoring Urban Heavy Metal Pollution Using the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)

Khalid Swaileh and Ramzi Sansur

The article can be quoted as:

Swaileh, K. and Sansur, R. (2006) “Monitoring Urban Heavy Metal Pollution Using the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, Published by Royal Society of Chemistry, 8: 209-213

39 PAPER www.rsc.org/jem | Journal of Environmental Monitoring PAPER www.rsc.org/jem | Journal of Environmental Monitoring PAPER www.rsc.org/jem | Journal of Environmental Monitoring MonitoringMonitoringurban Urbanheavy Heavymetal Metalpollution Pollutionusing Usingthe House the HouseSparrow Sparrow (MonitoringPasserMonitoringdomesticusurbanurbanheavy)heavymetalmetal(Passerpollutionpollution domesticususingusingthe)theHouseHouseSparrowSparrow (Passer domesticus) K.(PasserM. Swaileh*domesticusa and R. Sansur) b Khalid Swaileh1 and Ramzi Sansur2 a b K. M. Swaileh* aand R. Sansur b ReceivedK. M. 26thSwaileh*July 2005,andAcceptedR. Sansur14th October 2005 1 ReceivedFirstDept.published of26th BiologyJulyas an2005,Advance andAccepted Biochemistry,Article14thonOctoberthe webBirzeit20059th NovemberUniversity,2005 Palestine Received 26th July 2005, Accepted 14th October 2005 FirstDOI:published10.1039/b510635das an Advance Article on the web 9th November 2005 First published as an Advance Article on the web 9th November 2005 2DOI: 10.1039/b510635d CenterDOI: 10.1039/b510635d for Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Birzeit University, Palestine The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) is one of the most successful birds in the urban Theenvironment,House Sparrowand has(Passera globaldomesticusdistribution.) is oneTheofpresentthe moststudysuccessfulaims tobirdsprovidein thebaselineurbandata The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) is one of the most successful birds in the urban environment,about metals inandsparrowshas a globalfrom distribution.urban environmentsThe presentin thestudyWestaimsBankto andprovideto investigatebaseline datathe environment, and has a global distribution. The present study aims to provide baseline data aboutpossibilitymetalsof usingin sparrowsthe HousefromSparrowurban environmentsto monitor metalin thepollutionWest Bankin urbanand toenvironments.investigate the about metals in sparrows from urban environments in the West Bank and to investigate the possibilityConcentrationsof usingof Cu,the Cd,HousePb Sparrowand Zn wereto monitormeasuredmetalin differentpollutiontissuesin urbanandenvironments.organs of male and possibility of using the House Sparrow to monitor metal pollution in urban environments. Concentrationsfemale juvenile (1–4of Cu,weeksCd, old)Pb andandZnadultwereHousemeasuredSparrowsin differentfrom thetissuesWestandBank.organsTissuesof maleand and Concentrations of Cu, Cd, Pb and Zn were measured in different tissues and organs of male and femaleorgans juvenilehad the (1–4followingweeksorderold) ofandmetaladultrichness:House Sparrowsliver > stomachfrom the>WestboneBank.> lung,Tissuesfeathersand > female juvenile (1–4 weeks old) and adult House Sparrows from the West Bank. Tissues and organsmuscleshad> eggthe contents,followingbrainorder>of heartmetal>richness:egg shell.liverSignificant> stomachcorrelation> bone coefficients> lung, featherswere > organs had the following order of metal richness: liver > stomach > bone > lung, feathers > musclesobserved>foreggthecontents,concentrationsbrain >ofheartCu, Pb,> eggandshell.Zn inSignificantthe egg shellcorrelationand for thecoefficientsegg contents.were Male muscles > egg contents, brain > heart > egg shell. Significant correlation coefficients were observedand femaleforSparrowsthe concentrationsshowed noofsignificantCu, Pb, anddifferencesZn in thein theiregg shellmetalandconcentrations.for the egg contents.Adult Male observed for the concentrations of Cu, Pb, and Zn in the egg shell and for the egg contents. Male andSparrowsfemalecollectedSparrowsfromshowedruralnoareassignificantwere founddifferencesto haveinsignificantlytheir metal lessconcentrations.Cu, Pb, andAdultZn (but not and female Sparrows showed no significant differences in their metal concentrations. Adult SparrowsCd) concentrationscollected fromthan thoserural areasfrom wereurbanfoundenvironments.to have significantlyIn order tolessinvestigateCu, Pb,metaland Zn (but not Sparrows collected from rural areas were found to have significantly less Cu, Pb, and Zn (but not Cd)accumulationconcentrationswith age,thanmetalthoseconcentrationsfrom urban environments.were plottedInagainstorderageto investigatestage (egg,metal1-, 2-, 3-, and Cd) concentrations than those from urban environments. In order to investigate metal accumulation4-week-old juvenileswith age,andmetaladults).concentrationsSignificant relationshipswere plottedwereagainstobservedage stagebetween(egg, 1-,age2-,stage3-, and accumulation with age, metal concentrations were plotted against age stage (egg, 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-week-oldCu, Pb, andjuvenilesZn concentrations.and adults).TheSignificantresults providerelationshipssome wereevidenceobservedfor thebetweenpotentialageofstagethe Houseand 4-week-old juveniles and adults). Significant relationships were observed between age stage and Cu,SparrowPb, andas aZnbiomonitorconcentrations.for urbanTheheavyresultsmetalprovidepollution.some evidenceHowever,forfurtherthe potentialissues regardingof the House Cu, Pb, and Zn concentrations. The results provide some evidence for the potential of the House Sparrowmetal physiologicalas a biomonitorregulationfor urbanand theheavycorrelationsmetal pollution.betweenHowever,metals infurtherthe environmentissues regardingand those Sparrow as a biomonitor for urban heavy metal pollution. However, further issues regarding metalin tissuesphysiologicalof the HouseregulationSparrowsandhavethe tocorrelationsbe addressedbetweenbeforemetalsrecommendingin the environmentthis bird asanda those metal physiological regulation and the correlations between metals in the environment and those inbiomonitortissues offortheurbanHousemetalSparrowspollution.have to be addressed before recommending this bird as a in tissues of the House Sparrows have to be addressed before recommending this bird as a biomonitor for urban metal pollution. biomonitor for urban metal pollution. 1. Introduction terns of heavy metal pollution in the environment, as they 5–9 1. Introduction ternsoccupyofaheavy wide ranmetalge of pollutiontrophic levinelsthe in diffenvironment,erent food chaasintheys. Large1. Introductionquantities of pollutants have continuously been intro- terns of heavy metal pollution in the environment, as they5–9 Birdsoccupyarea weasieride rantogestudyof trandophimonitorc levels inthan differotherent fbioindicators,ood chains. 5–9 Largeduced quantitiesinto ecosystemsof pollutantsas a consequencehave continuouslyof urbanizationbeen intro-and occupy a wide range of trophic levels in differ10–12ent food chains. Large quantities of pollutants have continuously been intro- makingBirds arethemeasieridealto studyfor monitoringand monitorpurposes.than other bioindicators,In addition, ducedindustrialintoprocesses.ecosystemsMetalsas a consequenceare persistentofpollutantsurbanizationthat andcan metalsBirds inarebirdeasiernestlings,to studylikeandSparrows,monitor thanreflectother10–12localbioindicators,pollution duced into ecosystems as a consequence of urbanization and making them ideal for monitoring purposes. 10–12In addition, industrialbe biomagnifiedprocesses.in theMetalsfoodarechains,persistentbecomingpollutantsincreasinglythat can levels,makingas nestlingsthem idealareforfedmonitoringentirely on purposes.food collected byIn addition,parents industrial processes. Metals are persistent1 pollutants that can metals in bird nestlings, like Sparrows, reflect local pollution dangerous to human and wildlife. This has led to the devel- metals in bird nestlings, like5 Sparrows, reflect local pollution be biomagnified in the food chains, becoming increasingly nearlevels,theiras nestlingsbreedingarecolony.fed entirely on food collected by parents opmentbe biomagnifiedof monitoringin theschemesfood chains,aimed1 atbecomingdirectly measuringincreasingly levels, as nestlings are fed entirely on food collected by parents dangerous to human and wildlife. 1This has led to the devel- Birds, like other organisms,5 are harmed by heavy metals. dangerous to human and wildlife. This has led to the devel- near their breeding colony. 5 opmentlevels of ofcontaminantsmonitoringinschemesvariousaimedorganisms,at directlyand biomonitor-measuring near their breeding colony. opment of monitoring schemes aimed at directly measuring ForBirds,example,like othermetalsorganisms,were foundare harmedto suppressby heavythe immunemetals. levelsing schemesof contaminantsthat use indicatorin variousspeciesorganisms,to estimateand biomonitor-the levels in systemBirds,of birds,like other13 increaseorganisms,aggressiveare harmedbehaviorby inheavyterritorialmetals. levels of contaminants in various2 organisms, and biomonitor- For example, metals were found to suppress the immune other parts of the ecosystem. . For example,14 metals were found to suppress the immune ing schemes that use indicator species to estimate the levels in songsystembirds,of birds,cause13 increasereproductiveaggressivedysfunction,behaviorincreasedin territorialsus- ingTherefore,schemesassessingthat use indicatorpollutants2 speciesin differentto estimatecomponentsthe levelsofin system of birds,13 increase aggressive behavior in territorial other parts of the ecosystem. .2 ceptibility to14 diseases and stress and changes in behavioral other parts of the ecosystem. . song birds, 14cause reproductive dysfunction, increased sus- theTherefore,ecosystemassessinghas becomepollutantsan importantin differenttask incomponentspreventing riskof patterns.song birds,15,16 Highcauseleadreproductivelevels in thedysfunction,urban-dwellingincreasedPigeonsus- Therefore, assessing pollutants3in different components of ceptibility to diseases and stress and changes in behavioral to natural life and public health. Analyzing pollutants in ceptibility to diseases and stress and changes in behavioral17 the ecosystem has become an important task in preventing risk patterns.(Columba15,16liviaHigh) wereleadobservedlevels in specimensthe urban-dwellingfrom London.Pigeon livingthe ecosystemorganismshasis morebecomeattractivean importantand3 promisingtask in preventingthan analyz-risk patterns.15,16 High lead levels in the urban-dwelling Pigeon to natural life and public health. 3Analyzing pollutants in Several symptoms of lead intoxication were detected, mainly17 to natural life and public health. Analyzing pollutants in (Columba livia) were observed in specimens from London. 17 livinging pollutantsorganismsofisthemoreabioticattractiveenvironment,and promisingas livingthanorganismsanalyz- (Columba livia) were observed in specimens from London. living organisms is more attractive and promising than analyz- Severalin specimenssymptomswith theof largestlead intoxicationlead burden.wereSymptomsdetected,includedmainly ingprovidepollutantspreciseofinformationthe abiotic environment,about the bioavailabilityas living organismsof pol- Several symptoms of lead intoxication were detected, mainly ing pollutants of the abiotic environment, as living organisms inincreasedspecimenskidneywithweight,the largestalteredleadmitochondrialburden. Symptomsstructureincludedand providelutants andprecisethe informationmagnificationaboutand thebio-transferencebioavailabilityofofpollu-pol- function,in specimensand withthe thepresencelargestofleadrenalburden.intranuclearSymptomsinclusionincluded provide4 precise information about the bioavailability of pol- increased kidney weight, altered mitochondrial structure and lutantstants. and the magnification and bio-transference of pollu- increased kidney weight, altered mitochondrial structure and lutants and the magnification and bio-transference of pollu- bodies.function, and the presence of renal intranuclear inclusion tants.Earlier4 studies have led to an increased interest in the use of function, and the presence of renal intranuclear inclusion tants.4 bodies.In urban environments, feral Pigeons (Columba livia) were birdsEarlieras monitorsstudies haveof geographical,led to an increasedhistoricalinterestandinglobalthe usepat-of bodies. Earlier studies have led to an increased interest in the use of suggestedIn urbanasenvironments,a biomonitor forferalurbanPigeonsPb contamination(Columba liviaand) wereas birds as monitors of geographical, historical and global pat- In urban environments, feral Pigeons18–21 (Columba livia) were birds as monitors of geographical, historical and global pat- asuggestedmodel asfora biomonitorchronic leadfortoxicity.urban Pb contaminationAnother commonand as a suggested as a biomonitor for urban18–21Pb contamination and as Dept. of Biology and Biochemistry, Birzeit University, P.O. Box 14, urban-dwellinga model for chronicbird, whichleadhastoxicity.not received18–21Anotheras much attentioncommon Birzeit, West Bank, Palestinian Authority. E-mail: a model for chronic lead toxicity. Another common a Dept. of Biology and Biochemistry, Birzeit University, P.O. Box 14, urban-dwellingas the feral Pigeon,bird,iswhichthe Househas notSparrow.receivedThisas muchis reflectedattentionby kswaileh@birza eit.edu; Fax: +972-2-2957656; urban-dwelling bird, which has not received as much3,22,23attention Birzeit,Dept. Westof BiologyBank,andPalestinBiochemistry,ian Authority.BirzeitE-mail:University, P.O. Box 14, the limited number of studies investigating this bird. Tel:Birzeit,+972-2-298216West Bank,2,Palestin+972-599ian-368255Authority. E-mail: as the feral Pigeon, is the House Sparrow. This is reflected by [email protected]; Fax: +972-2-2957656; as the feral Pigeon, is the House Sparrow. This is reflected3,22,23 by b Center for Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Birzeit theThelimitedHousenumberSparrowof studiesis a non-migratoryinvestigatingsedentarythis bird.bird that Tel:kswaileh@birz+972-2-298216eit.edu;2, +972-599Fax: +972-2-29-36825557656; the limited number of studies investigating this bird.3,22,23 b University,Tel: +972-2-298216P.O. Box 14,2, +972-599Birzeit, West-368255Bank, Palestinian Authority is TheprimarilyHouseassociatedSparrow iswitha non-migratoryurban environments.sedentaryItbirdinhabitsthat Centerb for Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Birzeit The House Sparrow is a non-migratory sedentary bird that University,Center forP.O.EnvironmeBox 14,ntalBirzeit,and OccupatWest Bank,ional PalestinHealth Sciences,ian AuthorityBirzeit is primarily associated with urban environments. It inhabits University, P.O. Box 14, Birzeit, West Bank, Palestinian Authority is primarily associated with urban environments. It inhabits c This journal is � The Royal Society of Chemistry 2006 J. Environ. Monit., 2006, 8, 209–213 | 209 40This journal is c The Royal Society of Chemistry 2006 J. Environ. Monit., 2006, 8, 209–213 | 209 � c This journal is � The Royal Society of Chemistry 2006 J. Environ. Monit., 2006, 8, 209–213 | 209 houses, farms, villages, industrial facilities, etc. Its ecological Table 1 Mean certified values ( standard error), and the range of � niche is characterized by the interaction with anthropogenic percent recoveries obtained for metals in the reference material copepod homogenate, MA-A-1 TM, IAEA structures and the incorporation of different rubbish sub- 3 1 stances. Moreover, the bird has a global distribution, is not Metal Mean certified value/mg g� Recovery (%) endangered, seems to be tolerant of urban environmental Cu 7.6 0.2 95–103 stress, and has a high reproductive rate. These characteristics Cd 0.75� 0.03 91–98 � make the House Sparrow one of the most suitable candidates Pb 2.1 0.3 94–101 Zn 158� 2 93–105 for urban biomonitoring of heavy metals. � In the West Bank, studies investigating heavy metals in urban birds are completely lacking. Consequently, the present study aims at establishing baseline data about levels of metals Table 2 Descriptive statistics of trace metal concentrations in tissues in an urban-dwelling bird (the House Sparrow) from the West and eggs of adult House Sparrows (Passer domesticus) from urban regions in the West Bank. Values represent means of 10 samples Bank, and to draw attention to the possibility of using it as a standard error. Minimum and maximum values are shown in par-� possible biomonitor for urban heavy metal pollution. entheses

1 Metal concentration/mg g� dry weight 2. Materials and methods Organ Cu Cd Pb Zn 2.1. Sample collection and preparation Bone 0.8 0.1 0.03 0.00 14.3 1.3 150.4 8.6 (0.48–1.2)� (0.02–0.04)� (10.0–17.2)� (128.0–175� .0) In 2002–2003, a total of 40 House Sparrows of different ages Brain 9.8 1.0 0.02 0.00 2.4 0.3 48.2 2.1 � � � � were collected (under license from Palestinian Ministry for (7.0–12.0) (0.01–0.03) (1.7–3.8) (40.0–52.0) Environmental Affairs, MEnA) from urban (two cities: Qal- Egg contents 4.3 0.5 0.02 0.00 1.6 0.2 62.0 2.6 (2.5–5.6)� (0.01–0.03)� (1.1–2.0)� (55.0–70.0� ) qilia and Ramallah) and rural (two villages: Birzeit and Egg shell 1.0 0.1 0.01 0.00 3.3 0.6 20.0 1.9 Immatin) regions in the West Bank. Specimens had the (0.9–1.2)� (0.01–0.02)� (1.5–4.8)� (14.3–25.5� ) following distribution: 20 adults (10 urban and 10 rural, each Feathers 19.5 1.6 0.02 0.00 8.1 1.3 54.9 5.3 (15.4–24.7� ) (0.01–0.03)� (4.6–11.1)� (38.0–67.0� ) consisting of 5 males and 5 females), and 20 juveniles (5 Heart 3.1 0.6 0.02 0.00 1.9 0.2 19.6 1.5 specimens from each of the four juvenile age stages). Adult (1.3–4.8)� (0.01–0.03)� (1.4–2.5)� (16.0–25.0� ) birds were caught by cage traps. Nests with eggs were visited Liver 39.2 6.9 0. 07 0.01 34.2 6.2 131.4 14.3 � � � � regularly to determine the hatching date. Juveniles from each (22.0–55.0) (0.06–0.08) (11.8–46.0) (93.0–165.0) Lung 1.9 0.3 0.03 0.01 4.9 0.9 70.4 1.6 desired age group were then collected by hand from these (1.1–2.8)� (0.02–0.05)� (2.5–7.8)� (66.0–75.0� ) nests. In addition, 10 fresh-laid eggs were collected from nests Muscle 15.8 1.1 0.03 0.01 1.4 0.2 61.9 6.5 � � � � in the same regions. Birds were sacrificed, put in plastic bags, (13.8–19.0) (0.01–0.05) (1.1–1.8) (38.9–77.5) Stomach 22.8 3.8 0.04 0.00 4.7 0.7 109.1 14.7 and deep-frozen for later analysis. Eggs were kept in the (12.5–35.5� ) (0.03–0.06)� (3.1–6.8)� (68.0–155.� 0) refrigerator (4 1C) until analysis. Thereafter, birds were dis- sected and specimens of following tissues were obtained: breast feathers and muscles, liver, lungs, heart, brain, stomach 2.2. Statistical analysis (with contents) and bones (femur and tibia fibula). Statistical analysis of the data was carried out using SYSTAT To remove loosely adhering external contaminants, feathers for Windows software (SYSTAT for Windows Inc.26). Differ- were washed thoroughly with acetone and then with doubly ences were considered significant where P was r0.05. Data 24 distilled water. All specimens were transferred into clean, were tested for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk Normality acid-washed glass vials, and oven-dried at 60 1C until constant Test before ANOVA was applied. The Tukey Test was used to weights were obtained. determine which pairs of means differed significantly. The T-test was applied to check for differences between specimens 2.2. Analytical procedure from rural and urban environments and between males and Specimens were digested in a mixture of super-pure nitric and females. Pearson’s correlation was applied to inspect correla- perchloric acids (Merck) (2 : 1, v/v). The volume of the tions between metals in egg shell and egg contents. digestion mixture was 10 times the sample’s mass in g. After soaking the specimens in the acid mixture overnight at room temperature, the mixture was gradually heated to 200 1C in a 3. Results and discussion sand bath over a period of 3 h. Digestion was then continued 3.1. Metals in tissues and eggs until no fumes were observed and the mixture became pale yellow.23,25 Mixtures were then diluted to 25 mL with doubly Some descriptive statistics of the concentrations of metals in distilled water. Blanks and reference material (Copepod tissues and eggs of the House Sparrows collected from an homogenate, MA-A-1 TM, IAEA) were run with the samples. urban environment in the West Bank are shown in Table 2. Finally, concentrations of Cu, Cd, Pb, and Zn were measured Different tissues and eggs showed a great variation in mean by inductively coupled plasma – atomic emission spectro- metal concentration. Concentrations of Zn were the highest in photometry (ICP Optima 3000, Perkin–Elmer, USA). Certi- all tissues analyzed, and those of Cd were clearly the lowest. 1 fied values of the reference material and the percent recoveries Mean Cu concentration in tissues ranged between 0.81 mg g� 1 obtained are shown in Table 1. (bones) to 39.2 mg g� (liver). Mean Cd concentrations ranged

c 210 | J. Environ. Monit., 2006, 8, 209–213 This journal is � The Royal Society of Chemistry 2006 41 Table 3 Mean concentrations of metals in livers of sparrows accord- Table 4 Tissues and eggs of adult House Sparrows (Passer domes- ing to different studies found in literature, compared to the present ticus) from urban regions in the West Bank ranked according to their study richness in metals. TRS: total rank score

1 Metal concentration/mg g� dry weight Organ Cu Cd Pb Zn TRS Region Cu Cd Pb Zn Ref. Bone 1 8 9 10 28 Brain 6 5 4 3 18 Rural 61.8 0.48 2.7 154 3 Egg contents 5 5 2 6 18 Urban 42.0 1.31 3.7 205 3 Egg shell 2 1 5 2 10 Industrial 17.2 0.24 — 107 23 Feathers 8 5 8 4 25 Industrial 25.7 0.12 — 137 23 Heart 4 5 3 1 13 Non-industrial 15.5 0.24 — 104 23 Liver 10 10 10 9 39 Urban 27.0 1.01 — 172 22 Lung 3 8 7 7 25 Rural 27.0 0.07 18.0 97 Present study Muscle 7 8 1 5 21 Urban 38.2 0.07 37.6 121 Present study Stomach 9 9 6 8 32

1 1 between 0.01 mg g� (egg shell) and 0.07 mg g� (liver). exposure occurs from three sources: feeding (the major 1 Concentrations of Pb were between 1.41 mg g� (muscles) to source), inhalation, and maternal metals deposited in eggs. 1 34.2 mg g� (liver) while concentrations of Zn ranged between Egg contents did not exhibit abnormal metal levels, indicating 1 1 19.6 mg g� (heart) to 150 mg g� (bones). In general, the that House Sparrows do not sequester significant amounts of concentrations of Zn and Cu were always higher than those of heavy metals in their eggs. Egg shell, on the other hand, Cd and Pb. This might be because the former two metals are contained twice as much Pb as egg contents, but less Cd, Cu essential, having a biological role, while the latter are non- and Zn. Walsh29 found that Pb transfer to eggs is low. Dauwe essential metals that have no biological function.3 The levels of et al.30 found that egg contents from a polluted site had higher Pb were much higher than Cd in all organs, reflecting its concentrations of the essential metals, Cu and Zn, than egg abundance as an urban pollutant (leaded fuel was still used in shell, but lower concentrations of Pb and Cd. These findings the Palestinian Territories at the time of the study). The low are in agreement with the results of the present study. Accord- concentrations of Cd in different tissues could be due to the ing to Morera et al.,31 Cu and Zn are carried by vitellogenin lack of heavy industry in the Palestinian regions. Similarly low from the liver to maturing oocytes during egg formation. In 1 concentrations of Cd in roadside plants (0.050–0.017 mg g� ) egg white, ovalbumin and conalbumin bind both Cu and Zn 1 32 and soil (0.09–0.59 mg g� ) were observed in previous studies (Richards and Steel ). from the same region.25 In addition, Jaradat and Momani27 Lungs and feathers occupied the fourth and fifth ranks in found that levels of Cd in roadside plants and dust from metal richness, respectively. The high rank occupied by the neighboring Jordan were below detection limits of the flame lungs could reflect atmospheric pollution in the urban envir- atomic absorption spectrophotometer. onment. Use of feathers as biomonitors of heavy metal con- Results of the present study were compared to other studies tamination has been recommended by many researchers.9,33–36 found in the literature for sparrows (Table 3). Cd concentra- Metals in feathers reflect environmental contamination during tions in the present study were lower than those reported for the short period of feather growth but not necessarily body Sparrows from other regions. On the other hand, concentra- burden.37 However, feathers have been promoted extensively tions of Pb were clearly higher than those reported in the as a non-lethal and non-invasive indicator.34 In the present literature, possibly due to the banning of leaded fuel in study, feathers were found to occupy the fifth rank in metal industrialized countries some time ago (up the end of the richness, which makes them good indicators for metals. study, leaded fuel was still used in the Palestinian Territories). The concentrations of the essential metals, Cu and Zn, were 3.2. Metals in egg content and egg shell comparable to those found in the literature. When ranked according to metal richness (Table 4), tissues Significant correlations (p o 0.05) between the concentrations and eggs showed a variable capacity for metal accumulation. of Cu, Pb and Zn in egg shell and egg contents were observed. This is clearly expressed by the high total rank score (TRS) of Correlation coefficients were 0.95, 0.63, and 0.92 for Cu, Pb, the liver (39) and the low one of the egg shell (10). Tissues and and Zn, respectively. Cd did not exhibit a significant correla- organs had the following order of metal richness: liver > tion. This indicates that levels of Cu, Pb, and Zn in the shell stomach > bone > lung, feathers > muscles > egg contents, reflect their levels in the egg contents. In other words, shell can brain > heart > egg shell. The liver is the site of detoxification in the body; this explains its high metal content. 3 Table 5 Concentrations of metals in the liver of adult House Gragnaniello et al. observed high concentrations of metals Sparrows (Passer domesticus) collected from two regions in the West in House Sparrows from urban environments. Chao et al.23 Bank. Values represent means of 10 samples standard error � found that concentrations of metals in Tree Sparrows (Passer 1 Metal concentration/mg g� dry weight montanus) were high in liver and bones, and low in muscles. These results are in agreement with this study. The high metal Region Cu Cd Pb Zn concentration in the stomach may be because it was analyzed Urban 39.2 6.9 0.07 0.00 34.2 6.2 131.4 14.3 with its contents. This indicates the importance of food as a Rural 27.0 � 2.7 0.07 � 0.00 18.0 � 1.6 97.0 �3.7 � � � � source of metals. According to Burger and Gochfeld,28 avian P (t-test) 0.039 0.957 0.005 0.029

c This journal is � The Royal Society of Chemistry 2006 J. Environ. Monit., 2006, 8, 209–213 | 211 42 be used as an indicator for these metals in the egg content. Table 6 Concentrations of metals in the livers of adult male and From the correlation coefficients, it is clear that the shell female House Sparrows (Passer domesticus) collected from urban environments in the West Bank. Values represent means standard reflects the concentration of the Cu and Zn better than Pb. error. Minimum and maximum values are shown in parenthe� ses According to Dauwe et al.,30 egg shell can be used as an 1 indicator for metal pollution, especially in contaminated sites. Metal concentration/mg g� dry weight Sex Cu Cd Pb Zn 3.3. Metals in sparrows from urban and rural regions Males 39.2 6.8 0.07 0.00 36.1 4.7 122.4 11.5 In order to check the ability of the House Sparrow to reflect (n = 5) (22.0–55.0� ) (0.06–0.08)� (21.0–46.0� ) (93.0–152.0)� Females 33.7 3.9 0.07 0.00 29.0 3.1 124.4 18.9 environmental differences in metal contamination, adult spar- � � � � rows were collected from rural areas in addition to those from (n = 5) (24.5–48.0) (0.06–0.08) (23.1–40.0)(77.6–180.0) P (t-test) 0.51 0.42 0.24 0.93 urban areas. Livers of Sparrows from urban areas were found to have significantly higher Cu, Pb, and Zn concentrations than those from rural regions (Table 5), indicating bioaccu- Sparrow as a bioindicator for urban metal pollution. How- mulation of these metals in Sparrows from urban environ- ever, the diverse feeding habit of this bird must be taken into ments. Cd concentrations in specimens from urban and rural consideration when drawing conclusions concerning metal habitats did not show any significant difference. In a previous pollution relevant to human health. study, Swaileh et al.25 did not observe any elevated levels of Cd 3.4. Metals in males and females in roadside soil and vegetation from the West Bank. This means that, so far, Cd might not be an important pollutant in No statistical differences between metals in the livers of male the Palestinian Territories. In addition, Jaradat and Momani27 and female specimens were observed (Table 6). According to found that levels of Cd in roadside plants and dust from Donaldson and Braune,38 the principal reason for differences neighboring Jordan were below detection limits of the flame in metals between male and female birds is the ability of the atomic absorption spectrophotometer, which indicates that Cd female to deposit metals into eggs and the physiological is not a significant pollutant in the region. This is due to a lack differences with regard to some metals between males and of significant heavy industry. Generally, these results provide females. He concluded that Cd and Pb are not readily trans- some early indications about the possibility of using the House ferred to eggs; therefore, they are not expected to differ

Fig. 1 Metal levels in the livers of different age stages of House Sparrows (Passer domesticus) collected from urban environments in the West Bank. 5–10 samples were analysed for each age stage.

c 212 | J. Environ. Monit., 2006, 8, 209–213 This journal is � The Royal Society of Chemistry 2006 43 between males and females. Hutton and Goodman20 found 5 R.W. Furness, in Birds as Monitors of Environmental Change, ed. that female Pigeons (Columba livia) from London had higher R. W. Furness and J. J. D. Greenwood, Chapman Hall, London, 1993, pp. 86–143. bone lead levels than males. Similar results were observed by 6 M. Gochfeld, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 1997, 33, 66. 19 Janiga and %emberyova´ . 7 J. Burger, G. E. Woolfenden and M. Gochfeld, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 1999, 37, 385. 3.5. Metal accumulation with age 8 M. Eens, R. Pinxten, R. F. Verheyen, R. Blust and L. Bervoets, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 1999, 44, 81. To determine metal accumulation with age of House Spar- 9 S.Muralidharan, R. Jayakumar and G. Vishnu, Bull. Environ. rows, eggs and specimens of different ages were collected and Contam. Toxicol., 2004, 73, 285. analyzed for metal content. Levels of Cu, Pb, and Zn were 10 S. D. Sundlof, M. G. Spalding, J. D. Wentworth and C. K. Steible, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 1994, 27, 299. found to accumulate significantly (ANOVA, P o 0.001) with 11 J. B. Cohen, J. S. Barclay, A. R. Major and J. P. Fisher, Arch. increasing age stage (Fig. 1). Cd levels, on the other hand, did Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 2000, 38, 83. not exhibit a significant accumulation pattern. The Tukey test 12 P. A. Movalli, Environ. Pollut. (Amsterdam, Neth.), 2000, 109, showed that adults contained significantly higher levels of Cu, 267. 13 T. Snoeijs, T. Dauwe,R. Pinxten, F. Vandesande and M. Eens, Pb and Zn than all other age stages, whereas all other pairwise Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 2004, 46, 399. comparisons between age stages resulted in no significant 14 E. Janssens, T. Dauwe, E. Van Duyse, J. Beernaert, R. Pinxten and difference. The strongest multiple correlation (R) values were M. Eens, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 2003, 45, 121. obtained for Pb (0.92), followed by Cu (0.88), and Zn (0.77). 15 D. H. White, K. A. King, C. A. Mitchell and B. M. Mulhern, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 1986, 36, 376. Fig. 1 shows that accumulation of these three metals starts 16 R. W. Furness, in Environmental Contamination in Wildlife: Inter- early after hatching, and reaches a maximum value in adults. preting Tissue Concentrations, ed. W. N. Beyer, G. H. Heinz and Adults contained about 4 times Pb as much as one-month-old A. W. Redmon-Norwood, CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, FL, 1996, pp. 389–404. juveniles and about 25 times as much as the eggs. They 17 M. Hutton, Environ. Pollut., Ser. A, 1980, 22(4), 281. contained twice as much Cu as much as one-month-old 18 P. A. E. L. Schilderman, J. A. Hoogwerff, F. J. van Schooten, L. juveniles and 9 times as much as the eggs. However, Zn levels M. Maas, E. J. C. Moonen, B. J. H. van Os, J. H. van Wijnen and in adults were about 1.5 times as high as in one-month-old J. C. S. Kleinjans, Environ. Health Perspect., 1997, 105(3), 322. 19 M. Janiga and M. %emberyova´ , Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., juveniles and 2 times as high as in eggs. The concentration of 1998, 35, 70. Pb in adults compared to one-month-old juveniles or eggs 20 M. Hutton and G. T. Goodman, Environ. Pollut., Ser. A, 1980, reflects urban Pb pollution, which originates mainly from 22(3), 207. leaded gasoline. In addition, Pb is a non-essential metal that 21 D. H. Nam, D. P. Lee and T. H. Koo, Environ. Monit. Assess., 2004, 95(1–3), 13. can be bioaccumulated in living tissues. Zn and Cu, on the 22 P. Kaminski, in Nestling Mortality of Granivorous Birds due to other hand, are essential metals which play a biological role in Microorganisms and Toxic Substances, ed. J. Pinwski, B. P. Kava- living organisms such as in egg development and feather nagh and B. Pinowska, PWN-Polish Sci. Publ., Warszawa, 1995, 9,31 39 pp. 31–55. formation. Nam et al. investigated the effect of age on 23 P. Chao, Z. Guangmei, Z. Zhengwang and Chengyyi, Bull. the accumulation of Pb and Cd in feral Pigeons (Columba Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 2003, 71, 142. livia), and found that concentrations of both metals increased 24 J. Burger, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, 1995, 45, 369. in the order: eggs chicks adults. Burger40 reviewed 25 K. M. Swaileh,R.M. Hussein and Abu-Elhaj, Arch. Environ. o o Contam. Toxicol., 2004, 47(1), 23. literature data on age differences in metal levels in feathers 26 SYSTATfor Windows Software,SYSTAT for Windows Inc., and found that age differences occurred for metals in 17 Evanston, IL, USA, ver. 11, 2004. species. Burger and Gochfeld41 found that young Brown 27 Q. M. Jaradat and K. A. Momani, Turk J. Chem., 1999, 23, 209. 28 J. Burger and M. Gochfeld, Environ. Monit. Assess., 1999, Noddy and Wood Storks had significantly lower levels of Cd 58, 105. 42 and Pb than adults. Maedgen et al. found that concentra- 29 P. M. Walsh, in Heavy Metals in the Marine Environment, ed. R. tions of metals in adult Royal Terns were markedly higher W. Furness and P. S. Rainbow, CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, FL, than those in prefledgling terns, suggesting that accumulation 1990, pp. 183–204. 30 T. Dauwe, L. Bervoets, R. Blust, R. Pinxten and M. Eens, Belg. J. of metals continues as birds age. Zool., 1999, 129(2), 439. 31 M. Morera, C. Sanpera,S. Crespo, L. Jover and X. Ruiz, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 1997, 33, 71. Acknowledgements 32 M. P. Richards and N. C. Steel, J. Exp. Zool. Supp., 1987, 1, 39. 33 A. A. Goede and M. De Bruin, Environ. Monit. Assess., 1986, 7, The authors would like to thank Mr N. Halaweh for his 249. assistance in collecting and dissecting the samples. The efforts 34 J. Burger, Rev. Environ. Toxicol., 1993, 5, 203. of Mr Azmi Tucktuck in reading metal concentrations using 35 K. Dmowski, Acta Ornithol., 1999, 34(1), 1. the ICP are gratefully acknowledged. 36 A. S. Spahn and T. W. Sherry, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 1999, 37, 377. 37 M. F. Wolfe, S. Schwarzbach and R. A. Sulaiman, Environ. References Toxicol. Chem., 1998, 17, 146. 38 G. M. Donaldson and B. M. Braune, Arch. Environ. Contam. 1 E.Martı´ nez-Lo´ pez, P. Marı´ a-Mojica, J. E. Martı´ nez, J. F. Calvo, Toxicol., 1999, 3, 110. D. Romero and A. J. Garcı´ a-Ferna´ ndez, Bull. Environ. Contam. 39 D. H. Nam, D. P. Lee and T. H. Koo, Environ. Monit. Assess., Toxicol., 2005, 74, 477. 2004, 95(1–3), 23. 2 J. Burger, Auk, 113, 399. 40 J. Burger, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, 1994, 41, 207. 3 S. Gragnaniello, D. Fulgione, M. Milone, O. Soppelsa, P. Cacace 41 J. Burger and M. Gochfeld, Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 1995, 14(7), and L. Ferrara, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 2001, 66, 719. 1233. 4 D.J.H. Phillips, Environ. Pollut. (Amsterdam, Neth.), 1977, 13, 42 J. L. Maedgen, C. S. Hacker, G. D. Schroder and F. W. Weir, 281. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 1982, 11(1), 99.

c This journal is � The Royal Society of Chemistry 2006 J. Environ. Monit., 2006, 8, 209–213 | 213 44 5

Identification of Nitrate Sources in Groundwater by d15Nnitrate and d18Onitrate Isotopes: A Study of the Shallow Pleistocene Aquifer in the Jericho Area, Palestine

Saed Khayat, Stefan Geyer, Heinz HÖtzl, Marwan Ghanem and Wasim Ali

The article can be quoted as:

Khayat, S., Geyer, S., HÖtzl, H., Ghanem, M. and Ali, W. (2006) “Identification of Nitrate Sources in Groundwater by d15Nnitrate and d18Onitrate Isotopes: A Study of the Shallow Pleistocene Aquifer in the Jericho Area, Palestine”. Acta hydrochim. hydrobiol, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 34: 27–33

45 Acta hydrochim. hydrobiol. 2006, 34, 27 – 33 S. Khayat et al. 27

Research Paper

15 Identification of nitrate sources in groundwater by d Nnitrate and Acta18 hydrochim. hydrobiol. 2006, 34,, 27 27 – – 33 33 S. Khayat et al. 27 d Onitrate isotopes: a study of the shallow Pleistocene aquifer in the Jericho area, Palestine ResearchIdentification Paper of Nitrate Sources in Groundwater by d15Nnitrate and d18Onitrate isotopes:

SaedA Khayat Studya, Stefan of the Geyer Shallowb, Heinz H�tzl Pleistocenea, Marwan Ghanem Aquiferc, Wasim in Ali thea Jericho15 Area, Palestine Identification of nitrate sources in groundwater by d Nnitrate and 18 a18 d DepartmentOnitrate isotopes: of Applied Geology, a1 study University of of Karlsruhe, the2 shallow Germany Pleistocene1 aquifer3 1 b UFZ – EnvironmentalSaed Khayat Research, Center/ Stefan Leipzig Geyer Halle,, Heinz Germany HÖtzl , Marwan Ghanem , Wasim Ali inc Birzeit the University, Jericho Ramallah, area, Palestine Palestine

1 DepartmentThis study describesof Applied the impactGeology, of University septic tanks of on Karlsruhe, the groundwater Germany quality of the shallow Plei- Saed Khayataa,, Stefan Stefan Geyer Geyerbb,, Heinz Heinz H�tzl H�tzlaa,, Marwan Marwan Ghanem Ghanemcc,, Wasim Wasim Ali Aliaa 2 stocene aquifer in Jericho area, Westbank, Palestine. Septic tanks are widely used for storage Acta hydrochim. hydrobiol. 2006, 34, 27 – 33 UFZ – Environmental Research Center/S. Khayat etLeipzig al. Halle,27 Germany a and disposal of sewage in the populated and agricultural city of Jericho. Routine hydrochemical a3 Department of Applied Geology, University of Karlsruhe, Germany b Geography Department, Birzeit University, Palestine b UFZtests – forEnvironmental groundwater Research quality Center/ performed Leipzig Halle, for several Germany years identified the problem of a gradual c Research Paper c Birzeitnitrate University, increase, Ramallah, without Palestine pinpointing its definite sources. The geological formations of the Jeri- cho area and the shallow nature of the Pleistocene aquifer, together with the mechanism of Thisrecharge, study describes make the15 the groundwater impact of septic in this tanks aquifer on the highly groundwater susceptible quality to contamination, of the shallow particu- Plei- Identification of nitrate sources in groundwater by d Nnitrate and stocene aquifer in Jericho area, Westbank, Palestine. Septic tanks are widely used for storage 18 larly along sewers. The lithology of the Samara (high hydraulic conductivity) and the Lisan for- d Onitrate isotopes: a study of the shallowandmation Pleistocene disposal (low of conductivity sewage aquifer in the but populated increased and infiltration agricultural along city offractures) Jericho. promoteRoutine hydrochemical easy seepage of in the Jericho area, Palestine teststestsagricultural for for groundwater groundwater and anthropogenic quality quality performed performed inputs into for for several several the groundwater. years years identified identified Nitrate the the concentrations problem problem of of a a aregradual gradual eleva- nitrate increase, without pinpointing its definite sources. The geological formations of15 the Jeri- nitrateted near increase, septic without tanks and pinpointing animal farms, its definite with nitrate sources. values The geological exceeding formations 74 mg/L. d ofN thenitrate Jeri-and cho18 area and the shallow nature of the Pleistocene aquifer, together with the mechanism of chod O areanitrate andsignatures the shallow suggest nature sewage of theand Pleistocene manure as the aquifer, main together sources of with high the nitrate mechanism concentra- of a b a c a Saed Khayat , Stefan Geyer , Heinz H�tzl , Marwan Ghanem ,recharge, Wasimtion in Ali the make groundwater. the groundwater Samples in taken this aquifer during highly the end susceptible of the dry toseason contamination, indicate that particu- a slight larlylarlydenitrification along along sewers. sewers. in Thethe The aquifer. lithology lithology of of the the Samara Samara (high (high hydraulic hydraulic conductivity) conductivity) and and the the Lisan Lisan for- for- a Department of Applied Geology, University of Karlsruhe, Germany mation (low conductivity but increased infiltration along fractures) promote easy seepage of b UFZ – Environmental Research Center/ Leipzig Halle, Germany agricultural and anthropogenic inputs into the groundwater. Nitrate concentrations are eleva- c Birzeit University, Ramallah, Palestine Keywords: Water quality / nitrate / pollution / isotope / N-15 isotope / O-18 isotope / Westbank, Palestine / 1515 tedted near near septic septic tanks tanks and and animal animal farms, farms, with with nitrate nitrate values values exceeding exceeding 74 74 mg/L. mg/L. d Nnitratenitrate and d1818Received:O signatures December 31, suggest 2004; accepted: sewage August and manure 2, 2005 as the main sources of high nitrate concentra- This study describes the impact of septic tanks on the groundwaterd Onitratenitrate signatures quality of suggestthe shallow sewage Plei- and manure as the main sources of high nitrate concentra- stocene aquifer in Jericho area, Westbank, Palestine. SeptictiontionDOI tanks in in 10.1002/aheh.200400615 the the are groundwater. groundwater. widely used for Samples Samples storage taken taken during during the the end end of of the the dry dry season season indicate indicate that that a a slight slight and disposal of sewage in the populated and agricultural citydenitrification of Jericho. Routine in the aquifer.hydrochemical tests for groundwater quality performed for several years identified the problem of a gradual nitrate increase, without pinpointing its definite sources. TheKeywords: geologicalWater formations quality / nitrate of / pollution the Jeri- / isotope / N-15 isotope / O-18 isotope / Westbank, Palestine // 1 Introduction ing 1 mg/L should not be used for feeding babies. Also the cho area and the shallow nature of the Pleistocene aquifer,Received: together December with 31, the 2004; mechanism accepted: August of 2, 2005 recharge, make the groundwater in this aquifer highly susceptible to contamination, particu- WHO assigned the nitrate of 50 mg/L as a health signifi- DOI 10.1002/aheh.200400615 larly along sewers. The lithology of the Samara (high hydraulicDOIThe 10.1002/aheh.200400615 conductivity) problem of high and nitrate the Lisan concentrations for- in drinking cant value in drinking water [1]. mation (low conductivity but increased infiltration along fractures)water constitutes promote a easy major seepage health of risk to both humans For this matter of fact, the identification of the possi- agricultural and anthropogenic inputs into the groundwater.and Nitrate stock concentrations life. Nitrite reacts are directly eleva- with haemoglobin ble sources of nitrate in groundwater is very important ted near septic tanks and animal farms, with nitrate valuesin exceeding human blood 74 mg/L. and otherd15N warm-bloodedand animals to pro- as a first step to solve these problems. Many studies were nitrate ing 1 mg/L should not be used for feeding babies. Also the d18O signatures suggest sewage and manure as the main1duce Introductionsources methemoglobin. of high nitrate Methemoglobin concentra- destroys the abil- ingperformed 1 mg/L should using not hydrochemical be used for feeding ratios, babies. but they Also didn’t the nitrate WHO assigned the nitrate of 50 mg/L as a health signifi- tion in the groundwater. Samples taken during the end of theity dry of red season blood indicate cells to that transport a slight oxygen. This condition WHOidentify assigned the various the nitrate possible of 50 sources. mg/L as Stable a health isotope signifi- tech- The problem of high nitrate concentrations in drinking cant value in drinking water [1]. denitrification in the aquifer. Theis especiallyproblem of serious high nitrate for babies concentrations under three in monthsdrinking of cantniques value have in drinking successfully water been [1]. used for more than three waterage. It constitutes causes a condition a major known health as risk methemoglobinemia to both humans decadesFor this [2]. matter Nitrate of infact, the the environment identification may of have thevarious possi- and stock life. Nitrite reacts directly with haemoglobin ble sources of nitrate in groundwater is very important Keywords: Water quality / nitrate / pollution / isotope / N-15 isotope / O-18and isotopeor “bluestock / Westbank, baby”life. Nitrite Palestinedisease. reacts/ Water directly with nitrite with haemoglobin levels exceed- blesources, sources including of nitrate atmospheric in groundwater deposition, is very importantsoil organic inin human human blood blood and and other other warm-blooded warm-blooded animals animals to to pro- pro- asnitrification, a first step to fertilizer, solve these sewage problems. and manure. Many studies Nitrate were from Received: December 31, 2004; accepted: August 2, 2005 duce methemoglobin. Methemoglobin destroys the abil- performedeach source using is typically hydrochemical characterized ratios, by but a distinct they didn’t isoto- ity of red blood cells to transport oxygen. This condition identify the various possible15 sources. Stable isotope tech- DOI 10.1002/aheh.200400615 ityCorrespondence: of red blood cellsSaed to Khayat, transport Lehrstuhl oxygen. f�r Angewandte This condition Geologie identifypic signature. the various Typical possibled Nnitrate sources.values Stable for chemical isotope tech- fertili- isis(AGK), especially especially Universit�t serious serious Karlsruhe for for (TH), babies babies Kaiserstr. under under 12, three three 76128 months Karlsruhe,months ofGer- of niqueszers range have from successfully –4 to +4 been?, for used human for more and animal than three waste many decades [2]. Nitrate in the environment may have various age.E-mail: It [email protected] a condition known as methemoglobinemia decadesfrom +7 [2]. to Nitrate more than in the +30 environment?, and for soil may nitrate have fromvarious less orFax: “blue+49 baby”721 606279 disease. Water with nitrite levels exceed- sources,than –10 including to +4 ?. atmospheric deposition, soil organic 1 Introduction ing 1 mg/L should not be used for feeding babies. Also the nitrification, fertilizer, sewage and manure. Nitrate from WHOi 2006 assigned WILEY-VCH the Verlag nitrate GmbH of & 50 Co. mg/L KGaA, as Weinheim a health signifi- each source is typically characterized by a distinct isoto- Correspondence: Saed Khayat, Lehrstuhl f�r Angewandte Geologie pic signature. Typical d1515N values for chemical fertili- The problem of high nitrate concentrations in drinking Correspondence:cant value in drinkingSaed Khayat, water Lehrstuhl [1]. f�r Angewandte Geologie pic signature. Typical d Nnitratenitrate values for chemical fertili- (AGK),(AGK), Universit�t Universit�t Karlsruhe Karlsruhe (TH), (TH), Kaiserstr. Kaiserstr. 12, 12, 76128 76128 Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Ger- Ger- zers range from –4 to +4 ?, for human and animal waste water constitutes a major health risk to both humans manyFor this matter of fact, the identification of the possi- zers range from –4 to +4 ?, for human and animal waste many from +7 to more than +30 , and for soil nitrate from less and stock life. Nitrite reacts directly with haemoglobin E-mail:ble [email protected] of nitrate in groundwater is very important from +7 to more than +30 ?, and for soil nitrate from less Fax: +49 721 606279 in human blood and other warm-blooded animals to pro- Fax:as a+49 first 721 step 606279 to solve these problems. Many studies were thanthan –10 –10 to to +4 +4?.. duce methemoglobin. Methemoglobin destroys the abil- performed using hydrochemical ratios, but they didn’t i 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ity of red blood cells to transport oxygen. This condition iidentify2006 WILEY-VCH the various Verlag possible GmbH & sources.Co. KGaA, Stable Weinheim isotope tech- is especially serious for babies under three months of niques have successfully been used for more than three age. It causes a condition known as methemoglobinemia decades [2]. Nitrate in the environment may have various or “blue baby” disease. Water with nitrite levels exceed- sources, including atmospheric deposition, soil organic 46nitrification, fertilizer, sewage and manure. Nitrate from each source is typically characterized by a distinct isoto- 15 Correspondence: Saed Khayat, Lehrstuhl f�r Angewandte Geologie pic signature. Typical d Nnitrate values for chemical fertili- (AGK), Universit�t Karlsruhe (TH), Kaiserstr. 12, 76128 Karlsruhe, Ger- zers range from –4 to +4 ?, for human and animal waste many E-mail: [email protected] from +7 to more than +30 ?, and for soil nitrate from less Fax: +49 721 606279 than –10 to +4 ?. i 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 28 S. Khayat et al. Acta hydrochim. hydrobiol. 2006, 34, 27 – 33

18 d Onitrate values for atmospheric deposition exceeds the Jerusalem and Ramallah Mountains in the west con- +25 ?. For chemical fertilizers they range from +18 to tributes to a good catchments area with relatively abun- +22 ?, and for human and animal waste and soil nitrate dant water resources, which make it an important agri- 18 d Onitrate is –10 to +10 ? [3]. Hence, the isotopic composi- cultural area. Jericho has an area of approximately tion of nitrate constitutes a useful tracer for determining 35 330 hectares. Of this, 591 hectares are Palestinian resi- its sources, provided that no alteration of isotopic ratios dence area and 517 hectares are occupied by Jewish set- by biogeochemical reactions such as denitrification has tlements. The rate of annual precipitation varies between occurred. 120 mm and 250 mm, with an annual groundwater Nitrogen isotopes, mainly d15N, provide information recharge rates of about 180 Mio m3, while the annual about nitrogen sources and sink. Furthermore, the consumption rate is about 140 Mio m3 distributed nitrate d18O and d17O are promising new tools in deter- between domestic and agricultural use, according to mining nitrate sources and reactions, and complement ARIJ [7]. conventional uses of d15N [4], since they provide a mean In general, the per capita water consumption for to distinguish between nitrate of atmospheric deposition domestic use in the West Bank is between 50 L/d and 90 from fertilizers, sewage [5], and from soil nitrification L/d. The quantity of generated wastewater in Jericho dis- processes [6]. trict was around 2 Mio m3 for 1996 [8]. Wastewater collec- The objective of this study is to use the tracer isotopes tion network is totally lacking in Jericho. Septic tanks are values of d15N and d18O to identify the main sources of in common use for wastewater disposal, serving nor- nitrate in the shallow Pleistocene wells and springs in Jer- mally one or a cluster of houses. icho area, Palestine. The soil in Jericho developed mainly on top of the Samara formation which has a thickness of 20 m, and is composed of silts, clay, gravels and conglomerates. The 2 Study area Samara formation possesses a good hydraulic conductiv- ity and serves as a good groundwater reservoir. In con- Jericho is located at the eastern boundary of the West trast, the interfingering Lisan formation has a finer struc- Bank. It extends from 10 km to the north of the Dead Sea, ture with a thickness of 30 to several hundred meters, and 7 km to the west of the Jordan River (Fig. 1). While it and is composed of clay and silt, marl, chalk, gypsum has a desert climate its position on the eastern slope of and aragonites. The permeability of the Lisan formation

Figure 1. Location of the study area with sampled wells and springs. i 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jhome/5007772

47 Acta hydrochim. hydrobiol. 2006, 34, 27 – 33 Sources of nitrate in groundwater, Jericho 29

Figure 2. Groundwater pollution by nitrate sources in Jericho area.

is very low and the formation is considered an aquiclude cho city. The samples for nitrate analyses were collected –9 (K L 4.6 N 10 m/s). However, because the unit contains in 60-mL bottles, preserved by HgCl2, and kept in refrig- thin sand and silt beds of 20 to 30 cm thickness and erator. Nitrate was extracted by ion exchange from 1.5 L

because of its high salt content, the water has developed of water and converted to AgNO3, as described in Silva et pathways, resulting in relatively more porosity and per- al. [10]. Collection of nitrate on an anion-exchange resin meability [9]. The septic tanks built mainly in the top few eliminates the need for sending large quantities of meters within the Samara layer are usually lined by con- chilled water back to the laboratory, eliminates the need crete walls, sealing the four sides of the tanks but not the for hazardous preservatives, makes it easier to archive bottom [7]. Besides the possibility of waste seepage samples, and enables analysis of water with extremely through the bottom, the concrete walls, especially in old low nitrate. Nitrogen and oxygen isotope measurements tanks, may be fractured with time and, thus, wastewater were performed by continuous flow isotope ratio mass seeps through these fractures (Fig. 2). spectrometry (CF-IRMS) with an overall analytical preci- Jericho is considered to be an important agricultural sion of €0.1 ? for d15N and €0.3 ? for d18O values. area; it is the food basket of Palestine. High amount of fer- CF-IRMS separates the ions of the element (14N/15N) on tilizers, up to about 82.697 t/a are used [8]. This amount the basis of their different mass/charge ratio. Sample pre- which is mainly distributed on a seasonal basis does not paration consists of converting solid or liquid material to

reflect the application of nitrogen fertilizers, which com- nitrogen gas (N2) and isolating the particular gas for anal- prises only a small part of the total fertilizer load. This ysis. applications lead to a fertilizer accumulation in the soil, All analyses were carried out in the Environmental Iso- percolating with the irrigation flow to the groundwater tope Laboratory of the UFZ-Environmental Research Cen- in the transmissive Samara formation. tre in Leipzig-Halle, Germany.

3 Methods 4 Results

15 18 In November 2003, water samples were collected from 19 Nitrate concentrations, d Nnitrate and d Onitrate for ground- working wells and 2 springs in the Jericho area (Fig. 1). water sampled taken from 21 wells and springs are The sampling covered most of the area surrounding Jeri- shown in Table 1. All of the wells are of the Pleistocene

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48 30 S. Khayat et al. Acta hydrochim. hydrobiol. 2006, 34, 27 – 33

15 18 Table 1. Nitrate concentrations, d Nnitrate and d Onitrate for groundwater samples of the Jericho area.

15 18 Location Well Name Well Code Nitrate mg/L d Nnitrate d Onitrate

West Springs Area Ein Dyouk (Spring) AC/060 29.07 10.48 ? 3.9 ? West spring Area Ein Sultan (Spring) AC/061 42.46 10.08 ? 3.3 ? Jericho North Saeed Aladeen 19-14/062 5.18 10.12 ? 13.9 ? Jericho North Mohammed Masri 19-14/038 7.5 2.99 ? 14.7 ? Jericho North Samed 19-14/26a 15.97 15.78 ? 8.5 ? Jericho East Abdallah Araikat 19-14/049 30.58 8.14 ? 3.4 ? Jericho East Awni Hijazi 19-14/052 34.07 9.99 ? 4.9 ? Qilt West Basil Husaini 19-13/018 29.08 8.29 ? 5.2 ? Qilt West Basil Husaini 19-13/020 49.38 6.89 ? 3.4 ? Qilt West Fahmi Nahas 19-13/047 43.73 6.94 ? 3.8 ? Qilt West Fahmi Nahas 19-13/048 41.67 7.42 ? 3.8 ? Qilt West Salah Arouri 19-14/012 40.54 8.47 ? 4.3 ? Qilt West Sabiru Rantizi 19-13/006 72.71 9.29 ? 2.3 ? Qilt East Zuhdi Hashwa 19-13/052 46.55 7.7 ? 4.3 ? Qilt East Fahed Hishmi 19-13/015 33.24 8.5 ? 4.8 ? Jericho East Arab Project 19-13/069 24.51 10.9 ? 7.3 ? Qilt East Iron Factory 19-13/26a 70.13 9.64 ? 5.2 ? Qilt East Ibrahim Daek NW 29.68 6.59 ? 4.9 ? Jericho East Arab Project 19-14/067 38.86 7.42 ? 4.5 ? Jericho East Arab Project 19-14/073 40.41 7.37 ? 3.9 ? Jericho East Arab Project 19-14/066 29.69 9.25 ? 5.7 ?

18 15 Figure 3. d Onitrate vs. d Nnitrate isotopic com- position of major nitrate sources [3].

aquifer, while the springs are mainly draining from the values were between 5.2 mg/L in the well (19-14/062) to mountain’s cretaceous aquifer through the fault system the north-west of Jericho city and 72.7 mg/L in (19-13/006) to the west. The nitrate concentrations varied depending which located within an area with extensive agriculture on the well location and surrounding activities, the and green houses. i 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jhome/5007772

49 Acta hydrochim. hydrobiol. 2006, 34, 27 – 33 Sources of nitrate in groundwater, Jericho 31

18 15 Figure 4. d Onitrate vs. d Nnitrate. Most of the isotopic signatures lay within the range of sewage and manure and slight denitrification process. Two wells show a mixing signature of fertilizers with other sources.

15 The d Nnitrate values ranged from +3.0 to +15.78 ?. Oxy- originating from oxidation processes. The presence of gen isotope ratios of nitrate were around +3.3 to +8.5 ? many animal farms, especially in the east of Wadi Qilt with an exception of two samples having values of 13.9 and Ein Dyouk areas support these interpretations, in ?. and 14.7 ?. These two anomalous signatures belong addition, practice of using animal manure as natural fer- to samples with very low nitrate contents in the wells (19- tilizers. 14/038) and (19-14/062) north-west of the city. Two wells in the north show relatively small nitrate 18 concentrations and much higher d Onitrate values (Fig. 5b). This may indicate a different (non-continuous) 5 Discussion nitrate source, where nitrate may persist for a long time in the groundwater. The isotopic signature of these wells The ranges of signature of nitrogen and oxygen isotopes bears the isotopic signature of chemical fertilizers. The for various sources of nitrate are illustrated in Figure 3 signatures are more isotopically depleted due to mixing [3]. Comparing with the given results, most of isotopic with nitrate with different signatures of other sources signatures suggest sewage or manure as the main source such as sewage. The source that yields such lower nitrate responsible for the higher nitrate concentrations, with concentrations also represents the residual nitrate from 15 18 d N values > +7 ?, and d Onitrate between +3 ? and +6 ? bacterial denitrification for sewage or manure and gives Some samples also show a slight denitrification trend. the high d18O values, above +12 ?. This process was significant in the Samed well (Figs. 4, 5). This reflects the dry season sampling (end of summer), with nearly no recharge and groundwater may have per- 6 Conclusion sisted in the reservoir for several months.

The values in Figures 5a and 5b show slightly increas- 15 18 – d Nnitrate and d Onitrate values show that most of the 15 18 – ing d Nnitrate and d Onitrate with decreasing [NO3 ]. These groundwater samples from the wells and springs in combined trends point to slight denitrification within Jericho area were dominantly influenced by nitrate 15 18 the aquifer, where the heavy isotopes N and O are pre- derived from septic tanks. ferentially retained in the remaining nitrate [11]. Sewage is the main source of nitrate because it con- – Sewage and manure appears to be the cause of tains a high amount of urea and other organic and inor- increased nitrate concentrations. ganic nitrogenous compounds. Manure under aerobic – The application of fertilizers nitrate is of second condition in shallow aquifers is another source of nitrate importance, but this may vary with seasonal applica-

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50 32 S. Khayat et al. Acta hydrochim. hydrobiol. 2006, 34, 27 – 33

15 18 – Figure 5. d Nnitrate (a) and d Onitrate (b) versus 1/[NO 3] in L/mg. Most wells and springs show no significant differences in isotopic signatures, except for the Samed well, where its low nitrate level and enriched isotopic signature is reflecting a denitrification process. 18 Jericho north wells show low nitrate concentration with higher d Onitrate signatures, reflecting a mixing signature from other sources.

tion of the pesticides and with chemical composition just sewage. This signature may arise from a mixing of the fertilizers. trend between chemical fertilizers and the residual – Long persistence of nitrate within the groundwater nitrate from bacterial denitrification of sewage. reservoir during the dry season (sampling time) gives We express our gratitude for the German Federal Ministry of a good chance for the beginning of denitrification Science and Research (BMBF) (Dr. J. Metzger and Dr. S. Kiefer) processes within the aquifer. for funding this project. Our deep thanks also go to the PHG- 15 18 – The enriched d Nnitrate and d Onitrate values in the Palestinian Hydrology Group in Jerusalem, Palestine, for their northern wells reflect sources of nitrate other than logistic and technical support in the field. We thank the group i 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jhome/5007772

51 Acta hydrochim. hydrobiol. 2006, 34, 27 – 33 Sources of nitrate in groundwater, Jericho 33

of Dr. Kay Knoeller, UFZ Department of Isotope Hydrology, for [6] Kendall, C., Aravena, R.: Nitrate isotopes in groundwater measuring water samples for stable isotopes. systems. In: Cook, P., Herczeg, A. L. (Eds.): Environmental Tracers in Subsurface Hydrology. Kluwer Academic Press, Dordrecht, 2000, pp. 261–298. [7] ARIJ (Applied Research Institute–Jerusalem): Water References resources. In: The Status of the Environment in the West Bank. ARIJ, Jerusalem, 1997, pp. 95–107. [1] Canter, L. W.: Nitrate in Ground Water. Lewis Publishers, [8] ARIJ (Applied Research Institute–Jerusalem): Environ- New York, 1996. mental Profile for the West Bank. Volume 2: Jericho Dis- [2] H�bner, H.: Isotopic effect of nitrogen in the soil and bio- trict. ARIJ, Jerusalem, 1995. sphere. In: Fritz, P., Fontes, J. C. (Eds.): Handbook of Envir- [9] Salameh, E.: Sources of water salinities in the Jordan Val- onmental Isotope Geochemistry, Vol. 2B: The Terrestrial ley area, Jordan. Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol. 29, 329– Environment. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, 1986, pp. 362 (2002). 361–425. [10] Silva, S. R., Kendall, C., Wilkinson, D. H., Ziegler, A. C., Chang, [3] Clark, I., Fritz, P.: Nitrogen cycling in rural watershed. In: C. C. Y., Avanzino, R. J.: A new method for collection of Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. Lewis Publish- nitrate from fresh water and the analysis of nitrogen ers, Boca Raton, 1997, pp. 148–151. and oxygen isotope ratios. J. Hydrol. 228, 22–36 (2000). [4] Kendall, C., Doctor, D.: Stable isotope application in hydro- [11] B�ttcher, J., Strebel, O., Voerkelius, S., Schmidt, H.-L.: Using logic studies. In: Drever, J. I. (Ed.): Surface and Ground- isotope fractionation of nitrate nitrogen and nitrate– water, Weathering and Soils. Treatise on Geochemistry, oxygen for evaluation of microbial denitrification in a Vol. 5. Elsevier Pergamon, Oxford, 2004, pp. 319–364. sandy aquifer. J. Hydrol. 114, 413–424 (1990). [5] Kendall, C.: Tracing nitrogen sources and cycling in catch- ments. In: Kendall, C., McDonnell, J. J. (Eds.): Isotope Tracers in Catchment Hydrology. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1998, pp. 519–576.

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52 6

WSI Updates

Not a single drop of water falling from the sky should go to the sea before serving the mankind….

King Parakrama Bahu

53 WSI Newsletter

Workshops and Training

- In February 2006, the WSI in cooperation with the Center for Continuous Education (CCE) at Birzeit University organized a training course entitled: “Water Net Design through E-learning” for Palestinian engineers from municipalities, village councils, governmental and non- governmental institutions working in the fields of water and environment. By the end of the training course, the trainees were able to design a project via computer, which shows a new way of learning away from the known way of class lectures. Participants in the training courses - On May 29, 2006, within the activities of WaDImena project, the WSI organized a workshop on “Social and Economic Assessment for Reuse of Treated Effluent from Al-Bireh Wastewater Treatment Plant in Irrigated Agriculture”. After giving a brief description about WaDImena project and the aim of the workshop by the director of WSI – Dr. Ziad Mimi, the project team leader Dr. Maher Abu Madi presented to attendants the research objectives, activities, methodology, expected outcomes and results.

- On May 2, 2006, the WSI started a series of training courses held at the WSI for the third year within the activities of the EMWater-MEDA project in cooperation with InWEnt. The series entitled: “Efficient Management of Wastewater: its Treatment and Reuse”, consisted of six blocks that were held between May 2006 and September 2006. The participants in these blocks were Palestinian engineers and professionals working in water/wastewater management as well as in the environmental sectors.

- InWEnt is an international organization for training and human resources development that has been entrusted by the European Commission to implement a project co-funded from the German Ministry for Economic Co-operation and Development (BMZ) entitled “Efficient Management of Wastewater, its Treatment and Reuse in the Mediterranean Countries”. Participating countries of this project include Germany, Italy, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, as well as Palestine.

- In July 2006, the WSI at Birzeit University organized a training course entitled: “Vocational Trainings on Water Management in Water and Sanitation Sectors” for Palestinian engineers and professionals working in the fields of water and environment at the Gruppo Di Volontariato Civile (GVC). The training course was funded by the European Commission Humanitarian Aid Office (ECHO) within the framework of the ECHO/-ME/BUD/2005/0105 project Training course for GVC staff

54 implemented by Gruppo di Volontariato Civile (GVC) and Palestinian Hydrology Group (PHG) and took place at the WSI from July 29, 2006 until August 17, 2006.

New Publications

- Within the activities of the EMWater project under the MEDA WATER PROGRAMME initiative and funded by the European Union, the WSI at Birzeit University published a book entitled ”Efficient Management of Wastewater, its Treatment and Reuse in Four Mediterranean Countries”. In addition to the WSI, the following Institutions participated in editing the stated book:

- Al Al Bayt University – Jordan - InWEnt Capacity Building International, Germany - Jordan University – Jordan - Adelphi Research gGmbH – Germany - ENEA – Italy - Hamburg University of Technology – Germany - Lebanese American University – Lebanon - University of Balamand – Lebanon - Yildiz Technical University – Turkey

Staff News

- In May 2006, Dr. Rashed Al - Saed has been promoted to Associate Professor at the WSI – Birzeit University.

- Within the framework of staff exchange program of PoWER partnership, Dr. Nidal Mahmoud was hosted by UNESCO-IHE during the period (21 June till 21 August 2006). During his staff exchange visit Dr Mahmoud conducted a comprehensive literature review on leachate characterization and treatment targeting groundwater protection particularly in developing countries. He had given several lectures about Leachate Characterization and Treatment Methods within the international course on Solid Waste Management and Engineering which is offered at UNESCO-IHE for international professionals as well as the regular MSc students. In addition, He had organized and chaired an international face to face workshop on the application of low cost sanitation systems based on onsite anaerobic sewage treatment in UASB-septic tank systems in Africa and in the Arabian Peninsula during the period 24 – 30 July 2006.

- Within the framework of staff exchange program of PoWER partnership, Dr. Maher Abu-Madi spent one month (23 June till 23 July 2006) at UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education.

55 During this period, he developed a research strategy for the 18 partner universities and institutes. He was nominated to present this strategy on the 4th of July 2006 at the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs for potential financial support.

New Funded Projects

- The Partnership for Water Education and Research (PoWER) has funded two new research proposals submitted by the WSI.

The partners in the first proposal which is entitled: “Influence of Urban Development on the Quality of Groundwater. Guidelines Design for Groundwater Protection” are:

Universidat Blas Pascal, Argentina Birzeit University / WSI, Palestine Indian Istitute of Technology, India

The partners in the second proposal which is entitled: “Community Onsite Anaerobic Sewage Treatment in Hybrid and UASB – Septic Tank Systems” are:

Birzeit University, Palestine WEC- Sana`a University, Yemen University of Zimbabwe

New Defended Masters Theses

The following theses were successfully defended at the WSI from March 2006 to September 2006. Hard copies of the theses are available in the main library at Birzeit University.

NO. TITLE STUDENT NAME

Obstacles and Incentives of Applying Anaerobic Sewage Treatment 1 Mazen Kayed in the Mediterranean Region Water Resources Assessment for Al - Uja Surface and Sub– Surface 2 Al- Mutaz Billah Abbadi Catchments 3 Hospital Water Supply as a Source of Nosocomial Infection Azhar Al- Shareef 4 Hazardous Waste Management in the West Bank and Gaza Strip Loay Hussein Alleviation of the Negative Impact of Reclaimed Wastewater 5 Mixed with Brackish Water Through Treatment of Vicia Faba Nisreen Mansour Plants with the Natural Growth Regulator: Jasmonic Acid Development of an Environmental Management System for 6 Munir Saad Birzeit University

56