UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN MACEDONIA FACULTY OF EDUCATION

MENON

©online Journal Of Educational Research ISSN: 1792-8494

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διδακτὸν ἡ ἀρετή; A National and International Interdisciplinary Forum for Scholars, Academics, Researchers and Educators ἢ οὐ διδακτὸν from a wide range of fields related to Educational Studies ἀλλ’ ἀσκητόν; ἢ

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5th Issue Florina, November 2018

MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research

ABOUT MENON

ABOUT MENON EDITOR . Aikaterini Dimitriadou The scope of the MENON is broad, both in University Of Western Macedonia, terms of topics covered and disciplinary Greece perspective, since the journal attempts to make connections between fields, theories, EDITORIAL BOARD research methods, and scholarly discourses, . Sofia Avgitidou and welcomes contributions on humanities, University Of Western Macedonia, social sciences and sciences related to educational issues. It publishes original Greece empirical and theoretical papers as well as . Eleni Griva reviews. Topical collections of articles University Of Western Macedonia, appropriate to MENON regularly appear as Greece special issues (thematic issues). This open access journal welcomes papers . Triantafyllos Kotopoulos in English, as well in German and French. University Of Western Macedonia, Allsubmitted manuscripts undergo a peer- Greece review process. Based on initial screening by . Georgios Palaigeorgiou the editorial board, each paper is anonymized and reviewed by at least two University Of Western Macedonia, referees. Referees are reputed within their Greece academic or professional setting, and come . Sotiria Triantari from Greece and other European countries. University Of Western Macedonia, In case one of the reports is negative, the editor decides on its publication. Greece

Manuscripts must be submitted as electronic

files (by e-mail attachment in Microsoft Word format) to: [email protected] or via the Submission Webform. Submission of a manuscript implies that it must not be under consideration for publication by other journal or has not been published before.

MENON © is published at UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN MACEDONIA – FACULTY OF EDUCATION Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized as long as the source is acknowledged. Readers may print or save any issue of MENON as long as there are no alterations made in those issues. Copyright remains with the authors, who are responsible for getting permission to reproduce any images or figures they submit and for providing the necessary credits.

5th Issue 2

MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research

SCIENTIFIC BOARD LIST OF REVIEWERS . Barbin Evelyne, University of Nantes, France The Editor and the Editorial . D’ Amore Bruno, University of Bologna, Italy Board of the MENON: Journal . Fritzen Lena, Linnaeus University Kalmar Vaxjo, Of Educational Research Sweeden thanks the following colleagues . Gagatsis Athanasios, University of Cyprus, Cyprus for their support in reviewing . Gutzwiller Eveline, Paedagogische Hochschule von manuscripts for the current Lucerne, Switzerland issue. . Harnett Penelope, University of the West of England, . Sofia Avgitidou United Kingdom . Konstantinos Christou . Hippel Aiga, University of Munich, Germany . Hourdakis Antonios, University of Crete, Greece . Eleni Griva . Iliofotou-Menon Maria, University of Cyprus, Cyprus . Kostas Kasvikis . Katsillis Ioannis, University of Patras, Greece . Efthalia Konstantinidou . Kokkinos Georgios, University of Aegean, Greece . Domna Michail . Korfiatis Konstantinos, University of Cyprus, Cyprus . Ioannis Mpetsas . Koutselini Mary, University of Cyprus, Cyprus . Kostas Nikolantonakis . Kyriakidis Leonidas, University of Cyprus, Cyprus . Anastasia Stamou . Lang Lena, Universityof Malmo, Sweeden . Sofia Iliadou – Taxou . Latzko Brigitte, University of Leipzig, Germany . Ioannis Thoidis . Mikropoulos Anastasios, University of Ioannina, . Ifigeneia Vamvakidou Greece . Mpouzakis Sifis, University of Patras, Greece . Panteliadu Susana, University of Thessaly, Greece . Paraskevopoulos Stefanos, University of Thessaly, Greece . Piluri Aleksandra, Fan S. Noli University, Albania . Psaltou -Joycey Angeliki, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece . Scaltsa Matoula, AristotleUniversity of Thessaloniki, Greece . Tselfes Vassilis, National and KapodistrianUniversity of Athens, Greece . Tsiplakou Stavroula, Open University of Cyprus, Cyprus . Vassel Nevel, Birmingham City University, United Kingdom . Vosniadou Stella, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece . Woodcock Leslie, University of Leeds, United Kingdom

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research

CONTENTS

BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN 5 GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE 19 APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S 35 HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A 48 MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHERS: 63 VIEWS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND HISTORY TEACHERS Kerasia Dikoglou, George Iordanidis

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research

BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE

Aspassia Chatzidaki Associate Professor, University of Crete [email protected]

Christina Maligkoudi Educator in the School of Modern Greek, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [email protected]

ABSTRACT 1. INTRODUCTION Community schools are usually voluntary, community organizations in the form of after- Ethnic language maintenance in immigrant school and weekend programs aiming at settings is quite challenging. In most cases, teaching the heritage languages and minority languages are not incorporated in transmitting cultural elements to the second the curriculum of mainstream schools nor do and third-generation of speakers of a they receive any official support. As a result, particular community (Creese & Martin 2006; minority groups who wish to maintain their Lytra & Martin 2010). Although they are languages resort to setting up community meant to enrich their students’ cultural and schools. Such schools are usually voluntary, linguistic repertoire, the approaches to community organizations in the form of after- bilingualism and ethnic identity formation school and weekend programs. They aim at may differ considerably from one setting to teaching the heritage languages and the next. The paper discusses findings from transmitting cultural elements to the second a qualitative study conducted in an Albanian or third generation of speakers of a particular community school in Thessaloniki, Greece in community (Lytra & Martin 2010). In as far the last two years. The data for this particular as cultural transmission is concerned it paper consist of field notes collected through usually takes place not only through courses ethnographic observations and interviews but mainly through students’ involvement in with the school teachers, which were plays, celebrations and other cultural analyzed following Boyatzis’ (2008) ‘thematic activities, something which gives them the analysis’. The discussion here revolves opportunity to enact their ethnic identity around the teachers’ perceptions of the (García, Zakharia & Otcu 2013; Creese & school aims and their own teaching aims and Martin 2006; Lytra & Martin 2010). practices, which are then linked to their Researchers from various settings use a ideologies concerning bilingual development number of terms for such schools. The terms and community language maintenance. “afternoon/ Saturday/ Sunday schools” Keywords: teaching practices, community (Damanakis 2007; Otcu 2010) have been schools, heritage language bilingual widely used to refer to the fact that such education, Albanian immigrants instruction takes place outside school hours.

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi

British scholars have proposed the terms 2010). Regarding the teachers’ role, Menken “supplementary” (Hall et al. 2002) and and García (2010) have highlighted the “complementary schools” (Creese & Martin powerful role they can play as active 2006; Li Wei 2006) on the grounds that not policymakers in their classrooms. Positive only instruction in these schools serves to orientations towards the minority language prepare children for their mainstream and culture may encourage bilingual children classes in certain cases but also because it to view their heritage as a valuable and reinforces their sense of cultural belonging powerful communicative resource (De Palma and enriches their linguistic repertoire, 2010). complementing thus their education. On the However, both in mainstream classrooms other hand, the term “heritage language and in community language schools, official schools” has gained currency in the North policies and teachers’ practices may be in American and Australian contexts (Li 2005; line with “monoglossic” bilingual educational Mu and Dooley 2014; Willoughby 2014). We policies (García 2009). This means that the argue that although the term may be two languages in the students’ repertoire are appropriate for these contexts, its use treated as separate language systems; as a portrays ethnic language as part of one’s result, either their use during language heritage, thus emphasizing families’ past courses is compartmentalized (the experience (cf. also Kenner and Hickey, languages are taught separately in different 2008) and failing to do justice to the fact that periods) or the use of one language (in our such languages are actually part of students’ case, the majority one) is explicitly or everyday reality. As a result, we choose to implicitly discouraged and the emphasis is refer to such institutions as ‘community placed on the instruction of the minority (language) schools’, putting forward on the language (Klein 2013; Li Wei & Wu 2009). In one hand, the communities’ involvement in such settings, teachers and administrators their operation and, on the other, the usually hold an essentialist view of ethnic importance such schools have for building and cultural identity, which means that they bonds among older and younger community do not acknowledge immigrant children’s members. Several researchers in the right to form multiple ethno-cultural identities European context have made use of that and to navigate through them. Furthermore, term as well (cf. Extra 2007; Helavaara they may not accept the importance of the Robertson 2006; Pantazi 2010 etc). majority language and culture for these children (Klein 2013), something which ultimately transforms such classes in a 2. BILINGUALISM AT COMMUNITY disempowering form of education. SCHOOLS: COMPETING On the other hand, teachers may APPROACHES embrace a different approach to teaching bilingual students. In the case of community Bilingual classroom contexts are hugely schools, such views may transform schools varied, with multiple models and structures in “safe spaces” (Conteh & Brock 2011; existing in different education systems Creese et al. 2006), where minority children across the world (Creese & Blackledge are allowed to perform the full range of their

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi linguistic repertoires and develop their teachers (Creese & Blackledge 2010; multilingual and multicultural identities Creese & Martin 2006). (Creese et al 2006; García et al. 2013). This is achieved when teachers engage in 3. THE STUDY “flexible bilingualism practices” (Creese & Blackledge 2010) using all their students’ 3.1. The research population and site linguistic and semiotic resources to create opportunities for meaning-making and Albanian immigrants are one of the largest identity construction. A pedagogy consistent immigrant communities in Greece; their with this approach not only allows but also number was estimated between 400,000 and encourages the use of both languages in the 500,000 a decade ago (Lyberaki & Maroukis classroom in a systematic and organized 2005). However, as Gogonas & Michail way. According to this approach, usually (2014) point out, not only are valid data on teacher-led contrastive analysis takes place the exact number of Albanians in Greece not and the “other” language is used to attract available, but such an estimation is difficult attention or for interaction management to make as there is a considerable back-and- (pedagogical code switching as forth movement between the two countries. translanguaging, García 2009). Additionally, After three regularization programs at the this approach allows personal expression end of the century Albanian immigrants have and “identity negotiation”; students are been registered and settled as families all encouraged to express themselves in over Greece, achieving integration in terms whatever language combination they wish, of job opportunities and education. In terms both orally and in writing (Cummins 2000). of mother tongue language maintenance, the As García (2009) has pointed out, few majority of second-generation speakers are studies have investigated flexibility in Greek-dominant and feel more comfortable language use in bilingual classrooms. when using the majority language Menken and García (2010:1) assert that (Chatzidaki 2005; Chatzidaki & Maligkoudi “regardless of the type of policies or the 2013; Gogonas 2009). Nonetheless, it educational context in which as policy comes appears that, among plenty of families, the to life in the classroom, there is typically desire for community-language instruction space for policy negotiation in classroom remains strong (Chatzidaki et al. 2015; practice”. The present study aims at Gkaintartzi et al. 2014; Gkaintartzi et al. highlighting how teachers in an Albanian 2015). This is probably linked to the complementary school handle their students’ economic crisis which has severely affected bilingualism and which teaching practices the lives of Albanian immigrants; as a result they implement in order to allow students to of rampant unemployment, they found move between their languages and cultures. themselves not only struggling to make ends As is obvious from the literature, community meet but also unable to pay their social schools can play an important role towards benefits contribution, a prerequisite for the transformation, negotiation and retaining their regularization status (Gemi, management of language, culture and 2014:407). As a result, thousands of them learning identities of students, parents and have left Greece for Albania, although

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi second-generation adults are quite reluctant informed observations of courses in all to return to a country they have few ties with grades and occasional school events during (Mihail 2013). the time period December 2015-May 2017. The community school in question, the Interviews were analyzed following the “Mother Tereza’’ community school, was “thematic analysis” approach (Boyatzis founded in 2004 by the Thessaloniki 2008). The informants’ opinions on particular Association of Albanian Immigrants. It uses aspects of their teaching, as expressed in premised offered by the School of Education the interviews, were compared and of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and contrasted in order to sort out the subjective operates on Sundays (11.30a.m.-13.00p.m.) realities of the teachers and to discover The teachers are Albanian nationals, “themes”, that is, patterns that on the one immigrants themselves, with a degree in hand, describe and organize possible Albanian Philology or Primary Education, observations and, at the maximum, interpret who offer their services on a voluntary basis. aspects of the phenomenon. The textbooks used are the same textbooks The aims of the general study is to which are used in mainstream schools in present a detailed portrait of the language Albania and Kossovo. The school provides repertoires, ideologies and practices of the lessons of Albanian language and culture to actors involved, namely the educators, children between the ages of 7 and 16. parents and their children. Ηowever, in this Students are grouped to four or five grades – paper we shall address the following depending on the number of teachers who questions: are available- mainly according to their 1) How do teachers perceive the language level in Albanian and, to a lesser school’s aims and how are these extent, according to their age. During the aims formulated in their discourse? school years 2015-2016 and 2016-2017, 2) What practices do teachers follow namely during the period of our research, with regard to language use in the there were approximately 100 students classroom? enrolled, most of whom were born in Greece The investigation of teachers’ practices and were Greek-dominant (Chatzidaki & and ideologies was based mainly on their Maligkoudi 2017). interviews; however, several hours of participant observation in each class were 3.2. Research methodology used to help us triangulate the interview data (cf. Chatzidaki & Maligkoudi 2017). In this Our study on this particular community paper, we draw basically from teachers’ school was informed by qualitative research interviews. procedures and was designed as a case At the time of the research, four teachers study. Data were collected through audio- were working at the school (referred to here recorded semi-directed interviews with (a) by pseudonyms). Here is some information the four teachers and the President of the about them. Albanian Association, (b) six focal children, Αnila, mid-forties, has been living in and (c) their parents. Moreover, data was Greece for the last fifteen years. She is also collected through ethnographically married and has a daughter. She holds a

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi degree of Albanian Philology and has struggles to express himself at times, and worked as a teacher for six years before communication relies heavily on negotiation coming to Greece. Although she holds a day of meaning between the two parties. job, she travels to Thessaloniki twice a week to give courses of Albanian organized by the 4. TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON THE “Mother Tereza’’ School and another Greek SCHOOL’S MISSION AND AIMS non-profit association promoting awareness on multilingualism and multiculturalism. The According to Li Wei (2006), one of the main first year of the study she was teaching the aims of community schools is to maintain more advanced group of students and she and transmit the heritage language and continued to do so the following year (school culture to the second or third generation of year 2016-17). immigrants. This also proved to be the case Sofia is around 50 and has been living in in our study. In his interview, the Chairman of Greece for almost twenty five years. She is the Albanian Association supporting “Mother married with children who are University Tereza’’ claimed that the school aims at students. She holds a teacher’ degree and developing mother-tongue skills to second- worked as one before coming to Greece. At generation children and enriching their the time of the study, she had been giving identity. At the same time, he acknowledged lessons at Mother Theresa for four years. that these children consider Greece as their She teaches the intermediate level. homeland and are dominant in the Greek Yolanda is in her early thirties and has language. been living in Greece for nine years. She is All the school’s representatives (both the married with a young son. She also holds a teachers and the Chairman) were cautious to teacher’ degree and started teaching at the explain that the school does not promote a community school during the first year of the nationalistic agenda. This is very important in study. this particular context, in view of the tense Ilir, the only male teacher at the school, is relation between the two countries. in his mid-thirties and has been living in

Greece for five years. He is married with two “The main reason why we started this small children. Although he has worked as a association did not have to do either teacher in Albania, he is currently employed with government issues not with as a factory worker. His wish to teach politics in general […] One of our Albanian made him offer his services basic aims was to teach the mother voluntarily not just to ‘’Mother Theresa but to tongue of children who grow up here a second community school in Thessaloniki. in Greece, the second generation.” His students are just below the intermediate (Anila, 13-15). level.

With regard to Greek language skills, “When I first came, the Association length of residence seems to have played a told me certain things. That is, the role. Anila and Sofia are highly competent, teacher and the courses do not deal while Yolanda and Ilir are still somewhat with political or religious issues, with hesitant in their speech. Ilir, especially,

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi

nationalism and things like that. We grade they have to learn the simply teach children their mother alphabet, and in the second grade… tongue. They need it, they want it, we Of course, we get books from Albania want it too, history, that sort of things and all the teachers here have […]. To know their identity.” (Sofia, decided what to teach. The most 131-135). important things, the things that children should know… and it’s not However, developing Albanian language the same as the way a little child competence among second-generation learns in Albania, who goes to school children is difficult to achieve, according to every day and has, let’s say, five the teachers, because of the limited hours of courses, here we have one instruction time. As a result, they all claim to hour to teach them the most basic focus on teaching the “most basic stuff”. stuff, the make them understand. ’’ (Yolanda, 68-73). “[…] in the beginning, we make them read and write, because, that’s our When teachers speak of their specific goal, isn’t it? To be able to speak and instructional aims, they mention a variety of write Albanian well. We can’t do language aspects. The aims most frequently anything more than that, it’s only one mentioned include development of written hour a week, what can do? ” (Ilir, 77- skills and accuracy in language use 78) (grammar, morphology, semantics etc.). Anila also insists on helping students enrich Moreover, teachers seem to frame their their vocabulary and familiarizing them with teaching goals within a mother-tongue different genres and registers: syllabus. The only difference they perceive has to do with time limitations. The following “I put emphasis on the extracts illustrate this point: communicative part. That means that children have a very poor vocabulary, “Because the lesson is once a week, the way I see them. To speak in these two hours I cover or at least I properly, to express themselves in a try to cover the most important things, nice matter and through this to teach the most important stuff. It is communicative part we also learn not possible, you don’t have time to grammar and other language make students communicate, to give elements. But more on the them a basic vocabulary and to communicative part, I like this, enrich it…. To give them the basics. children to be able to express Because you cannot teach everything themselves in several situations, to there is to know about grammar, we be able to place themselves.” (Anila, go as far as sixth grade knowledge, 150-158) that’s it.’’ (Anila, 44-49). Οn the other hand, Sofia and Yolanda “Let’s say, we know that in the first insist on more traditional views, mentioning

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi the acquisition of literacy and acquiring “All the students’ languages are grammatical and expressive accuracy: connected; the development of one contributes to the development of ‘We put emphasis on writing, another.’’ because most of them know how to “The use of Greek is an speak, they want to write, to express indispensable teaching practice in themselves.” (Sofia, 152-153) this particular context.’’

“I also try to focus on speaking, First of all, all teachers including Ilir because it is not nice “OK, let them speak very positively about bilingualism as speak Albanian, it is OK if they they acknowledge that the development of a cannot say it correctly”. It is not nice. I certain language may support the try to explain them when they say a development of another (Greek, Albanian, word wrong and I tell them ‘we don’t English, Italian etc.). For instance, the say it like this, we say it like this’.” following comment by Anila refers to the fact (Yolanda, 95-97). that language development can be supported by multiple language channels: Summing up, teachers are fully aware of and compliant with the school’s aims which “I believe that when you promote they try to achieve following slightly different bilingualism you help the teaching methods. In the next section we development of both languages. present and discuss teachers’ claims with That’s it […]. And I am really quite regard to language practices in the certain that in these two hours every classroom and try to link it to their beliefs Sunday, they don’t only learn about bilingualism in general and to how the Albanian, they learn something more students’ repertoires relate to each other in about the Greek language as well” particular. (Anila, 260-261, 390-392).

At some other point during the interview, 5. TEACHERS’ LANGUAGE Anila claims that the development of PRACTICES metalinguistic awareness in a language contributes to the child’s general linguistic Through a process of constant study and awareness: comparison among teachers’ accounts we arrived at certain ‘themes’ regarding their “Sometimes I have noticed that when language practices and ideologies. These they don’t do well, when they have refer to the use of the majority language in difficulties and gaps, for instance, in the classroom and how this is linked to the the Greek language, by taking teachers’ view of bilingual development. Albanian language lessons and More specifically, teachers’ reports on their learning grammatical phenomena in practices and ideologies evolve around the both languages, they improve their following themes: Greek. Because I always compare

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi

“How is this in the other language?” Res: There are studies which claim and this helped with their difficulties, that children raised with two yeah…” (Anila, 316-325). languages have certain advantages. The same issue came up in the Ilir: Yes. interviews of the other two female teachers, Res: What do you think? namely that there is an interconnection Ilir: That’s what I think as well, that is, between the languages a child knows. they’ve got advantages. Res: You mean, bilingualism helps “I try to teach them to write and for them in certain ways. this, most of the time, it helps if they Ilir: Yes. take English lessons, because our Res: Have you seen this happening? letters are the same as the English Ilir: Well, as I said before, they may ones.” (Yolanda, 126-128). not know a word in Albanian but they know it in Greek, that is, they Sofia, talking about the benefits of explain it in Greek and then he bilingualism, highlights the linguistic understands, what it means in relationship between Albanian and Italian Albanian… or the other way and how the knowledge of one language around. facilitates the learning of new ones: So, all teachers seem to agree that the “You learn other languages more process of learning a second or a third easily, Italian is like Albanian. Italians language is facilitated in various ways by the are our neighbors, we watch TV, that mastery acquired in some other language stuff. And kids pick up Italian easily, (see also Chatzidaki and Maligkoudi 2017, this is what happened with my son, Μaligkoudi and Chatzidaki 2018 for the with my daughter as well. It helped. same sample). However only the three They have got a diploma in Italian, female teachers actually adopt practices now. Because the Albanian language which take into account their students’ helps, it helps a lot, they are similar in greater familiarity with the Greek language. many things. The names of the In fact, all three claim to use Greek while professions are the same in Albanian teaching, mostly to facilitate students’ and in Italian…” (Sofia, 313-320). understanding, as a ‘scaffold’ for achieving learning of the Albanian language: As previously mentioned, communication with Ilir was constrained by his lack of “It doesn’t mean that I don’t allow fluency; although he could not speak at Greek in my classroom or that I tell length about the subject, he nevertheless kids “No, I don’t want to hear any agreed that having a good level of Greek Greek’’. No, this isn’t right because language competence helps the child they go to Greek schools, they speak acquire Albanian (Ilir, 233-240): Greek better than Albanian so we help. The Greek language helps the

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Albanian one in our class and the Greek. It is absolutely necessary. We children help one another” (Yolanda, compare, we compare a lot and that’s 130-133). how they remember things better. […] . Or they translate things and this “No, [I use] both, because it’s easier helps them a lot. By translating small for me as well. Something that I can’t texts, poems… They don’t forget say, or something they wouldn’t be them, they remember them better.” able to understand even if I explained (Sofia, 204-211). it a hundred times I will compare it with Greek so that they understand. On the other hand, both the classroom There is no other way. And Greek is observations and his interview suggest that the main language they know. […] Ilir adopts a ‘monoglossic approach’ to Greek is their main language and teaching bilingual children. In the following they speak it fluently.” (Sofia, 192- interview extract, he tries to explain that he 196) deliberately refrains from using the majority language, as he believes that its use will “It’s true [i.e. ‘that I insist on Albanian take up valuable time and will hinder the during the lesson’] but this doesn’t students’ engagement with Albanian: mean that I tell them off when they don’t speak Albanian. [When they do] Res: So you speak Greek just about I usually say “How do we say this in enough to explain the lesson? Albanian?’’. […] Because they find it Ilir: No, no, no, I just say “We are easy, it’s easier for them, but the learning Albanian!’’, because if lesson always take place in both you come into the classroom and languages. But the basis is… and we speak Greek, then you can’t these two hours that the kids have, learn, you can’t… it’s Albanian, but Greek is always Res: So you try to speak Albanian as there. We usually speak it when there much as possible. is some difficulty, when we have to Ilir: As much as possible. explain something’’ (Anila, 235-240). Res: And what happens if the children say something in Greek Actually, the main strategies teachers among them? claim to use when they attempt to capitalize Ilir: That’s what I am trying to say, on the students’ knowledge of Greek are let’s say a child says a word in comparison between the two languages and Greek. translation. This is supposed to not only I ask another student “What is enhance understanding but also students’ this?’’ to make the students engagement: work. If they don’t know the word, then I “We try to use more Albanian, to talk, come in and explain… to make their ear get used to the Res: Yeah, yeah, so you tell them Albanian language, but we also use “No Greek in here!’’

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi

Ilir: “Here you will learn Albanian, than with their parents’ homeland and do not OK?’’ (laughs) welcome the prospect of a return to Albania. Community language teachers in our In contrast to his colleagues, Ilir avoids sample not only are aware of the children’s any really productive use of the students’ dominance in and preference for Greek but dominant language in the classroom in order also exploit this to promote the school’s aim, to maximize their ‘immersion’ in Albanian. that is, the learning and maintenance of the His stance reminds us of what García & Li ethnic language. Based on what we have Wei (2014:46) refer to as the ‘parallel observed in fieldwork and what the teachers monolingualisms’ view of bilingual report to be doing in the classroom, we development which requires that the learning argue that the four teachers can be placed of the two languages should take place along a continuum, with Anila and Ilir without ‘interference’ from the other. occupying the two poles. Anila stands out as Moreover, his general teaching practice is a competent and inquisitive teacher who basically traditional; interaction in his class is often uses “flexible bilingualism practices” highly controlled, and students are not and engages students in meaningful allowed to use any language spontaneously. activities in order to enhance her students’ communicative and discourse competence (see also Maligkoudi & Chatzidaki 2018). 6. CONCLUSIONS Next along the continuum is Sofia, who seems to use comparative analysis and As previously mentioned in Sections 1 and 2, translation to some extent, but is the issue that we would like to explore is nevertheless a more traditional teacher. whether these teachers try to achieve Yolanda, who teaches the younger children Albanian language learning through and is mainly responsible for introducing “monoglossic” bilingual educational policies them to literacy in Albanian, also exploits the (García 2009) or not. Placing this study in use of Greek as a ‘scaffold’ to help beginners the broader context of Albanian immigration, understand. However, she mostly invites one sees that, according to a multitude of students to use Albanian and does not often studies, second-generation children and use techniques which celebrate the students’ adolescents show a distinct preference for bilingualism. Finally, the male teacher, Ilir, the majority language and their parents tend has the most traditional teaching approach of to accommodate them by using Greek at all and insists on the exclusive use of home to varying extents (Chatzidaki 2005; Albanian during the lessons. Chatzidaki & Xenikaki 2012; Chatzidaki, Teachers’ ideologies and practices with Maligkoudi & Mattheoudakis (2015; Gogonas regard to language use in the classroom are 2009; Gogonas and Michail 2015; linked to their views of how best to teach the Maligkoudi 2010). These findings are community language. In particular, the three consistent with research by Greek social female teachers exploit the children’s anthropologists such as Michail (2013) who dominance in Greek to ensure that students points out that second-generation Albanian build Albanian language proficiency on it. On immigrants have stronger ties with Greece the other hand, the male teacher regards the

5th Issue 14

MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi use of Greek as an obstacle in the students’ REFERENCES acquisition of Albanian. Our findings provide support for a quite Boyatzis, R.E. (2008). Transforming flexible and dynamic approach towards Qualitative Information. Cleveland: Sage. bilingual education in the context of the Chatzidaki, A. (2005). Modela diglosikis Albanian community school in question. The siberiforas se ikogenies Alvanon majority of the community school’s teachers mathiton. Dedomena apo embiriki erevna implement flexible language practices and [Patterns of bilingual behaviour in adopt a child-centered approach (Schwartz families of Albanian pupils: An empirical et al. 2016), as they report to have the study]. Epistimes Agoyis, 2005 Special children’s best interests in mind. However, issue, 79-102. issues such as the frequency of translation Chatzidaki, A., & Maligkoudi, C. (2013). and code-switching in the classrooms as Family language policies among “intentional” language practices or the Albanian immigrants in Greece. implementation of tasks that encourage the Ιnternational Journal of Bilingual use of children’s all acquired languages Education and Bilingualism, 16(6), 675- need to be further examined. Moreover, 689. future research should also include Chatzidaki, A., Maligkoudi, C. & comparison with other complementary Mattheoudakis, M. (2018). Albanian schools both in the Greek context but also Mother Tongue Courses in Thessaloniki, on an international level, in order to examine Greece: parents’ perspective. the factors that lead educators to adopt a Albanohellenica 6, Proceedings of the monolingual or a heteroglossic approach 2nd International Conference of Greek- towards language learning (Lytra 2015, Albanian/Albanian-Greek Studies Panayotopoulou et al. 2017). (Tirana, March 27th-28th, 2015). Chatzidaki, A. & Maligkoudi, C. (2017). Community language teaching and the celebration of bilingualism: conflicting aims or a sound pedagogy? Paper presented at the 16th GALA Conference, Thessaloniki, 6-8 October 2017. Creese, A., Bhatt, A., Bhojani, N., & Martin, P. (2006). Multicultural, Heritage and Learner Identities in Complementary Schools. Language and Education, 20 (1), 23-43. Creese, A., & Blackledge, A. (2010). Translanguaging in the Bilingual Classroom: A Pedagogy for Learning and Teaching? The Modern Language Journal, 94, 103-115.

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi

Creese, A., & Martin, P. (2006). Interaction in return. International Review of Sociology, complementary school contexts: 24(3), 406-421.Gkaintartzi A., Chatzidaki developing identities of choice- an A. & Tsokalidou, R. (2014). Albanian introduction. Language and Education 20 Parents and the Greek Educational (1), 1-4. Context: Who is Willing to Fight for the Conteh, J. & Brock, A. (2011). ‘Safe spaces’? Home Language? International Journal Sites of bilingualism for young learners in of Multilingual Research, 8(4), 291-308. home, school and community. Gkaintartzi, A, Kiliari, A. & Tsokalidou, R. International Journal of Bilingual (2015). ‘Invisible’ bilingualism – ‘invisible’ Education and Bilingualism, 14 (3), 347- language ideologies: Greek teachers' 360. attitudes towards immigrant pupils' Cummins, J. (2000). Language, Power and heritage languages. International Journal Pedagogy: Bilingual children in the of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 18 (1), 60-72. Damanakis, M. (2007). Pedia Omogenon Gogonas, N. (2009). Language Shift in [Education of Greeks abroad]. Rethimno: Second-Generation Albanian Immigrants University of Crete. in Greece. Journal of Multilingual and De Palma, R. (2010). Language us in the Multicultural Development, 30 (2), 95- two-way immersion education: Lessons 110. from a Spanish-English bilingual Gogonas, N. & Michail, D. (2015). kindergarten. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Ethnolinguistic vitality, language use and Extra, G. (2007). From minority programmes social integration amongst Albanian to multilingual education. In: Peter Auer immigrants in Greece, Journal of and Li Wei (eds) Handbook of Multilingual and Multicultural Multilingualism and Multilingual Development, 36 (2): 198-211Hall, K. A., Communication (pp. 175-205) Berlin/New Ozerk, K., Zylfiqar, M., & Tan, J.E.C. York: Mouton de Gruyter. (2002). ‘This is our school’: provision, García, O. (2009). Bilingual Education in the purpose and pedagogy of supplementary 21st Century: A Global Perspective. schooling in Leeds and Oslo. British Malden, MA: Wiley/ Blackwell. Educational Research Journal, 28 (3), García, O., & Li Wei (2014). 399-418. Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism Helavaara Robertson, L. (2006). Learning to and Education. Basingstoke: Palgrave Read ‘Properly’ by Moving Between Macmillan. Parallel Literacy Classes, Language and García, O., Zakharia, Z. & Otcu, B. (eds) Education, 20 (1): 44-61. (2013). Bilingual Community Education Klein, W. (2013). Speaking Punjabi: Heritage for American Children: Beyond Heritage Language Socialization and Language Languages in a Global City. Bristol, UK: Ideologies in a Sikh Education Program. Multilingual Matters. Heritage Language Journal, 10 (1), 36- Gemi, E. (2014). Transnational practices of 50. Albanian families during the Greek crisis: Li, M. (2005). The role of parents in Chinese unemployment, de-regularization and heritage language schools. Bilingual

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi

Research Journal, 29 (1), 197-207. as Policymakers. New York: Routledge. Lyberaki, A. & Maroukis, T. (2005). Albanian Michail, D. (2013). Social development and immigrants in Athens: New Survey transnational households: resilience and Evidence on Employment and motivation for Albanian immigrants in Integration. Southern European and Greece in the era of economic crisis, Black Sea Studies, 5(1), 21-48. Southeast European and Black Sea Lytra, V., & Martin, P. (2010). Introduction to Studies, 13 (2), 265-279. Sites of Multilingualism: Complementary Mu, G.M. and Dooley, K. (2014). Coming into schools in Britain today. (pp.11-20). an inheritance: family support and Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books. Chinese Heritage Language Learning. Lytra, V. (2015). Language practices and International Journal of Bilingual language ideologies among Turkish Education and Bilingualism, 18 (4), 501- speaking young people in Athens and 515. London. In J. Nortier and B.Svendsen Otcu, B. (2010). Heritage language (eds.) Language, Youth and Identity in maintenance and cultural identity the 21st Century (pp.183-204), formation: The case of a Turkish Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Saturday School in New York City. Maligkoudi, C. (2013). Attempts to maintain Heritage Language Journal, 7 (2), 112- the Albanian language in Greece through 137. collective efforts. The case of Albanian Panayotopoulou, A., Rosen, L. and Garcia, Language Courses. Albanohellenica, 5: O. (2017) Language teachers’ ideologies 297-306. in a complementary Greek school in Maligkoudi, C. (2014). Tmimata didaskalias Montreal: Heteroglossia and teaching. In ethnotikon glosson stin Ellada [Ethnic P.P. Trifonas and T. Aravossitas (eds.) Language Courses in Greece]. In M. Handbook of Research and Practice in Damanakis, S. Konstantinidis and A. Heritage Language Education, Springer Tamis (eds.) New Immigration From and International Publishing To Greece, Athens/ Alexandria: KEME, Pantazi, E. (2010). Teachers’ developing University of Crete, 299-324. theories and practices in Greek Maligkoudi,C. and Chatzidaki, A. (2018). I Community schools. In V. Lytra and P. praktiki tis diaglossikotitas sta alvanika Martin (eds) (2010) Sites of kinotika scholia: mia meleti periptosis Multilingualism: complementary schools [Translanguaging practices in Albanian in Britain today (pp.111-122). Stoke-on- community schools: a case study]. Ιn Trent: Trentham. Tsokalidou, R. & M. Kekia (eds) Schwartz, M., Palviainen, A., Mard-Miettinen, Proceedings of the 4th Crossroads of K. & Protassova, E. (2016). Two Languages and Cultures ‘Didactics of languages in the air: a cross-cultural multilingualism and language comparison of preschool teachers’ policies‘(pp. 239-253): Thessaloniki: reflections on their flexible bilingual Polydromo. practices. International Journal of Menken, C. & García, O. (2010). Negotiating Bilingualism and Bilingual Education, 19 Language Policies in Schools: Educators (6), 1-17.

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research BILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES IN AN ALBANIAN COMMUNITY SCHOOL IN GREECE Aspassia Chatzidaki, Christina Maligkoudi

Wei, Li (2006). Complementary schools: Brief bio Past, present and future. Language and Education, 20 (1), 76-83. Christina Maligkoudi holds a PhD in Wei, Li & Wu, C.-J. (2009). Polite Chinese Intercultural Education and has worked as a children revisited: creativity and the use postdoctoral researcher in the fields of of codeswitching in the Chinese intercultural education, bilingualism and complementary school classroom. bilingual education. She teaches Greek as International Journal of Bilingual L2 to adults in the School of Modern Greek Education and Bilingualism, 12 (2), 193- in Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and 211. courses on bilingual education at a Willoughby, L. (2014). Meeting the postgraduate program at the same challenges of heritage language university. education: lessons from one school Aspasia Chatzidaki is an Associate community. International Journal of Professor at the Department of Primary Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 15 Education of the University of Crete and (3), 265-281. Director of the Centre for Intercultural and Migration Studies (E.DIA.M.ME). Her research interests include the study of sociolinguistic and educational aspects of bilingualism and teaching Greek as a Second language.

5th Issue 18

MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research

GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH

Εlisavet Gkinala Postgraduate student, Department of Sociology, University of the Aegean [email protected]

Panagiotis Giavrimis Assisant Professor, Department of Sociology, University of the Aegean [email protected]

Ekaterini Nikolarea ESP/EAP teacher, Department of Geography, University of the Aegean [email protected]

ABSTRACT school bullying was its negative consequences on children and adolescents, School bullying is a diachronic social such as suicide attempts and the death of phenomenon, and in recent years a good some. number of research has been carried out to School bullying is defined as an investigate the consequences it has on those aggressive behaviour in which students, involved. This research was conducted to either on their own or in groups, attack their explore school bullying and the social classmates or fellow students in order to exclusion experienced by those who harm or humiliate them, and refers to participate in it. The qualitative method and, repetitive negative acts more than once more particularly, the semi-structured characterized by the unequal distribution of interview, was chosen to examing school physical strength and power among the bullying. Teachers’ views on the school stakeholders involved and their bullying were examined, and it has been intetionality(Menesini&Salmivalli shown that if the school bullying is not 2017,Olweus 1994: 98).When one refers to recognized and is not dealt with properly, school bullying, one does not refer to just an there will consequences on the the adult life instance of attack or violent behavior; one of the individual. rather refers to repeated attacks that define Keywords: School bullying, bully/victimizer, the school bullyingand affect the bullied bullied/victim. pupil’s or student’s mental and emotional development (Boulton et al. 2017).This 1. INTRODUCTION particular aggressive behaviouris addressed to an individual who is not capable of The school bullying appeared initially in defending himself/herself. Bullying is often studies in England in the 1970s and as a not conspicuous; it may be hidden behind scientific subject of study in the 1980s. The coveredbehaviours to exclude the bullied or term “school bullying” was first introduced by victim from any activities in general Olweus (1994), and the reason for studying (Olweus&Breivik 2014).

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea

In the international literature there are communitythat encounters school bullying. five types of school bullying: body bullying Its causes can be traced in the family and (Sullivan et al. 2003), verbal bullying (Smith the school environment, in external factors &Ananiadou 2003), psychological bullying and in the personality of the person involved (Salmivalli 1999), sexual bullying (Espelage (Ttofi et al. 2012). et al. 2003) and online bullying (Schneider et al. 2012). It is also argued that girls usually 2. INTERPRETATIVE APPROACHES help in incidents of school bullying of the TO SCHOOL BULLYING same sex. This occurs because they are capable of putting themselves in the victim’s Symbolic interaction explores the relation shoes, empathising with him/her (Thornberg between individuals through an empirical et al. 2012). and historical context. Student interactions Regarding the stakeholders involved, and their conceptions about them determine there are three different roles identified: the social situations and the traits of themselves bully/victimizer, the bullied/victim and by- (Blackledge & Hunt, 2004). Through standers (Gini et al. 2008). The conceptions of students’ interactions the bully/victimizer and the bullied/victim are “master”/ “dominant” student and the student people who exhibit extreme behaviours. On who will be marginalized are defined, that is, the one hand, the bully/victimizer is a person the bully/victimizer and the bullied/victim with intense sociability, s/he is usually the respectively. Interpretation of their leader of the group and generally displays relationships with each other, their views and antisocial behaviour. On the other hand, the the language they use with their classmates bullied/victim is an isolated person, who is are those that define who and what is the difficult to adapt to groups and creates foreign and the different (Forsberg & difficult social relationships.He or she is Thornberg 2016). Social interaction and usually an individual who hasnot only been social comparison, by taking a role, put the marginilizedbut also needsto be treated individual in the process of getting into the differently due to his/her special nature other’s position and seeing himself/herself (Zavraka 2010). Most students show a through the other’s eyes. Once the image of compassionate attitude towards the the isolated student is constructed through a bullied/victim and disapprove the act of the socially mediated process, the student bully/victimizer (Gini et al. 2008). Students carries the stigma. Stigmatized students face by-standers avoid participating in an two major problems. The first is related to incidentof bullying due to the fact that they recognition and social inclusion and the do not trust in theirphysical strength, thinking second to social identity (Thornberg 2015). they will not be able to help the Social inclusion and social identity are bullied/victim. However, by-standers may shaped by the individual’s interaction within often take the position of the bully/victimizer the society and his/her interpretations, fearing that they will lose their own sociability motives, interests and behaviours of social (Kapari&Staurou 2010). “others”. School bullying affects both the student on personal and social level and the school

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea

Thus, when a student is a member of a which feeds the constructed social group, s/he shares common interpretations, representation through charged words and common goals, and social elements that phrases and objectifies the social distinguish him/her from the members of the phenomenon (Mishna, 2012: 18). group (Mavor et al. 2017: 59). Through these reflexive processes, the individual gives 3. TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON THE meaning to elements of his/her lived STAKEHOLDERS INVOLVED experience and creates its typologies or classifications. Therefore, students daily, The school is a direct area of criticism of the through “role-taking” processes, adapt to school bullying as it is the place where it school life and at the same time put other appears (Yoon & Kerber, 2003). How the students into a different social teacher handles school bullying is an categorization, characterizing them as being important parameter for addressing tschool excluded or underestimated or rejected by bullying. Furthermore, the teacher’s work their social environment (Thornberg, 2015). experience and attitudes towards students Students’ interactions and interpretations affect how school bullyingis handled. It has among each other as a group and in relation been found, on the one hand, that teachers to the groups outside the school lead to the with a great work experience express emergence of a deviant behaviour. Many positive feelings towards the bully/victimizer times school bullying occurs to emphasize rather than towards the bullied/victim. On the bully’s primacy of position within the group other hand, when the teacher is supportive, versus the isolated victim (Burns et al. 2008). s/he inspires security and fosters a very At the same time, constructed realities of good relationship teacher and student, thus the school framework, according to the making difficult for school bullying to occur theory of Berger and Luckman (1966), are (Drüge et al. 2016). reproduced and legitimized through social Some teachers argue that school bullying acceptance by society as a whole. Any is a normal state of childhood and is part of breach of them creates conditions of children’s development. Moreover, they deviation and social exclusion. The socially claim that it does not cause anxiety or harm constructed reality of the “typical” student, to the student and that sometimes victims objectifies, for example, the victim’s traits, are responsible for the situation due to their using adjectives and attributes, such as the character (Hernández et al. 2016). These strange, unnecessary, and, more generally, teachers also argue that they may the attributes that denote and emphasize helpvictimize their students when behaving his/her social exclusion (Thornberg, 2011). abruptly towards them (Byers et al. 2011), For example, there is a belief that boys show with the result these students become more aggressive behaviour than girls and alientated from their teachers. Eventually, are more likely to be involved in school these students avoid reporting to their bullying. Through individuals’ interactions, it teachers that they are bullied and seems that boys in relation to girls are the victimizedby their classmates (Banzon- ones who tend to bully, and this belief can Librojo et al. 2017). come out of an earlier lived experience,

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea

In terms of tackling incidents of school approaches and quantified research bullying, many teachers feel unsure of how methods do not help us understand and to handle them, while they claimthat the interpret accurately the complexity of human collaboration of specialists (e.g. a action, whereas they cannot support psychologist, a social worker) and the interpretative theoretical approaches as collaboration between students and much as qualitative research can. Qualitative specialists (Byers et al. 2011) can be the research aims at an interpretive approach to most appropriate intervention in school the social phenomenon, placing more bullying. emphasis on the subject’s experience Thus, the objective of the present (Savvakis, 2013: 236-238). Moreover, this research is to record and capture teachers’ type of research was chosen, because, views on school bullying. although there are plenty of surveys of school bullying viewed primarily through students’ perceptions and experiences 4. METHOD (Hamarus & Kaikkonen, 2008; Bibou-Nakou, et al., 2012; Thornberg, et al., 2012) in 4.1 Research participants international and Greek literature, there are The research participants were twenty-four only a few surveys and research in teachers’ (24) teachers from the island of Lesvos. Of perceptions, experiences and discourse these, fourteen (14) were women and ten (Timm et al., 2011). The guide to the (10) were men. Teachers were between 30- interview was structured on three main 55 years of age and their years of work thematic axes. The first is related to attitudes experience varied between 6-30 years. The of the school community towards selection of teachers was made because: a) bullies/victimizers and bullied/victims.It teachers are a dominant factor in shaping contains questions about the definition of the and implementing the institutional role of the school bullying, causes, consequences and school system and the socio-cultural questions related to those involved in it. The inclusion of individuals into the social second thematic axis refers to their views on context; and (b) because the teacher’s views educational policies, and contains questions on students contribute to socio-political that primarily explore teachers’ knowledge of inclusion and, from a given power position, education policies. The third thematic axis can set up conceptions and stereotypical consists of questions about how to handle perceptions that contribute to creating the school bullying. It contains questions classifications and causing serious about how to handle the school bulling and consequences on students’ behaviour and how to deal with it more generally. performance (Lamnias, 2001).

4.2 Research instrument This research uses semi-structured qualitative research method to investigate the school bullying. The use of positivistic

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea

5. FINDINGS children from other countries is very strong. 5.1 Conceptualization of schoolbullying 5.2 Features of stakeholders involved: the bully/victimizer – the bullied/victim According to this research participants, it seems that, whereas teachers can define According to the respondents – of the and distinguish school bullying from research, a feature of the stakeholders incidents of violence, they cannot define involved is the unequal distribution of clearly the school bullying; they rather physical strength. The bully/victimizeris highlight repeatability as a form of usually the strongest and theperson who deviantbehaviour. They argue that individual bullies the victim who is “weak.” incidents of violence that do not have Teacher:The bully/victimizer imposes duration in time are not school bullying, as it himself/herself to the is shown in the following excerpts: bullied/victim because the former Teacher: School bullying ...... refers considers the latter weak. It is a to the use of violence between particular situation and is students or peers in order to expressed with some children’s cause pain and discomfort. violence against some other Teacher:...... we have heard about children. bulling in recent years ... Regarding personality traits of the Teacher: Unfortunately, it is repeated stakeholders involved, teachers’ views several times, and I think it has a converge in that the bully’s/victimizer’s role duration. in the school bullying is common to be They also claim that it occurs more adopted by children who are usually of large often in the form of verbal, build, have strong self-esteem, the traits of physical, sexual, electronic the dude and the bully and his/her actions andany kind of racist and aim to draw social attention to him/her. racialbullyingthat can come as a Teacher: ...... a child being of large verbal expression of national build and well fit. identity: What is worth being noted in this Teacher:He (the bully/victimizer) research is that the Primary Education harasses, oppresses him/her (the teachers on the island of Lesvos believe bullied/victim) either verbally or that, whereas boys are more likely to be physically and psychologically. bullies primarily in cases of physical bullying, Teacher: ... sthere was one case, a girls, when assuming the bully’s role, use student who sexually harassed indirect forms of bullying that cannot be girls by putting his hands on easily noticed, such as slander, gossip etc. them. Teacher: Boys are more (physical Teacher: ...... it is related to the bullies), perhaps because this Internet; model comes from the family and Teaher: ...... Racial bullying against it is rather an issue of reaction, ... girls are always more of lower

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea

key. one. Teacher:… boys usually play the role Teachers’ views on the victimizer’s of the “bully”, the role that wants school performance vary, as some teachers them to be dominant. claim that they are smart and good students, Teacher:... because girls are more while others think they may be bad students. restrained and control their Teacher: … good students ... .. from feelings and instincts better (than good families. boys). Teacher: Yes, it [school performance] Teachers describe the bully/victimizer as is affected, because these a social and popular child, who - either by children are not good students, his/her physical superiority or by his/her not that they are not smart, they leading physiognomy - tries to make his/her may be much smarter than presence felt by his/her peers without the others, but they may not be able latter believing that the former intends to do to concentrate for much time. harm. He or she is called “sneaky” and The perception of ethnic origin, attributed “jealous”. to the bully’s identity, cannot be generalized, Teacher:It is obviously a child with as it is mentioned only by one teacher who great confidence, s/he has no states: “... The children are from a lower- empathy. Bullies are usually the class area, thus we have children of foreign popular children. origins and low social strata and, of course, Teacher:He or she imposes his/her the family plays a role in how the child opinion … s/he has a finger in responds.” everywhere… Concerning the bullied/the victim, the Teacher: … They always try to have a most obvious explanation for the teachers of leading figure towards the other the present research is that children with a students. They always try to be different appearance (too thin, too fat or the leaders of other students. physical impairment etc.) or with different Teacher: ... a child sly, negative, social characteristics become much more jealous, ... s/he is not the naughty easily victims of school bullying, as shown in person who does not talk back. the following statements: What is also significant is the fact that Teacher:He or she has special teachers associate students’ behaviour with physical characteristics (for their family status: example, s/he is fat, thin, short, Teacher: Of course, (these are) etc.), has some other children who have not acquired shortcomings or impairment. any principles from their home. Moreover, s/he is a shy student who Teacher: Basically, in my opinion, usually comes from an overprotective everything always starts from environment and is not in a position to claim family. his/her rights; s/he may be a victim of school Teacher: …another behaviour from bullying because s/he is usually afraid of his/her kins or s/he has brought his/her classmates and teachers or s/he is up in a way that is not the “right” socially isolated, with low self-esteem.

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea

Teacher: The victim is usually shy adjuncts - such as: compliant, socially that shows scared in the isolated, etc. - to define the victim’s identity. classroom; s/he usually comes from overprotective parents; s/he 5.3. Teachers’ views on the is a person who has not learned stakeholders involved in school how to claim his/her rights. bullying: school community, parents’ association and students - by- Teacher: ... The victim is afraid of the standers teacher and his/her classmates or fellow students. As far as the attitudes of the school Teacher: Low self-confidence, s/he is community are concerned, the research not popular enough.... participants refer to attitudes of the school In teachers’ opinion, the victim’s role in principal, teachers, the parents’ association school bullying can be attributed to both girls and to those of students – by-standers. and boys. However, from a research point of According to teachers, the school view, it is significant that teachers’ sex principal should know how to handle influences their view, as female teachers emotionally these situation; s/he should be present girls as victims while male teachers able to set appropriate boundaries to each attribute this role to boys. stakeholder involved in the incident, restrict Female teacher: Girls become the increased prestige of the bully/victimizer victims, a fact that is due more to and to boost the victim’s self-confidence. the existing stereotypes in our Teacher:If the school principal knows society that characterize the how to handle emotionally these woman as weak, quiet and situations, s/he must be able to modest. set boundaries correctly, that is, Male teacher: Boys are the ones who to restrict the bully’s increased receive more attacks. prestige and to boost the victim’s The distinction of students according to self-confidence, who is usually their social class or status is also a possible the weak link…….. cause of victimization: In teachers’ views, the school principal Teacher: They are children of low must be in contact with the student’s family social or economically weak environment and treat equally both the classes. bully/victimizer and the bullied/victim. Within this context, what is worth noticing Teacher: He or she always comes is the discourse the teachers use to into contact with the family (re)present the identity of the students environment. involved in school bullying; whereas, when The school principal and the teachers they descrivethe bully’s identity, their alike should be careful and vigilant about discourse is plain and unadorned, very school bullying incidents. attentive, without any particular aggressive Teacher: ... we see which children adjuncts and with an effort to justify his/her are in danger of being isolated, behaviour, when they describe the victim’s we push them to get members of identity is totally different,they usemany a group and play with the other

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea

children during the break. react depending on where they It is also significant that a female teacher come from and what their feelings says that she has never taken an initiative to are. There are some who rarely inform students about school bullying issues. approve it; some others who are Teacher: I myself have never taken totally uninvolved; some who the initiative to talk about school approve this incident; some bullying. others who come to tell us about As far as the attitudes of the parents’ the incident or even the bullied association are concerned, the teachers of child. the present research consider that there should an immediate and equal handling of 5.4. Consequences of school bullying all stakeholders involved. Now regarding the consequences of school Teacher:If a parents’ association is bullying, the teachers of the present aware of this phenomenton,the research believe that the bullied/victim will parents’association should continue to retain specific personality traits, definitely try to be as objective as such as introversion that may accompany possible to the children involved him/her in his/her adult life. in a school bullying incident, by Teacher: Certainly, being bullied will not supporting one child more affect their adult lives, that is, if than the other. the victimhas not learned to react Moreover, what is conspicuous through against the incident and support the teacher’s discourse isthat parents cannot his/her position while being separate school bullying from incidents of bullied. If s/he does not face the violence which are temporary. problem but s/he rather withdraws Teacher: Due to the fact thatparents to himself/herself, then very often hear the word unfortunately s/he will do that in “bullying”, they come to the his/her adult life. school at school when they hear a This behaviour can affect the individual, kid has touched theirs and they and it can be expressed asdeviant immediately say “bullying”! But behaviourin the future, pushing him/her to this is not bullying; they are kids become a dug addict or even to get who are kidding for once. imprisoned. According to the Primary Education Teacher: (s/he may) express teachers of the island of Lesvos, most devianbehaviour and may get students – by-standersare either indifferent involved with dangerous gangs; and prefer not to get involved in bullying s/he may get into drugs and why incidents. They react according to their not get imprisoned. feelings and, ifthey should stand on one’s Therefore, these consequences have an side, they prefer to stand on that of the impact on the individual’s adult life if s/he strongest. Nevertheless, theyoften make does not receive anyprofessional help. their teacher aware of the incident. Teacher: Students – by-standers

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea

5.5. How to handle school bullying Finally, the research participants According to the findings of the research, the consider that education policiesabout Primary Education teachers of the present tackling school bullying should change. Yet, research propose a variety of ways of how they find it difficult to identify these policies, teachers may be able to handle school since they speak in vague and general terms bullying. They propose group mixed about them. Nevertheless, they claim that activitiesduring which co-operation and theyareusuallyinformedabout the school consistency among students are achieved. bullying ontheInternet. Thus, in order for school bullying to cease Teacher: ...... I do not know whether existing, the teachers propose theatrical play good educational policies are or role play, sport activities and group mixed being implemented in the Greek activities that would foster co-operation educational community, that is, among students of different skills, social they do not always tackle these status and/or race. incidents ... they (teachers) Teacher: We may give them some usually expel or deprive the roles so one child will have the student (the bully) of a privilege role of the victimizer/bully and the ...... There is some rebuke, other child will play the role of the but it is not effective, since the victim/bullied to play, and, bully bullies again. afterward, they may try to think of Teacher: Changes must be made how they can handle this ...eh..surely, learning process phenomenon (bullying), that is, should become more experiential they may act it out so it can not only for the children to acquire become experiential and they (the some knowledge but also for such children) know how deal with problems and conflicts to be such cases. solved ...... Moreover, the presence of support people, such as of a psychologist and a 6. DISCUSSION social worker, plays a significant role. Teacher: Yes, of course, all this is The purpose of the present research is to needed. Unfortunately, in Greece record and capture the views of the Primary we are still far behind on the Education teachers of the island of Lesvos presents of support structures or (Greece) on school bullying. School bullying people. is, according to teachers of this research, a Teachers also believe that the acquisition social phenomenon that has become and use of pedagogical knowledge is increasingly known in recent years. crucially important for them of how to handle According to the literature, it was first school bullying. identified in England in the 1970s, and has Teacher: It’s a bit hard. I would to try been studied due to the negative effects it to handle it as correctly as causes on children ever since (Olweus, possible based on my 1994. Atik & Guneri, 2013). pedagogical knowledge.

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea

Teachers’ interpretations and perceptions bully/victimizer’s side; sometimes, they also are important for shaping educational discuss the incident with their teachers. processes within the school framework and According to Majcherová et al. (2014), their social interactions with students. The students prefer to maintain the specific individual’s behaviour is not affected by the attitude of inactivity, either because they are other’s actions as such, but rather by the gripped by fear or because of the victim’s importance the individual renders to the character. other person’s actions (Blackledge & Hunt, Although the teachers are aware of 2004). Therefore, the research participants incidents of school bullying in the school seem to be aware of incidents of school environment and, especially in their school – bullying within the school environment and and are able to distinguish school bullying are able to distinguish school bulling from from other incidents of violence – they the other incidents of violence based on the cannot still give a clear definition of it. They repeatability of violent behaviours. primarily focus on its particular In addition, the research participants characteristics, the causes and the factors highlight the unequal distribution of power that generate it, based on the repeatability of amongst those involved, the bully/victimizer students’ typical violent behaviours, that is, and the bullied/victim. They also emphasize those of the bully/victimizer, the bullied/victim forms of school bullying, such as those of and by-standers. It also highlights the physical and/or psychological violence unequal distribution of physical strength and against the victim. According to power amongst those involved, that is, the Kochenderfer-Ladd & Pelletier (2008), bully/victimizer and the bullied/victim. A physical and / or psychological violence typical behaviour, in the case of taking the against the victim is much easier to be position of the bully/victimizer is that most of observed, whereas the victim’s exclusion the class attend the incident, and the from school activities is more difficult to student-guard is in a state of readiness to detect. The bully/victimizer is presented as a warn in case the teacher is ready to enter person with strong self-esteem, high self- the classroom. These interpretations and confidence that seeks to gain acceptance of classifications made by teachers differentiate others through aggressive behaviour. not only their behaviour towards students, The bullied/victim is defined by the but also their own expectations, which Primary Education teachers on the island of consequently affect learning behavior at Lesvos both as an isolated person with low school and, at the same time, form an self-esteem, who has not learned to claim interpretation framework within the school his/her rights, and as a frightened person. context, where teachers’ crystallized views According to Moon et. al. (2011) and Olweus can create established patterns of learning (2010), victims are isolated individuals behaviour, which are often identical to experiencing both physical and socially acceptable ones. psychological problems. The teachers of this From teachers’ report, the family research also claim that students - by- environment can affect both the standers prefer either not to take part in bully/victimizer and the bullied/victim. school bullying or to take the According to the teachers,the bully/victimizer

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea perpetrator comes from a bad socializing maintain the specific attitude of inactivity, family environment (i.e domestic violence) either due to the fear created or to the acts as a behaviour pattern that pushes the victim’s character. individual to reproduce it when s/he is found In addition, the school itself appears to out of it (Smith & Ananiadou 2003,Chaux et be the cause of school bullying. According to al. 2009. Differences in teachers’ discourse the research participants, the educational about family environments also shape both framework is what sometimes increases the different social negotiations and school differences among students. Furthermore, survival strategies, which are based on they claim that other factors fostering the culture and most likely on class. manifestation of school bullying are: the In addition, they emphasize forms of competitive school environment, peer groups school bullying, such as those of physical and non-existence of strong social network. and/or psychological violence against the Findings of research have illustrated that victim, found in the international literature students’ personality traits appear to affect (Kochenderfer-Ladd & Pelletier 2008), which the development of the school bullying. are easier to observe. Nevertheless, they do Students with different personality traits of not mention or, at least, they do not seem to the whole class or school, such as origin and be aware of the fact that they may exclude learning difficulties, attract the the victim from different school activities. bullies/victimizers, as reflected in the Whereas the Primary Education teachers international literature too (Thornberg 2011). on the island of Lesvos (re)present the The causes as a whole, as presented by the bully/victimizer as a person with strong self- teachers of the present research, are esteem, high self-confidence that tries to primarily based on social factors. The gain others’ acceptance through aggressive influence of individuals and groups with behaviour, they (re)present the bullied/victim whom the child is associated and to whom as an isolated person with low self-esteem, s/he feels that belongs are important factors. who has not learned to claim his/her rights Moreover, the signification of everyday and as a frightened person. According to the life made by the students, which is based on international literature, victims are isolated interactions within a specific context, shapes individuals experiencing both physical and the conditions of development of the school psychological problems. It also appears that bullying. School bullying involves issues of the parental style, classmates’behaviour and self-delimitation, management of the events of everyday life define the “impressions” when bullying and intimidation bully/victimizer and the bullied/victim occur both by the bully/victimizer and the (Olweus 2003, Zych et al. 2017: 322-324). bullied/victim. Participation in school The teachers of this research also say bullyingis influenced by both the that students - by-standers prefer not to take expectations the social environment has part in school bullying or take part of the from the individual and by social norms bully/victimizer, and sometimes discuss the (Burns et al., 2008). incident with their teachers. Part of this The teachers of our research, through behaviour can be found in Majcherová et al. "role-taking", approach the purposes and (2014) who claim that students prefer to (social) practices of members of the

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea educational community and the institutional actively adjust their behaviour by interpreting framework of educational policy, stating in the general context of their interaction with it. their discourse that the school principal and While addressing school bullying, these the other teachers should be able to set research participants primarily identify boundaries and handle in equal terms both solutions to activities that promote teamwork the bully/victimizer and the bullied/victim. and student interaction.They propose The teachers also mention that, once theatrical play and role play, sports activities intervention is deemed necessary, right ways so children can relax and activities aiming to of handling with the phenomenon of school foster cooperation and consistency among bulling should be taken. students. They also consider the presence of However, as mentioned earlier, teachers support structures and people important for are often positively inclined with victims preventing and eliminating school bullying. because they are more vulnerable. This The feedback that comes through the means that it is easier for them to put interactions puts the student in the position themselves in the victim’s shoes. It is also of the other, compares himself/herself with important to stress that, although teachers the others, and helps him/her to grasp the do not take any action on the school bullying, meaning hidder in his/her classmates’ they still see it as a social phenomenon that actions. Interactions through group activities needs to be tackled upon. According to contribute to student collaboration, the Nicolaides et al. (2002), only a small exchange of cultural representations, and at percentage of teachers feel ready to deal the same time contribute to the mitigation of with it, while the majority of teachers feel that conflicts (Casey et al. 2009). they need further training on school bullying Taking into consideration the limitations issues. Byers et. al., (2011) argue that of this research related to the framework of teachers do not feel ready to handle qualitative research constraints, which does effectively school bullying incidents because not allow generalizations, limitations the they do not have confidence in themselves, identification of research poses in a whereas most teachers are not involved in particular area (Lesvos) and the approach of curricular activities related to school bullying. school bullying only through teachers’ The non-participation in these activities is discourse, we can conclude that the due to teachers’ conceptualizations related teachers of our research seem to be able, to: their lack of time, economic reasons and through their own discourse, to even priorities that teachers themselves set conceptualize and define what school Regarding educational policies, the bullying is and to distinguish its forms. They teachers of this research argue that can identify the personality traits of those education policies on school bullying should involved, that is, those of the bully/victimizer change, although they are not clear about and those of the bullied/victim. They identify which educational policies are being the causes of bullying in the family implemented. Most of them are informed environment, in the school environment, in about school bullying on the Internet. peer groups, and in students’ particular Teachers also recognize that they may play personality traits. As far as the attitudes of a role in educational policy, since the actors the school community are concerned, the

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea research participants argue that right REFERENCES boundaries should be set for the stakeholders involved, and that there should Atik, G., & Guneri, O. Y. (2013). Bullying and be a greater awareness of school bullying victimization: Predictive role of individual, issues. Furthermore, to address the parental, and academic factors. Schoohl phenomenon of bullying, teachers propose Psychology International, 34(6), 658-673. theatrical play, group activities, athletic Banzon-Librojo, L. A., Garabiles, M. R. activities, the existence of auxiliary &Alampay, L. P. (2017). Brief report: structures, the use of pedagogical Relations between harsh discipline from knowledge and the change of educational teachers, perceived teacher support, and policies. Their interpretations, opinions, bullying victimization among high school attitudes and perceptions of unarticulated students. Journal of Adolescence, 57, meanings of individuals with whom they 18-22. communicate influence their own action and Berger, P. L.& Luckmann, T. (1966). The reaction, and are a dominant factor in social construction of reality: A treatise in shaping and implementing the institutional the sociology of knowledge. New York, role of the school system and socio-cultural NY: Anchor Books inclusion of people into the social framework. Bibou-Nakou, I., Tsiantis, J., Assimopoulos, Teachers’ expressed views on school H., Chatzilambou, P., & Giannakopoulou, bullying also shape the framework for action D. (2012). School factors related to and response to this phenomenon. It is bullying: A qualitative study of early necessary that teachers’ interpretive patterns adolescent students. Social Psychology should be changed - and training actions are of Education, 15(2), 125-145. helpful in that - so that socially constructed Blackledge, D. & Hunt, B. (2004). Sociology images of those involved in school bullying of education. Athens: Metaixmio can be dealt not only within the context of Boulton M., Boulton, L.,Down, J.,Sanders, J. diversity and meeting their needs but also &Craddock,H. (2017). Perceived barriers with their providing equal opportunities. that prevent high school students seeking help from teachers for bullying and their effects on disclosure intentions, Journal of Adolescence, 56, 40-51. Burns S., Maycock B., Cross D. & Brown G. (2008). The power of press: Why some students bully others to conform. Qualitative Health Research, 18 (12), 1704-1716. Byers, D. L., Caltabiano, N. J.&Caltabiano, M. L. (2011). Teachers' attitudes towards overt and covert bullying, and perceived efficacy to intervene. Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 36 (11), 105.

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Casey, M. M., Eime, R. M., Payne, W. Characteristics as Predictors of Bullying R.&Harvey, J. T. (2009). Using a and Victimization among Greek Middle socioecological approach to examine School Students, International Journal of participation in sport and physical activity Violence and School, 47 (4), 21-100. among rural adolescent girls. Qualitative Kochenderfer-Ladd, B. & Pelletier, M. E. health research, 19(7), 881-893. (2008). Teachers' views and beliefs Chaux E., Molano A., Podlesky P., (2009). about bullying: Influences on classroom Socio-economic, Socio-political and management strategies and students' socio-emotional variables explaining coping with peer victimization. Journal of school bullying: A country-wide multilevel School Psychology, 46 (4), 431-453. Analysis, Aggressive Behavior, 35, 520- Lamnias, Κ. (2001). Sociological theory and 529. education. Discrete approaches. Athens: Drüge, M., Schleider, K.&Rosati, A. S. Metaixmio. (2016). Bullying and Harassment of Majcherová, K., Hajduová, Z.&Andrejkovič, Trainee Teachers. Procedia-Social and M. (2014). The role of the school in Behavioral Sciences, 228, 118-122. handling the problem of bullying. Espelage, D. L.&Swearer, S. M. (2003). Aggression and violent behavior, 19 (5), Research on school bullying and 463-465. victimization: What have we learned and Mavor, K. I., Platow, M. J.& Bizumic, B. where do we go from here? (Eds.). (2017). Self and Social Identity in Schoolpsychologyreview, 32(3), 365-384. Educational Contexts. Taylor & Francis. Forsberg C.&Thornberg R., (2016). The Menesini, E. & Salmivalli, C. (2017). Bullying social ordering of belonging: Children in schools: the state of knowledge and perspectives on bullying, International effective interventions. Psychology, journal of educational research, 78, 13- health & medicine, 22 (sup1), 240-253. 23. Mishna, F. (2012). Bullying: A guide to Gini G., Pozzoli T., Borghi F.&Franzoni L. research, intervention, and prevention. (2008). The role of bystanders in OUP: USA. students' perception of bullying and Moon B., Hwang H., McCluskey sense of safety, Journal of School J.,(2008).Causes of School Bullying: Psychology, 46, 617-638. Empirical Test of a General Theory of Hamarus, P.& Kaikkonen, P. (2008). School crime, Differential Association Theory, bullying as a creator of pupil peer and strain theory, Crime & Delinquency, pressure. Educational research, 50 (4), 57(6), 849-877. 333-345. Nicolaides, S., Toda, Y.&Smith, P. K. (2002). Hernández, A. M. C., Rodríguez Huerta, M., Knowledge and attitudes about school Gutiérrez Gordillo, H., Delgado Luna, M. bullying in trainee teachers. British A. & Herrera Rodríguez, J. (2016). Journal of Educational Psychology, 72 Bullying among middle school students (1), 105-118. from Guanajuato, Mexico. Educación y Olweus, D. & Breivik, K. (2014). Plight of ciencia, 5 (45), 6-18. victims of school bullying: The opposite Kapari K. & Staurou D., (2010). School of well-being. In A. Ben- Arieh, F. Casas,

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I. Frønes&J. E. Korbin (Eds.), Handbook society, 25(4), 258-267. of child well-being, (2593-2626). Thornberg, R. (2015). School bullying as a Dordrecht: Springer. collective action: Stigma processes and Olweus, D. (1994). Bullying at school: Long- identity struggling. Children & Society, term outcomes for the victims and an 29(4), 310-320. effective school-based intervention Thornberg, R., Tenenbaum, L., Varjas, K., program. In L. R. Huesmann (Ed.), Meyers, J., Jungert, T.&Vanegas, G. Aggressive behavior: Current (2012). Bystander motivation in bullying perspectives (pp. 97-130). New York: incidents: To intervene or not to Plenum Press. intervene? Western Journal of Olweus, D. (2010). Understanding and Emergency Medicine, 13 (3), 247. researching bullying: Some critical Ttofi M., Farrignton D.& Friedrich L. (2012). issues. In S. R. Jimerson, S. M. Swearer, School bullying as a predictor of violence & D. L. Kspelage (Eds.), The handlfook later in life: A systematic review and of school bullying: An international meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal perspective (pp. 9-33). New York: studies, Aggression and Violent Routledge. Behavior, 17, 405-412. Salmivalli, C. (1999). Participant role Yoon, J.&Kerber, K. (2003). Bullying: approach to school bullying: Implications Elementary teachers' attitudes and for interventions. Journal of adolescence, intervention strategies. Research in 22 (4), 453-459. Education, 69 (1), 27-35. Savvakis, M. (2013). Micro-sociology and Zavraka M. (2010). Bullying and violence in qualitative research. Theoretical schools: a new reality? examples and practical applications. Psychiatrodikastiki, 2, 10-11. Athens: Kritiki Zych, I., Farrington, D. P., Llorent, V. Schneider, S. K., O'donnell, L., Stueve, J.&Ttofi, M. M. (2017). Contextual A.&Coulter, R. W. (2012). Cyberbullying, Protective Factors against Bullying. In I. school bullying, and psychological Zych, D.P. Farrington, V.J. Llorent, distress: A regional census of high school M.Ttofi (Eds.), Protecting Children students. American Journal of Public against Bullying and Its Consequences Health, 102 (1), 171-177. (pp. 41-55). Smith P. & Ananiadou K. (2003). The Nature SpringerInternationalPublishing. of School Bullying and the Effectiveness of School-Based Interventions, Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies,5 (2), 189-209. Sullivan, K., Cleary, M.&Sullivan, G. (2003). Bullying in secondary schools: What it looks like and how to manage it. Sage. Thornberg, R. (2011). ‘She’s weird!’—The social construction of bullying in school: A review of qualitative research. Children &

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research GREEK TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON SCHOOL BULLYING. A QUALITATIVE APPROACH Εlisavet Gkinala, Panagiotis Giavrimis, Ekaterini Nikolarea

Brief bio journals. His scientific interests focus on school achievement, educational Elissavet Gkinala studied sociology at the inequalities, multiculturalism, social and University of the Aegean and she is a cultural capital, diversity of students and postgraduate student at MA Social Research sociology of education. on Regional Development and Social Ekaterini Nikolarea (PhD, Fil) is ESP/EAP Cohesion. Since 2015, she has been teacher in the School of Social Sciences, providing secretarial and educational support University of the Aegean. She has authored at Psychological and Health Community Programmes of Studies for Applied Programmes. Her research interests focus Linguistics, with specialty in Translation on the fields of sociology, education and Studies and Languages Teaching. counseling. Furthermore, she has published articles on Panagiotis Giavrimis is Assistant Professor novel methodologies of teaching English for in the Department of Sociology in University Specific and Academic Purposes at non- of Aegean. He has published nine books and English Universities. several articles in Greek and international

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research

CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER

Kleoniki Gkioufi Architect, MSc Urban Planning, Phd Candidate Department of Balkan, Slavic and Oriental Studies, University of Macedonia [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Nowadays, culture is inextricably connected 1. INTRODUCTION to tourism, affecting the image of a place and thus its socio-economic sectors and The concept of identity plays an important environmental assets. It is obvious that the role in shaping the space and the image of identity of a city or a region is composed of the city. Identity is a complex phenomenon, its heritage, its historical conditions and its gained through action, appearance and contemporary characteristics. In this context, above all, participation. From an architectural the promotion of cultural tourism is a crucial point of view, it is important that buildings factor in order for a city to be competitive, can promote identity, social participation and sustainable and to enhance its unique thus contribute towards the effective image. Thessaloniki, as a Balkan city, can be functioning of the city, and social citizenship characterized as a crossroad of civilizations, education. As humans, and cities should an area with rich cultural heritage. The city’s have character and personality, and like historical center covers a large part of the humans, the personality is composed of contemporary market area, combining various features or identifiable information commercial functions with strong cultural (Crosby 1965). assets of different historical periods (roman, Castells refers to the symbolic making of byzantine, ottoman etc.). The above places, the preservation of symbols of mentioned characteristicsof the research recognition and the expression of collective area are defined as strengths in the direction memory in actual practices of of developing cultural tourism in the city. communication as fundamental assets for Questions arise whether these cultural places in order to preserve their identity and features of the city’s center provide establish strategic networks based on their opportunities in the field of cultural and historical background (Castells 1991). sustainable tourism. It remains to be seen Towards this direction, urban planning the extent to which the cultural image of a and cultural policies could be strategic tools place, through the reference example, could in rebranding the image of a place and thus be a useful tool in defining its identity and a city. Nowadays, urban planning is no creating new perspectives in its touristic longer seen as a set of firm principles and potential. policies applied to countries, cities and Keywords: cultural image, cultural tourism, regions. Contemporary practices require for Thessaloniki sustainable and flexible scenarios that adapt to local and regional specificities. As

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi specified in ESPON (2006), the conditions archaeological sites and nature reserves are for local and regional development do not a huge resource for Greece and Europe and depend upon hard infrastructures but on soft also a transmission tool of their cultural infrastructures, among which culture is values (Beriatos 2007). Furthermore, the considered a key factor in mobilizing local cultural heritage is fundamental in structures and building up social consensus. determining the local-national, regional and The promotion of culture by cities, regions European identity and can variously affect and whole countries has become a public the spatial planning (Gavra 2004). policy serving both social and economic Cultural heritage takes different tangible assets targets. Therefore, cultural planning is and intangible forms, all of which are the way of linking development with culture. invaluable for cultural diversity. Heritage As Murray notices, the identity of a place tourism and its different aspects are the most relates to the historical/heritage background important forms of cultural tourism. and to the particularities of a region. It is The urban development policy guidelines important to identify and build on distinctive for the protection of cultural assets in areas local cultural resources for successful place with a strong local identity and characteristic branding and marketing, in order for cultural features mainly relate to the establishment of planning to contribute to the sense of place new social economic operators, the creation (Murray 2001). of new organizational structures and feasible The purpose of this paper is to explore local planning through urban and the cultural image of a place and to architectural design. The aim is to concentrate on contemporary policies and institutionalize planning mechanisms and methods towards touristic development development agencies for the proper through its heritage. The reference area is management and enhancement of cultural the greek city of Thessaloniki, and more identity and evaluation of cultural heritage particularly the city’s historical commercial (Gavra & Kambouri 1998). center. The first part analyzes theories and Therefore the promotion of culture by concepts related to cultural tourism and cities, regions and countries has become a urban planning, while the second part key issue in urban planning, in order to recommends on urban practices applied to integrate cultural resources in urban the reference area. development. Cultural planning is a multidisciplinary approach and can be understood best as a strategic process of 2. IMAGE, CULTURE, HERITAGE, collaborations between society, the local TOURISM, POLICIES-METHODS administration and local production with effects on economic, environmental and Today heritage is no longer seen as an social development. It is a strategy for a obstacle on development but as a means of unified conservation framework and strengthening the economy and improving utilization of cultural resources. The cultural quality of life. The historical centers, planning is related to urban planning with the historical and cultural poles, traditional strategic use of cultural resources for settlements, monumental ensembles, development at local and regional level. It is

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi the cultural approach to urban and regional technologies. planning, focusing on the formulation of a According to Richards, cultural tourism social, environmental and economic policy could be used as a vehicle for economic program (Wilks -Heeg and North 2004). development or regeneration (Richards Under this framework, cultural planning 2003). Moreover, cultural heritage is a basic requires for innovative and contemporary element in the field of tourism that should be planning methods that engage traditional included in urban strategies for the schemes with collaborative models of regeneration of city centers, the recreation of governance and public participation. As cultural centers and the redefinition of city Arvanitaki states, cultural policies have to images (Bianchini 1994, Herrero et al. 2005, include the social participation in planning Myerscough 1988). processes, so as horizontal and vertical In this context, contemporary urban interactions can take place (Arvanitaki 2007). policies require for a framework that is based Likewise, Ghilardi (2001) stresses that on culture, tourism, social cohesion and cultural planning has to be part of a broader environmental protection. Added to these, strategy of local development and to create Hubbard and Hall (1998) describe a generic linkages with urban planning, economic entrepreneurial model of city governance policy, industrial policy etc. achieved through policies that include The integration of cultural planning into advertising and promotion, large-scale wider processes of spatial and urban physical redevelopment, cultural planning provides the capability to create regeneration and public-private partnerships. viable, attractive and competitive cities. In Cultural planning combined with tourism order for the cities to offer new experiences destination branding are essential assets in to their guests (Kolb 2006), cultural revitalization of the cities. Added to this, the characteristics are used as a tool to promotion of cultural heritage is crucial in differentiate them. rebranding Balkan cities, as places The dimension of culture is one of the characterized with specific cultural reserve, factors utilized in shaping the image, architectural monuments and historic values depending on the strategic choices of and traditions. A typical example is the city of locations.Towards this direction, cultural Thessaloniki, and especially the city’s center tourism could be an important factor in local analysed and presented below. and regional planning contributing in sustainable socio-economic development. 3. STUDY AREA The importance of cultural tourism as part of a complete tourism experience is enhanced Thessaloniki is the second largest city in by the EU, through programs and projects Greece with more than 1,1 million people, that promote areas of interest with potential representing nearly 1/10 of the country’s growth.The key role of culture in developing population. Thessaloniki has been classified and sustaining such a model of tourism as a Functional Urban Area of depends on the preservation of historical translational/national significance with sites and local traditions through tourism and higher education services, a contemporary methods and new

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi metropolis of the Balkans and a city of ottoman etc.) All these elements are Europe. connecting the commercial functions and The city consists of a set of activities, historic character. Unfortunately, especially opportunities and stimuli inside and outside during the post war period, this valuable built Greece. Several institutions, such as heritage suffered a lot due to incompatible international festivals, artistic and sports land uses, poor transport infrastructure and events, among them the institution of the pedestrian routes and lack of linkage European Capital of Culture, efficiently between the centre and the recently operate as mechanisms to organize and developed commercial areas. This as a reproduce urban competition. There are consequence led to the degradation of the examples that present the European buildings and monuments. In order to tackle experience in Barcelona, Berlin, Bilbao, Lille, this negative process the Region of Central Prague and Thessaloniki. Macedonia has carried out an Urban Pilot The overall dynamic growth, but also the Project in 1991. requirements for quality of life, has created The research field (Figure 1) is focused for Thessaloniki a situation which can be on the part enclosed between Leoforos Nikis described with reference to two Avenue, Agelaki street, Egnatia Avenue and characteristics: improvement of Dodecanisou street, which is perhaps the environmental quality and social and urban most characteristic area of history, image infrastructure. The urban and regional and cultural identity1. Regarding the center development in the early 21st century is of Thessaloniki it was carried out a characterized by a shift towards technology, recording, tracking and photographic survey innovation and selective urban development, of the following districts, axes, quarters, similar to the trend, immediately after the followed by a swot analysis2 of the general Second World War, to massive area: industrialization and intensive urbanization. a) White Tower - Navarinou’s Square - In the near future, it is expected that Aghia Sophia’s Square Thessaloniki will take many new specialized b) Tsimiski Avenue - Mitropoleos street roles (communication and specialized and Proxenou Koromila street service center, development center and c) Leoforos Nikis Avenue - Aristotelous technology diffusion, etc.) in order to create Square - Ladadika area - Eleftheria’s a decisive factor, through healthcare, Square information development and communication and transport networks, research and 1Kleoniki Gkioufi, 2012. Thessaloniki by night: the business activities, production activities and image of the city at night, Master’s dissertation technology transfer, and by concentrating project, Urban and Regional Planning Engineering School, Volos, Greece: University of Thessaly. activities of intensification of knowledge. 2S(trengths) W(eaknesses) O(pportunities T(hreats) analysis is a strategic tool that identifies internal The city’s historical centre covers a large (strengths, weaknesses) and external part of the contemporary market area as well (opportunities, threats) factors for a place (organization, service, product, etc.), in order to as the ancient Roman Forum and important evaluate its objectives and obstacles towards the buildings-monuments of different historical direction of accomplishing its vision. periods of Thessaloniki (roman, byzantine,

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi

d) Egnatia Avenue - Valaoritou area - Modiano Market - Athonos Square

Figure 1: Areas of research field (source: author).

open-air archaeological site, one of the most 3.1 Areas of interest significant of the city, while the vertical a/ White Tower - Navarinou’s Square - pedestrian axis is an optical connection Aghia Sophia’s Square between the seafront and upper town. The first study district of White Tower- Aghia’s Sophia Square is dominated by the Navarinou’s Square and Aghia Sophia’s homonymous byzantine church and its Square bears strong symbols of city’s surrounding environment of neoclassical, history. The White Tower, a landmark of the eclectic and modern buildings.Added to city, the archaeological, religious and these, the coexistence of commercial uses architectural character of Navarinou and and recreational activities render the district Aghia Sophia Squares create a multifaceted as an alternative yet classical area for cultural environment. The White Tower is residents, visitors, tourists and especially located in a nodal point where major city students. In order for the protection and roads meet and the old part of the waterfront promotion of the historical-architectural meets the new one. Around this monumental identity of the district, the reorganization of tower there have been formed green spots conflicting land uses and the redesign of with a view to the seafront or the urban cultural routes is of major importance. That space. In Navarinou Square there is an requires for measures regarding the

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi preservation of the buildings and the urban services and land uses, both the monuments in the area as well as the existing and the future ones (Figures 2, 3). establishment of urban policies concerning

Figures 2, 3: White Tower, Navarinou, areas day and night (source: author)

b/ Tsimiski Avenue - Mitropoleos street commercial street with coffee spots and and Proxenou Koromila street alternative shops that appeal mostly to The second field part that encloses Tsimiski young people. Most of them encounter a Avenue, Mitropoleos and Proxenou Koromila number of shops, business offices and streets is another vital aspect of the historic agencies along with recreational facilities center due to the monumental and that expand even in the public space. The contemporary image of the parallel axes. variety of architecture styles of buildings and Tsimiski is one of the central avenues of premises reflect the cultural identity of the Thessaloniki, a trade and business-oriented city, whereas the social evolvement of area of the town in the past and a residents, visitors and tourists is evident. In contemporary commercial pole nowadays. that case the revitalization of the urban Mitropoleos is another street with European space among these axes through cultural features as a result of the boutique environmental interventions and active social shops, street cafes, bistros and art galleries participation are essential in strengthening that attract a number of visitors and tourists. the cultural-commercial asset, as an Similarly, Proxenou Koromila is a attraction for residents, visitors and

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi investors. Specifically, the design of urban sustainable cultural tourism model in the green spots and cultural participation of wider area (Figures 3, 4). residents and visitors, through cultural programs and events, recommending the improvement of quality of life and public space among these axes could enable for a

Figures 3, 4: Tsimiski Avenue, Proxenou Koromila street, areas day and night (source: author).

c/Leoforos Nikis Avenue - Aristotelous considered to be one of the most Square - Ladadika area - Eleftheria’s characteristic squares in Europe, with a Square metropolitan character, a pantheon of urban The third part consists of Leoforos Nikis styles and architectural types demonstrated Avenue, Aristotelous Square, Ladadika and in facades, colonnades, arcades and Eleftheria’s Square. The proximity of porticos.It is a reference point for both Leoforos Nikis to the seafront and the residents and visitors with views to the sea architectural typology of the building facades and mountainous part of the city. The square render the axis as a historical and cultural is a perfect meeting place and space for timeline. The avenue expands and connects outdoor events and activities. The special the Squares of Aristotelous and Eleftheria, position makes it an attraction for visitors until Ladadika. Aristotelous Square is and residents of the city. Eleftheria’s Square

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi is another place of historical and former glory. Actions should be taken architectural interest, a transitional space towards the direction of enhancing the between city’s waterfront and urban fabric multidimensional features of this part of the that retains its emblematic image through historical center, through branding restored buildings and modern offices.The techniques aiming at the cultural and square is close to the harbour and it is used touristic potential of the area. Towards this as an open-air car parking lot. Ladadika direction, the use of new technologies and quarter used to be an area for wholesale social participation in programs and planning trade close to the harbour, until it was ensures active action on synergies issues for proclaimed as a historic area with listed culture and tourism (Figures 5, 6). buildings. The old commercial center of the city that was restored in an area with coffee shops, bars, restaurants, hotels and business premises maintains until today its

Figures 5, 6: Leoforos Nikis Avenue, Aristotelous Square, areas day and night (source: author).

d/ Egnatia Avenue - Valaoritou area - existence of coffee shops, bars and Modiano Market - Athonos Square restaurants. Egnatia, this central avenue of The part of Egnatia Avenue which includes great historic value, is a busy shopping area the area of Valaoritou quarter is showing with numerous remarkable buildings of strong mobility and activity due to the eclectic and art deco style as well as some

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi of the city’s most important monuments. The integration of environmental protection and region of Valaoritou represents the industrial sustainability policies. Moreover, cultural aspect of the city’s heritage as a result of the interventions could result in strengthening rehabilitation of former industries and office cultural tourism and local identity, through buildings and its emergence as a cultural the promotion of a traditional yet neighbourhood. Modiano Market is one of contemporary commercial character. The the oldest markets in the city and still diversity that presents is an attraction for the maintains its traditional character combined enhancement of the city's culture and in that with a number of nightlife activities and way it should fit into a broader cultural dining areas next to small shops. Likely, in planning (Figures 7, 8). Athonos Square there a lot of traditional shops, restaurants and workshops cconnected via passageways and arcade constructions. The preservation of urban historic fabric of the area is achieved by the

Figures 7, 8: Area of Ladadika and Modiano Market, day and night (source: author)

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi

3.2 SWOT analysis

SWOT STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES  Strong historical and monumental  Abandoned buildings, premises and character lots  Multifaceted architectural identity  Lack of green spots  Contemporary urban spaces  Insufficient transportation and mobility  Listed buildings and premises network  Archaeological sites  Parking and traffic congestion  Traditional markets  Contradicting land uses  Commercial-trade center-  Social exclusion of specific groups of contemporary market people, i.e. elderly, disabled, etc.  Accessibility  Discontinuities of urban and public  Proximity to a waterfront space  Variety of activities, i.e., business,  Lack of informative points, guides, shopping, city tours, recreation, etc. networks, etc. for different groups of people,  Insufficient promotion of city’s residents, visitors, students, families, historical background individuals, etc.  Inadequate urban planning OPPORTUNITIES THREATS  Proximity to transport stations, airport, port, train and bus stations  Emerging Balkan cities  Connection with educational and  Economic crisis academic community through  Identity distortion institutions and universities  Balkan metropolis

According to the SWOT analysis, the an open urban space with a view to the sea historical center of Thessaloniki has a strong and the port, rendering it a vital spot for cultural identity that is enhanced by the residents and visitors. A variety of activities is variety of monuments, archaeological sites, available for different groups of people, architectural buildings, traditional and residents, visitors, students, families, contemporary neighborhoods. Additionally, individuals, etc. offering customized the former use as a commercial and trade experiences especially in the field of urban center is an asset for visitors and investors in and cultural tourism. terms of creating business hubs and On the other hand, the image of the city revitalizing the existing contemporary center is distorted by the amount of market. The proximity to the waterfront and abandoned buildings, premises and lots, as the redesigning of the pedestrian axes offers well as by the lack of green spots. The

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi insufficient transportation and mobility accessible urban structures and network combined with parking and traffic enhancement of cultural and touristic congestion are other important issues to be aspects. Taking into consideration solved in order for the city to become viable. Thessaloniki’s particularities and This also results in social exclusion of requirements, it could be easily conducted specific categories of people i.e. elderly, the range of success in maintaining the city’s disabled, e.t.c. that have difficulty in center identity and accomplishing a feasible accessing the city’s historical center and its urban planning model. surrounding area. Moreover, inadequate In each region, the tourism sector and urban planning and implementation of urban culture can be enriched and reshaped using policies have led to contradicting land uses smart examples of most cities, such as and discontinuities in urban and public interactive guides and informative space. The lack of informative city points, applications of events and actions. guides and networks are a minus in Meanwhile, it is necessary the reorganization promoting the city’s historical background, of the sector of environment, energy and excluding a great number of visitors and urban planning and that of the recycling and tourists. cleaning services. Sports and especially Thessaloniki’s historical center has an volunteering are the areas that need direct easy access to transport stations, airport, assistance with the organization of sporting port, train and bus stations, facilitating the events, the provision of infrastructure and connection in national and international level incentives for voluntary action. The ease of for both residents and visitors. Another access to services and facilities is important positive external factor is the proximity to for the city's residents and its visitors, universities and the amount of educational emphasizing the diversity of vulnerable and academic institutions within the city’s groups (elderly, disabled, children, families, historical center, with a view to strengthen etc.). About working and studying, it should the city’s role as an academic and be connected to the piece of technological node for students, academics, entrepreneurship and innovation, taking into businesses, etc., through connectivity account the international image of the networks. As a Balkan metropolis, there are economic and competitive environment. potentials for investors and tourism stakeholders, given that the Balkans are 4. CONCLUSIONS contemporary cultural epicenters and inexhaustible sources of research and In the era of globalization and information interest. society, the protection and promotion of It remains to be seen whether the other cultural heritage needs to be integrated into Balkan cities are a threat due to competition individual policies for economic, social and between the cities. Economic crisis and cultural development. In this context, social identity distortion should be taken into cohesion is reinforced by cultural account as negatives dispositions towards participation of individuals and groups, developing a functional strategical plan that especially vulnerable, through cultural would provide for economic growth,

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research CULTURAL HERITAGE AS A TOOL FOR TOURISM: THESSALONIKI’S HISTORICAL CENTER Kleoniki Gkioufi programs and events, aiming at the umbrella of EU, with priority to the city’s improvement of quality of life and social individual strengths concerning traditions inclusion. and values. The development of employment, tourism and the new e-economy is based on REFERENCES the creation of new partnerships and synergies by integrating the local planning Arvanitaki, A. (2007). Urban Development consistently to the specificity of each area. Planning and Culture.ECCM Symposium: Regarding strategies for cultural heritage, Productivity of Culture. Athens. urban tools should be based on the use of Beriatos, Ē. (2007). The role of spatial new technologies and applications, modern planning in disaster response with design programs and city branding emphasis on natural and cultural heritage. techniques. The prospect of Reconstruction after Therefore, as mentioned in the Disaster. Conference of Technical Commission's cohesion policy (2014-2020), Chamber of Western Greece. the cultivation of integrated urban policies Retrieved September 12, 2017 from the World would strengthen sustainable urban Wide Web: development and the adaptability of cities to http://library.tee.gr/digital/m2264/m2264_beria ensure synergies from the European tos.pdf structural and investment funds (GRNET). Bianchini, F. (1994) Remaking European Therefore, measures relating to the natural cities: the role of cultural policies in: regeneration of the urban environment Parkinson M., Bianchini, F. (1994).Cultural should be combined with measures for policy and Urban regeneration. promoting culture, education, economic Manchester:University Press. development, social inclusion and Castells, M. (1991), The Informational City. environmental protection. Developing strong Oxford: Blackwell. partnerships where local citizens are Crosby, T. (1965).Architecture: City Sense. involved, civil society, the local economy and New York: Littlehampton Book Services the various levels of government, are a Ltd. prerequisite. The combination of skills and ESPON (2006). 3d Synthetic Report of the local knowledge is essential for identifying European Spatial Planning Observatory. common solutions and ensuring sustainable Retrieved September 11, 2017 from the World and generally acceptable results (Cohesion Wide Web: Policy 2014-2020). https://www.espon.eu/export/sites/default/Doc It is obvious that in Thessaloniki’s uments/Projects/ESPON2006Projects/Poli historical center and the wider area, the main cyImpactProjects/ESDPImpact/fr-2.3.1- objective is to preserve the historical full_rev_Jan2007.pdf continuity of cultural expression and to Gavra, E. G. (2003). Cultural and architectural create contemporary scenarios in the field of heritage in the Balkans.Management in cultural heritage. This could be achieved the context of European integration. through sustainable planning, cooperation Thessaloniki: Publications Kyriakidis. programs and high-profile projects under the

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Gavra, E. G. &Kambouri, E. (1998). Plan for Special Issue: Cultural Policy and Urban sustainable regeneration of Ano Poli Regeneration, Local Economy 19(4), 305- Thessaloniki. Topos, Review of urban and 311. regional studies, 15,125-143. Retrieved September 15, 2017 from the World Ghilardi, L. (2001). Cultural planning and Wide Web: Cultural diversity. London:Noema http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0 research and Planning Ltd. 269094042000286819 Gkioufi, K. (2012). Thessaloniki by night: the https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/tourism/of image of the city at night. Master’s fer/cultural_el dissertation project, Urban and Regional http://www.unesco.org/en/culturaldiversity/heri Planning Engineering School, Volos, tage/ Greece: University of Thessaly. https://thessaloniki.gr/ Herrero, L.C., Sanz, J.A., Devesa, M., http://www.plandevel.auth.gr/aesop_hos_201 Bedate, A. and Del Barrio, M.J. (2006). 6/sites/default/files/TMXA_Dissertation_Th The economic impact of cultural events: a esis.pdf case-study of Salamanca 2002, European capital of culture. European Urban and Brief bio Regional Studies, 13 (1),41-57. Hubbard, P. & Hall, T. (1998). The Kleoniki Gkioufi is an Architect/Urban entrepreneurial city and the new urban Planner with research interests in spatial politics, in Hall, T. & Hubbard, P. The planning, urban and architectural Entrepreneurial City: Geographies of development, management of urban and Politics, Regime and Representation. cultural assets, city branding and cultural Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. image. Experienced research assistant with Kolb, B. (2006). Tourism marketing for cities a view to producing feasible scenarios to and towns. USA: Elsevier. address issues of space especially in her Murray, C (2001). Making Sense of Place: area of interest, that of SE Europe. New Approaches to Place Marketing, Participation and attendance in a number of London: Comedia. research programs, seminars and Myerscough, J. (1988). The Economic conferences on environment, urban Importance of the Arts in Britain. London: planning, cultural tourism and heritage Policy Studies Institute. protection. Her goal is to integrate her Richards, G. (2003). What is Cultural knowledge and experience in creative Tourism? In A. van Maaen (Eds.) environment aimed at architecture, urban Erfgoedvoor Toerisme. National Contact planning, culture, education and research. Monumenten. Wilks-Heeg, S. & North, P. (ed.) (2004).

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research

EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION

Dr Isaak Papadopoulos Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece [email protected]

ABSTRACT indicated a significant increase regarding the use of communication strategies employed This paper outlines the rationale for and the by students as well a raise of students’ purpose of designing and implementing an multicultural awareness. educational programme that aimed at Keywords: communication strategies, fostering communication strategies in Greek primary education, language, multicultural primary education. The modules of this awareness project were based on themes of Balkan cultures, it was piloted with 30 students (11 years old) and it lasted for five months. For 1. INTRODUCTION the implementation of this project, the ‘Content and Communication Strategies Given that Greece has been receiving a Development’ (CONSTRADE) approach was great number of immigrant (and refugee) followed. In the 1st phase of the programme, populations since 1990s, the demographics the students were introduced to the target have changed to a great extend with communication strategies in the Greek mainstreaming classrooms consisting of language, while discussion among them was students, who speak languages other than encouraged as regards to the use of these Greek. Towards the accommodation of these strategies in their everyday life. In the 2nd students, teachers have designed and phase, the students were introduced to each implemented various educational programs Balkan culture within a multimodal learning with the purpose not only to sensitize environment and they focused on the cultural students towards the different but to and geographical characteristics of the target encourage their language development and country. In the 3rd phase, the students were the communicative effectiveness within and provided with the opportunity to be engaged outside the school environment. in various activities that raised their Among these skills that students have to communication strategies showing also develop in their daily social interaction and cross-cultural competence while acting communication, strategies employed in order within a multicultural environment. For the for the speakers to achieve certain estimation of the feasibility of this project, communicative goals are of utmost two research instruments were employed a) importance and has been placed in the strategies record protocols for students and center of the research attention (Griva & b) journals kept by the researcher throughout Papadopoulos, 2017; Panteli & the intervention. The results of the project Papadopoulos, 2017). According to Faerch

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos and Kasper (1983b, p.36) “communication 1979) and they coincide with a strategies are potentially conscious plans for convivial, courteous or polite function solving what to an individual presents itself (Leech, 1983). In a recent study, as a problem in reaching a particular Cehan (2010) has attempted to communicative goal” while Canale (1983) summarize the strategies that can be extends the definition arguing that employed by the speakers to thank “communication strategies involve any their addressees, based on the prior attempt to enhance the effectiveness of work of Aijmer (1996), proposing communication”. In a very recent attempt to thanking strategies such as: delve into the communication strategies,  Thanking somebody explicitly Griva & Papadopoulos (2017) have  Expressing gratitude proposed another type of communication  Expressing appreciation of the strategies which do not relate to the addressee speakers’ linguistic deficiency but to the  Expressing appreciation of the attempt of the speaker to “solve a problem”, act that is to say, to achieve a communicative  Acknowledging a debt of goal such as to thank someone, to gratitude apologize, to complain about something.  Stressing one’s gratitude Equipping students with such  Expressing emotion communicative skills and strategies, they are  Commenting on one’s own prepared to be engaged in speech events role by suppressing one’s own which occur among speakers of the same importance or/and different languages. Indeed, the multicultural panorama within the Greek b) complaining strategies are used to schools has intensified the need for express the speaker’s (the intercultural communication among the complainer) disapproval or other students and it is more than necessary to negative feelings towards the state of encourage students interact with each other affairs described in the proposition employing certain strategies. Several studies (the complainable) and for which have stressed their focus on investigating he/she holds the hearer (the and recording certain types of complainee) responsible, either communication strategies, with thanking directly or indirectly (Trosborg, 1995 strategies, complaining strategies and pp. 311-312). Dyah Ayu and Didi apologizing strategies being in the spotlight Sukyadi (2011) have also studied and as they are commonly employed in the most attempted to summarize the usual communicative situations. More complaining strategies proposed by precisely, Trosborg (1994) and Rinnert & a) thanking strategies are used to Nogammi (2006), proposing express the speaker’s attitude of complaining strategies such as: gratitude or appreciation towards a  Hints state of affairs or a person (Searle,  Annoyance

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos

 Ill consequences primary education and in cases of culturally-  Accusation diverse classrooms. Communication styles  Modified Blame have proved to be culture-affected promoting  Blame (Person) the view that speakers from different cultures  Blame (Behaviour) employ different communication strategies. Thus, the question that arose is related to c) apologizing strategies are used to how the development of a variety of require the speaker to admit that communication strategies contributes to the he/she is responsible for a state of effective communication and social affairs which appeared to be costly to interaction among students from Greece and the addressee (Farashaiyan & students coming from other cultures and Amirkhiz, 2011). Concerning the countries. apologizing strategies, it is worth mentioning that a very important 2. THE PROJECT classification of apologizing strategies has been produced by 2.1 The Rationale and Objectives of Cohen and Olshtain (1981: 113-134), the Project Olshtain and Cohen (1983: 22-23), as well by Blum-Kulka et al. (1989: 289), According to current literature, the effect proposing strategies such as: implementing educational projects on  An expression of regret fostering communication and multicultural  An offer of apology awareness encompasses a number of  A request for forgiveness advantages, which are not related only to the  Objective’ reasons for the language development of students in a violation target language but are beneficial to the  Explicit self-blame development of a variety of skills that will be  Lack of intent necessary for the students’ preparation as a  Expression of self-deficiency future-citizens.  Expression of Embarrassment The reason for designing and  Self- dispraise implementing this particular action research  Justify hearer stemmed from our attempt to investigate the  Refusal to acknowledge guilt efficacy and potential advantages of  Denial of responsibility implementing a programme based on other  Blame the hearer cultures with the purpose to empower  Pretend to be offended students’ communicative behavior within a  Concern for the hearer multimodal learning environment. Therefore,  Offer of Repair this project was conducted to:  Promise of Forbearance - enhance students’ communication strategies in matters of three types of What seems to be worth researching is communication strategies, the way these strategies can be raised in

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos

thanking/complaining/apologizing Papadopoulos & Griva, 2014; Papadopoulos strategies in Greek language & Griva, 2016). The theme of this - raise students’ multicultural programme was chosen as Greece has been awareness of Balkan countries. hosting immigrant and refugee populations Moreover, the researcher set several for more than two decades, thus the growing communicative and emotional/social number of immigrant students at schools supplementary goals as follows: intensifies the need for raising openness to the “different” and communicating with other Communicative goals people. Students were expected to develop and enhance their speaking and writing skills in Unit 1: An introduction to cultures Greek language, through using the language In this part of the programme, special as a means of communication in authentic or emphasis was placed on introducing given situations that occurs among native students to the aspect of culture, country and and non-native speakers. communication. Students dealt with maps, posters and videos, exploring countries they Emotional - social goals would like to visit in the future or countries Through this educational programme, they had already travelled to. A discussion students were aimed to among the students and the a) to use their imagination to teacher/researcher was encouraged and achieve certain communicative constituted an important part of the goals. programme before the “multicultural journey” b) to develop curiosity towards the of the students. “other” c) to be familiar with the group and Unit 2: A trip to Albania form collaborative teaching and During this units, the students were provided learning with the opportunity to navigate through d) to enhance their creativity Albania. They got familiarized with the within the context of the multimodal Albanian flag as well as with sights such as leaning environment that was fostered by the the Butrint ruins, Gjirokastra castle, the teacher with the purpose to facilitate the Zekate House etc. They got familiarized achievement of the above goals. themselves with the Albanian folk-literature, folk-dances and dishes and they were engaged in game-based activities related to 2.2 The design of the project aspects of the Albanian culture. In this unit, the researchers decided not to raise a This programme was designed in the form of certain type of communication strategies but a topic-based syllabus consisted of five units to allow students express themselves related to Balkan countries, and it thinking about communicative situations they incorporated a variety of creative activities would probably be engaged in and they way and games ( see also Griva & Semoglou, they would overcome communication 2015; Tomlinson & Masuhara, 2009;

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos problems. the opportunity to focus on the Romanian culture. They learnt about the national flag, Unit 3: Visiting Bulgaria the customs and traditions of the country, Throughout this unit, students were while they really delved into the sights of the introduced to the Bulgarian culture and dealt country such as Biertan Fortified Church - with geographical and cultural elements of (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Corvin the country. They learnt about the traditional (Corvinesti, Huniazilor), the Castle in customs and of the county, the traditional Hunedoara, the Monastery of Horezu and dances and meals while they paid important the Medieval fortified churches of attention to the sights and monuments of the Transylvania. Regarding the communication country such as “Aleksander Nevski strategies they developed, they were Cathedral”, “National Exhbition of Crafts and engaged in activities that encouraged them Arts””, “Sveta Sofia Church”, “Daskalov to employ apologizing strategies in various House” which constitute important parts of communicative situations either orally or the Bulgarian civilisation. As for the written. communication strategies that were developed in this unit, students were 2.3 Implementation Procedures introduced to the thanking strategies through This particular action research was various educational materials and their conducted to 30 students of the fifth grade of participation in several activities that aimed primary school in the city of Larissa- Central at fostering communication. Greece during five school months (October

2016 – March 2017). The ‘Content and Unit 4: Let’s travel to Skopje Communication Strategies Development’ During this unit, students were given the (CONSTRADE) approach was employed by opportunity to navigate through the cultural the researcher as it is our view that and geographical elements of the Former communication strategies can be raised Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia. More through a thematic context. In particular, the precisely, they dealt with the national flag, content/theme constitutes the basis of the monuments and sights such as Stone cultivating a positive environment for Bridge, the Old Bazaar, the Skopje Central students to enhance strategies. Square while they learn about the traditional Every thematic unit of this programme meals of Skopje, the folk-stories of the was carried out through three phases, each country and the dances of it. In this unit, they completed through three phases. were also introduced to the complaining strategies of communication through their 1st Phase: Familiarizing students with the engagement in fostered communicative target communication strategies situations occurring within the class context This phase focuses on introducing students but simulating the real life ones. to the target communication strategies

through their contact with multimodal Unit 5: Meeting our Romanian friends material. They were engaged in discussions In the last unit of the project, students had about the strategy use during daily discourse

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos events and they attempted to use them in discourse in response to the situation given situations. and event given to them by the teacher This phase was completed through 3 or through the digital software the stages researchers created. 1st Stage – Introduction: In this stage, routines of everyday situations were 2nd Phase: Raising students’ awareness presented to students to realize the use about the thematic area of target strategies and discussed its During this phase, special emphasis was basic elements and importance in placed on raising students’ awareness about communication. During this stage, the each thematic area of the programme that is teacher used a variety of multimodal ‘other’ cultures. material such as pictures, videos, and This phase was completed through the texts through which students were implementation of 3 stages. provided with the opportunity to activate 1st Stage – Introduction: During this their prior knowledge and empower their stage, students came into contact with thoughts. the thematic area of the project. More 2nd Stage – Experimentation: In this precisely, special focus was stressed on stage, the teacher encouraged students presenting elements of the target-culture to discuss the use of the target - in the teacher’s attempt to familiarize the strategies in pairs, so that he could lead students with the target country through them to share views and enhance the using PowerPoint and the slides showing ideas in matters of communicative images of the monuments, flag, churches situations. So, the students recorded and symbolic objects of the country. ideas, thought about speech events in 2nd Stage – Exploration: Throughout this which they could make use of the target stage, students were encouraged to strategies and each couple was urged to explore certain aspects of the target present them in class. It is worth culture. Towards that, they were engaged mentioning that the teacher served as a in creative and inquiry-based activities facilitator and supporter of the students that facilitated them to ‘navigate deeply’ and provided students with continuous through the target-countries places and feedback. to learn about cultural elements. They worked in groups and were provided with 3rd Stage – Consolidation: Throughout opportunities to communicate and this stage, students participated in interact with their classmates. So, they various activities including real-life investigated, collaborated, interacted and speech events and they were urged to communicated with each other, while use the target communication strategies trying to solve the problem”. they focused on, during the previous 3rd Stage – Consolidation & Expansion: stages. Students either in pairs or During this stage, students created crafts individually made use of their imagination such as maps, collages of stories on the and they produced written or spoken target country, and crafts of national

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos

monuments. In this way, students were interaction. urged to communicate while working on these tasks and they urged to "see" comparatively the target culture and their 2.4 Participants national one and organize their thoughts This project was implemented in a sample of seeking for similarities and differences. 30 students, 11 years of age. The Meanwhile, students were offered the participants were students of the fifth grade opportunities to develop their intercultural of primary school in Larissa-Central Greece communication skills through developing while it is worth noting that 7 students were strategies that may be useful when immigrants, 5 of them coming from Albania communicating with “other” people. and 2 of them coming from Bulgaria. This

sample was chosen as the school they were 3rd Phase: Expanding students’ effective attending accepted the call for collaboration communication while the grade of the students was chosen In the last phase, the students were engaged because of the fact that there were in activities that fostered and empowered the immigrant students which could facilitate our communication strategies with the aim to main goal, to empower the students’ achieve various communicative goals communicative behavior within a showing also cross-cultural competence multicultural environment. The following while acting within a culturally-fostered tables (Table 1., Table 2. & Table 3.), provide environment. They were given information on the sample distribution, as it communicative situations contexts and they was recorded through the personal urged to employ certain strategies and last, interviews with the students. they participated in a variety of creative activities, physical activities and role play Analysis on the sample games in order to exchange information in an environment that fostered their social

Table 1. Sample distribution - Greek students

Gender 12 Girls (52%) 11 Boys (48%) Nationality Greek Country of Birth Greece Years of Living in Greece Always Language of Communication at home Greek (100%)

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos

Table 2. Sample distribution Albanian students

Gender 2 Girls (40%) 3 Boys (60%) Nationality Albanian Country of Birth Albania

Years of Living in Greece 4 years Language of Communication at home Albanian (72,40%) Greek ( 27,60%)

Table 3. Sample distribution – Bulgarian students

Gender 1 Girl (50%) 1 Boy (50%) Nationality Bulgarian Country of Birth Bulgaria Years of Living in Greece 4 years Language of Communication at home Bulgaria (82,50%) Greek ( 17,50%) same situation were given to students to 3. EVALUATION register differences from their performance in the beginning and in the end of the Strategies Record Protocols educational programme. Regarding the estimation of the efficacy of this programme, the researcher used a pre- Findings on the communication and a post- record protocol for strategies communication strategies. A pre-recording of Following the data processing, the following strategies was conducted to all students who tables present the mean and the std. were engaged to produce written and deviation of the communication strategies in spoken discourse in a situation that thanking the pre-recording as well as in the post- strategies were needed, in a situation that recording. complaining strategies were needed and, in As it is obvious from the Table 3.1, the a situation, that apologizing strategies were students exhibited a clear increase in the needed. Through the recording, the amount of the thanking communication researcher focused on identifying the strategies employed at the post-recording strategies that the students employed before (m: 6.2) comparing it to the pre-recording the implementation of the project while the results (m: 2.3). More precisely, during the

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos pre-recording test, the students appeared to the “Expressing appreciation of the act” [e.g. make more use of “Thanking somebody Your help is appreciated], “Acknowledging a explicitly” [e.g. Thank you!], “Expressing debt of gratitude” [e.g. I owe a debt of gratitude” [e.g. I am so grateful!] and gratitude to you], “Stressing one’s gratitude” “Expressing appreciation of the addressee” [e.g. I really must thank you!] and [e.g. That’s nice of you!], while at post- “Expressing emotion” [e.g. Oh! I really thank recording indicated that students employed you!]. both the ones of the pre-recording as well as

Table 3.1 Thanking Strategies Recording

Thanking Strategies Pre-Recording Std. Deviation Post-Recording Std. Deviation 2.3 0.5 6.2 0.4

Regarding the complaining strategies, noise next-door, are you informed?] while from the Table 3.2, it appears that students during the post-recording test, they seemed demonstrated a greater range of complaining to differentiated and enriched their repertoire communication strategies at the post- using supplementary strategies such as recording (m:6.8) than in the pre-recording “Accusation” [e.g. There were not towels in (m:2.1). In particular, the pre-test recording the room, can you explain to me why you showed that students employed more the were not so careful?], “Modified blame” [e.g. complaining strategies of “Hints” [e.g. I I was so disappointed that you restaurant did wonder this occurred to us…], “Annoyance” not have a free wi-fi, can you change it?] and [e.g. It was very annoying to try this “Blame behavior” [e.g. Could you please be uncooked food] and “Ill consequences” [e.g. I more careful with the bus routes?]. was not able to sleep all night because of the

Table 3.2 Complaining Strategies Recording

Complaining Strategies Pre-Recording Std. Deviation Post-Recording Std. Deviation 2.1 0.4 6.8 0.5

Last, the Table 3.3 indicates students’ test, the students employed more the greater flexibility in employing apologizing strategies “Expression of regret” [e.g. I am communication strategies at the post- sorry!], “Offer of apology” [e.g. I apologize recording (m: 6.1) than at the post-recording for…] and “Request for forgiveness” [e.g. (m:3.3) upon the completion of the Please, forgive me! I hope you won’t have programme. Indeed, during the pre-recording any problem with me]. However, the post-

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos recording test indicated that students because of the noise my friends made at employed more apologizing strategies such your restaurant], “Self-dispraise” [e.g. I am to as “Objective reasons for the violation” [e.g. careless] and “Justify hearer” [e.g. I can The traffic was terrible that’s why we were understand your feelings]. late], “Lack of intent” [e.g. I didn’t want to do it], “Expression of self-deficiency” [e.g. I was confused with the process of payment the room renting], “Expression of embarrassment” [e.g. I feel very upset

Table 3.3 Apologizing Strategies Recording

Apologizing Strategies Pre-Recording Std. Deviation Post-Recording Std. Deviation 3.3 0.2 6.1 0.3

Researcher’s Journal Journal was chosen as a research tool kept by researcher throughout the programme as it constitutes a very effective research instrument in educational interventions organized by teachers (Altrichter et al., 1993). Regarding the structure of the journal, it was based on "questions to guide the reflection journal entries" of Richards & Lockhart (1994: 16 -17). As journal questions used by the teacher – researcher, there were based in three areas a) questions related to the teaching, b ) questions related to students and c) a general estimation of the teaching. a) Questions about teaching: 1) What goals did I have? Did I achieve them? 2) What teaching aids are used? How effective were they? and 3) Which were the forms of communication among students and between students and me? b) Question about students: 1) What was the attitude of the children at the beginning, during and at the end of the activity (positive, negative, indifferent, asking for clarification or assistance)? How did I respond to them? and c) Questions on a general estimation: 1) What went well, what did not? What is a possible explanation? and 2) What could I change? Why?

Findings on the educational programme The following diagrams provide information as regards to the estimation of the efficacy of this project. Analysis on the journal keepings has led to the creation of three categories with corresponding subcategories focusing on different aspects of the programme.

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos

Diagram 1. Students’ Communicative Behaviour

Diagram 2. Teacher’s Role

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Diagram 3. Overall Estimation

CONSTRADE approach was proved to be 5. DISCUSSION beneficial in matters of their communicative effectiveness. It is also worth mentioning that This action research was designed and the research attention from the conducted to estimate the efficacy and the communication strategies employed when potential advantages that can be brought speakers are characterized with a linguistic about by a multimodal educational deficiency, has been turned to programme based on topics of Balkan communication strategies which are used by cultures, in matters of raising both the the speakers in their attempt to achieve students’ communication strategies in Greek certain communicative goals in their daily language and their multicultural awareness. social interaction. Through this research, Following the analysis of the data, it was students were engaged in several revealed that students enriched their communicative situations and they were communication strategies repertoire through encouraged to interact and communicate their participation in this project. More appropriately in given situations with specifically, students were provided with the particular communicative goals. opportunity to be equipped with more As regards to the journal keepings, it was communication “tools” that could be shown that students were characterized with exploited in cases of social interaction with a great joy and an important interest in native and non-native speakers. Improving learning about other cultures and being and expanding students’ communication engaged in communicative situations with repertoire constituted a fundamental step their classmates. The students worked towards empowering their communicative together, danced, wrote and performed role- behavior especially in cases that play games, which led them to use the communication occurs among speakers of language as they would use it in authentic other languages than Greek. Students’ situations. The multisensory learning gradual familiarization and development of through a variety of teaching aids and communication strategies through the teaching techniques facilitated students’

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research EMPOWERING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR WITHIN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: A PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN GREEK EDUCATION Dr Isaak Papadopoulos raise of multicultural awareness while they programs be designed and implemented were provided with a variety of stimuli and focusing on students’ attending multicultural incentives to employ several communication classrooms communication. Such programs strategies, suitable for each communicative may empower students’ social interaction, a situation. They familiarized themselves with behavior that can be transferred outside the cultural elements from other countries, they school framework as well and can lead to the delved into their customs and traditions and peaceful coexistence of this mix of language they cultivated their curiosity and openness and cultures. towards the “other”. The educational activities that were designed and REFERENCE implemented in the programme were based on games and stories which have been Agar, M. (1991). The bicultural in bilingual. proved to be effective pedagogical tools for Language in Society, 20, 167-181. raising students’ multicultural awareness and Aijmer, K. (1996). Conversational Routines in language skills (Griva & Chostelidou, 2012; English: Convention and creativity, Papadopoulos & Griva, 2016; Panteli & London and New York: Longman Papadopoulos, 2017). In such a pedagogical Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. context, stories, games and drama activities (Eds.). (1998). Cross-cultural provided opportunities for students to Pragmatics: Request and apologies. communicate, express themselves and Advances in Discourse Processes. Vol collaborate with each other. 31, Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Last, it is worth noting that ‘language and Corporation. culture are wired in together’ (Agar, 1991), in Canale, M. (1983). From communicative a way that Risager (2006, 2007), develops competence to communicative language the concept of ‘languaculture’ in the attempt pedagogy. In Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, to describe this close interrelation. Thus, R. W. (Eds.), Language and Greek education should aim at raising Communication, 2-27. London: students’ multicultural awareness and Longman. communicative competence, as well as their Cehan, A. (2010). Thank you: An Analysis of critical cultural awareness skills necessary to the Thanking Strategies Taught In the communicate successfully (Hülmbauer et al., English Classrooms in Romania. Сучасні 2008; Seidlhofer, 2003). Moreover, the дослідження з іноземної філології Greek education system should provide Cohen, A. & Olshtain, E. (1981). Developing students with opportunities to come into a measure of sociolinguistic competence: contact with various aspects of the “different” The case of apology. Language so that the students can comprehend diverse Learning, 31, 113-134. cultural viewpoints and different patterns of Faerch, C., & Kasper, G.(1983). Plans and communication and interaction which will strategies in foreign language learning lead to their preparation for the diverse world and communication. In C. Faerch, G. outside the school environment. Kasper (eds.). In Strategies in Hence, it is important educational interlanguage communication (pp. 20-

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60). New York: Longman. “Travelling around Greece through folk Farashaiyan, A.& Yazdi Amirkhiz, S.Y. stories”: developing Greek language (2011). A Descriptive-Comparative skills and cultural awareness of Analysis of Apology Strategies: The case immigrant preschoolers. Theory and of Iranian EFL and Malaysian ESL Research in the Sciences of Education, University Students. English Language 9, 113-136, URL: Teaching Vol. 4, No. 1; March 2017. http://periodiko.inpatra.gr Retrieved from: www.ccsenet.org/elt. Papadopoulos, I. & Griva, E. (2014). Griva, E. & Chostelidou, D. (2012). Additive Learning in the traces of Greek culture: A bilingualism of immigrant children: CLIL Project for raising cultural introducing a multisensory project in awareness and developing L2 skills, kindergarten. In H. Switzer D. Foulker International Journal of Learning, (Eds) Kindergartens: Teaching Methods, Teaching and Educational Research, 8 Expectations and Current Challenges, (1), 76-92. 83-104. Nova Science publishers, inc. Papadopoulos, I. & Griva, E. (2017). Griva, E. & Papadopoulos, I. (2017). “We Promoting critical literacy in the EFL and our neighbours”: Developing context: implementing a project to young communication strategies and learners. European Journal of Language intercultural awareness in a foreign and Literature Studies, 7(1), pp. 107-120. language classroom in Griva, E. & Richards, J. & Lockhart, C. (1994). Zorbas, V. (2017). Multicultural and Reflective teaching in second language Citizenship Awareness through classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge language: cross thematic practices in University Press, 16 -17. language pedagogy. Nova Science Rinnert, C., & Nogami, Y. (2006). Preferred Publishers, New York. complaint strategies in Japanese and Hülmbauer, C., Böhringer, H. & Seidlhofer, English. Authentic Communication: B. (2008). Introducing English as a lingua Proceedings of the 5th Annual JALT Pan- franca (ELF): Precursor and partner in SIG Conference, 32-47 intercultural communication. Synergies Risager, K. (2006): Language and Culture: Europe 3, 25–36. Global Flows and Local Complexity. Leech, G. N. (1983). Principles of Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Pragmatics, London: Longman Searle, J. (1979). Expression and Meaning: Panteli, P. & Papadopoulos, Is. (2017). Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts, Fostering intercultural communication Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. within multicultural classes: introducing Seidlhofer, B. (2003). A Concept of an educational programme in Cyprus and International English and Related Issues: in Greece. Presented at the CyTEA From ‘Real English’ to ‘Realistic English? Conference on “Language Teaching For the conference on Languages, challenges in a globalised world”, diversity, citizenship: policies for Nicosia, 18-19 November 2017 plurilingualism in Europe. Language Papadopoulos, I. & Griva, E. (2016). Policy Division, Council of Europe,

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Strasbourg. Brief bio Trosborg, A. (1995). Interlanguage Pragmatics: Requests, Complaints and Isaak Papadopoulos has pursued his PhD Apologies. Berlin, New York: Mouton in Applied Linguistics and Intercultural Gruyter. Communication at Aristotle University of Trosborg, A. (1994). Interlanguage Thessaloniki while he has been an examiner Pragmatics: Requests, Complaints and for the Language Department of Education Apologies. Studies in Anthropological of Ireland. He holds a Bachelor in Primary Linguistics Education (University of Western Olshtain, E. & Cohen, A. (1983). Apology: A Macedonia) & a master degree in Dyslexia speech act set. In Wolfson, N.& Judd, and Foreign Language learning (University E.(Eds.), Sociolinguistics and Language Roma 3). He has participated in many acquisition. (pp.18- 35.) Rowley,MA: conferences and he has published many Newbury House papers in international journals while he has published his first coursebook used in Greece and Cyprus

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OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHERS: VIEWS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND HISTORY TEACHERS

Kerasia Dikoglou Greek language and history teacher, M.Ed. HOU [email protected]

George Iordanidis Associate Professor in Management and Administration in Education Department of Primary Education University Western Macedonia [email protected]

ABSTRACT found as the lowest sources of stress. The level of occupational stress differs Occupational stress among teachers has significantly with respect to gender and some been studied extensively. However, only few dimensions related to age and years of studies have focused on investigating the educational service. issue among different teacher groups. The Keywords: demographic/job differences, purpose of this study was to examine the language and history teachers, occupational level and associated factors of occupational stress, sources of occupational stress. stress experienced by the Greek language and history secondary education teachers, while based on their demographic and 1. INTRODUCTION professional profile data. An empirical quantitative research was conducted using a One of the most decisive parameters of the self-administered, pretested structured quality of life of modern man is the questionnaire, which was completed by 171 assurance of his mental health, for the Greek language and history teachers at the definition of which researchers rely on general and vocational education serving in various factors, ultimately ending in different the Junior High, Senior High, and definitions. As work constitutes a Professional High Schools of the Regional fundamental condition for human survival Unity of Serres. From the statistical and development, and most of the people processing of the data collected, it emerged spend most of the day dealing with work that the sample experienced moderate to related activities, it is a fact that “stress” high levels of occupational stress, mainly greatly affects their behavior and attitudes, due to factors such as educational policy especially their role as workers, as well as changes, time pressure and students’ lack of overall progress and well-being (Avey, interest and motivation. On the other hand, Luthans, & Jensen, 2009; Kompier, & Levi, reduced training opportunities, the difficulty 1995). of going to school and staying in the Α universally accepted definition for the workplace beyond teaching hours were term “stress” has not been arrived at.

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHERS: VIEWS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND HISTORY TEACHERS Kerasia Dikoglou, George Iordanidis

However, it appears to act as a cause of profession and the results that derive from it tension in human’s soul, as a reaction to a had early led many researchers to stress-causing factor or as a result of the investigate teacher stress and its several close relationship that develops between dimensions. For many decades the man and the environment (Kantas, 1995). international and internal literature has been focusing on the issue, pointing out in its 1.1. Occupational stress findings that it is one of the most stressful professions (Tsiakiros, & Pashiardis, 2006). "Occupational stress" or "industrial stress" To define teacher occupational stress (according to Cobb, & Rose, 1973, cited in many different definitions have been Pappa, 2006), on the other hand, is one of formulated. One of the widely accepted ones the scourges that affect work in modern is that of Kyriacou, & Sutcliffe (1978), who times. It is a worker’s response to a set of describe it as teacher's reaction to the situations or to a certain situation that "negative impact" that various issues related causes stress in relation to the teaching to his work affect on him. practice (Gaziel, 1993), the manifestation of In the same direction, Otto (1986, as which varies according to the nature of the reported in Skaalvik, & Skaalvik, 2015) profession, the workplace, the worker’s perceives the concept as a result of the personal reaction and the country in which mismatch or lack of adaptation between they work (Kyriakou, 2001). internal and external working requirements In addition, Sager (1991), perceives and internal and external resources. A little occupational stress as the psychological later, in 1993, Kyriacou, & Harriman define condition experienced by the individual when teacher occupational stress as an called upon to manage the opportunities, the "experience of negative and unpleasant obligations and the constraints arising from feelings, such as anger, anxiety, tension, their professional occupation that can depression, and frustration sourced from become regulators of professional progress. various issues related to their work" (p. 298). Furthermore, one of the most accepted A number of factors that act as stress definitions is that of Cox (1975), which stimuli are involved in the emergence of defines the phenomenon as the "result of occupational stress among teachers. workplace characteristics that exert pressure Kyriacou & Sutcliffe (1978) pointed out that on the individual" (p. 494). factors related to objective aspects of the Stress can overwhelm all practitioners ; profession and other work parameters may however, it has been found to affect more potentially threaten teacher's self-esteem professions that have man at the center of and lead to stress, - if not satisfied. For this their interest, that have a social dimension reason they are classified into potential and (arts, trade and construction professions), or real factors. that assume care for others (Koronaiou, Also, Tsiakkiros, & Pashiardis (2002) 2010), such as uniformed professions, health classify stressors in three categories: a) professions and professions performing environmental, b) organizational an c) social work (Tsiakiros, & Pashiardis, 2006). related to the individual characteristics of the The peculiarities of the teaching

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHERS: VIEWS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND HISTORY TEACHERS Kerasia Dikoglou, George Iordanidis teacher. Furthermore, Antoniou, et al., behavior etc. (Gaziel, 1993; (2006) categorize stress factors in: a) Giannakidou, 2014; Haberman, 2005; inherent in work factors, related to the Pappa 2006; Yang et al., 2009) special nature of the profession (providing  Factors related to educational policy, teaching and pedagogical project, classroom organizational structure and school management, workload, student population unit management. educational diversity, teacher role ambiguity etc.),b) changes, reduced interest of the related to their individual characteristics and State on issues related to teachers’ their idiosyncrasy (age, gender, work professional development, experience, etc.) and c ) related to occupational safety, low salary, government policy, organizational structure evaluation, quality of interpersonal and school management (salary reduction, relationships between teachers and lack of effective communication with the other members of the school official state, inadequate training, high community etc. (Alder, 2005; frequency educational changes, relations Alexopoulos, 1990; Giannakidou, with parents, etc.). 2014) Following the above classification, the Under this point of view, it becomes present research reflects the stress sources apparent that experiencing occupational for the teachers as follows: stress is a purely personal affair, dependent  Factors related to the nature of the on the interaction between the above teaching profession: lack of flexibility mentioned stress factors. of the teacher regarding the curriculum, student lack of diligence 1.2. Review of Literature as to the work assigned to them, the Mouzoura (2005) conducted a study of 363 indifference to the result of their secondary teachers pointing out that teacher evaluation, low cognitive background, stress was related mostly to student lack of initiative and a utilitarian indifference to the learning process and the rather than a holistic attitude towards lack of incentives, obstructions in the knowledge, time pressure, workload, provision of the schools with textbooks, non classroom devaluation of the participation in decision-making processes profession in the consciousness of and teaching in populous classes. Low on society and its social depreciation the list of stressors are the difficulties of etc)(Antoniou et al., 2006; Davrazos, transition to school, the provision of 2015; Fontana, 1996; Kyriacou, & administrative work (which somewhat Sutcliffe, 1978; Kokkinos, 2000) prevents the teacher from constant contact  Factors related to individual and with children) and teaching to students from demographical characteristics: immigrant families. At the same time, women gender, age, marital status, working are more prone to stress, while Greek relationship, educational experience, language and history teachers are the expectations, desires, attitudes, specialization that exhibits higher levels of perceptions, personality, style of burnout.

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The survey of Antoniou, et al., (2006) in pointed out that women and new entrants to 493 primary and secondary teachers education are experiencing more stress than highlighted the following as main stressors men and those with medium and long problems related to the presence of many educational experience. students in the classroom, discipline issues, According to Betoret’s survey (2009) in lack of interest in learning and the quality of 724 primary and secondary teachers in relationships with students and their Spain external (school support) and internal colleagues. Increased stress seemed to be resources (administration, class) have a experienced by female teachers, perhaps significant negative effect on stressors. of due to their different philosophy and attitude. which the most important are difficulties in Additionally, high levels of stress appear to the classroom and the school climate. be experienced by newcomers in education, A survey of López, et al.(2010) in 1386 mainly because of the difficulties they secondary teachers in Spain showed that encounter in adapting to new working support from colleagues, optimism and conditions. resilience are predictive factors of stress and Charalampous (2012) examined teacher exhaustion. Moreover, in a qualitative study stress in 450 secondary teachers and in primary and secondary teachers, Margolis, reported medium levels of stress, usually & Nafel (2006) correlated occupational with due to low pay, non-participation in decision- educational change. The analysis of the data making processes, and students indifference showed that stress is linked to physical and and lack of motivation regarding the learning mental exhaustion and indirectly to the process. In the last places of the stressors’ management of educational change, as list were teaching children from immigrant exhaustion levels appear to increase in families, difficult conditions of access to relation to the field and pace of educational school and the existence of a competitive change climate among the colleagues Finally, in a study carried out in France Focusing on the philologists of Laconia, by Carton, & Fruchart (2014), a sample of Spaniolou (2016) investigated, through a 125 primary teachers showed a sample of 92 teachers, the phenomena of differentiation of the sources of occupational occupational stress and exhaustion that they stress, depending mainly on seniority. experience as a specialty. Its results reported the following as main stress sources 3. THE STUDY workload, time pressure, unfavorable working conditions, teaching issues and 3.1. Purpose of the study and student behavior management, while the Research Questions quality of relationships with colleagues and headmasters seems to have the least effect. The present research was designed to Investigating the relationship between provide further insights into the conceptions teacher occupational stress and their quality of occupational stress experienced by Greek of life in a sample of 2929 primary and language and history teachers. More secondary teachers, Yang, et al. (2009) precisely, an attempt was made to detect

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Greek language and history teachers’ level of reliability, objectivity and validity. of occupational stress, to define the factors The selected research instrument was that contribute to the sources of occupational the questionnaire that was developed by stress and to investigate the relationship Charalampous (2012), as modified by the between demographic individual data addition of four items by Spaniolou (2016) (gender, age), data of the service profile and two items by the researcher that detect (years of service, type of school) and the the “evaluation” dimension, as the phenomenon. bibliographic review established it as one of The specific research questions for this the most important sources of occupational study were as follows: stress. Questionnaire consisting of 7-items 1. What are the levels of occupational on demographic and professional stress of the teachers of Greek characteristics and 42-items of closed language and history teachers questions that allow rapid completion and serving in secondary schools of the better understanding of the questions. The regional unity of Serres? main purpose of this questionnaire was to 2. What are the sources of occupational measure views of teachers of Greek stress of the teachers of Greek language and history teachers in secondary language and history teachers education in the following categories: serving in secondary schools of the  educational process and student regional unity of Serres? social behavior 3. Do the levels of occupational stress  professional empowerment, in relation to gender, age, years of autonomy, lack of support and service and type of school differ prestige of the profession among the teachers of Greek  administrative organization, operation language and history teachers and building/material infrastructure serving in secondary schools of the  relationships with the members of the regional unity of Serres? school community  working conditions 3.2 Methodology, Research Design  evaluation and Sample  workload and time pressure For the purpose of the study quantitative Answers were given in a five-point Likert analysis was used as a method of approach, type scale, taking more specifically the as it gives the opportunity to extract values 1 = no, 2 = little, 3 = enough, 4 = very, quantified data through the study of a 5 = very much. considerable number of subjects, affords In order to examine the credibility of the generalization of results and allows research instrument a pilot study of 12 clarification of the relations developed teachers of Greek language and history has between specific variables. It was also taken place, trying to detect any selected because it allows the research to be malfunctions, ambiguities and completed in a shorter time than qualitative misinterpretations in practice and to make research, while it also ensures higher levels changes to the final questionnaire, taking

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHERS: VIEWS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND HISTORY TEACHERS Kerasia Dikoglou, George Iordanidis into account the respondents’ comments. correlations,. T-test and Oneway ANOVA The assessment of the reliability of the were applied. The level of statistical questionnaire was made using Cronbach’s significance was set at p = 0.05. Correlation Alpha, which indicated a reliability value of of various variables was examined using .901. Pearson’s test. The sample of the present study consisted of 171 Greek language and history 4. RESULTS teachers (N=171) at the general and vocational education serving in 41 Junior One hundred and thirty nine (139) of the High, Senior High and Professional High participants were female (81,3%) and 32 Schools of the regional unity of Serres. (18,7%) were male. More than half, in an Data were collected from 10 March 2017 overwhelming proportion of 60.2%, belonged to 10 April 2017. The questionnaires were to the 41-50 age cohort, while 28,7% given directly to teachers by the researcher belonged in the 51-60 age cohort, Moreover, and in a few cases by school directors or 46,8% of the participants taught at Senior colleagues. Before completing them, the High Schools, 46,2 % at Junior High and 7% researcher clarified the teachers’ voluntary at Professional High Schools. The majority of participation in the research, noting that their the sample (76,6%) indicated basic answers would remain confidential and university studies, 15,2% had a master’s would be used exclusively for the purposes degree in education, 3,5% had a master’s of the research and that participant degree in other scientific field, 4,1% had a anonymity would be protected. second degree and only one of them (0,6%) Overall, 221 questionnaires were had a doctoral degree (Table 1). distributed and 176 returned (response rate: 79.63%). Five questionnaires were excluded from the statistical analysis process, as they showed shortcomings in their completion. Therefore, 63,3% of the Greek language and history teachers e serving in secondary schools of the regional unity of Serres eventually participated in the survey.

The statistical calculations were performed using IBM SPSSv24 software. For the purpose of data processing and analysis, descriptive statistics were used, which quantified the demographic and professional characteristics of the participants and their views on the questions posed. Furthermore, inductive statistical analysis was used for the research questions investigating

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHERS: VIEWS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND HISTORY TEACHERS Kerasia Dikoglou, George Iordanidis

Table 1: Demographic and professional characteristics of the participants

items frequency % gender male 32 18,7 female 139 81,3 age cohort 31-40 18 10,5 41-50 103 60,2 51-60 49 28,7 60+ 1 ,6 years of experience 0-5 3 1,8 6-10 20 11,7 11-15 45 26,3 16-20 42 24,6 21-25 32 18,7 >25 29 17,0 education level doctoral degree 1 ,6 master’s degree in 26 15,2 education master’s degree in other 6 3,5 scientific fields second degree 7 4,1 school type Junior High school 79 46,2 Senior High school 80 46,8 Professional High School 12 7

4.1. Level of occupational stress

The measurement of the participants’ level of occupational stress was based on their answers to the given questionnaire, which was structured in a five-point Likert scale, where item 3 reflects a moderate level of occupational stress. Values below 3 represent a low level of occupational stress, while those over 3 represent a high to a very high level. The descriptive statistical analysis performed indicated a Mean value of 3.25 and a standard deviation value of ,5792 (Table 2).

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Table 2: Level of occupational stress among Greek language and history teachers

Ν Mean Τ.Α. level of occupational stress 171 3,25 0, 5792

In particular, more than half of the respondents expressed moderate to high levels of work-related stress (55.6%), while only 9.4% reported high to very high levels (Table 3).

Table 3: Frequencies and percentages of occupational stress among teachers of Greek language and history teachers

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative Percent Percent Valid <=2 1 ,6 ,6 ,6 2-3 59 34,5 34,5 35,1 3-4 95 55,6 55,6 90,6 4-5 16 9,4 9,4 100,0 Total 171 100,0 100,0

Specifically, moderate to high levels of occupational stress were reflected in the sub-scales "educational process and social behavior of students" (M: 3,45, SD: 730) and "workload and time pressure" (M: 3,43, SD: 659), while a moderate degree of occupational stress was expressed by sub- scales "relationships with the members of the school community (M: 3,00, SD: 975) and" professional empowerment, autonomy, lack of support and prestige of the profession "(M: 3.08, SD: 756). On the other hand, the levels of occupational stress of the sample in the sub-scale "assessment" (M: 2.84, SD: 1.08) are shown below average, as shown in Table 4.

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Table 4: Averages and standard deviations of the sub-scales of the occupational stress measuring uestionnaire

4.2. Factors associated with Standard Deviation for each item were occupational stress detected. The participants’ answers indicated In examining the sources influencing the the following as the main factors of occupational stress level of the sample, data occupational stress (Table 5). were analyzed for each sub-scale individually, in which the Mean and the

Table 5: Stressors with the highest Mean Scores

Mean Std. Deviation educational policy changes 3,88 ,981 time pressure to prepare lesson plans and to correct students’ 3,87 ,937 homework and tests high workload 3,85 ,912 students’ lack of interest and motivation 3,85 ,982 teaching many different school subjects 3,80 ,949 increasing teaching hours 3,78 1,056 time pressure to complete the Analytical Program and the 3,78 1,009 curriculum homework 3,77 ,946 insufficient salary 3,71 1,088 job insecurity 3,65 1,219

On the other side, Table 6 show the factors with the lowest Mean Scores

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Table 6: Stressors with the lowest Mean Scores

Mean SD teaching children of economic immigrants 2,41 1,106 difficulty in going to school 2,49 1,424 stay in the workplace beyond working hours 2,50 1,025 the process of self-evaluation of the school unit 2,65 1,108 lack of autonomy 2,76 1,009 competition between colleagues 2,82 1,267 problems of building infrastructure and school facilities 2,91 1,051

stressors differ between men and women 4.3. Relationship of demographic/job was done by using the t-test for independent characteristics with occupational stress samples. As a level of statistical significance, the To investigate the possible impact of level of 5% was set and from the control of demographic / job variables on occupational the equality of the Mean results the following stress, a statistical analysis of their Means picture (Table 7): was performed to show statistically significant differences among population subgroups. The case study of whether the

Table 7: Correlation between gender and occupational stress

Gender N Mean SD educational process and social Male 32 3,30 ,588 behavior of the students Female 139 3,49 ,756 professional empowerment, Male 32 3,09 ,672 autonomy, lack of support Female 139 3,08 ,776 and prestige of the profession administrative organization, Male 32 3,01 ,694 operation and building/material Female 139 3,27 ,786 infrastructure relationships with the members Male 32 2,78 ,659 of the school community Female 139 3,05 1,024 working conditions Male 32 2,84 ,660 Female 139 3,30 ,872 evaluation Male 32 2,82 1,020 Female 139 2,84 1,083 workload and time pressure Male 32 3,28 ,637 Female 139 3,47 ,661

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Total Male 32 3,06 ,471 Female 139 3,29 ,594

Both men and women reported as major using One-way analysis of variance. The stressors the sub-scales “ educational factors of occupational stress were process and student social behavior and considered as depended variables, while “workload and time pressure”. Women age was the independent one. From the reported higher level of stress because of comparison of the Means of the individual “workload and time pressure” and “ age cohorts and setting the level of 5% as a educational process and students social level of statistical significance, there were behavior”, while men experienced low to statistically significant differences in the sub- moderate level of stress due to factors such scales "administrative organization, as “relationships with the members of the operation and building/material school community” and “evaluation”. infrastructure” (p= ,014* < 0,05) and The influence of the age was tested “evaluation” (p=, 019* < 0,05) (Table 8).

Table 8: One-Way ANOVA for the sub-scales of occupational stress compared with the age cohort of the participants

F Sig educational process and social behavior 1,838 ,142 of the students professional empowerment, autonomy, lack of support and ,294 ,830 prestige of the profession administrative organization, operation and building/material 3,639 ,014* infrastructure relationships with the members of the school 2,241 ,085 community working conditions 1,690 ,171 evaluation 3,422 ,019* workload and time pressure 1,147 ,332 Total 1,147 ,332 *p<0,05

The analysis indicated that the age- lowest level (M.: 2.35). cohort experience a moderate level of stress One-way analysis also reported that (M : 3,25), with those in the 31-40 age cohort teachers practicing their profession from 6- expressing a moderate to high level (M: 10 years expressed higher scores of stress 3.42) and the "60+" age cohort recording the (M.:3,38) than other teacher groups, while

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHERS: VIEWS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND HISTORY TEACHERS Kerasia Dikoglou, George Iordanidis the mean score of those who had 0-5 years (Antoniou, et al., 2006; Betoret, 2009; of professional experience was slightly below Carton, & Fruchart, 2014; Haberman, 2005; moderate (M.: 2.96). More specifically, Mouzoura, 2005). Teaching in classes teachers practicing their profession for 0-5 without leveling and with a large number of years expressed minimal occupational stress students is equally stressful, as (Μ :1,66) in the “evaluation” sub-scale and a demonstrated by the Charalambous (2012) moderate level in the “workload and time and Spaniolou (2016) surveys. pressure” (M.: 2,74). On the other hand, “Time pressure and workload” was also teachers with 11-15 years of professional considered a moderate to high degree experience expressed moderate to high stressor. Moreover, the pressure of time to levels of occupational stress in the sub-scale prepare lesson plans and correct students “workload and time pressure” (M.: 3,59). tests and homework was indicated as a Finally, the influence of the school type significant stress source, an element that is (Greek language and history teachers of the interpreted as a result of the variety of the Junior High, Senior High, and Professional teaching objects offered by Greek language High Schools) in occupational stress was and history teachers s (Richards, 2012; tested using One-way ANOVA. No Skaalvik, & Skaalvik, 2015). The variety of statistically significant differences arose, the teaching subjects taught by Greek which means that occupational stress is not language and history teachers as well as statistically significant to the type of school. time pressure for the completion of the curriculum were equally moderate to high occupational stress values, especially as for 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUDING those serving in Senior High Schools the REMARKS completion of the curriculum within a certain timeframe is a main requirement. This study aimed to determine the level and Furthermore, results indicated that the factors of occupational stress among Greek language and history teachers, “administrative organization, operation and building/material infrastructure” is also related to demographic/job characteristics. associated with moderate to high According to the study, the sample experience a moderate to high level of occupational stress. Especially “educational policy changes” was reported as the occupational stress, a result which is in line dominant stressful factor, a finding which is with the results of previous research projects with similar content (Leontari et al., 2006). expected, because both the current school year and the previous ones have led to The study also revealed that the higher radical changes in Secondary Education, level of occupational stress participants derive from the grouped variable bringing the teachers to new conditions, assigning them with new roles and "educational process and student social enhancing the expectations from them. The behavior”. Students’ lack of interest for learning and motivation is considered to be result is also repeated as a finding in many surveys conducted in Greece (Kyriacou, one of the most significant stressors for the 2001; Spaniolou, 2016). Other organizational sample, confirming previous research data

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHERS: VIEWS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND HISTORY TEACHERS Kerasia Dikoglou, George Iordanidis factors, such as insufficient teacher subjects. The respondents' occupational placement, delays in school textbook stress caused by the lack of recognition of provisions and instructional and assessment their extra work and the low prestige of the instructions, have a moderate degree of profession, which is highlighted in the stress. However, school infrastructure research by Davrazos (2015), Kyriacou problems cause low to moderate levels of (2001) and Spaniolou (2016), is only occupational stress, perhaps because in marginally expressed. Similarly, the impact terms of building infrastructure and material of reduced retraining opportunities, as a equipment, most of the school units of the result of the state's inactivity in this field, as Regional Unity of Serres are new or well as their lack of participation in decision- renewed. making processes, as a consequence of the A moderate stress level was also strict centralization of the Greek education reflected as a result assigned to “working system, was also indicated conditions”. Low salaries, as a result of the The sub-scale “relationships with the country's economic policy, is defined as the members of the school community” seems to most stressful factor in the sub-scale, casuse even less occupational stress. The representing an almost high degree of lack of co-operation with students' parents, stress, as well as job insecurity, due to the poor relations and conflict situations with the negative changes that have occurred in the colleagues and the school manager cause field of education in working conditions. marginally moderate stress, which is also These factors are very often defined as the reported as a result in a number of studies most stressful ones in the relevant literature (Antoniou, et al., 2006; Betoret, 2009). (Antoniades, 2013; Bolari, 2015; Carton, & Meanwhile, a lower than average level of Fruchart, 2014; Haberman, 2005). At the occupational stress caused by the same time, supervising pupils at school and competition between colleagues validates teaching a large number of them from their concern for a harmonious and different classes causes moderate collaborative climate within school. occupational stress among respondents, as Finally, as the lowest occupational stress opposed to teaching of children of economic level variable was reported “evaluation” immigrants and the difficulty of accessing expressing low to moderate level, making schools that express a low level, confirming clear that this process is not a threat to the studies of Charalambous (2012) and teachers. Spaniolou (2016). Among the demographic factors, the Lack of expert support for teachers in analysis of the data revealed a statistically managing pupils’ learning and behavior is significant effect of gender on the levels of reflected as a factor above the moderate work anxiety, as well as other related degree of occupational stress, a result which research findings (Antoniou, et al., 2013; is interpreted by the factors mentioned Mouzoura, 2005). In particular, compared to above (working conditions, workload, etc.), their male colleagues, women expressed teachers’ reduced cognitive shielding and higher levels of occupational stress as a lack of specialist knowledge in the relevant whole as well as in the individual sub-scales

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHERS: VIEWS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND HISTORY TEACHERS Kerasia Dikoglou, George Iordanidis

"relationships with school community this result, Alexopoulos’ survey (1990) members" and "working conditions". This confirmed the increased levels of stress in result may be due to the difference in gender Senior High School teachers in comparison roles, the different approach to issues arising to those in Junior High. in the workplace and their different Finally, a statistically significant effect socialization. The variety and the specificity between years of educational experience of women's social roles, in particular, and occupational stress as a whole did not combined with the stereotypical perceptions arise, a finding that verifies the conclusions that still exist, often lead them to conflict of Fisher (2011) and Papadopoulos, & situations, dilemmas and a high degree of Stamopoulos (2011). In particular, stress. However, in other surveys there have “evaluation” and “workload and time not found a statistically significant difference pressure” were regarded as statistically between male and female teachers significant factors for the group of 0-5 years (Platsidou, & Agaliotis, 2008; Skaalnvik, & of educational experience. Skaalvik, 2009; Spaniolou, 2016). Concluding, findings confirmed that the Furthermore, the current study concludes teaching profession is a stressful one. The that there is no statistically significant impact sample reported a moderate to high level of between age and occupational stress. a occupational stress, which, as perceived, result that verifies the conclusions of Fisher can be caused by a variety of factors, the (2011) and Papadopoulos, & Stamopoulos most significant of whom are educational (2011). More specifically, Greek language policy changes, time pressure and workload. and history teachers of the 31-40 age cohort This result undeniably indicates that express a higher level of occupational stress occupational stress among Greek language in the “administrative organization, operation and history teachers is a serious, but not an and building infrastructure” sub-scale, which acute problem. Under the prism of this may be due to the fact that they have not yet vision, it is necessary that measures be completely adapted to their work taken by the policymakers to prevent the environment. Respectively, those in the 41- stress situations as much as possible. In this 50 age cohort appeared more stressed by direction, strategies such as the reduction of the "evaluation" parameter, while those in the class student population, the the 60+ subgroup reported extremely low development of training programs about stress, perhaps because they have probably stress management, an increase in teachers’ been familiar with this process for several salary and the enactment of a meritocratic decades. system of material and moral remuneration A statistically significant impact between and privileges should be promoted. the type of school and the occupational stress has also been proved from the data Limitation of the study and future analysis. This finding is not expected, as the research Senior High School teachers have increased The presented study has encountered workload because of its interconnection with several limitations and challenges in its the access to higher education. Contrary to development. Perhaps the most important

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHERS: VIEWS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND HISTORY TEACHERS Kerasia Dikoglou, George Iordanidis limitation has to do with the existence of a Antoniou, A.S., Polychroni, F., & Vlachakis, specific - and indeed a strict – timeframe, A.N. (2006). Gender and age differences which in many cases dictated the adoption of in occupational stress and professional the quantitative research. In addition, it was burnout between primary and highschool not possible to investigate all the variables teachers in Greece. Journal of related to occupational stress. At the sae Managerial Psychology,21: 682–690. time, the conclusions presented above Avey, J.B., Luthans, F., & Jensen, S.M. resulted from a sample of a particular (2009). Psychological capital: A positive geographic area, thus making it impossible resource for combating employee stress to generalize conclusions in the total and turnover. Human Resource population as they are not representative. In Management, 48(5): 677-693. addition, a significant limitation of the study Betoret, F. D. (2009). Self-efficacy, school should be the reduced representation of resources, job stressors and burnout teachers of the "60+" age cohort, as well as among Spanish primary and secondary of the teachers working in a flexible working school teachers: a structural equation relationship. Hence, it is clear that further approach. Educational Psychology: An research is needed to emphasize even more International Journal of Experimental to the issue under study. First, we suggest Educational Psychology, 29(1): 45-68. the implementation of relevant studies using Carton, A,. & Fruchart, E. (2014). Sources of larger samples in different regional units, stress, coping strategies, emotional which may be more representative. Second, experience: effects of the level of the investigation and comparison of different experience in primary school teachers in variables is proposed in order to explore the France. Educational Review, 66(2): 245- contribution of other factors that could 262 potentially affect the occupational stress of Cox , Τ. (1975). The nature and the Greek language and history teachers. management of stress. New Behaviour, Also, as the presented study includes both 3: 493-495 public and private schools, future studies Fisher, M. (2011). Factors Influencing Stress, might focus only in either type. Moreover, the Burnout, and Retention of Secondary veracity of the study results should be Teachers. Current Issues in Education, enriched by other survey methodological 14(1): 1-35. approaches. Fontana & Abouserie (1993). Stress levels, gender and personality factors in teachers. British Journal of Educational REFERENCES Psychology, 63 (2): 261-270. Antoniou, A. S., Ploumpi, A., & Ntalla, M. Gaziel, H. (1993). Coping with Occupational stress among teachers: A Cross- Cultural (2013). Occupational Stress and Study. Comparative Education, 29(1): 67- Professional Burnout in Teachers of Primary and Secondary Education: The 69. Haberman, Μ. (2005). Teacher Burnout in Role of Coping Strategies. Psychology, Black and White. The New Educator, 4(3): 349-355.

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHERS: VIEWS OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND HISTORY TEACHERS Kerasia Dikoglou, George Iordanidis

Exhaustion of Secondary Education Pappa, V. (2006). Teacher stress and factors Teachers in the Prefecture of Attica contributing to burnout. Pedagogical (Master thesis). Athens: Harokopio Review, 11: 135-142 (in Greek). University (in Greek), Spaniolou, X. (2016). Occupational Anxiety Davrazosς, G. (2015). Investigation of stress and Vocational Disablement of sources and burnout syndrome in Secondary Education Teachers: The secondary school teachers. Presentation Case of the Lakonia Philologists (Master at the 2nd New Pedagogue Conference, Thesis). Patra:Hellenic Open University. 23 & 24 May: Athens.(in Greek) Giannakidou, X. (2014). Professional exhaustion, sources of professional Brief bio stress and self-efficacy in primary education teachers (Master thesis). Kerasia Dikoglou has graduated from the Thessaloniki: Aristotle University of Department of History-Archaeology of Thessaloniki (in Greek). Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. She has Kantas, A. (1995). Organizational - Industrial a master degree from the Hellenic Open Psychology. Part 3: Group processes- University and she is currently a Greek conflict-development and change-culture- language and history teacher in secondary professional stress (3rd edition). Athens: education. Her research interests focus on Greek Letters (in Greek). management and administration in Kokkinos, K.M.(2000). Dimensions of the education, use of technology in teaching professional stress in Cypriot teachers. history and literature and open distance In: S.Ν. Georgiou, L. Kyriakidis, & K. education. Christou (Ed.). Modern Research in Georgios Iordanidis is an Associate Education Sciences: 5-13 (in Greek) Professor in Management and Administration Koronaiou, A. (2010). When work becomes in Education in the Department of Primary illness. Teacher stress. A sociological Education of the University of Western case study. Athens: Field (in Greek) Macedonia. His main teaching and Mouzoura, E. (2005). Sources and address researching interests concern Management of professional - emotional teacher and Administration in education, Educational burden: Connection of individual and Staff Appraisal, School Management and social conditions of tension (Doctoral Administration, School Leadership etc. Two thesis). Thessaloniki - Aristotle University books and many articles and papers have of Thessaloniki (in Greek). been published in many journals, while he Papadopoulos, I., & Stamopoulos, K. (2011). has participated in many conferences in Educational demographic characteristics Greece and abroad. and occupational stress. Pedagogical

Speech, 2: 65-97 (in Greek).

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MENON ©online Journal Of Educational Research

INDEX

Albanian immigrants, 5, 7, 14, 15, 16, 17 language, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, behavior, 19, 28, 32, 33, 50, 54, 56, 59, 60, 16, 17, 18, 20, 48, 50, 51, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 75, bilingual education, 5, 6, 14, 15, 18 76, 77, 79 bullied, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, multicultural awareness, 48, 50, 51, 59, 60 29, 30 occupational stress, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, bully, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79 bullying, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, primary education, 48, 50, 78 31, 32, 33 school bullying, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, communication, 9, 12, 35, 38, 48, 49, 50, 51, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 65 social interaction, 28, 48, 50, 54, 59, 60 communication strategies, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, strategies, 13, 29, 32, 33, 37, 45, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 60, 61 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 76, community schools, 5, 6, 7, 9, 17 77, 78 cultural image, 35, 36, 47 stress, 30, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, cultural tourism, 35, 36, 37, 41, 43, 44, 47 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79 demographic, 63, 67, 68, 72, 74, 75, 79 teaching, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, educational, 2, 7, 18, 22, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 17, 18, 34, 51, 57, 59, 61, 63, 64, 65, 32, 34, 44, 45, 48, 50, 51, 52, 55, 57, 66, 71, 74, 75, 76, 79 59, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, teaching practices, 5, 7 73, 74, 76, 78 teaching profession, 64, 65, 76 educational policy, 30, 63, 65, 71, 74, 76 Thessaloniki, 3, 5, 8, 9, 15, 17, 18, 35, 36, 37, educational process, 28, 67, 70, 72, 73, 74 38, 40, 44, 45, 46, 48, 62, 78, 79 heritage, 5, 6, 9, 16, 18, 35, 36, 37, 38, 42, urban development, 36, 38, 45 45, 46, 47 victimizer, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, history teachers, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 30 73, 74, 76, 77 industrial stress, 64 job differences, 63

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