Formerly ‘Africa Recovery’ United Nations Department of Public Information Vol. 23 No. 4 January 2010 Ending fees opens African school doors
Africa and the climate accord Security reform to protect women Signs of progress on AIDS NEPAD gains, challenges UN Photo / United Nations Vol. 23 No. 4 January 2010 contentsFeatures
Abolishing fees boosts African schooling. . . 16
An African chorus on climate change ...... 12
Security reform key to protecting women. . . 9
Also in this Issue
Climate deal: hard work lies ahead...... 3
At last, signs of progress on AIDS ...... 4
New drive to save the lives of mothers, infants ...... 6 Everett Alissa / Reuters
NEPAD: Delivering on Africa’s development. . . .20
Departments
Agenda...... 23 A female soldier in the government army in the Democratic Books...... 23 Republic of the Congo: New staffing, improved training and other reforms are needed so that Africa’s security forces Watch...... 24 can better protect women.
Africa Renewal is published in English and French by the Strategic Communications Division of the United Nations Department of Public Information, with support from UNDP, UNICEF and Editor-in-Chief UNIFEM. Its contents do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations or the publi- Masimba Tafirenyika cation’s supporting organizations. Articles from this magazine may be freely reprinted, with attribution to the author and to “United Nations Africa Renewal,” and a copy of the repro- Managing Editor Writers duced article would be appreciated. Copy-righted photos may not be reproduced. Ernest Harsch Michael Fleshman
Correspondence should be addressed to: Research Production Marian Aggrey Chris van der Walt The Editor, Africa Renewal Room M-16031 Administration Distribution United Nations, NY 10017-2513, USA, Marlene Tremblay-Gervais Atar Markman Tel: (212) 963-6857, Fax: (212) 963-4556 e-mail: [email protected]
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By Ernest Harsch Meles Zenawi, actively helped hammer into a new and legally-binding accord, with t was not the agreement that anyone out the final terms. specific targets for drastic emissions cuts. had wanted. But during the night But as the meeting approached, it I of 18–19 December — as nearly became increasingly clear that there two weeks of contentious talks tot- was not enough support for such tered on the brink of collapse — a an agreement. The Copenhagen limited deal was finally brokered Accord instead expressed a “strong among a couple dozen leaders, political will” to combat climate out of the nearly 120 governments change, through “deep cuts in global that sent delegations to the United emissions” that would hold the Nations climate change conference. increase in the average global tem- Reflecting the often chaotic and perature below 2 degrees Celsius, messy negotiating process, when the compared with its pre-industrial text was presented to the rest of the level (it is now at about 1 degree). presidents, ministers and other del- Industrialized and developing coun- egates, a few developing countries tries were encouraged, individually, rejected the three-page Copenhagen to spell out what emissions cuts and Accord, named after the Danish cap- other efforts they would make to ital that hosted the conference. That contribute to that goal. opposition prevented the conference Besides noting the absence of as a whole from reaching the con- precise, mandatory targets, a num- sensus needed for outright approval, ber of critics of the accord also ques- so instead it officially agreed to tioned the 2-degree limit. Lumumba Redux/LAIF / Werner Gartung Werner / Redux/LAIF “take note” of the agreement. But Di-Aping of Sudan, who served as the major industrialized powers, coordinator of the developing coun- as well as China, Africa, the least tries’ Group of 77, maintained that developed countries and numerous allowing global temperatures to rise others, supported it, some grudg- even that much was tantamount to a ingly and many with reservations. “suicide pact.” Most African repre- “We wanted a complete, legally sentatives did not share that belief. binding agreement,” said South For their part, delegates from African President Jacob Zuma, A farmer in Burkina Faso, one of many countries in Africa small island developing states suffering from more severe water shortages expressing the views of many del- pressed for a limit of 1.5 degrees, and other effects of climate change. egates, “but accept the progress arguing that anything more would that has been made.” UN Secretary- permit an alarming rise in sea levels General Ban Ki-moon acknowledged Limiting greenhouse emissions and thereby threaten their very survival. that “the Copenhagen Accord may not Months before the Copenhagen meeting, The Copenhagen Accord acknowledges be everything that everyone hoped for.” many governments and environmental ac- that a 2-degree limit may not be sufficient, However, he emphasized, “it is a beginning tivists had aimed for a new international and calls for a reassessment of the target — an essential beginning.” agreement to succeed the 1997 Kyoto Pro- by 2015. For Africa specifically, the agreement tocol, which expires in 2012. That protocol Whatever the agreement’s shortcom- was significant in two respects. First, for obligates participating industrialized coun- ings, many delegates saw the willingness of the actual elements of the accord. And sec- tries to significantly reduce their emissions the US, China and other countries to be part ond, for Africa’s strong presence through- of the polluting “greenhouse” gases that of the Copenhagen Accord as a step for- out the talks. Africa often finds itself on contribute to global warming. Since the ward. South Africa’s Minister of Water and the margins of such international negotia- US is not part of the Kyoto Protocol, and Environmental Affairs Buyelwa Sonjica tions and usually is excluded from back- China and other “emerging economies” described the US participation in the nego- room bargaining. But in this case several that also produce large amounts of such tiations as a “breakthrough.” Tanzania’s African leaders, most notably President gases were not required to reduce their Zuma and Ethiopian Prime Minister emissions, many had hoped to bring them see 5 page 1
January 2010 3 At last, signs of progress on AIDS Policy shift in South Africa, as new infections decline across the continent
per cent of those in need. He called on all citizens to be tested for the virus and promised to lead a “massive campaign” to raise public awareness, encourage safer sex and promote other prevention prac- tices, as well as combat the stigma and dis- crimination that still surround the illness. The changes in substance and tone over the seven months Mr. Zuma has been in office “mark a fundamental break from the past,” Michel Sidibé, executive director of the Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), told the crowd in Pretoria. Standing alongside the South African leader, the senior UN official, a Malian and the first African to head the agency, said Mr. Zuma had “shattered years of official ambiv-
Panos / Giacomo Pirozzi alence, rallying citizens to take responsibil- ity for learning their [HIV] status, reducing their risk and seeking treatment.” In a sign A theatre group in Mozambique educates communities about HIV/AIDS and other health issues: Prevention of how welcome the dramatic shift in South programmes are helping to cut down the number of new HIV infections in many African countries. African government policy is internation- ally, Mr. Sidibé declared him “the architect By Michael Fleshman AIDS, were thought by many to have con- of ending this epidemic” and described the t was long years and hundreds of thou- tributed to South Africa’s grim distinction mood among HIV/AIDS experts and activ- sands of deaths in coming. But on 1 as the country with the largest number of ists as one of “euphoria.” I December, South African President infected people in the world. Jacob Zuma stood before a cheer- Mr. Zuma has had his own difficulties Good news at last ing throng in the capital city, Pretoria, with the issue. His 2006 comments about The changes are very good news for the and marked World AIDS Day with a showering after unprotected sex with a 5.7 million South Africans now living pledge “to deploy every effort, mobilize woman living with HIV to prevent infec- with the disease, and for a continent that every resource and utilise every skill tion were widely ridiculed and caused has already lost perhaps 20 million peo- that our nation possesses” to turn back outrage among activists. But he added ple to AIDS, seen hard-won development the advance of the disease. There comes substance to his World AIDS Day speech gains wiped out and now accounts for two a time in the life of all nations when the with the announcement that, beginning in of every three infections globally. only choice is to submit to the enemy or April 2010, the public health service would But the good news is not confined fight, the former anti-apartheid leader expand ARV treatment programmes to within South Africa’s borders. According told the crowd. “That time has now come include all infants testing positive for the to an update released by UNAIDS in late in our struggle to overcome AIDS.... We virus, a change expected to save thousands November,* the number of new infections shall not submit.” of newborns every year. He also announced in all of sub-Saharan Africa has declined It was the second major speech on that treatment to prevent the transmission by 25 per cent since the mid-1990s, amidst AIDS in as many months for Mr. Zuma. In of the virus from mother to child at birth signs that the global pandemic may have the view of most observers it represented would begin earlier, as would treatment for peaked in 1996. a final, welcome break with the controver- those with both HIV and tuberculosis, in The main cause for the drop, UNAIDS sial policies and pronouncements of his line with new recommendations from the asserts, is the success of prevention and predecessor, Thabo Mbeki. Mr. Mbeki’s UN’s World Health Organization. education programmes that have finally public doubts about the cause of the dis- The new commitments follow those * AIDS Epidemic Update 2009, available on ease, and his suspicions about the safety made a few weeks earlier to cut South the Web at: < http://www.unaids.org/en/ of the lifesaving anti-retroviral (ARV) Africa’s rate of new HIV infections in half KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/EpiUpdate/Epi- drugs that target the HIV virus that causes and provide ARV treatment to at least 80 UpdArchive/2009/default.asp>
4 January 2010 begun to change the behaviour of people nation and bias against those with at high risk, including men who have sex HIV and those at high risk of infec- with men, commercial sex workers, intra- tion, along with policies that have venous drug users and, particularly in promoted more responsible sexual Africa, young women. behaviour. In South Africa, for example, condom use during the first sexual encounter more Treatment access saves lives than doubled to 64.8 per cent between “With increased access to anti- 2002 and 2008. Zimbabwe, Zambia retroviral therapy in developing and Tanzania, among the countries hit countries, we are seeing a drop in hardest by the disease, all reported sus- AIDS-related deaths” compared tained declines in new infection rates. In to the number of people with the
Zimbabwe’s case the rates have been in disease, Mr. Sidibé says. “By the Garten Mark / UN decline for a decade, as education and end of 2008, an estimated 4 million prevention programmes have persuaded people in low- and middle-income sexually active adults to practice safer sex countries were on anti-retroviral and reduce the number of their partners. treatment.” Treatment to prevent HIV-positive Although that figure represents mothers from infecting their babies at birth only about 44 per cent of all Africans UNAIDS Executive Director Michel Sidibé: New infections has also made a difference. Between 2004 who need the drugs, it neverthe- and AIDS-related deaths are declining in sub-Saharan and 2008, UNAIDS reports, the percent- less reflects a remarkable increase Africa, thanks to prevention policies and the wider age of women receiving such treatment in access to treatment. In 2003, the availability of anti-retroviral medicines. increased fivefold to 45 per cent, produc- update notes, only 2 per cent of ing a sharp drop in the number of babies Africans in need had access to the born with HIV. Globally, UNAIDS esti- medicines. ARVs are administered to a prevention approach that focuses on mates, over 400,000 new infections were patients in later stages of the illness and those most at risk of infection.” prevented in 2008 alone. have become widely available in Africa The new UNAIDS report underlines “New HIV infections and AIDS-related only in the past few years as high costs the point. Despite the drop in infections, deaths are declining in sub-Saharan Africa,” dropped and disputes over patent rights Africa still accounts for most of the people Mr. Sidibé confirmed to Africa Renewal in and international trade rules were resolved living with the virus globally, as well as 36 a written interview. “The drop in infections (see Africa Renewal, April 2005). of the 50 countries with HIV rates exceed- is a result of the positive impact of ‘combi- The availability of the drugs through such ing 1 per cent of the total population. All nation’ HIV prevention,” an approach that programmes as the Global Fund to Fight nine countries with HIV rates above 10 combines public education, access to con- AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (GFATM) per cent are African, as are over 90 per doms and other prevention technologies. It and, in the US, the President’s Emergency cent of babies born with the disease. With also results from a reduction in discrimi- Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) kept the new infections far exceeding the num- number of deaths in ber of people able to get ARV treatment, Africa and the global HIV/AIDS epidemic, 2008 Africa stable at 1.4 mil- UNAIDS notes, treatment and prevention lion in 2008. The drugs programmes still lag behind the need. Sub-Saharan World Africa % also contributed to an Africa increase in the number Empowering women is key People living with HIV 22.4 mn 33.4 mn 67 of Africans able to live Mr. Sidibé notes that reducing infection with the disease, which rates among women, who make up 60 Women living with HIV 13.4 mn 15.7 mn 85 rose by 2.7 million. per cent of Africans living with HIV, will Children living with HIV 1.8 mn 2.1 mn 86 Despite the progress, be key to Africa’s long-term success. AIDS-related deaths 1.4 mn 2.0 mn 70 Mr. Sidibé cautions, “Gender inequalities, sexual abuse, vio- AIDS-related child deaths 230,000 280,000 82 infection rates in sub- lence, conflict and poverty often increase New HIV infections 1.9 mn 2.7 mn 70 Saharan Africa remain women’s vulnerability to HIV. Protecting Children newly infected 390,000 430,000 91 five times higher than women from becoming infected with HIV in any other region. and treating women living with HIV can People receiving ARVs 2.9 mn 4 mn 73 “The AIDS epidemic turn back the epidemic. Stopping women People in need of ARVs 6.7 mn 9.5 mn 71 continues to evolve. from becoming infected and increasing Average adult infection rate 5.2% 0.8% -- Much more is needed to their access to treatment also contribute to
Source: UN Africa Renewal from UNAIDS, Kaiser Family Foundation and UN turn back the epidemic. Department of Economic and Social Affairs data Countries need to adopt see 9 page 1
January 2010 5 New drive to save the lives of mothers, infants Commitment, money and innovation can reduce high mortality rates
By Stephanie Urdang the babies has improved as well. Mothers • an increase in assisted-birth deliveries n an otherwise grim outlook for Africa’s stay for three days after delivery. “Even if from 39 per cent to 52 per cent between hopes of achieving the Millennium mothers are in a hurry to go back to their 2005 and 2007 I Development Goals (MDGs) there is home after they give birth, we show and • a rise in the use of family planning meth- some good news. Rwanda is very likely explain to them why it is very important ods from 10 to 27 per cent between 2005 to meet the MDG targets for child and that they stay with us for three days,” he and 2007 maternal mortality, and will possibly be said. “And they understand and they stay, • a decline in the fertility rate from 6.1 to one of a few countries in Africa to sur- for the sake of their new babies.” 5.5 children per woman pass them by the 2015 deadline. That is The women and their families in • achievement of immunization rates of 95 per cent by 2008 • an increase in the use of insecticide-treated bed nets from 4 to 67 per cent of the popu- lation between 2004 and 2007, and • a decrease in the HIV prevalence rate to 3 per cent. Marie Rose Mukankudinye, one of Mayange’s mothers who delivered her baby safely, could not be more satisfied. “I want to encourage as many people as possible to visit the health centre,” she said, “Healthy children can go much further in life.” Rwanda’s achievements are all the more welcome on a continent where over- all progress towards these goals has been barely perceptible. They demonstrate what is possible when political will, innovative policy and sustained donor support work
UN / Eric Kanalstein in concert.
Half of all women worldwide who die of complications from pregnancy are in sub-Saharan Africa, Alarming mortality rates where 160 of every 1,000 children born also die before the age of five. Global maternal mortality statistics are alarming, and particularly so in Africa. Of the 536,000 women worldwide who all the more remarkable given Rwanda’s Mayange can trace many of these changes die each year from complications of preg- painful history of genocide, which left the to the government’s health insurance pro- nancy or delivery, 99 per cent are in de- economy of that small nation in tatters gramme, Mutuelles de santé, which is run veloping countries. Of those, half are in and its society in complete disarray. by community representatives and local sub-Saharan Africa. Théophile Ndabereye, a worker at the health providers. Access to the programme The deaths are the tip of the iceberg. Mayange Health Centre, is pleased by increased from 7 per cent to 85 per cent For every one woman who dies, 20 more some major changes at his clinic, where of the population between 2002 and 2008. suffer injury, infection or lasting disabili- new equipment and more staff contribute Those enrolled pay an annual premium ties. For many, this brings an end to their to safe and hygienic births. “We used to equivalent to US$2. Women who attend mothering and caring roles, and can lead only have three trained nurses and most four appointments during a pregnancy to removal from their families in dis- moms were giving birth at home. We now deliver at no cost. grace. For example, fistula, a condition have eighteen,” Mr. Ndabereye explained, The initial results are impressive. Child unknown in the industrialized world that as cited in a case study by the UK’s aid mortality has decreased by over 30 per can result from prolonged and obstructed agency, the Department for International cent since 2005 and maternal mortality labour and leaves survivors incontinent, Development (DfID). As a result, most declined by 25 per cent in the years up to frequently isolates women from their of the mothers in the area now give birth 2005. A number of other areas of progress families and communities. at the health centre. Life expectancy for contributed to these results: The statistics for child mortality are
6 January 2010 equally alarming. Of the nearly 10 mil- “Innovative financing” may be the key, crisis were spelled out by the “Consensus lion children under the age of five who die given the state of the global economy, for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health,” worldwide each year, 99 per cent are from acknowledged Prime Minister Brown. He a programme launched at the UN meeting developing countries. Of those, 4 million called on every country in the developed in September and spearheaded by a broad die within the first 28 days of life, and half world to “help poorer nations trade their coalition of governments, non-govern- of those within the first 24 hours. In sub- way out of recession and deliver essential mental organizations, international health Saharan Africa 160 children die for every health care to the most vulnerable.” Action agencies and individuals. The consensus 1,000 live births. In the UK, by compari- is urgently needed, he said, since the MDGs highlights the need for political leader- son, the figure is six per 1,000. are “already well behind schedule.” ship and community mobilization, with For children whose mothers accountability at all levels. It also die, the cost can be high. Besides insists on adequate financial and the emotional loss, they are robbed human resources to ensure: of the very person who would be • effective health systems that the one most likely to maintain deliver high-quality interven- their health and care for them tions when they are sick. Studies by the • the removal of financial barri- UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) ers to access so that services to show that children are more likely women and children are free, and to die by the age of two if their • skilled and motivated health mother died within the first six workers, with the necessary weeks of their life. infrastructure, drugs, equipment Worldwide, child mortality has and regulations. steadily declined over the past The projected price tag to two decades. But there are indi- achieve this was estimated at $30 cations that progress is slowing, bn from 2009 to 2015, with annual and in some areas of sub-Saharan costs rising from $2.5 bn to $5.5 Africa an upward trend is becom- bn over the period. The task force ing evident. Maternal mortality is on innovative financing identified declining far too slowly to come some $5.3 bn that could be raised near to meeting the targets. In sub- through voluntary contributions Saharan Africa the annual rate of with the purchase of airline tickets, reduction is 0.1 per cent, far too Borderlands / Alamy debt conversions, the expansion slow to reach the goal of a 75 per of existing immunization financ- cent reduction from 1990 to 2015. ing facilities and other innovative It is widely acknowledged that methods. the vast majority of these deaths and disabilities are preventable. Women’s status Some argue that more than po- In Ethiopia, Rwanda and a few other African countries, Innovative responses litical will and increased funding improvements in care for expectant mothers and newborns The urgency of the situation has are allowing many more to survive and remain healthy. is needed, given the other factors not gone unrecognized. One re- that hamper progress. These in- cent effort to boost progress to- clude child marriage, lower rates wards the MDGs on child and maternal Similar concerns about the MDGs of education for girls and high illiteracy mortality has been led by UK Prime were expressed at another high-level rates for women, lack of access to con- Minister Gordon Brown and World Bank meeting held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, traception, female genital mutilation, vio- President Robert Zoellick. A high-level a month later. It was convened by the lence against women, lower nutritional meeting at the UN General Assembly on UN Population Fund (UNFPA) and the levels for girls and women and the stigma 23 September 2009 launched the report of government of the Netherlands to dis- associated with HIV/AIDS and fistula. the Taskforce on Innovative Financing for cuss maternal health, identified as mak- Violations of women’s rights have been Health Systems, which the two officials ing the least progress of all the MDGs. identified by UNFPA and UNICEF as crit- had initiated with other world leaders a “We know what it would cost to meet our ical barriers to improved infant and mater- year earlier. The meeting called for stron- goals,” stated UNFPA Executive Director nal health. These are in turn connected to ger, better-financed health systems and Thoraya Obaid, “and, sadly, we know the pervasive poverty and cultural attitudes. better access to health services for women cost of too little action.” Achieving the MDG to promote gender and children. The measures needed to reverse this equality and women’s empowerment is
January 2010 7 therefore intertwined with the goals on Some degree of skepticism can be con- is decreasing more slowly, the drop from maternal and child health. structive,” he told Africa Renewal, “if it 204 to 119 per 1,000 between 1990 and As UNICEF noted in its 2008 Report identifies bottlenecks and key constraints 2007 is significant. Card on Maternal Mortality, “The causes so that people’s attention can be focused Other health improvements could also of maternal mortality and morbidity are so on how to respond to them.” help ensure that the goals are met. For clear — as are the means to combat them Mr. Bernstein adds that there are instance, the upturn in the proportion of — that it is difficult to avoid the conclu- already a number of countries show- women using contraceptives from 27 per sion they have remained unaddressed for ing how to reverse the figures. “These cent to 58 per cent over the past five years is so long due to women’s disadvantageous achievements have been possible because likely to have an impact on how many chil- social, political and economic status in of political will, thoughtful policy deci- dren the average woman has. More spac- many societies.” sions and adequate funding.” ing between births can significantly reduce Aminata Touré, chief of the UNFPA’s Rwanda is one example. Ethiopia is both maternal and childhood mortality. So gender, human rights and culture branch, another. Within three years, Ethiopia has can the increase in the share of pregnant notes a paradox in the widespread failure nearly doubled its health workforce, pro- women receiving prenatal care from 50 per to reduce maternal mortality. “In most soci- viding every village with two trained cent in 2005 to 60 per cent in 2009, and the eties in the world, motherhood is very val- health extension workers, for a total of rise in postnatal care from 16 per cent to 28 ued and celebrated,” Ms. Touré told Africa 30,000. They are employed full time as per cent over the same period. Renewal. “At the same time there is a defi- salaried civil servants, which represents a cit of attention and seriousness in terms of move away from the traditional reliance Political leadership addressing the question of maternal mortal- on volunteers. Most of the workers are Rwanda and Ethiopia demonstrate that ity, so that it is highly unlikely that in many local young women who have completed considerable progress is possible when appropriate funds are available and po- litical leaderships act to change policies. Both countries have seen improvements in women’s equality. Other countries are taking their own initiatives. Burundi is providing free health care to all children under five and to preg- nant women. Malawi is extending free health services through government- and church-run hospitals. Sierra Leone is plan- ning to provide free health care to women and children. Ghana will exempt pregnant women, children under 18 and the elderly from health insurance premiums. Liberia is hoping to abolish user fees for health services with the help of donor financing. For Africa and other parts of the world,
Alamy / Kim Haughton the challenges remain daunting, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon noted at Health clinic in Dosha, Ethiopia: Within just three years, the country nearly doubled the UN meeting in September. “We still its number of health workers, and maternal mortality rates declined dramatically. have a long way to go to reach the goal of reducing child mortality rates.… And we have a long road to travel to reduce mater- developing countries the goals relating to high school and are trained intensively for nal mortality,” he said. maternal health will be achieved.” one year. Women who use the services are But these goals are achievable, Mr. Ban more likely to trust health workers who are added. “We know what to do. We know Openings for progress also women. what it takes to save lives. We know how Stan Bernstein, a UNFPA senior policy The results have been tangible. to improve the health of women, babies adviser, points out that while the impact Maternal mortality of 871 per 100,000 and children. It is said that a society can of gender inequity cannot be ignored, in 2000 decreased to 671 by 2005. If this be judged by how it treats women and strong inroads have been made with suf- trend is maintained, Ethiopia could reach children. Just as no woman should die ficient political will and appropriate fund- the MDG goal of reducing maternal mor- needlessly in childbirth, no person of con- ing. “While there is room for skepticism, tality by 75 per cent by the target year of science should stand by as such senseless there are openings for some real progress. 2015. While the under-five mortality rate deaths continue.” n
8 January 2010 Security reform key to protecting women Training, recruitment and prosecutions can reduce violence
By Ernest Harsch non-governmental Women Peace he massacre of nearly 200 and Security Network–Africa opposition demonstrators (WIPSEN–Africa), headquartered T in Conakry, Guinea, in late in Accra, Ghana. Especially in September 2009 shocked Africa countries marked by armed con- and the world. Beyond the sheer flict, violence against women has brutality of the crackdown, one been increasing, with rape often feature was particularly stunning used as a weapon of war, she ex- to many survivors and observers plains in a paper presented to a 15 — the systematic rape of scores September seminar in New York of women. organized by the UN’s Office of “We didn’t know the soldiers the Special Adviser on Africa were going to harm us,” one (OSAA). injured woman said to a foreign Frequently, Ms. Alaga points reporter. A 35-year-old teacher out, the security sector in Africa later told investigators for the “finds itself falling short in its New York–based Human Rights responsibility” to protect women, Watch that members of the elite and “is itself often a direct threat Presidential Guard grabbed her. to the security of women.” While “Two held me down while the it is imperative to overhaul other raped me…. Then the sec- Africa’s security sectors generally, ond one raped me, then the third.” to make them more effective and Sadly, the experiences of these responsive to citizens’ concerns, Reuters / Alissa Everett Alissa / Reuters Guinean women are not isolated it is especially important for such cases. Sexual and other violence reforms to put more emphasis on against women has been a fea- overcoming gender discrimina- ture of conflicts across Africa, tion and on protecting women, from Sierra Leone and Liberia she argues. to Burundi and the Democratic For that to happen, Ms. Alaga Republic of the Congo (DRC). maintains, a “twin approach” is A female soldier in the government army in the Democratic Republic Even in countries not at war, required. On the one hand, those of the Congo: New staffing, improved training and other reforms are women are commonly raped, needed so that Africa’s security forces can better protect women. who design and carry out secu- beaten and victimized in other rity reforms need to pay greater ways. Only rarely do police or attention to gender issues and to prosecutors take such crimes seriously. to a lesser extent into their armies. That actively involve women in all phases of Even worse, policemen and soldiers — has helped to change their exclusively reform programmes. On the other hand, whose job supposedly is to protect citi- male cultures and has pushed them to take women’s groups must themselves stop zens — have all too often been among the gender-based violence more seriously. In viewing security as “men’s business” and abusers. the DRC, where rape has been exception- insist on a greater voice and role in decid- Here and there, however, steps are ally widespread in the war-torn eastern ing how armies, police, courts and other being taken to reform Africa’s security provinces, scores of government soldiers institutions are restructured. institutions to increase their ability — — who once enjoyed virtual impunity — Such a process will not be easy, said and willingness — to safeguard women. are finally facing military tribunals, with Adedeji Ebo, who chairs the UN’s inter- Police in Liberia, Sierra Leone and South some receiving long sentences for rape agency task force on security sector reform. Africa now have specialized units on sex- and other crimes against civilians. Africa’s armies and police forces were ual and domestic violence, while Liberia originally set up when most of the conti- has courts dedicated to prosecuting sexual ‘Twin approach’ nent was under colonial rule, he noted at crimes. But such improvements remain limited, the OSAA seminar. So at the outset they A number of countries are recruiting notes Ecoma Alaga, an expert on gender “were never created to protect Africans,” more women into their police forces, and and security sector reform (SSR) for the but were instead viewed by the colonial
January 2010 9 authorities as instruments for extract- hend perpetrators and courts must bring to three quarters were rejected. ing taxes and for “keeping the natives in trial and imprison those found guilty. In the DRC a peace agreement in 2002 check.” Even after independence, Mr. Ebo The current “piecemeal” approach to also provided for the creation of a new added, many African governments perpetu- SSR has brought some partial gains, Ms. national army. But the process of vetting ated or recreated similar security structures. Alaga acknowledges. Moreover, these the ranks was much more limited than But as more African countries seek to efforts highlight the kind of measures that in Liberia. Often entire units from the rebuild after debilitating wars or to democ- can significantly improve conditions for previous factions were incorporated into ratize repressive political systems, more women if they are pursued more system- the new Forces armées de la République are also trying to professionalize their atically. démocratique du Congo (FARDC), with armies, police forces, intelligence services only a few of the most notorious officers and court systems. The ultimate aim is to Cleaning out the ranks excluded or subject to criminal charges. bring their security sectors under the con- In countries where armies have been espe- Despite the peace accord, fighting has trol of elected civilian leaders and to make cially notorious for brutalizing civilians, continued in the DRC’s eastern provinces them more attentive to popular aspirations one of the most obvious reform measures between the FARDC and a complex array (see Africa Renewal, April 2009). is to rid them of personnel guilty of seri- of dissident factions, local militia groups Yet so far, argues Ms. Alaga, SSR ous abuses. and foreign fighters (mostly from neigh- efforts in Africa have been top-down and After more than a decade of civil war, bouring Rwanda and Uganda). Many “elitist.” They also have been confined to Liberia began building a new army in Congolese villagers have been killed and specific institutions rather than tackling 2006. Although members of the old gov- hundreds of thousands have been dis- the security sector as a whole and have ernment armed forces and of demobilized placed from their homes. Women often focused mainly on technical and logistical rebel groups were permitted to apply, have been brutalized and raped. Monitors from the UN and human rights organizations ascribe much of the abuse to anti-government groups. But they frequently cite evidence that undisciplined soldiers from the FARDC have also raped, pillaged and killed — with little fear of punishment. In June 2009 President Joseph Kabila proclaimed a “zero tolerance” policy for the FARDC. Henceforth, he vowed, any soldier, “whatever his rank,” involved in theft, rape, human rights abuses or a fail- ure to protect civilians would be arrested and brought before military courts. Scores of rank-and-file FARDC soldiers have been tried. In late July, 10 officers also were found guilty of rape and other war crimes by a military tribunal in Rutshuru, in the province of North Kivu.
UN / Marie Frechon But the Congolese army still has a long way to go before it can be transformed
A theatre group in the Congo performing a scene on violence against women, into a force that respects the rights of to educate people more widely about the social scourge. women and other citizens. In November UN investigators confirmed that FARDC troops had killed some 60 civilians in one issues, not on the more fundamental ques- the selection criteria were very rigorous. incident alone during an offensive against tions of how the army, police and courts “Vetting” panels assessed the qualifica- Rwandan rebels in early 2009. That same are governed. Gender concerns have been tions of each applicant, turning away any- month, peacekeepers of the UN Mission incorporated only sporadically. one known to have engaged in abuses. in the DRC (MONUC) suspended all sup- “The protection of women requires a The names and photos of applicants were port for army units involved in such kill- comprehensive system-wide approach,” published and circulated in local commu- ings. A report by a UN expert group in Ms. Alaga insists. For violence to decline, nities, and the general public was invited late November cited even more evidence security forces must ensure basic public to come forth with any information that of killings, rapes and illegal mining opera- safety, police need to investigate and appre- would disqualify a candidate. In the end, tions by FARDC commanders and troops.
10 January 2010 Citing “lack of progress in the area of that would be 20 per cent female. But it ings at the command levels of the South security sector reform” in a December proved difficult to find enough women African National Defence Force, eight 2009 report, UN Secretary-General Ban willing to enlist who could also meet the female brigadier generals were appointed Ki-moon urged the Congolese authorities minimum qualification of a high school in 2007. to thoroughly vet the FARDC and bring education. The actual proportion of female to justice those involved in serious abuses. army recruits is currently around 5 per cent. Legal action General Monzili Zabili, a veteran Greater progress has been made in the While African conflicts hold particular Congolese army commander, estimates Liberian National Police, for which the dangers for women, abuse is also com- that it will take at least three years of inten- sive training and restructuring to create a truly “republican army.” What exists now, he says, is a “regroupment of several pri- vate militias” that were brought together after peace accords but not yet fully inte- grated into a cohesive, disciplined army.
Training and staffing As General Monzili emphasizes, training is important for changing the outlooks and conduct of military and police person- nel. Draft legislation currently before the
Congolese legislature proposes a range Herwig Christopher / UN of reforms for the FARDC and national police, including restructuring, changes in command methods, and training in techni- cal and “moral” subjects. Instructors from MONUC and the European Union who have been working with Congolese army and police units already teach courses on human rights and gender issues. Graduates of the police academy in Liberia: Under President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, Similarly, in Burundi, Liberia, Sierra the country has set quotas for recruiting more women into both its police force and army. Leone and South Africa, reports Ms. Alaga, questions of women’s rights and target was also 20 per cent. With the help mon in countries at “peace.” Even in the gender-based violence have been inte- of nearly 60 female instructors from the DRC, only an estimated 3 per cent of all grated into military and police curricula UN peacekeeping mission, the first all- rapes and other sexual assaults nationwide and training programmes. female class of police cadets graduated in are perpetrated by members of armed While essential, training on its own can 2009, bringing the force’s total proportion groups. To counter the broader scourge of have only a limited impact in transforming of women to 12 per cent. Earlier the presi- such violence, the police and courts must the orientation of overwhelmingly male dent named a woman, Beatrice Munah become more active and effective in pur- security forces. Changes in staffing are Sieh, as inspector general of police. suing such crimes. also vital, advocates for women’s rights To further improve female recruitment But across Africa, women’s access to argue, both to alter the overall culture of into the Liberian police without compro- justice remains very limited. The reasons those structures and to carry out particu- mising the educational requirements, an include the weakness of the courts (which lar tasks to help protect women. There “accelerated learning” programme was scarcely exist outside the larger towns), are some roles that “women alone can introduced. Young women applicants who high court fees, corruption and ignorance perform to enhance the institutions’ opera- have not completed a secondary education of the law by potential plaintiffs, lawyers tional effectiveness,” Ms. Alaga argues. are enrolled at a local polytechnic school and even judges. Liberia — which produced Africa’s first to obtain their certificates. But some improvements are under democratically elected female president, South Africa, which has been recruiting way. In a number of countries, including Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf — has made espe- female troops and police since it started Rwanda, laws on rape and sexual violence cially pronounced efforts to change the gen- restructuring its security forces in the mid- have been strengthened in recent years. der composition of security forces. When 1990s, has recently increased its quota for Liberia, Sierra Leone and South Africa recruitment for the new national army both institutions to 40 per cent in an effort have established specialized units within commenced, President Johnson-Sirleaf to speed the process. After a “gender main- announced a goal of achieving a military streaming” audit highlighted shortcom- see 2 page 2
January 2010 11 Climate Change 350.org
Environmental and community groups marching in Johannesburg, South Africa, on 12 December, one of many demonstrations around the world demanding stronger global action. An African chorus on climate change From activists to presidents, a call for urgent global action
cross the African continent scientists, public personalities, But we are not here as victims nursing our wounds of injustice farmers, environmental activists and even presidents have of the past. Africa is a continent of the future; it is destined to be A become more vocal in urging global action to counter cli- a growth pole of the 21st century. We are therefore here not as mate change and help poor countries cope with its varied impacts. victims of the past but as stakeholders of the future, reaching out An immediate focus was the 7–19 December UN international across the continents, so that together we can build a better and climate change conference in Copenhagen, which concluded a fairer future for all of us. limited agreement to combat global warming (see page 3). But Not only has Africa contributed virtually nothing to the current much work lies ahead, and many Africans agree that their gov- level of carbon emissions, but it is unlikely under any scenario to ernments need to press harder, both internationally and at home. be a significant polluter in the future. Africa is a green field that can and wants to chart a different course of development, one that ‘We are not here as victims’ is not carbon-intensive…. Meles Zenawi, prime minister of Ethiopia and the African We are not here to preach or to grandstand. We are here to Union’s chief negotiator for the Copenhagen talks, speaking at negotiate, to give and take and seal a fair deal, however messy the Copenhagen summit on 16 December. such a deal might be…. Every one of us knows that Africa has con- On start-up funding, I propose: tributed virtually nothing to global warm- • Support the establishment of a start-up fund of $10 bn per ing, but has been hit first and hardest. The annum for the three years of 2010–2012, to be used to address fragility of our eco-system has meant that urgent adaptation and mitigation tasks, including forestry, and to for Africans the damage of climate change prepare plans for more ambitious programmes in the future…. is not something that could happen in the • Demand that 40 per cent of the start-up fund be earmarked for
UN / Joshua Kristal future. It is already here with us, sowing Africa…. misery and death across the land. Africa is On long-term finance, I propose: indeed paying with the misery and death of • That funding for adaptation and mitigation start by 2013 to its people for the wealth and well-being that was created in the reach up to $50 bn per annum by 2015 and $100 bn per annum developed countries through carbon-intensive development. That by 2020. is fundamentally unjust. • That no less than 50 per cent of the fund should be allocated for
12 January 2010 Climate Change
adaptation to vulnerable and poor countries and regions, such as tion is paramount in Africa. The responsibility to save Africa for Africa and the small island states…. Africa must surely lie with the African leaderships and their citizens. I know my proposal today will disappoint those Africans who from the point of justice have asked for full compensation of the Reduce emissions without retarding development damage done to our development prospects. My proposal dra- Jacob Zuma, president of South Africa, in an address to the Co- matically scales back our expectations with regards to the level of penhagen summit on 18 December. funding, in return for more reliable funding and a seat at the table Climate change is a practical matter for the in the management of such a fund. developing world, especially Africa. For I believe that there is an important underlying principle here. countries such as South Africa, weather pat- Africa loses more than most if there is no agreement on climate terns in coastal provinces are already wreak- change. We lose more not only because our ecology is more fragile ing havoc on the lives of our people, which but also because our best days are ahead and lack of agreement makes this challenge a reality that we are
here could murder our future even before it is born. UN / Mark Garten already confronting…. Because we have more to lose than others, we have to be prepared Some facts are already well known. to be flexible and be prepared to go the extra mile to accommodate Developed countries are historically respon- others. That is exactly what my proposal is intended to achieve. sible for 80 per cent of the current emissions in the atmosphere. Developing countries are most affected by climate change. As they ‘The African leadership must be responsible’ justifiably pursue their own development paths, it is expected that Wangari Maathai, leader of Kenya’s Green Belt Movement and developing countries’ emissions will increase. 2004 winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, speaking at the African In the long term, we need an agreement that recognizes the Development Bank in Tunis, Tunisia, on 27 October. common responsibilities of all nations to reduce emissions, while Common natural resources like land, forests, not retarding the development of developing countries. Our view rivers, wetlands, lakes and wildlife are es- remains that all developed countries must commit to ambitious, sential for the survival of communities, but legally binding emission reduction targets…. Developing coun- they cannot be protected unless the coun- tries should commit to nationally appropriate mitigation action, try has good governance: responsible, ac- to achieve a decline in emissions relative to business as usual. countable and indeed visionary governance This would be conditional on finance, technology and capacity-
UN / Mark Garten and leadership that manages the natural re- building support from developed countries. sources for the common good of all…. Developing countries are ready to play their part in reducing In many countries the greatest threat to the global emissions, but obviously rich countries have to take the natural resources is the ruling elites, who use their political power lead. With financial and technical support from developed coun- and privileges to assign these resources to themselves, their friends, tries, South Africa for example will be able to reduce emissions supporters and fellow tribesmen. They also facilitate the exploita- by 34 per cent below “business as usual” levels by 2020 and by tion of the same resources by outsiders, so that resource-rich nations 42 per cent by 2025. in Africa enrich outsiders rather than their own citizens…. With the threat of climate change, many of the developed coun- ‘Chart a new course to sustainable development’ tries will use their technology, creativity and awareness to mitigate John Atta Mills, president of Ghana, speaking at the Copenha- and adapt to climate change. Many of them are already involved gen summit on 17 December. in political, economic, social and legislative changes to adapt and Ghana will pursue a low-carbon develop- mitigate against the climate change. ment growth path, even though our emis- In Africa, we are told that the region will be disproportion- sions currently are very insignificant. My ately adversely impacted since it accounts for meager green- delegation is here to share ideas, exchange house gases, but the negative impact will be huge…. While cli- views, and to confront one of the greater po- mate change will no doubt exacerbate the situation, we make litical challenges of this century and to chart
ourselves very vulnerable by continuing to both neglect and mis- UN / Marco Castro a new course to sustainable development…. manage our environment…. It has been sufficiently reported that cli- Whatever the outcome in Copenhagen, it is important for us mate change has the potential to push many Africans to be responsible for our destiny. The African leadership developing countries back into the poverty trap and [reverse] must be responsible for their people. So let us not wait for other progress made towards achieving the Millennium Development regions to save us from the negative impact of climate change. Goals. With the need to adapt to a changing climate, develop- We should not only focus on the money the developed world will ment will be much more costly and many populations will suffer provide and the technology they may be willing to transfer. We further severe stress. might fail to access those resources or purchase those technologies Africa’s weak ability to adapt to these additional stresses fur- if we are not prepared…. ther increases its vulnerability and heightens the risk of agricul- Therefore, adequate preparation for implementation and adop- tural decline, chronic hunger, water shortage, deteriorating health,
January 2010 13 Climate Change
biodiversity loss, among others. Hence, for Ghana, action on cli- It is this sense of victimhood that is driving these countries … mate change and on development cannot be separated…. to demand that the richer states pay what amounts to compensa- So far, the mid-term targets for emissions reductions announced, tion…. While such demands are understandable there is a need, particularly by developed countries, do not seem ambitious enough as Kenyan Prime Minister Raila Odinga pointed out . . . for poor to help us achieve the long-term goal and save our planet. countries to adopt more comprehensive policies that go beyond Ghana is a net greenhouse [gas] remover as [its] forests store donor support or compensation. carbon: therefore, reducing forest degradation, as well as conserv- The adoption of such policies is particularly prudent because ing and sustainably managing forests, can provide immediate there is no evidence that richer countries, many of which and substantial mitigation benefits. However, a major concern of are currently going through economic decline, will agree to developing countries is that these mitigation actions should not pay compensation…. divert much-needed resources from poverty reduction and eco- In the event, poor nations must make parallel efforts to develop nomic growth. homegrown programmes to mitigate the effects of global warm- ing. Such programmes should encompass innovations such as the ‘Climate change threatens human dignity’ trade in carbon credits by both the private and public sectors, as James Alix Michel, president of the Seychelles, in a message on well as investments in renewable energy. 23 September. As they prepare for Copenhagen, poor countries must realize For small islands, climate change is about that developing locally sustainable programmes to mitigate global our existence. It is about maintaining our hu- warming will be a better bet than crying out for reparations, which man right to live and work in the land of our will be akin to waiting for Godot. birth, the land of our parents. We must act now to ensure that our islands are also the ‘We have the power to turn tides’ land of our children. Desmond Tutu, former Anglican archbishop of Cape Town,
UN / Joshua Kristal Millions of people around the world are South Africa, and 1984 winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, in an living on the edge of an abyss. Recent studies op-ed article published in major newspapers around the world in show that assuming current rates of warm- late October. ing, the sea will rise more than 1.4 metres in less than 100 years. Even a few years ago most developing na- And emissions continue to grow. Warming continues to accelerate tions viewed climate change as one more — and if we do nothing that 100 years will very easily become 50. trouble to which they could, with sufficient Islanders face forced displacement and destruction of our already aid, adapt. But after Arctic sea ice melted fragile economies. so dramatically in the summer of 2007, cli- Climate change threatens the very concept of human dignity. mate scientists began re-evaluating their
For small islands and least developed countries, the road towards UN / Jean-Marc Ferré predictions — the earth was reacting more Copenhagen is about survival. The progress made so far is unac- violently than expected to even small tem- ceptable. And proposed compromises are simply a means of shift- perature increases. ing the debate to future generations…. It became clear that for many countries basic survival was at I take the opportunity to call on the developed world to use the stake.... Kenya’s ongoing drought, with the deaths of thousands advanced technology at their disposal to take the lead in cutting of cattle and devastating crop failures that have accompanied it, emissions. Cutting emissions will cost. But let us ensure that it is is giving us a vivid picture of what uncontrolled climate change a cost that is shared. If things remain the same, the biggest cost might bring to the African continent…. is borne by the poor farmer in Africa and the fishermen in our Normally, voices from places like Ethiopia, the Maldives and islands. The cost of acting to reduce climate change is far less than Kenya are sidelined in international forums. But this time it may proceeding on the same route we are currently stuck in. be different, because a huge, positive and determined civil society movement is building around the world to support just, fair and ‘Climate change begins at home’ scientific climate targets…. The East African, a daily newspaper published in Nairobi, People in almost all the nations of the earth are involved — it’s Kenya, in an editorial entitled “Climate Change Begins at the same kind of coalition that helped make the word “apartheid” Home” on 19 October. known around the world. The flurry of meetings on climate change . . . in the run-up to the I ask all those around the world who care about Africa to support global summit in December in Copenhagen have illustrated just climate fairness … by starting or joining an awareness-raising action how contentious and divisive the subject is. The major cause of where they live. It is a chance for us to act as global citizens, not as the polarization is the general feeling by developing countries that isolated individuals and lonely consumers. It is a chance for world their developed counterparts have saddled them, through their leaders to listen to voices of conscience, not to those who speak only egregious production of greenhouse gases, with the devastating about financial markets. In South Africa we showed that if we act effects of the phenomenon, including extreme weather and the on the side of justice, we have the power to turn tides; tomorrow we spread of diseases into new locales. have a chance to start turning the tide of climate change. n
14 January 2010 Climate deal seat at the table in the management of such sotho leading the least-developed coun- from page 3 a fund” (see page 12). tries. But for many delegates, the reliability On 14 December, amidst signs that environment minister, Batilda Burian, of such funds remains in doubt. President some countries were considering a bid to regarded the US commitment to lower Blaise Compaoré of Burkina Faso wanted abandon the Kyoto Protocol, the African emissions by 17 per cent from its 2005 lev- some assurance that they would not be delegates brought the conference to a els as “a major success” of the summit. diverted from existing aid budgets, while brief standstill by walking out. The talks others pointed to the donor countries’ long soon resumed, and the Kyoto Protocol Financial promises record of unmet promises. remained intact. Africa and other developing coun- South Africa, as Africa’s most tries have long argued that since the industrialized economy and a nota- major industrialized nations con- ble source of greenhouse emissions, tribute the most to global warming, was able to play an especially pivotal they should shoulder the costs. Poor role. Acknowledging that responsi- countries expect major financial as- bility, President Zuma pledged that sistance, both to help them adapt to his country could cut emissions by the effects of climate change and 34 per cent by 2020 and by 42 per to enable them to pursue economic cent by 2025, with some international development in ways that do not de- financial and technical support. spoil the environment. As the talks headed towards The Copenhagen Accord accepts stalemate, President Zuma con- that principle. The developed coun- sulted with other African leaders tries commit themselves to provide about the possibility of walking out, developing countries with “new and South African negotiator Joanne additional resources” of up to $30 Yawitch later told reporters. But bn over the three years of 2010–12. they decided it would be better to The least developed countries, small Walsh Susan / Press Associated stay and continue influencing the island developing states and Africa process from the inside. President would be given priority in allocations Zuma and several other African of funds earmarked for “adaptation.” officials, including Mr. Meles and The accord established a goal of representatives from Lesotho and increasing financing to some $100 Algeria, participated in a series of bn annually by 2020, provided that informal meetings of about 30 coun- developing countries take their own tries that negotiated the final text of actions to reduce greenhouse gas the Copenhagen Accord. Had they emissions and ensure the transparent South African President Jacob Zuma (left), sitting next to not taken part, Ms. Yawitch com- Brazilian President Luis Inácio Lula da Silva and US President use of external funding. mented, “maybe what we have now Barrack Obama, during a negotiating session at the climate Some delegates from develop- change conference in Copenhagen. Africa played a prominent would have been worse.” ing countries wanted considerably and influential role in the talks. African environmental activ- higher amounts. The African Union ists argue that such African purpose had estimated earlier in the year that will remain vital in the next rounds all developing countries would need $67 A strong African voice of climate talks — a two-week negotiat- bn annually by 2020 to adapt to the effects Months before the conference the Af- ing session in Bonn, Germany, at midyear of climate change, plus an additional $200 rican Union decided that the continent and another high-level UN conference in bn a year to help them reduce greenhouse should participate in a more united, co- Mexico City towards the end of 2010. emissions, convert to cleaner energy herent manner than it often does at such Copenhagen failed to achieve an equita- sources and preserve their forests. international gatherings, by designating ble, legally binding agreement, Mamadou Yet at the conference Ethiopian Prime Prime Minister Meles as the lead ne- Barry, coordinator of the Coalition of Minister Meles, representing the African gotiator. As a result, African technical Senegalese Youth on Climate Change, Union, cited only the lower figures that and policy experts met regularly each said in Dakar on 23 December. But it was were ultimately included in the accord. He morning to coordinate their work in the significant that African leaders took part in recognized that his proposal would disap- various committee meetings and drafting a coordinated fashion. In the coming talks, point some Africans, but argued that it was sessions. African countries also played he said, African leaders should “main- better to scale back Africa’s expectations prominent roles in other groupings, with tain their unity so that climate justice can “in return for more reliable funding and a Sudan chairing the Group of 77 and Le- become a reality for the continent.” n
January 2010 15 Abolishing fees boosts African schooling A giant step for children, but governments must navigate the pitfalls
By Michael Fleshman Kenyan educators and their international (UNESCO) estimates that between 2000 hen the Kenyan government partners to conclude that the abolition of and 2007 overall primary school enrol- announced it would stop charg- school fees and the policy reforms that ac- ment in sub-Saharan Africa rose by 42 W ing fees for primary school edu- companied it have been a success, despite per cent — the greatest rate of increase cation — just days before the beginning continuing worries about financing, class in the world. As a result, the percentage of the 2003 school year — the result was sizes and teacher quality. In fact, the lift- of African children in primary school pandemonium. Teachers, headmasters ing of fees in Kenya and other countries increased from 58 to 74 per cent. A few and parents scrambled to find African countries, including desks, pencils and books for Botswana, Cape Verde, Togo over a million extra students. and Mauritius, could achieve But the policy shift also pro- universal primary enrolment by vided a stepping stone into the 2015, one of the targets in the record books for 84-year-old Millennium Development Goals Kimani Ng’ang’a Maruge, who, (MDGs), adopted by world lead- according to the Guinness Book ers in 2000 to reduce poverty of World Records, became the and advance human well-being oldest person ever to enroll in across the globe. Standard 1 when he appeared But the increase in school before astonished teachers attendance is only a start. Despite and fellow pupils in 2004. “I the surge in enrolment, almost wanted to learn how to read the half of the 72 million children Bible,” an ambition previously out of school worldwide in 2007 frustrated by the high cost of lived in sub-Saharan Africa. schooling, he later told Voice Dropout rates in many African of America journalist Cathy countries remain high. Analysts Majtenyi in 2008. “The preach- note that global recession, com- Alamy / Kirsty McLaren Kirsty / Alamy ers mislead people. That is why bined with other urgent prob- I am back in school.” lems, has put additional pressure Despite economic hard times on already meagre budgets. and the violence that swept parts of the country after the 2007 elec- Planning and finance are crucial tions, UNICEF, the UN children’s The demand for free and uni- agency, reports that the aboli- versal primary education has its By eliminating fees, Kenya was able to quickly get 2 million tion of school fees has had the roots in the colonial era, when more pupils into its primary schools. intended effect of vastly increas- the colonial authorities restricted ing access to education. The African access to schooling, or, number of primary students in Kenya has in sub-Saharan Africa has proved to be a as in the case of apartheid South Africa, increased by nearly 2 million. giant step forward for access to education developed racially segregated and unequal Encouragingly, the dropout rate, an by millions of the region’s poor. It has systems. Access to education was there- important measurement of affordabil- helped Africa make progress towards its fore a key popular demand at indepen- ity and educational quality, has also goal of finding a place in school for all its dence, and newly independent govern- fallen. The share of students complet- children (see Africa Renewal, April 2005). ments invested heavily in schools and ing primary school jumped from 62.8 Over the last 15 years a number of teachers. Enrolment typically soared, but per cent in 2002, the last year fees were other countries, including Burundi, the in the absence of adequate financing and charged, to 76.2 per cent two years later Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, trained teachers and administrators, fur- as fewer poor children were forced out Ethiopia, Malawi and Mozambique, have ther expansion proved unsustainable. for nonpayment. also experienced explosive growth in Nevertheless, in the years follow- primary school enrolment following the ing independence a number of countries, A step towards education for all elimination of fees. The UN Education, including Kenya, Malawi and Ghana, These impressive numbers have led most Scientific and Cultural Organization attempted to end school fees, but without
16 January 2010 success. The arrival in the 1980s of auster- ity policies promoted by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and the resulting reduction of education bud- gets, often accompanied by increases in fees, is widely considered a major contrib- utor to the continent’s low enrolment rates. In a detailed analysis of the abolition of primary school fees in Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi and Mozambique by the World Bank and the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF),* researchers describe fees as one of the “major barriers” to access to Documentography / Alamy education for the poor. The UN’s MDG Monitor website (
January 2010 17 solved all of Kenya’s education problems. notes the study, “the adoption of univer- at all. Despite increases in the education As the World Bank/UNICEF report notes, sal primary education was triggered by budget, spending per student, already low, the influx of students in 2003 triggered political demands rather than by rational declined by about 25 per cent and contrib- an exodus of wealthier students to private planning processes.” Although Malawi uted to the decline in quality. As a result schools, worsening longstanding income had lifted some fees for Standards 1 and nearly 300,000 students dropped out dur- disparities within the national education 2 and waived primary education fees for ing the first year, and high dropout rates system. Nor has the abolition of formal girls prior to 1994, the decision to elimi- continue to this day. fees removed all the burdens from finan- nate all fees coincided with the return of Overall, reports the study, only about cially strapped families. multiparty elections that year. The focus, 20 per cent of boys and girls successfully “To call it free education is mislead- the researchers found, was on increasing complete eight years of primary education ing,” Gerald Mwangi, a father of three in enrolment. “Very little attention was paid in Malawi. This is largely a function of central Kenya, told Inter Press Service in to quality issues.” the country’s deep poverty, the research- ers say, and the lack of resources, such as nutrition programmes, to help poor chil- dren remain in school.
Time to innovate and improve In the end, say the experts, a dual lesson can be drawn from the Kenyan and Mala- wian experiences. The abolition of school fees is a precondition for getting large numbers of poor children into school, but it must be accompanied by strong public and political support, sound planning and reform, and increased financing. After systems adjust to the surge in enrolment, they argue, resources must be directed at improving quality and meeting the needs of the very poor, those in distant
Alamy / Jenny Matthews rural areas and children with disabilities. The analysts say that a particular focus should be girls, who face a range of obsta- Malawi primary school: The abolition of school fees greatly increased school enrolment, cles to attending and staying in school, but without sufficient teachers or adequate funding, educational quality suffered. including cultural attitudes that devalue education for women. Improved sanitation early 2009. “For my youngest daughter Nor was it possible to mobilize pub- and facilities and better safety and security in Standard 4 I still have to pay for food, lic and political support in the short time conditions can make it easier to keep girls transport and uniform, which adds up to between the decision to lift fees and the in school. 5,000 shillings [about $70] per term.” beginning of school. Among Malawi’s Despite the difficulties, UNICEF pri- And although Kenya is credited with external partners only UNICEF initially mary education specialist Dina Craissati maintaining the existing quality of educa- supported the fee abolition. When over a told Africa Renewal, governments and tion despite the increase in student popula- million new students showed up for class, donors should see the abolition of school tion and class sizes, the inability of many the study reports, the government found fees and the need to accommodate a flood students to read and do mathematics at itself struggling to cope “after the fact.” of new students as catalysts for innova- their grade level remains a major concern. One immediate response was to hire tion and improvement in every aspect of 20,000 new teachers, almost all of whom primary education. They also make it nec- Malawi struggles to cope were secondary school graduates who essary to plan for the arrival of hundreds Other countries have been less successful. were given only two weeks of train- of thousands of additional students in the Malawi eliminated its school fees in 1994. ing. Plans to provide on-the-job training secondary school system. But with less than half of Kenya’s gross failed to materialize. Instructional quality “The abolition of school fees should not domestic product per person and fewer declined sharply as the pupil-teacher ratio be seen as a problem, but as an opportu- financial and human resources to draw on, climbed to 70 to 1. nity,” Ms. Craissati said. With careful plan- it still faces difficult challenges in provid- The lack of facilities meant that many ning, adequate financing and determined ing universal primary education. classes met under trees, and books and leadership, she concluded, Africa can find As in many other African countries, teaching materials arrived months late, if a place in school for all its children. n
18 January 2010 Progress on AIDS from page 5 reducing the number of orphans and the number of children born with HIV.” Entrenched economic and social inequalities and cultural attitudes towards women, however, make overcoming gen- der aspects of the pandemic particularly challenging. For this reason Mr. Sidibé wel- comed the announcement last September of the creation of a new UN women’s
“super agency” that would consolidate Pirozzi Giacomo / Panos the UN’s scattered gender-related activi- ties under one roof and make them more effective. “We are hopeful that the creation of a new UN agency on women will help address the issue of gender inequality and advance the rights of women and girls, particularly in Africa. UNAIDS will work Anti-retroviral medicines at a health clinic: ARVs are becoming more widely available in Africa. closely with the new agency to promote women’s access to health and develop- ment [and] deliver critical maternal and human rights, tolerance and unimpeded do not yet know what the full impact of child health services to women and girls at access to HIV prevention, treatment, care the economic crisis will be on HIV pro- the grassroots level.” and support.” grammes, we are already seeing adverse He goes on to say, “Reports of arbi- effects of the crisis on national and lo- Challenges ahead trary arrest, violence and other forms of cal AIDS responses, such as declines in Building on these modest signs of prog- discrimination based on a person’s sexual household incomes, increases in poverty ress in the battle against AIDS will be orientation have occurred in many coun- levels and reductions in national govern- vital if the continent is to make strides tries. In the case of Senegal, international ment spending on HIV, as well as reduc- towards achieving the Millennium Devel- groups — including UNAIDS — assisted tions in HIV funding from multilateral opment Goals, which include achieving in the release of nine gay men who were and bilateral donors.” The effect of the universal access to treatment by the end of imprisoned since December 2008.” crisis on exchange rates has also made 2010 and halting and beginning to reverse Human rights and health advocates imported HIV medicines and equipment the spread of the virus by 2015. have also raised concerns about legislation more expensive, he notes. But the challenges are still formidable, under consideration in Uganda. If enacted, HIV and AIDS funding is also coming Mr. Sidibé observes, including: the bill would impose the death penalty on under criticism from some doctors and • unaffordable medicines sexually active HIV-positive homosexu- medical researchers. They assert that large- • insufficient and unpredictable funding als under some circumstances and require scale financing for the fight against AIDS • weak health systems family, friends and employers to report comes at the expense of other vital health • the failure to tailor HIV prevention and homosexuals to authorities under penalty needs. HIV/AIDS advocates respond that treatment programmes to local condi- of imprisonment. the campaign against AIDS has generated tions, and Financing is another obstacle. billions of additional dollars for health • stigma and discrimination against vul- “Although funding for the global AIDS care in African and other developing coun- nerable populations. response has grown over the years, there tries and has saved millions of lives with Mr. Sidibé affirms that prejudice is still a funding gap,” the UNAIDS head prevention and treatment programmes. against homosexuals is a particular con- explains. “In 2008, $15.6 bn was estimated The critics may also have a hard time cern in Africa, noting that “men who have to be available from all sources for HIV, convincing President Zuma. AIDS, he sex with men are often denied access leaving a funding gap of $6.5 billion.” For declared, “is not merely a health challenge. to HIV prevention and treatment pro- 2010, he says, the global need will rise to It is a challenge with profound social, cul- grammes. UNAIDS believes the criminal- $25 bn — half of which will be in Africa. tural and economic consequences. It is an ization of any group of people at risk of epidemic that affects entire nations…. We HIV increases stigma and discrimination. Funding under fire have done much to tackle HIV and AIDS, Experience has shown us that effective The prospects for raising that amount, he but it is not enough. Much more needs to responses to HIV are those grounded in admits, are not good: “Even though we be done.” n
January 2010 19 Delivering on Africa’s development NEPAD plan tallies some gains, and adjusts its course
In annual reports to the General Assembly, the UN Secretary-General has systematically outlined the actions taken by both Africa and its partners to support NEPAD. In the most recent, issued in July, Ban Ki-moon reported that total aid to Africa, in cash terms, had increased from $29.5 bn in 2004 to an estimated $42 bn in 2008. But this was still considerably less than the G-8 had promised. While some 20 African nations had benefited from major debt cancellations by June 2009, the Secretary-General reported, more than half are again running the risk of falling into “debt distress” because they are making less in export earnings as a result of the downturn in global trade. World Bank / Scott Wallace Meanwhile, the restrictive trade policies of major industrialized powers further hinder Farming in Tanzania: NEPAD is encouraging African governments to devote at least African exports, which is particularly “to 10 per cent of their budgets to agriculture and rural development. the disadvantage of African farmers and agroproducers,” reports Mr. Ban. By Ernest Harsch on the basis of our delivery that we have Flows of foreign direct investment to s the first decade of the new millen- to be judged.” Africa have risen significantly, surpassing nium drew to a close, it was a time NEPAD was originally adopted at a $60 bn in 2008, according to preliminary A for proponents of Africa’s develop- 2001 summit meeting of African leaders. estimates. But the world recession and ment to take stock. “A lot has been done,” The plan expressed the determination of tighter credit conditions in 2009 are ham- affirms Ibrahim Assane Mayaki, the Africans “to extricate themselves and the pering that trend. chief executive officer of the Secretariat continent from the malaise of underde- of the New Partnership for Africa’s velopment and exclusion in a globalizing Governance and citizenship Development (NEPAD), the continent’s world.” Within Africa, NEPAD promotes While NEPAD acknowledges Africa’s central development plan. But over the greater democracy and respect for human need for assistance from the outside, the eight years since the programme’s incep- rights, closer trade and other economic ties plan emphasizes that Africans should tion, he acknowledges in an interview among African countries and the mobili- look within for lasting solutions. In the with Africa Renewal, there also have zation of more domestic resources to political realm, this is reflected in an been “ups and downs,” and the challenges develop the countries’ productive sectors understanding that development cannot ahead remain daunting. and improve people’s well-being. take off without sustained peace and in- In certain respects, argues Mr. Mayaki, clusive government systems. that initial period for NEPAD was some- International partnerships To help foster improvements in demo- thing of an “experimental process,” as Externally, NEPAD advocates a new re- cratic norms and sound management, the Africa’s governments, regional organiza- lationship between Africa and the inter- African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) tions and international partners tested new national community, one in which non- was launched in 2003 as an outgrowth of ways of tackling the continent’s deep pov- African partners seek to complement the NEPAD. Under the mechanism, teams erty, weak economies and shaky political region’s own efforts and priorities. The of respected African personalities travel systems. Now that Africa’s continent-wide United Nations, the major industrialized to various African countries to consult political and development institutions nations of the Group of Eight (G-8) and with governments, opposition politicians, have found a clearer direction, he says, the various donor agencies have pledged to civil society and others to assess political real challenge of NEPAD is to show more back the African plan. “The international governance and economic management. tangible results. “Now we really have to community has supported NEPAD since Although participation is not mandatory, deliver very concretely on the ground. It’s its inception,” notes Mr. Mayaki. notes Mr. Mayaki, “You see more and
20 January 2010 more countries deciding to volunteer.” fective policies by African governments long-term political stability, Mr. Mayaki Thirty African governments so far have is the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture observes. By generating rural employment signed on to the APRM, and 12 have com- Development Programme (CAADP). for discontented youth, governments may pleted their first reviews. Formulated in 2003, the CAADP seeks be able to stabilize their political institu- At the conclusion of the reviews, par- to increase farm production in an envi- tions. But if they fail to do so, they will be ticipating governments generally agree ronmentally sustainable manner so as to sitting on “a political bomb.” to various recommendations. Ghana, boost food security, provide more raw There have been a number of other for example, pledged to strengthen par- materials for African industries and raise recent NEPAD initiatives and projects: liamentary oversight of the executive, rural incomes. • The construction of a $1.4 bn submarine Rwanda to lessen conflicts with neigh- The programme reaffirms a commit- cable, called Uhurunet, to provide broad- bouring countries, Kenya to reduce the ment by African governments to devote band Internet access for all coastal and influence of ethnicity in political com- at least 10 per cent of their national bud- island countries of Africa. The cable is petition and South Africa to combat vio- gets to agriculture. “To say the truth,” Mr. scheduled to become operational before lence against women. Mayaki concedes, “that target has not been the end of 2010. But not all countries have imple- very well attained.” • A project to advance the teaching of sci- mented their APRM recommendations, In an effort to generate wider national ence, mathematics and technology in sev- Mr. Mayaki concedes, noting that many support for CAADP, NEPAD’s promoters eral countries of West and North Africa. governments lack the capacity to follow have initiated a series of broad national • Numerous projects to promote women’s through. Civil society groups and the pri- consultations among governments, farm- empowerment by providing microcredit, vate sector also need to be more active in ers, traders and others. In October, Liberia vocational skills, enterprise development pressing for implementation. “You can became the eighth African country to sign support and other assistance. Spain has pledged €10 mn over five years, and between August 2008 and April 2009 alone its fund disbursed €6.3 mn in grants to 77 projects in 26 African countries. • The equipping of 80 primary and sec- ondary schools in 16 countries with computers and other information and communications technology, as part of a pilot NEPAD “e-schools” initiative to provide students with such technical skills and knowledge.
Mobilizing domestic resources Building up Africa’s physical infrastruc- ture — roads, railways, harbours, electric- ity grids, waterworks, communications networks — is another NEPAD priority. Such infrastructure will be essential if African industries, small businesses and farmers are to produce and earn more.
UN / Paulo Filgueiras Building such large-scale projects is especially expensive, however. A recent Ibrahim Assane Mayaki: NEPAD is being integrated more closely into the structures of the African World Bank study estimated that $80 Union, to ensure broader political support for the programme across the continent. bn would be needed annually to bridge Africa’s “infrastructure gap.” Part of that amount is being provided by foreign have the best public institutions, but if you a formal CAADP “compact” committing donors and investors. In 2008, commit- don’t have sound citizenship, then your the government, farmers’ organizations, ments of financing by members of a con- probability of developing in a democratic private sector and aid agencies to the pro- sortium on infrastructure in Africa reached way is very limited.” gramme’s goals, including the 10 per cent $13.7 bn, up from $12.4 bn the year before. budget target. But the world economic downturn will From farms to schools Raising farm incomes and creating eco- make it harder to secure enough donor aid One example of how NEPAD is seeking nomic opportunities in Africa’s countryside or private foreign investments. “Given that to encourage the adoption of more ef- will also be important for the continent’s infrastructure projects need quite impor-
January 2010 21 tant amounts of resources,” notes Mr. Broader African ownership as the representative in South Africa of the Mayaki, “we’ll evidently face challenges When NEPAD was first launched in 2001, chairperson of the AU Commission. in that sector.” Africa’s previous continental political Africa Renewal asked Mr. Mayaki Such external difficulties make it even body, the Organization of African Unity, whether the closer integration of NEPAD more imperative for Africa to find ways was still in the process of transforming it- into the AU reflects an effort to generate to better use its own pools of domestic self into the current African Union. Estab- broader political responsibility for the financing. The potential is there, Mr. lishing the AU’s new political and security plan within Africa, especially now that Mayaki points out. Currently, Africa institutions took some time and attention. several of its early proponents — such as spends some $40 bn annually on food In that context, several African presidents President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria imports. With sound agricultural poli- took a personal lead in promoting NEPAD and President Thabo Mbeki of South cies and the investment of just a portion within Africa and abroad, and a NEPAD Africa — are no longer in office. of that amount in boosting farm yields, Secretariat was established in Pretoria, The initial push given by those leaders Africa could grow much more food, South Africa, separate from the AU head- “was absolutely essential” at the time, Mr. drastically reduce its import bill and even quarters in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Mayaki responds. “Otherwise NEPAD earn money from food exports. In addi- In 2007 a summit of African leaders would not have been seen as important.” tion, about $30 bn a year is now also lost decided to better integrate NEPAD into Nevertheless, he continues, “Now we are to capital flight, with about $20 bn of that the AU. They envisioned replacing the in a phase of opening up to broader own- amount resulting from corruption, Mr. NEPAD Secretariat with a new NEPAD ership, so NEPAD becomes owned by the Mayaki reports. By stemming corruption Planning and Coordinating Agency, a pro- 53 countries of the African Union.” and keeping such vast sums from reach- cess that is expected to be completed in That effort in turn poses new chal- ing foreign bank accounts, African coun- 2010. The new agency will still be located lenges for NEPAD. “We have to be pres- tries could make more available at home in South Africa, but now as an integral part ent more widely,” Mr. Mayaki explains, for investment in infrastructure and other of the AU. Mr. Mayaki, in fact, already “and we have to deliver very concretely priority needs. serves not only as NEPAD’s CEO, but also in all the regions.” n
tors can be vital in countering violence the police or army — and who met all the Protecting women against women. Civil society groups can selection qualifications — were ultimately from page 11 put pressure on security forces to correct “ordered” by their husbands not to take up their police forces to investigate such shortcomings and take more energetic the positions open to them. crimes, and Liberia has set up a special action. In South Africa in the late 1990s, Getting Africa’s security institutions court (the Circuit Court E) to hear cases women’s organizations were invited to to better protect women and advancing of sexual violence. Guinea-Bissau has participate in a public review of the coun- women’s overall social and political sta- introduced gender training programmes try’s defence structures and policies. In tus thus go hand-in-hand, Kristin Valasek for magistrates. the process they helped expose problems of the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Since 2007 new legal aid clinics have ranging from the environmental impact of Control of Armed Forces told the OSAA been operating in the Congolese province military activities to sexual harassment of seminar. Both require the integration of of North Kivu to help women and their women by army personnel. women into the highest levels of national families seek justice. “Each month, we More broadly, violence against women decision-making and the mobilization of record about 30 cases of rape,” reports is a societal problem and cannot be curbed women’s associations and civil society Eugène Buzake, a lawyer with the non- by security institutions alone, notes Anne groups locally. governmental Synergie pour l’assistance Marie Goetz, a governance and security Action at the grassroots is especially juridique (SAJ), “and we direct the vic- adviser with the UN Development Fund vital, argues Joséphine Pumbulu, who is tims to the courts.” The group provides for Women (UNIFEM). Much of the vio- in charge of women’s and children’s rights free legal advice, arranges protection for lence, she told the OSAA seminar, takes for the Association africaine de défense witnesses and helps transport them to place in the family and other “private des droits de l’homme in the DRC. court appearances. Some military prose- spaces,” and is therefore difficult to police. Her group promotes women’s rights in cutors are now seeking the SAJ’s involve- Moreover, she added, the “wide tolerance schools, churches, marketplaces and other ment, to help improve the prospects of of abuses” prevalent in many societies in public venues across the country, and also winning convictions. turn makes it harder to transform the secu- presses the government, army and police rity institutions. to safeguard women from violence. She Social engagement Another hurdle is women’s generally urges Congolese women to more vocally As this example illustrates, greater in- subordinate position in society. In Sierra “denounce the rapists” and vows that as volvement by civil society groups, wom- Leone, according to a study by WIPSEN– long as women’s rights are not upheld, en’s organizations and other social ac- Africa, some women who sought to join “we are not going to cross our arms.” n
22 January 2010 [email protected]>, website
India in Africa: Ties that Bind or Binds L’Afrique est mon combat by Bruno Amous- that Tie? eds. Emma Mawdsley and Gerard sou (L’Archipel, Paris, France, 2009; 216 pp; McCann (Pambazuka Press Publication, pb €17.95) Oxford, UK, 2010; 208 pp; pb £16.95) China into Africa: Trade, Aid and Influ- Droit Congolais, africain et international ence, ed. Robert I. Rotberg (Brookings Institu- The Economics and Politics of Climate du travail by Aubin N’Semy Mabanza tion Press, Washington, DC, USA, 2008; 339 Change, eds. Cameron Hepburn and Dieter (L’Harmattan, Paris, France, 2009; 244 pp; pp; pb $29.95) €24, FF157) Helm (Oxford University Press, Northampton- Power, Politics and Identity in South African shire, UK, 2009; 525 pp; hb £30) Becoming Zimbabwe: A History from the Media: Selected Seminar Papers, eds. Adrian Pre-Colonial Period to 2008, eds. Brian Raft- Hadland et al. (Human Sciences Research To Cook a Continent: Destructive Extrac- opoulos and Alois Mlambo (Jacana Media, Council, Pretoria, South Africa, 2008; 402 pp; tion and the Climate Crisis in Africa by Auckland Park, Johannesburg, South Africa, pb £17.99) Nnimmo Bassey (Pambazuka Press Publica- 2009; 296 pp; pb R230) tion, Oxford, UK, 2010; 224 pp; pb £12.95) The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind: Creat- A New Scramble for Africa? Imperialism, ing Currents of Electricity and Hope by Wil- Climate Change in Africa by Camilla Toul- Investment and Development, eds. Roger liam Kamkwamba and Bryan Mealer (Harper- min (Zed Books, London, UK, 2009; 160 pp; Southall and Henning Melber (University Collins Publishers, New York, NY, USA, 2009; pb $23.95) of KwaZulu-Natal Press, Cape Town, South 288 pp; hb $25.99) Africa, 2009; 554 pp; pb R245) Where is Uhuru? Reflections on the Strug- Potholes and Profits: Business and Other gle for Democracy in Africa by Issa G. Shivji Corruption, fraude, évasion fiscale et crois- Conversations and Experiences from Africa (Pambazuka Press Publication, Oxford, UK, sance by Antoine N’Gakosso (L’Harmattan, by Paul Runge (Africa Project Access Publica- 2009; 260 pp; pb £16.95) Paris, France, 2009; 182 pp; pb €18.50, FF121) tions, Houghton, South Africa, 2008; £13, €16, $20, R195) Struggles for Citizenship in Africa by Bron- Acquisition and Transfer of Property in wen Manby (Zed Books, London, UK, 2009; Islamic Law by Yahaya Yunusa Bambale Le difficile chemin des droits de l’homme 208 pp; hb £40.00, pb £12.99) (Malthouse Press, Lagos, Nigeria, 2008; 124 au Maroc: du déni à la reconnaissance by Enquêter auprès des migrants: Le cher- pp; pb £20.95) Mohamed Saadi (L’Harmattan, Paris, France, 2009; 180 pp; €17, FF112) cheur et son terrain, ed. Atmane Aggoun SMS Uprising: Mobile Phone Activism in (L’Harmattan, Paris, France, 2009; 164 pp; Africa, ed. Sokari Ekine (Pambazuka Press Trade and the Environment: Fundamental €15.50, FF102) Publication, Oxford, UK, 2010; 200 pp; pb Issues in International Law, WTO Law and The Poverty of Ideas: Democracy, Devel- £12.95) Legal Theory by Erich Vranes (Oxford Univer- sity Press, Oxford, UK, 2009; 480 pp; hb £60) opment and the Decline of the Intellect in The Democratic Moment: South Africa’s South Africa, eds. Leslie Dikeni and William Prospects under Jacob Zuma by Xolela African Economic Institutions by Kwame Gumede (Jacana Media, Johannesburg, South Mangcu (Jacana Media, Auckland Park, Johan- Akonor (Routledge, Kentucky, USA, 2009; 160 Africa, 2009; 256 pp; pb R180) nesburg, South Africa, 2009; 256 pp; pb R180) pp; hb $110)
January 2010 23 previous years. Mobile phone, Internet subscriptions Although the continent still lags behind in sub-Saharan Africa the rest of the world in the number of sub- 35 32.6 scriptions per person, the ITU report said, the steady growth in the use of mobile 30 COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES phones had “defied all predictions.” 25 Mobile phones Falling costs and increased investment Mobile phone explosion 20 in infrastructure and innovative bank- in Africa ing, education and health applications, it 15 Internet
In December the UN’s International Tele- predicted, would fuel continued strong 100 inhabitants Per 10 communication Union (ITU) reported that growth in the industry. 4.2 5 mobile phone subscriptions in sub-Saha- Internet access also grew strongly, from ran Africa grew at more than twice the 3 mn subscriptions in 2000 to 32 mn in 2002 2004 2006 2008 global average over the past eight years 2008, the ITU found, although most users Source: UN Africa Renewal, from data in ITU, Information — from 11 mn in 2000 to a remarkable still connect through slow and unreliable Society Statistical Profiles 2009: Africa. 246 mn at the end of 2008, the most re- telephone lines. The high cost and scarcity cent year for which data is available. As of fibre-optic connections limits access to With its comparatively low cost and strong a result, the ITU noted, 32.6 per cent of faster and more capable Internet broad- mobile subscriber base, the ITU observed, all inhabitants in the region — nearly one band cable services. Wireless broadband, “mobile broadband has the potential in every three — now has wireless tele- however, introduced in Africa in 2004, of becoming Africa’s main broadband phone access, with service available in is expanding rapidly, with 7 million sub- Internet access method in the future.” n a far greater number of countries than in scribers in 12 countries by the end of 2008. SOUTH-SOUTH APPOINTMENTS Developing country ties grow
The UN Secretary-General has appointed Mr. Ibrahim Gambari of Economic growth and the emergence Nigeria as the new joint special representative of the African Union-UN of environmental, financial and security Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID). Mr. Gambari has held numerous challenges requiring collective action are UN positions, serving most recently as the Secretary-General’s spe- fuelling an unprecedented surge in coop- cial advisor on the International Compact with Iraq and other political eration between developing countries, UN issues, including on Myanmar. In 2005 he was under-secretary-general Deputy Secretary-General Asha-Rose Mi- for political affairs and prior to that under-secretary-general and special giro said at a UN High Level Conference UN / Evan Schneider adviser on Africa. A former external affairs minister of Nigeria, he also served as Nigeria’s permanent representative to the UN. on South-South Cooperation held 1–3 December in Nairobi, Kenya. Ms. Wangari Maathai, a Kenyan environmental activist, has been Speaking at the opening, the former appointed by the UN Secretary-General as a UN messenger of peace, Tanzanian foreign minister told delegates with a special focus on the environment and climate change. Ms. UN / Mark Garten Mark / UN Maathai, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004, founded the grass- that millions of people have already been roots Green Belt Movement in 1977. She was elected to the Kenyan lifted out of poverty. She also noted that parliament in 2002, and in 2005 served as her country’s assistant minis- “new Southern poles of growth now exist ter for environment, natural resources and wildlife. in trade, finance and technology, signal- The Board of Governors of the International ling the emergence of a new community Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has appointed Mr. of countries with formidable economic Yukiya Amano of Japan as the agency’s new director general, with the strength and tremendous potential to approval of the IAEA’s General Conference. Prior to this appointment, advance their well-being further.” Mr. Amano served as ambassador of Japan to International Organi- Development works best when coun- zations in Vienna, and as an IAEA governor. He also held a variety of tries expand regional trade and investment, senior positions in the Japanese Foreign Ministry, relating to scientific she noted. “Vibrant regional neighbour-
UN / Devra Berkowitz and arms control issues. hoods pay handsome dividends, including Mr. Hany Abdel-Aziz of Egypt has been appointed
UN / Eskinder Debebe Eskinder / UN jobs, increased productivity and better liv- by the UN Secretary-General as his special representative for Western ing standards.” Sahara and head of the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Trade among developing countries Sahara (MINURSO). Previously, Mr. Abdel-Aziz was a director in the UN Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has grown by an average 13.4 per cent (MONUC). He has served the UN for some 25 years, including in eight annually for more than a decade, topping peacekeeping and humanitarian missions. $2,400 bn in 2007, about 20 per cent of the world total. n
24 January 2010