Traditional Tribal Subsistence Exposure Scenario Traditional Tribal Subsistence Exposure Scenario and Risk Assessment Guidance Manual and Risk Assessment Guidance Manual
Three Rivers, Idaho (Courtesy of Barbara Harper) Three Rivers, Idaho (Courtesy of Barbara Harper)
Principal Investigator: Principal Investigator: Barbara L. Harper, Oregon State University Department of Public Health and Barbara L. Harper, Oregon State University Department of Public Health and Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation
Co-investigators: Co-investigators: Anna K. Harding, Oregon State University Department of Public Health Anna K. Harding, Oregon State University Department of Public Health Therese Waterhous, Oregon State University Department of Nutrition and Therese Waterhous, Oregon State University Department of Nutrition and Exercise Sciences Exercise Sciences Stuart G. Harris, Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation Stuart G. Harris, Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation
Traditional Tribal Subsistence Exposure Scenario and Risk Assessment Guidance Manual
Principal Investigator: Barbara L. Harper, Oregon State University Department of Public Health and Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation
Co-investigators: Anna K. Harding, Oregon State University Department of Public Health Therese Waterhouse, Oregon State University Department of Nutrition and Exercise Science Stuart G. Harris, Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation
Report of Grant Number EPA-STAR-J1-R831046 United State Environmental Protection Agency
Published by Oregon State University Printing and Mailing August 2007 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Support for this research was provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Support for this research was provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under grant number EPA-STAR-J1-R831046. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or under grant number EPA-STAR-J1-R831046. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the funding agency. We appreciate the capable necessarily reflect the views of the funding agency. We appreciate the capable direction and support of our EPA project officer, Nigel Fields. We would like to thank direction and support of our EPA project officer, Nigel Fields. We would like to thank the members of the Advisory Board for their insights and suggestions, and for the members of the Advisory Board for their insights and suggestions, and for personally taking the time to meet several times as a group and to review draft personally taking the time to meet several times as a group and to review draft documents. We had the pleasure of working alongside three energetic graduate documents. We had the pleasure of working alongside three energetic graduate students during the course of the project, Aimee Pragle, Libby McCulley, and students during the course of the project, Aimee Pragle, Libby McCulley, and Harmony Fleming. We offer a big thanks to each of them. In addition, we thank Pat Harmony Fleming. We offer a big thanks to each of them. In addition, we thank Pat Berger for using her creative skills to produce maps that enhanced the Guidance Berger for using her creative skills to produce maps that enhanced the Guidance Manual. Finally, we are very grateful to Gail Wells and Aaron Poor for their careful Manual. Finally, we are very grateful to Gail Wells and Aaron Poor for their careful and patient editing that transformed our report into a finished document. and patient editing that transformed our report into a finished document.
ADVISORY BOARD MEMBERS, EPA GRANT ADVISORY BOARD MEMBERS, EPA GRANT
Fred E. Corey Oregon State University Fred E. Corey Oregon State University Environmental Director Corvallis, Oregon Environmental Director Corvallis, Oregon Aroostook Band of Micmacs Aroostook Band of Micmacs Presque Isle, Maine Allison Davis-White Eyes Presque Isle, Maine Allison Davis-White Eyes Coordinator, Office of Indian Education Coordinator, Office of Indian Education Frederick E. Kirschner Office of Minority Education Frederick E. Kirschner Office of Minority Education AESE, Inc. (Spokane Tribe) Oregon State University AESE, Inc. (Spokane Tribe) Oregon State University Valleyford, Washington Corvallis, Oregon Valleyford, Washington Corvallis, Oregon
John Persell Joe Kerkvliet John Persell Joe Kerkvliet Minnesota Chippewa Tribe Professor Minnesota Chippewa Tribe Professor Cass Lake, Minnesota Department of Economics Cass Lake, Minnesota Department of Economics Oregon State University Oregon State University Jamie Donatuto Corvallis, Oregon Jamie Donatuto Corvallis, Oregon Environmental Specialist Environmental Specialist Swinomish Indian Tribal Community Michael Thoms Swinomish Indian Tribal Community Michael Thoms Office of Planning and Community Instructor, Department of History Office of Planning and Community Instructor, Department of History Development Malaspina University Development Malaspina University La Conner, Washington Powell River, British Columbia La Conner, Washington Powell River, British Columbia
Darren Ranco Gregory White Darren Ranco Gregory White Assistant Professor of Native Director, Archaeological Research Assistant Professor of Native Director, Archaeological Research American Studies and Program American Studies and Program Environmental Studies Department of Anthropology Environmental Studies Department of Anthropology Dartmouth College California State University, Chico Dartmouth College California State University, Chico Hanover, New Hampshire Chico, California Hanover, New Hampshire Chico, California
Deanna Kingston Deanna Kingston Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Department of Anthropology Department of Anthropology Oregon State University Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon Corvallis, Oregon
Roberta Hall Roberta Hall Professor Emeritus Professor Emeritus Department of Anthropology Department of Anthropology Oregon State University Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon Corvallis, Oregon
Michael Fernandez Michael Fernandez Technical Outreach Services for Technical Outreach Services for Communities Program Communities Program Western Region Hazardous Western Region Hazardous Substances Research Center Substances Research Center Introduction 4 Introduction 4
CONTENTS CONTENTS
Introduction 5 Introduction 5 Elem (Pomo) Human Health Risk Assessment Exposure Scenario 56 Elem (Pomo) Human Health Risk Assessment Exposure Scenario 56 Washoe Tribe Human Health Risk Assessment Exposure Scenario 117 Washoe Tribe Human Health Risk Assessment Exposure Scenario 117 Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation Human Health Risk Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation Human Health Risk Assessment Exposure Scenario 170 Assessment Exposure Scenario 170 The Spokane Tribe’s Multipathway Subsistence Exposure Scenario and The Spokane Tribe’s Multipathway Subsistence Exposure Scenario and Screening Level RME 227 Screening Level RME 227 Appendix A: Inhalation Rate 252 Appendix A: Inhalation Rate 252 Appendix B: Soil Ingestion Rate 258 Appendix B: Soil Ingestion Rate 258
Introduction 5 Introduction 5
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
A BACKGROUND AND CONSIDERATIONS 7 A BACKGROUND AND CONSIDERATIONS 7 A.1 PURPOSE AND NEED 7 A.1 PURPOSE AND NEED 7 A.2 VALUES, QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND INFORMED CONSENT 11 A.2 VALUES, QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND INFORMED CONSENT 11 A.3 LARGER GOALS OF A HEALTHY TRIBAL COMMUNITY 16 A.3 LARGER GOALS OF A HEALTHY TRIBAL COMMUNITY 16 B SCENARIO METHODS 24 B SCENARIO METHODS 24 B.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF SCENARIO AND APPROACH 24 B.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF SCENARIO AND APPROACH 24 B.2 ETHNOGRAPHIC AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL METHODS 26 B.2 ETHNOGRAPHIC AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL METHODS 26 B.2.1 Ethnohistory, Anthropology, and Multiple Lines of Evidence 26 B.2.1 Ethnohistory, Anthropology, and Multiple Lines of Evidence 26 B.2.2 Research Ethics, Indigenous People, and Ground-Truthing 34 B.2.2 Research Ethics, Indigenous People, and Ground-Truthing 34 B.3 ECOREGION METHODS 36 B.3 ECOREGION METHODS 36 B.3.1 Development of a Common Framework of Ecoregions 36 B.3.1 Development of a Common Framework of Ecoregions 36 B.3.2 Our Choice of Framework: CEC Hierarchical Spatial Framework B.3.2 Our Choice of Framework: CEC Hierarchical Spatial Framework of Ecoregions 39 of Ecoregions 39 B.3.3 Description of Ecoregion Levels 40 B.3.3 Description of Ecoregion Levels 40 B.4 DIET 43 B.4 DIET 43 B.4.1 Nutritional Analysis 45 B.4.1 Nutritional Analysis 45 B.5 DIRECT EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS 49 B.5 DIRECT EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS 49 B.5.1 Major Activities 49 B.5.1 Major Activities 49 B.5.2 Exposure Factors for Direct Exposure Pathways 52 B.5.2 Exposure Factors for Direct Exposure Pathways 52 REFERENCES 55 REFERENCES 55
Introduction 6 Introduction 6
LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Maine coastal diet 47 Table 1. Maine coastal diet 47 Table 2. Major activity categories 50 Table 2. Major activity categories 50 Table 3. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories 51 Table 3. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories 51
LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Schematic of the Risk Assessment Process 7 Figure 1. Schematic of the Risk Assessment Process 7 Figure 2. Exposure Pathways Evaluated in the Risk Assessment Process 8 Figure 2. Exposure Pathways Evaluated in the Risk Assessment Process 8 Figure 3. Bridging Perspectives 9 Figure 3. Bridging Perspectives 9 Figure 4. Conventional Exposure Pathways Based on an Urban or Suburban Figure 4. Conventional Exposure Pathways Based on an Urban or Suburban Lifestyle 10 Lifestyle 10 Figure 5. Tribal Exposure Pathways Based on a Subsistence Lifestyle 11 Figure 5. Tribal Exposure Pathways Based on a Subsistence Lifestyle 11 Figure 6. Cultural and Technical Credibility 15 Figure 6. Cultural and Technical Credibility 15 Figure 7. Ethics and Informed Consent 15 Figure 7. Ethics and Informed Consent 15 Figure 8. Informed Consent 16 Figure 8. Informed Consent 16 Figure 9. Cultural Quality of Life 17 Figure 9. Cultural Quality of Life 17 Figure 10. Where People Go to Fulfill Elements of their Lifestyles 18 Figure 10. Where People Go to Fulfill Elements of their Lifestyles 18 Figure 11. Example of Holistic versus Fragmented Analysis 19 Figure 11. Example of Holistic versus Fragmented Analysis 19 Figure 12. Deconstructing and Reconstructing 19 Figure 12. Deconstructing and Reconstructing 19 Figure 13. Impacts of Contaminated Salmon 20 Figure 13. Impacts of Contaminated Salmon 20 Figure 14. The Broader View of Risk Assessment with Three Components 21 Figure 14. The Broader View of Risk Assessment with Three Components 21 Figure 15. The Broader View of Risk Assessment with Four Components 22 Figure 15. The Broader View of Risk Assessment with Four Components 22 Figure 16. Categories of Environmental Functions Contributing to Individual and Figure 16. Categories of Environmental Functions Contributing to Individual and Community Health 23 Community Health 23 Figure 17. Misunderstandings Common to Tribal Risk Assessment 24 Figure 17. Misunderstandings Common to Tribal Risk Assessment 24 Figure 18. Information for Building a Tribal Scenario 25 Figure 18. Information for Building a Tribal Scenario 25 Figure 19. Two Approaches to Tribal Risk Assessment 26 Figure 19. Two Approaches to Tribal Risk Assessment 26 Figure 20. Level I EPA Ecoregions 28 Figure 20. Level I EPA Ecoregions 28 Figure 21. Culture Areas 29 Figure 21. Culture Areas 29 Figure 22. Dominant Materials Used for Non-cooking Containers 30 Figure 22. Dominant Materials Used for Non-cooking Containers 30 Figure 23. Dominant Subsistence Food Categories 31 Figure 23. Dominant Subsistence Food Categories 31 Figure 24. Important Subsistence Foods 32 Figure 24. Important Subsistence Foods 32 Figure 25. Ecological and Anthropological Review Process 35 Figure 25. Ecological and Anthropological Review Process 35 Figure 26. Example of the Hierarchical Form of EPA Ecoregions 40 Figure 26. Example of the Hierarchical Form of EPA Ecoregions 40 Figure 27. Level I and II Ecoregions of North America 41 Figure 27. Level I and II Ecoregions of North America 41 Figure 28. Level III Ecoregions of the Continental U.S. 42 Figure 28. Level III Ecoregions of the Continental U.S. 42 Figure 29. Level III and IV Ecoregions of Oregon 43 Figure 29. Level III and IV Ecoregions of Oregon 43 Figure 30. Food Wheel—Coastal Maine 48 Figure 30. Food Wheel—Coastal Maine 48 Figure 31. Two CTUIR Diets (Columbia River Basin) 48 Figure 31. Two CTUIR Diets (Columbia River Basin) 48 Figure 32. Activities within Major Activity Categories 50 Figure 32. Activities within Major Activity Categories 50 Introduction 7 Introduction 7
A BACKGROUND AND CONSIDERATIONS A BACKGROUND AND CONSIDERATIONS
A.1 PURPOSE AND NEED A.1 PURPOSE AND NEED This document provides a framework for evaluating risks in Indian Country. Under This document provides a framework for evaluating risks in Indian Country. Under the paradigm used by the federal government (NRC 1983) human health risk derives the paradigm used by the federal government (NRC 1983) human health risk derives from the combination of human exposure to contaminants and the toxicity of the from the combination of human exposure to contaminants and the toxicity of the contaminants. In the risk assessment process, contaminant data is gathered to contaminants. In the risk assessment process, contaminant data is gathered to estimate present or future exposures to determine if resources are, or could estimate present or future exposures to determine if resources are, or could become, harmful to the health and well-being of a community. become, harmful to the health and well-being of a community.
Environmental contact rates are used to estimate contamination doses to exposed Environmental contact rates are used to estimate contamination doses to exposed individuals via inhalation, ingestion of food and water, and dermal absorption during individuals via inhalation, ingestion of food and water, and dermal absorption during a defined set of activities in particular locations (Figure 1). Conversely, the degree of a defined set of activities in particular locations (Figure 1). Conversely, the degree of allowable contamination required to keep human health risks below a specified risk allowable contamination required to keep human health risks below a specified risk level can also be calculated. level can also be calculated.
SCENARIO -Set of SCENARIO -Set of activities and diet activities and diet used to develop used to develop EXPOSURE FACTORS Risk Results EXPOSURE FACTORS Risk Results (reasonably maximum (reasonably maximum environmental environmental contact rates) Cancer Hazard Index contact rates) Cancer Hazard Index 100 What risk level 100 What risk level DOSE – the degree of is acceptable? DOSE – the degree of is acceptable? exposure to each exposure to each contaminant through What health effects contaminant through What health effects RISK 10(-4) RISK 10(-4) single and combined could occur? single and combined could occur? ESTIMATE 10 ESTIMATE 10 pathways. pathways. Contaminant Contaminant What health advice? What health advice? identification and identification and CONCENTRATION 10(-6) CONCENTRATION 10(-6) in environmental 1 = RfD in environmental 1 = RfD media & biota media & biota How TOXIC is How TOXIC is each chemical each chemical individually and in individually and in combination? combination?
Are there sensitive Are there sensitive subpopulations? subpopulations?
Figure 1. Schematic of the Risk Assessment Process Figure 1. Schematic of the Risk Assessment Process
Exposure scenarios are used in the risk assessment process to describe how people Exposure scenarios are used in the risk assessment process to describe how people come into contact with natural resources through direct exposure pathways (e.g., air, come into contact with natural resources through direct exposure pathways (e.g., air, water, soil) and indirect pathways (food) (Figure 2). The risk assessment estimates water, soil) and indirect pathways (food) (Figure 2). The risk assessment estimates doses of each contaminant, then estimates the health risks for each contaminant. doses of each contaminant, then estimates the health risks for each contaminant. Risks are summed is a variety of ways (EPA 2003). Risks are summed is a variety of ways (EPA 2003). Introduction 8 Introduction 8
Contaminant 3 Contaminant 3 Contaminant 2 Contaminant 2 Contaminant 1 Contaminant 1
Exposure Portal of Exposure Portal of Mechanism Entry Mechanism Entry
Direct Exposure: Direct Exposure: Inhalation Inhalation AIR Water ingestion AIR Water ingestion Soil ingestion Lungs Soil ingestion Lungs GROUNDWATER Soil on food GROUNDWATER Soil on food Soil on skin Mouth Soil on skin Mouth SURFACE WATER Water in sweatlodge steam SURFACE WATER Water in sweatlodge steam Skin Skin SOIL Indirect Exposure SOIL Indirect Exposure Dust deposition on plants Dust deposition on plants SEDIMENT Soil to plant uptake Total Exposure SEDIMENT Soil to plant uptake Total Exposure Sediment to plant uptake to Contaminant 1 Sediment to plant uptake to Contaminant 1 BIOTA Water to fish BIOTA Water to fish Water to game Water to game Water irrigation on plants Water irrigation on plants
Figure 2. Exposure Pathways Evaluated in the Risk Assessment Process Figure 2. Exposure Pathways Evaluated in the Risk Assessment Process
In order to estimate doses and risks, we must understand how people interact with In order to estimate doses and risks, we must understand how people interact with the environment. All cultures depend on environmental quality for their survival, but the environment. All cultures depend on environmental quality for their survival, but the health of tribal communities and their individual members is so intertwined with the health of tribal communities and their individual members is so intertwined with their environment as to be inseparable. This leads to quite different perspectives on their environment as to be inseparable. This leads to quite different perspectives on the risk assessment process and the role of risk in making environmental and health the risk assessment process and the role of risk in making environmental and health decisions (Figure 3). Nevertheless, the conventional perspective and the tribal decisions (Figure 3). Nevertheless, the conventional perspective and the tribal perspective must be brought together in order to make risk-based decisions that perspective must be brought together in order to make risk-based decisions that protect tribal health and the environment. In most cases conventional methods can protect tribal health and the environment. In most cases conventional methods can be modified to a greater or lesser extent. be modified to a greater or lesser extent. Introduction 9 Introduction 9
Dose-responses Land Dose-responses Land
Acceptable Acceptable exposures exposures Cost-benefit Time Cost-benefit Time Children Children
Figure 3. Bridging Perspectives Figure 3. Bridging Perspectives
In the conventional assessment of risk, exposures to contaminants are the focus of In the conventional assessment of risk, exposures to contaminants are the focus of the process. The doses of each contaminant are estimated by assuming daily the process. The doses of each contaminant are estimated by assuming daily ingestion rates (in units of grams/day or gpd) of a particular biotic or abiotic ingestion rates (in units of grams/day or gpd) of a particular biotic or abiotic resource, such as fish, for a particular exposure period. Risks for each contaminant, resource, such as fish, for a particular exposure period. Risks for each contaminant, including mercury, are calculated using conventional equations. The Average Daily including mercury, are calculated using conventional equations. The Average Daily Doses (ADD) of each contaminant incurred through each exposure pathway is Doses (ADD) of each contaminant incurred through each exposure pathway is calculated using the following equation: calculated using the following equation:
ADD = (C x IR x EF x ED) / (AT x BW) ADD = (C x IR x EF x ED) / (AT x BW)
where: where:
C = concentration of chemical in the sample (mg/kg) C = concentration of chemical in the sample (mg/kg) IR = ingestion rate of each sample (mg or grams per day) IR = ingestion rate of each sample (mg or grams per day) EF = exposure frequency (days per year) EF = exposure frequency (days per year) ED = exposure duration (years) ED = exposure duration (years) BW = body weight (kg) BW = body weight (kg) AT = averaging time (days) AT = averaging time (days)
The factors of ingestion rate, frequency, and duration are paramount to estimating The factors of ingestion rate, frequency, and duration are paramount to estimating risks. Because exposure evaluation methods were developed to reflect exposures risks. Because exposure evaluation methods were developed to reflect exposures received in urban or suburban situations (Figure 4), tribal exposure pathways may received in urban or suburban situations (Figure 4), tribal exposure pathways may not be recognized at all and/or not understood well enough to realize the diversity not be recognized at all and/or not understood well enough to realize the diversity and intensity of environmental contact, and therefore the frequency and duration of and intensity of environmental contact, and therefore the frequency and duration of exposure (Figure 5). The first question, then, is how to recognize whether tribal exposure (Figure 5). The first question, then, is how to recognize whether tribal members use the affected area or resources. members use the affected area or resources.
Introduction 10 Introduction 10
How does a federal agency know when tribal resources and health are How does a federal agency know when tribal resources and health are affected? affected? The first question is, “Are tribal resources affected?” The second question is, The first question is, “Are tribal resources affected?” The second question is, “Are tribal members exposed?” “Are tribal members exposed?”
• Do tribal members use resources from the impacted zone? • Do tribal members use resources from the impacted zone? • Do tribal members live in or visit the impacted zone? • Do tribal members live in or visit the impacted zone? • Is a tribe a Natural Resource Trustee of the affected resource, are there lands • Is a tribe a Natural Resource Trustee of the affected resource, are there lands held in trust for tribes, or are there public lands which tribal members use? held in trust for tribes, or are there public lands which tribal members use? • Is the affected area within a tribal historic area, a traditional cultural property, • Is the affected area within a tribal historic area, a traditional cultural property, or a tribally important landscape? or a tribally important landscape? • Is the affected area linked ecologically, culturally, visually, or hydrologically to • Is the affected area linked ecologically, culturally, visually, or hydrologically to tribal resources or uses? tribal resources or uses?
Simplified Concept of a Suburban Exposure Scenario Simplified Concept of a Suburban Exposure Scenario
Air release Air release
Source Source
Groundwater release Little environmental contact. Groundwater release Little environmental contact. Few exposure pathways. Few exposure pathways.
Figure 4. Conventional Exposure Pathways Based on an Urban or Suburban Figure 4. Conventional Exposure Pathways Based on an Urban or Suburban Lifestyle Lifestyle
Introduction 11 Introduction 11
A Traditional Environmental Knowledge-based Scenario A Traditional Environmental Knowledge-based Scenario
MONTANE AIR AND DUST MONTANE AIR AND DUST RESOURCES INHALATION RESOURCES INHALATION
CULTURAL CULTURAL RIPARIAN RIPARIAN ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES RESOURCES PROCESSING RESOURCES PROCESSING GAME DIRECT SOIL GAME DIRECT SOIL EXPOSURE EXPOSURE
GARDEN PRODUCE GARDEN PRODUCE
GAME MEAT GAME MEAT
IRRIGATION IRRIGATION GROUNDWATER GROUNDWATER WETLANDS WETLANDS RESOURCES RESOURCES
AQUATIC AQUATIC FOODS FOODS
GATHERED GATHERED FOODS FOODS SURFACE SEDIMENT SURFACE SEDIMENT DESERT RESOURCES WATER USE EXPOSURE DESERT RESOURCES WATER USE EXPOSURE
Figure 5. Tribal Exposure Pathways Based on a Subsistence Lifestyle Figure 5. Tribal Exposure Pathways Based on a Subsistence Lifestyle
A.2 VALUES, QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND INFORMED CONSENT A.2 VALUES, QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND INFORMED CONSENT Native American ties to the environment are much more complex and intense than is Native American ties to the environment are much more complex and intense than is generally understood by risk assessors (Harris 1998, Oren Lyons1). Many tribal generally understood by risk assessors (Harris 1998, Oren Lyons1). Many tribal cultures are essentially synonymous with and inseparable from the land and its cultures are essentially synonymous with and inseparable from the land and its resources. The quality of the socio-cultural and eco-cultural landscapes is very resources. The quality of the socio-cultural and eco-cultural landscapes is very important, as is the quality of individual natural resources or ecosystem integrity. To important, as is the quality of individual natural resources or ecosystem integrity. To many American Indians, individual and collective well being is derived from many American Indians, individual and collective well being is derived from membership in a healthy community that has access to, and utilization of, ancestral membership in a healthy community that has access to, and utilization of, ancestral lands and traditional resources. This wellness stems from and is enhanced by lands and traditional resources. This wellness stems from and is enhanced by having the opportunity and ability to live within traditional community activities and having the opportunity and ability to live within traditional community activities and values. Tribal elders draw upon an ancient storehouse of environmental knowledge values. Tribal elders draw upon an ancient storehouse of environmental knowledge that has been built over thousands of years using involved environmental that has been built over thousands of years using involved environmental observation and teaching younger generations how to live and behave. observation and teaching younger generations how to live and behave.
This lifestyle is resilient and has persisted through floods, droughts, cataclysms, This lifestyle is resilient and has persisted through floods, droughts, cataclysms, upheavals, and warfare. This environmental management science has long been upheavals, and warfare. This environmental management science has long been
1 http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/OLatUNin92.html; 1 http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/OLatUNin92.html; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hDF7ia23hVg. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hDF7ia23hVg. Introduction 12 Introduction 12
codified into traditional tribal laws for daily living and for religious practice. The codified into traditional tribal laws for daily living and for religious practice. The traditional environmental management science, which guided this eco-cultural traditional environmental management science, which guided this eco-cultural system, was eminently practical. Language and ethics were highly developed, laws system, was eminently practical. Language and ethics were highly developed, laws were codified, governmental structures were strong yet flexible, crime and disease were codified, governmental structures were strong yet flexible, crime and disease were low, and food was adequate. The lifestyle evolved with a confidence that were low, and food was adequate. The lifestyle evolved with a confidence that through wise environmental management there would always be enough resources through wise environmental management there would always be enough resources and food for the community over time, even if there were lean years. Generosity to and food for the community over time, even if there were lean years. Generosity to the community was held in the highest esteem. A person’s failure to take care of the the community was held in the highest esteem. A person’s failure to take care of the people and the environment was considered wrong, and the accumulation of excess people and the environment was considered wrong, and the accumulation of excess resources was seen as antisocial, especially if it was at the expense of others resources was seen as antisocial, especially if it was at the expense of others through waste, displacement, theft of property, or rights of ownership, access or use. through waste, displacement, theft of property, or rights of ownership, access or use. These traditions, each of which is unique to a particular tribe and its homeland, are These traditions, each of which is unique to a particular tribe and its homeland, are woven into complex tapestries that extend from far in the past to long into the future. woven into complex tapestries that extend from far in the past to long into the future. All of the foods and implements gathered and manufactured by the traditional All of the foods and implements gathered and manufactured by the traditional American Indian are interconnected in at least one way, but more often in many American Indian are interconnected in at least one way, but more often in many ways. Therefore, if the link between a person and his/her environment is severed ways. Therefore, if the link between a person and his/her environment is severed through the introduction of contamination or physical or administrative disruption, the through the introduction of contamination or physical or administrative disruption, the person’s health suffers, and the well being of the entire community is affected. person’s health suffers, and the well being of the entire community is affected.
After this continent became populated by Indo-European people and their form of After this continent became populated by Indo-European people and their form of infrastructure, many native governments which had survived slavery, kidnapping of infrastructure, many native governments which had survived slavery, kidnapping of children, epidemics, and federal biological and military extermination and sterilization children, epidemics, and federal biological and military extermination and sterilization policies signed treaties with the United States government. In these treaties the policies signed treaties with the United States government. In these treaties the tribes ceded the title to almost all of their homelands to the United States but tribes ceded the title to almost all of their homelands to the United States but reserved guaranteed rights to hunt, fish, gather plants, and pasture livestock “for as reserved guaranteed rights to hunt, fish, gather plants, and pasture livestock “for as long as the grass shall grow and the rivers flow.” The intent of the treaties was, in long as the grass shall grow and the rivers flow.” The intent of the treaties was, in part, to protect the natural resources on which the native lifestyles and religion part, to protect the natural resources on which the native lifestyles and religion depend, although the right to religious freedom has only recently been reestablished depend, although the right to religious freedom has only recently been reestablished and is still only partially protected. Although every treaty has been broken to a and is still only partially protected. Although every treaty has been broken to a greater or lesser extent by the United States, treaties are still the supreme law of the greater or lesser extent by the United States, treaties are still the supreme law of the land under the United States Constitution. land under the United States Constitution.
Additionally, a long history of case law has upheld the obligations of the federal Additionally, a long history of case law has upheld the obligations of the federal government as a Natural Resource Trustee to protect natural resources for all government as a Natural Resource Trustee to protect natural resources for all citizens. Under CERCLA and the Clean Water Act, tribes are specifically identified citizens. Under CERCLA and the Clean Water Act, tribes are specifically identified as trustees of natural resources both on reservations and throughout their homeland as trustees of natural resources both on reservations and throughout their homeland areas. The federal government is also a trustee of lands held in trust for tribal use. areas. The federal government is also a trustee of lands held in trust for tribal use.
In order to protect tribal uses of natural resources, risk assessments must be In order to protect tribal uses of natural resources, risk assessments must be designed and scaled appropriately. While tribal risk assessments have an ecological designed and scaled appropriately. While tribal risk assessments have an ecological focus, performing a tribally relevant risk assessment means more than simply focus, performing a tribally relevant risk assessment means more than simply performing an ecological risk assessment with culturally important species and/or performing an ecological risk assessment with culturally important species and/or using a human exposure scenario that includes exposures received during cultural using a human exposure scenario that includes exposures received during cultural activities. It means developing an exposure scenario that reflects the lifestyle treaties activities. It means developing an exposure scenario that reflects the lifestyle treaties (or their equivalent) were designed to protect. (or their equivalent) were designed to protect.
Introduction 13 Introduction 13
This document presents some generic risk assessment methods while recognizing This document presents some generic risk assessment methods while recognizing that they do not substitute for intergovernmental consultation and meaningful that they do not substitute for intergovernmental consultation and meaningful participation in the decision process. Several cautionary notes are as follows: participation in the decision process. Several cautionary notes are as follows:
• Every tribe is different, and generalizations cannot be made from one tribe to • Every tribe is different, and generalizations cannot be made from one tribe to another or from one exposure scenario to another. another or from one exposure scenario to another. • Government to government protocol means that the agency must to talk to • Government to government protocol means that the agency must to talk to individual tribes. Intertribal groups do not substitute for individual tribal individual tribes. Intertribal groups do not substitute for individual tribal consultation and do not represent or speak for individual tribes. consultation and do not represent or speak for individual tribes. • Treaties and trusteeship are federal obligations that precede more recent • Treaties and trusteeship are federal obligations that precede more recent environmental regulations. These obligations do not fade with time. environmental regulations. These obligations do not fade with time. • Environmental standards were not set with tribes in mind, and may not be • Environmental standards were not set with tribes in mind, and may not be adequately protective. adequately protective. • There is a balance between maintaining confidentiality of tribal information • There is a balance between maintaining confidentiality of tribal information and having access to data for verification. Tribes have the right to protect and having access to data for verification. Tribes have the right to protect proprietary information and to give only summary information to the assessor. proprietary information and to give only summary information to the assessor. • Human subjects protocols as well as tribal cultural resource or research • Human subjects protocols as well as tribal cultural resource or research codes apply equally to cultural data. Neither human health nor cultural codes apply equally to cultural data. Neither human health nor cultural information should be published without permission of the tribe. information should be published without permission of the tribe.
Our experience in developing tribal subsistence-based exposure scenarios has led Our experience in developing tribal subsistence-based exposure scenarios has led to a set of technical, ethical, and procedural rules (Figure 6, adapted from Harper et to a set of technical, ethical, and procedural rules (Figure 6, adapted from Harper et al. 2002): al. 2002):
• Each parameter must be able to be tested or verified (documented, modeled, • Each parameter must be able to be tested or verified (documented, modeled, measured, or elicited from acknowledged experts) to enable each assumption measured, or elicited from acknowledged experts) to enable each assumption to be systematically validated. This validation can rely on ethnographic data to be systematically validated. This validation can rely on ethnographic data and open peer-reviewed literature, and on verbal representations from and open peer-reviewed literature, and on verbal representations from subsistence practitioners and tribally recognized cultural experts. subsistence practitioners and tribally recognized cultural experts. Ethnographic experts are recognized by their standing in the academic Ethnographic experts are recognized by their standing in the academic community, while cultural experts are recognized by their traditional or community, while cultural experts are recognized by their traditional or indigenous environmental knowledge and their standing in the tribal indigenous environmental knowledge and their standing in the tribal community. community. • Pursuant to Rule 702, “a witness is qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, • Pursuant to Rule 702, “a witness is qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education” to testify when his or her “scientific, experience, training, or education” to testify when his or her “scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue.” In response to two understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue.” In response to two U.S. Supreme Court cases holding trial judges responsible for excluding U.S. Supreme Court cases holding trial judges responsible for excluding unreliable expert testimony, Rule 702 recently was qualified by amendment. unreliable expert testimony, Rule 702 recently was qualified by amendment. To be admissible, the rule now requires federal courts to find: “(1) the To be admissible, the rule now requires federal courts to find: “(1) the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data, (2) the testimony is the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data, (2) the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has applied product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case.” Another risk the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case.” Another risk assessor should be able to repeat the same steps and construct essentially assessor should be able to repeat the same steps and construct essentially the same scenario. Multiple lines of evidence should lead to the same general the same scenario. Multiple lines of evidence should lead to the same general conclusion. The scenario should be accepted by colleagues as reasonable conclusion. The scenario should be accepted by colleagues as reasonable Introduction 14 Introduction 14
and factual rather than eccentric, unreliable, or mere opinion. It should meet and factual rather than eccentric, unreliable, or mere opinion. It should meet the “general acceptance” test set forth in Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 the “general acceptance” test set forth in Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (App. D.C. 1923), the predecessor case to Daubert. This criterion should (App. D.C. 1923), the predecessor case to Daubert. This criterion should ideally be satisfied by obtaining peer review from qualified colleagues (“the ideally be satisfied by obtaining peer review from qualified colleagues (“the relevant scientific community”) even beyond the editorial peer review process relevant scientific community”) even beyond the editorial peer review process that occurs during publication in peer-reviewed journals. that occurs during publication in peer-reviewed journals. • The scenario must be relevant and reliable both scientifically and culturally. • The scenario must be relevant and reliable both scientifically and culturally. The process must be culturally sensitive, respectful, draw on traditional The process must be culturally sensitive, respectful, draw on traditional environmental knowledge (such as the observational expertise of elders), and environmental knowledge (such as the observational expertise of elders), and must be developed from within the tribe by a risk assessor in partnership with must be developed from within the tribe by a risk assessor in partnership with tribal cultural and technical experts. This interaction may take several forms tribal cultural and technical experts. This interaction may take several forms and results in a community-based participatory process. It is based on the and results in a community-based participatory process. It is based on the principles of meaningful consultation, in which all players come to the table principles of meaningful consultation, in which all players come to the table and have equal parts in the decision-making process. It establishes cultural and have equal parts in the decision-making process. It establishes cultural credibility, obtains truly informed consent, and reflects the local the credibility, obtains truly informed consent, and reflects the local the knowledge system and customary means of exchanging materials and knowledge system and customary means of exchanging materials and information. information. • The methodology used to reach the conclusions of this study incorporated • The methodology used to reach the conclusions of this study incorporated information from a variety of disciplines, including cultural and traditional information from a variety of disciplines, including cultural and traditional environmental knowledge. These lifeway scenarios for indigenous Native environmental knowledge. These lifeway scenarios for indigenous Native Americans were developed, as much as possible, using general scientific Americans were developed, as much as possible, using general scientific criteria adopted from the Daubert case.2 To ensure the highest quality of criteria adopted from the Daubert case.2 To ensure the highest quality of reliability for the process used to develop these scenarios, an internal and reliability for the process used to develop these scenarios, an internal and external peer review process was followed by cultural and technical experts external peer review process was followed by cultural and technical experts during and after preparation. during and after preparation.
Informed consent is required when conducting federally funded research. It is our Informed consent is required when conducting federally funded research. It is our contention that, whether or not a university is involved, the risk assessor is ethically contention that, whether or not a university is involved, the risk assessor is ethically bound to surpass minimal informed consent guidelines (Figures 7 and 8). bound to surpass minimal informed consent guidelines (Figures 7 and 8).
2 Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993). 2 Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993). Introduction 15 Introduction 15
Tribal Data must be Credible & Pedigreed Tribal Data must be Credible & Pedigreed
Technical Credibility Technical Credibility • Must be scientifically relevant and reliable • Must be scientifically relevant and reliable • Must use both statistical and ethnographic survey methods • Must use both statistical and ethnographic survey methods • Rules of Evidence – based on sufficient facts; reliable methods; • Rules of Evidence – based on sufficient facts; reliable methods; each assumption validated….. (Rule 702; Frye; Daubert). each assumption validated….. (Rule 702; Frye; Daubert). • Importance of multiple peer reviews and data quality validation; • Importance of multiple peer reviews and data quality validation; often must have higher data quality standards and more often must have higher data quality standards and more documentation because we are challenging convention. documentation because we are challenging convention.
Cultural Credibility Cultural Credibility • Must be culturally relevant and reliable. • Must be culturally relevant and reliable. • Culturally sensitive, respectful, draw on TEK, developed from • Culturally sensitive, respectful, draw on TEK, developed from within the Tribe. Must be TRUE informed consent. within the Tribe. Must be TRUE informed consent. • Must protect confidential information. • Must protect confidential information.
Figure 6. Cultural and Technical Credibility Figure 6. Cultural and Technical Credibility
Ethics & Informed Consent Ethics & Informed Consent TRUST ME. TRUST ME. I want to help I want to help
Federal Institutional Review Board rules require extra Federal Institutional Review Board rules require extra effort to explain benefits and disadvantages of effort to explain benefits and disadvantages of collecting different kinds of data, using various collecting different kinds of data, using various methods, participating in various studies. methods, participating in various studies. This should be a discussion at multiple levels of This should be a discussion at multiple levels of Tribal authority, not a sales pitch. Tribal authority, not a sales pitch. The Tribe must have ownership of the project & data. The Tribe must have ownership of the project & data.
Figure 7. Ethics and Informed Consent Figure 7. Ethics and Informed Consent
Introduction 16 Introduction 16
Informed consent is obtained from research subjects or their legally authorized Informed consent is obtained from research subjects or their legally authorized representatives. representatives. (a) Does the informed consent document include the eight required elements? (a) Does the informed consent document include the eight required elements? (b) Is the consent document understandable to subjects? (b) Is the consent document understandable to subjects? (c) Who will obtain informed consent (PI, nurse, other?) & in what setting? (c) Who will obtain informed consent (PI, nurse, other?) & in what setting?
Additional safeguards required for subjects likely to be vulnerable to coercion or Additional safeguards required for subjects likely to be vulnerable to coercion or undue influence. undue influence. (a) Are appropriate protections in place for vulnerable subjects, e.g., pregnant (a) Are appropriate protections in place for vulnerable subjects, e.g., pregnant women, fetuses, socially- or economically-disadvantaged, decisionally- women, fetuses, socially- or economically-disadvantaged, decisionally- impaired? impaired?
Subject privacy & confidentiality are maximized. Subject privacy & confidentiality are maximized. (a) Will personally-identifiable research data be protected to the extent (a) Will personally-identifiable research data be protected to the extent possible from access or use? possible from access or use? (b) Are any special privacy & confidentiality issues properly addressed, e.g., (b) Are any special privacy & confidentiality issues properly addressed, e.g., use of genetic information? use of genetic information?
Figure 8. Informed Consent Figure 8. Informed Consent
A.3 LARGER GOALS OF A HEALTHY TRIBAL COMMUNITY A.3 LARGER GOALS OF A HEALTHY TRIBAL COMMUNITY One of the premises of this guidance manual is that an individual is not healthy One of the premises of this guidance manual is that an individual is not healthy unless the entire tribal community is healthy. John M. Last defines individual human unless the entire tribal community is healthy. John M. Last defines individual human health as health as
a state characterized by anatomic integrity, ability to perform personal, family, a state characterized by anatomic integrity, ability to perform personal, family, work, and community roles; ability to deal with physical, biological, and social work, and community roles; ability to deal with physical, biological, and social stress; a feeling of well-being; and freedom from the risk of disease and stress; a feeling of well-being; and freedom from the risk of disease and untimely death (Last 1998). untimely death (Last 1998).
This definition is broader than the risk-based regulatory approach, which tends to This definition is broader than the risk-based regulatory approach, which tends to equate good health with lack of excessive exposure. More broadly, definitions of equate good health with lack of excessive exposure. More broadly, definitions of health and functionality from the public health literature include a variety of medical health and functionality from the public health literature include a variety of medical and functional measures. However, they may not emphasize the fact that the and functional measures. However, they may not emphasize the fact that the survival and well-being of individuals and indigenous cultures depend on a healthy survival and well-being of individuals and indigenous cultures depend on a healthy environment. Indigenous cultures and their environs are intertwined to a degree that environment. Indigenous cultures and their environs are intertwined to a degree that is usually not accounted for by Western society and scientists when developing risk is usually not accounted for by Western society and scientists when developing risk metrics. The environment constitutes a cultural homeland where the people (and metrics. The environment constitutes a cultural homeland where the people (and their genetics) co-evolved with the ecology over thousands of years. The concepts of their genetics) co-evolved with the ecology over thousands of years. The concepts of health and culture can be combined into a concept of cultural health (healthy health and culture can be combined into a concept of cultural health (healthy individuals functioning in healthy social and cultural systems). individuals functioning in healthy social and cultural systems).
Culture is collective knowledge and systematic unity that gives members a sense of Culture is collective knowledge and systematic unity that gives members a sense of personal identity and cultural anchorage (Greaves 1996). Various definitions of personal identity and cultural anchorage (Greaves 1996). Various definitions of “culture” include social behavior systems, religion, art, material goods, individual and “culture” include social behavior systems, religion, art, material goods, individual and collective health, a land ethic, ways of relating to the environment, and other collective health, a land ethic, ways of relating to the environment, and other Introduction 17 Introduction 17 elements. A culture includes time from the past to the future; religious, economic, elements. A culture includes time from the past to the future; religious, economic, political, communication, and kinship systems, as it is the whole set of learned political, communication, and kinship systems, as it is the whole set of learned behavior patterns common to a group of people; interactive behavior systems; art; behavior patterns common to a group of people; interactive behavior systems; art; material goods; individual and collective health, and the natural resources and material goods; individual and collective health, and the natural resources and environment on which all of this depends (Harris 1998). Figure 9 illustrates this environment on which all of this depends (Harris 1998). Figure 9 illustrates this concept. concept.
ECOSYSTEM ECOSYSTEM • Biodiversity • Biodiversity • Landscapes • Landscapes • Critical Habitat • Critical Habitat
Land = grocery store, school, Land = grocery store, school, church, clinic, living room.... church, clinic, living room.... an “eco-cultural” system an “eco-cultural” system
Ecological RA Ecological RA Foodchain concentrations Foodchain concentrations used to evaluate ecorisk Human Subsistence Uses used to evaluate ecorisk Human Subsistence Uses AND human subsistence • Exposure and health risk AND human subsistence • Exposure and health risk exposure and risk • Socio-Cultural impacts exposure and risk • Socio-Cultural impacts
Figure 9. Cultural Quality of Life Figure 9. Cultural Quality of Life
Tribal elders have explained that traditional indigenous lifestyle and behavior is a Tribal elders have explained that traditional indigenous lifestyle and behavior is a conscious response to environmental observation and that traditional teachings are conscious response to environmental observation and that traditional teachings are a product of rigorous and proven methodology that has guaranteed survival through a product of rigorous and proven methodology that has guaranteed survival through all types of natural cycles. That lifestyle is resilient and has persisted through floods, all types of natural cycles. That lifestyle is resilient and has persisted through floods, droughts, cataclysms, upheavals, and warfare. Ancestors understood the value of droughts, cataclysms, upheavals, and warfare. Ancestors understood the value of systematic observation and used inductive reasoning to determine the most systematic observation and used inductive reasoning to determine the most probable reactions of very complex, interrelated ecosystem functions. The probable reactions of very complex, interrelated ecosystem functions. The application of this science has been distilled into daily practice. This knowledge is application of this science has been distilled into daily practice. This knowledge is still transferred between generations. Education of each generation is not simply a still transferred between generations. Education of each generation is not simply a matter of teaching survival skills, but of teaching an entire way of living. matter of teaching survival skills, but of teaching an entire way of living.
If we think about where people go to fulfill their daily needs for individual and If we think about where people go to fulfill their daily needs for individual and community health, upon which the culture survives and thrives, the difference community health, upon which the culture survives and thrives, the difference between subsistence and suburban lifestyles becomes more apparent (Figure 10). between subsistence and suburban lifestyles becomes more apparent (Figure 10). The suburban lifestyle is geared toward traveling to various specialists and The suburban lifestyle is geared toward traveling to various specialists and structures to obtain medical care, education, groceries, and so on. The ecology is structures to obtain medical care, education, groceries, and so on. The ecology is often seen as something to be appreciated from a distance or by weekend camping, often seen as something to be appreciated from a distance or by weekend camping, Introduction 18 Introduction 18
sightseeing, or other recreation. Conversely, indigenous communities turn to the sightseeing, or other recreation. Conversely, indigenous communities turn to the environment for their medicine, spiritual health care, education, food, and so on. The environment for their medicine, spiritual health care, education, food, and so on. The environment is not a place to visit; but a place to be comfortable in. Tribal members environment is not a place to visit; but a place to be comfortable in. Tribal members look on their environs and landscape as the home, kitchen, living room, grocery look on their environs and landscape as the home, kitchen, living room, grocery store, pharmacy, place of spiritual renewal, role model, advisor, and teacher. store, pharmacy, place of spiritual renewal, role model, advisor, and teacher.
Recreation Recreation Religion Religion
Indigenous people live embedded Indigenous people live embedded within the environment and derive within the environment and derive Education many services from it. They may Education many services from it. They may leave it only to visit “suburbia” to leave it only to visit “suburbia” to Work obtain money. Work obtain money. Food Food
Community Community Medicine Medicine
“Surburbia” “Surburbia”
Recreation Recreation Community Community Education Education
Suburban dwellers consider the Suburban dwellers consider the “environment” as something to be visited “environment” as something to be visited during recreation, and derive most of their during recreation, and derive most of their services from other suburban locations. Medicine Work services from other suburban locations. Medicine Work
Food Religion Food Religion
Figure 10. Where People Go to Fulfill Elements of their Lifestyles Figure 10. Where People Go to Fulfill Elements of their Lifestyles
Over the years, we have tried to find various analogies to illustrate the unitary and Over the years, we have tried to find various analogies to illustrate the unitary and indivisible character of tribal members and their environment. The tendency of indivisible character of tribal members and their environment. The tendency of Western-trained scientists is to divide the problem into its smallest identifiable units, Western-trained scientists is to divide the problem into its smallest identifiable units, study them individually, and then try to reconstruct the meaning and functionality of study them individually, and then try to reconstruct the meaning and functionality of the entire system. Figure 11 is one illustration of concepts that are missed if the the entire system. Figure 11 is one illustration of concepts that are missed if the analysis jumps too quickly to isolated studies. One can study each patch on a soccer analysis jumps too quickly to isolated studies. One can study each patch on a soccer ball, its shape, its composition, and its relation to its neighboring patches; yet ball, its shape, its composition, and its relation to its neighboring patches; yet parameters at the scale of the soccer ball, its inflation pressure, its role in a contest, parameters at the scale of the soccer ball, its inflation pressure, its role in a contest, and the meaning of the contest to the contestants cannot be discerned. Without and the meaning of the contest to the contestants cannot be discerned. Without tribal guidance, the selection of surrogate indicators and the relation of the indicators tribal guidance, the selection of surrogate indicators and the relation of the indicators to the overall culture might be misconstrued (Figure 12). to the overall culture might be misconstrued (Figure 12).
Introduction 19 Introduction 19
Holistic functions and services are more than the Holistic functions and services are more than the sum of individual variables sum of individual variables
• H = human health • H = human health • E = environmental E • E = environmental E • C = cultural • C = cultural • S = social H C • S = social H C • Ec = economic • Ec = economic S Ec S Ec
Figure 11. Example of Holistic versus Fragmented Analysis Figure 11. Example of Holistic versus Fragmented Analysis
Tribal Ecosystem or Ecocultural System Definition of Linkages Tribal Ecosystem or Ecocultural System Definition of Linkages
? C1 ? C1
Concentrations and Species B1 B2 B3 Concentrations and Species B1 B2 B3
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 Species 1 23.4 0 2.4 A2 Species 1 23.4 0 2.4 A2 Species 2 12.5 2435.3 222.8 A1 A2 A3 A4 Species 2 12.5 2435.3 222.8 A1 A2 A3 A4 Species 3 3.5 234.4 23.65 Species 3 3.5 234.4 23.65 Species 4 1 132 0 Simplified Trophic Levels Species 4 1 132 0 Simplified Trophic Levels Culture in a Spreadsheet (surrogates and indicators) Culture in a Spreadsheet (surrogates and indicators)
Figure 12. Deconstructing and Reconstructing Figure 12. Deconstructing and Reconstructing
Introduction 20 Introduction 20
One of the first issues we grappled with when we started working on tribal risk One of the first issues we grappled with when we started working on tribal risk assessment methods in 1995 was the obvious fact that if salmon are contaminated, assessment methods in 1995 was the obvious fact that if salmon are contaminated, more is at stake than simply a risk of excess exposure to humans or fish (Figure 13). more is at stake than simply a risk of excess exposure to humans or fish (Figure 13). Social, educational, and religious activities are also affected. Social, educational, and religious activities are also affected.
If salmon are contaminated... If salmon are contaminated...
What kind of risks What kind of risks and impacts are and impacts are considered in a considered in a risk assessment? risk assessment?
Interconnected components Interconnected components
Media and biotic resources Social and religious Media and biotic resources Social and religious are degraded activities are impaired. are degraded activities are impaired. People are exposed People are exposed through food through food
Figure 13. Impacts of Contaminated Salmon Figure 13. Impacts of Contaminated Salmon
With this realization, it was immediately evident that conventional risk assessment With this realization, it was immediately evident that conventional risk assessment methods do not address all of the things that are at risk in communities and do not methods do not address all of the things that are at risk in communities and do not provide enough information to tell the complete story or answer the questions that provide enough information to tell the complete story or answer the questions that people ask about risks to their community, health, resource base, and way of life. people ask about risks to their community, health, resource base, and way of life. The full span of risks and impacts needs to be evaluated within the risk assessment The full span of risks and impacts needs to be evaluated within the risk assessment framework in order for cumulative risks to be adequately characterized. This is in framework in order for cumulative risks to be adequately characterized. This is in contrast to a more typical process of evaluating risks to human health and ecological contrast to a more typical process of evaluating risks to human health and ecological resources within the risk assessment phase and deferring the evaluation of risks to resources within the risk assessment phase and deferring the evaluation of risks to socio-cultural and socioeconomic resources until the risk management phase socio-cultural and socioeconomic resources until the risk management phase (National Research Council 1994, 1996; President’s Commission 1997). (National Research Council 1994, 1996; President’s Commission 1997).
Figure 14 illustrates the conventional method for evaluating risks to human health Figure 14 illustrates the conventional method for evaluating risks to human health and additional steps that we believe are beneficial. Because many communities and additional steps that we believe are beneficial. Because many communities need such additional information, the Environmental Protection Agency developed a need such additional information, the Environmental Protection Agency developed a Comparative Risk method over a decade ago for adding a community welfare or Comparative Risk method over a decade ago for adding a community welfare or quality of life component (EPA 1993). We have modified this concept to reflect quality of life component (EPA 1993). We have modified this concept to reflect Introduction 21 Introduction 21 traditional tribal cultural values as well as secular or social community aspects that traditional tribal cultural values as well as secular or social community aspects that apply to suburban communities, as well as to tribal communities (Harper et al. 1995, apply to suburban communities, as well as to tribal communities (Harper et al. 1995, Harper and Harris 2000). We envisioned three or four components to the risk Harper and Harris 2000). We envisioned three or four components to the risk assessment process: human health (using appropriate exposure scenarios), assessment process: human health (using appropriate exposure scenarios), ecological health, and socio-cultural/socioeconomic health, all of which are elements ecological health, and socio-cultural/socioeconomic health, all of which are elements of the overall eco-cultural system (Figures 14 and 15). of the overall eco-cultural system (Figures 14 and 15).
Identify what is “At Risk” Identify what is “At Risk” - Resources at risk - Resources at risk - Human systems and uses at risk • New first step in CERCLA - Human systems and uses at risk • New first step in CERCLA - Existing Stressors risk assessments - more of a - Existing Stressors risk assessments - more of a NEPA or ecorisk approach. NEPA or ecorisk approach.
Hazard Identification Hazard Identification - probability - probability -severity -severity
Fate and Transport Fate and Transport - contamination of media, - contamination of media, - contamination of resources - contamination of resources
Ecological Human Cultural Ecological Human Cultural Exposure Exposure Exposure Exposure Exposure Exposure
Ecological toxicity Human toxicity and Cultural toxicity Ecological toxicity Human toxicity and Cultural toxicity and sensitivity sensitivity and sensitivity and sensitivity sensitivity and sensitivity
• Risk = exposure x sensitivity • Risk = exposure x sensitivity • There is such as thing as • There is such as thing as Characterize Risk Characterize Risk Cultural Exposure and Toxicity. Cultural Exposure and Toxicity. to the Affected People and to the Affected People and their Eco-cultural Systems their Eco-cultural Systems
Characterization of Cumulative Risks requires that all risks and impacts Characterization of Cumulative Risks requires that all risks and impacts be included within the risk assessment framework. be included within the risk assessment framework.
Figure 14. The Broader View of Risk Assessment with Three Components Figure 14. The Broader View of Risk Assessment with Three Components
Introduction 22 Introduction 22
Affected Resources Affected Resources and Systems and Systems
Source and Release Source and Release
Transport and Fate Transport and Fate
Environmental Contamination Environmental Contamination
Ecological Economic Ecological Economic impacts impacts impacts impacts
Human Social & Human Social & Health Cultural Health Cultural impacts impacts impacts impacts
Figure 15. The Broader View of Risk Assessment with Four Components Figure 15. The Broader View of Risk Assessment with Four Components
Figures 15 and 16 show four categories of functions provided by an original Figures 15 and 16 show four categories of functions provided by an original undisturbed environment, functions that contribute to individual and community undisturbed environment, functions that contribute to individual and community health. Impacts to any of these functions can adversely affect health. Metrics health. Impacts to any of these functions can adversely affect health. Metrics associated with impacts within each of these categories are presented in Harper and associated with impacts within each of these categories are presented in Harper and Harris (1999). Harris (1999).
• Human Health-Related Goods and Services: This category includes the • Human Health-Related Goods and Services: This category includes the provision of water, air, food, and native medicines. In a tribal subsistence provision of water, air, food, and native medicines. In a tribal subsistence situation, the land provided all the food and medicine that was necessary to situation, the land provided all the food and medicine that was necessary to enjoy long and healthy lives. From a risk perspective, those goods and enjoy long and healthy lives. From a risk perspective, those goods and services can also be exposure pathways. services can also be exposure pathways. • Environmental Functions and Services: This category includes • Environmental Functions and Services: This category includes environmental functions such as soil stabilization and the human services that environmental functions such as soil stabilization and the human services that this provides, such as erosion control or dust reduction. Dust control in turn this provides, such as erosion control or dust reduction. Dust control in turn would provide a human health service related to asthma reduction. would provide a human health service related to asthma reduction. Environmental functions such as nutrient production and plant cover would Environmental functions such as nutrient production and plant cover would provide wildlife services such as shelter, nesting areas, and food, which in provide wildlife services such as shelter, nesting areas, and food, which in turn might contribute to the health of a species important to ecotourism. turn might contribute to the health of a species important to ecotourism. Ecological risk assessment includes narrow examination of exposure Ecological risk assessment includes narrow examination of exposure pathways to biota as well as examination of impacts to the quality of pathways to biota as well as examination of impacts to the quality of ecosystems and the services provided by individual biota, ecosystems, and ecosystems and the services provided by individual biota, ecosystems, and ecology. ecology. • Social and Cultural Goods, Functions, Services, and Uses: This category • Social and Cultural Goods, Functions, Services, and Uses: This category includes many things valued by suburban and tribal communities about includes many things valued by suburban and tribal communities about Introduction 23 Introduction 23
particular places or resources associated with intact ecosystems and particular places or resources associated with intact ecosystems and landscapes. Some values are common to all communities, such as the landscapes. Some values are common to all communities, such as the aesthetics of undeveloped areas, intrinsic existence value, environmental aesthetics of undeveloped areas, intrinsic existence value, environmental education, and so on. education, and so on. • Economic Goods and Services: This category includes conventional dollar- • Economic Goods and Services: This category includes conventional dollar- based items such as jobs, education, health care, housing, and so on. There based items such as jobs, education, health care, housing, and so on. There is also a parallel non-dollar indigenous economy that provides the same types is also a parallel non-dollar indigenous economy that provides the same types of services, including employment (i.e., the functional role of individuals in of services, including employment (i.e., the functional role of individuals in maintaining the functional community and ensuring its survival), shelter maintaining the functional community and ensuring its survival), shelter (house sites, construction materials), education (intergenerational knowledge (house sites, construction materials), education (intergenerational knowledge required to ensure sustainable survival throughout time and maintain personal required to ensure sustainable survival throughout time and maintain personal and community identity), commerce (barter items and stability of extended and community identity), commerce (barter items and stability of extended trade networks), hospitality, energy (fuel), transportation (land and water trade networks), hospitality, energy (fuel), transportation (land and water travel, waystops, navigational guides), recreation (scenic visitation areas), travel, waystops, navigational guides), recreation (scenic visitation areas), and economic support for specialized roles such as religious leaders and and economic support for specialized roles such as religious leaders and teachers. teachers.
QualityQuality of of Life Life System System QualityQuality of of Life Life System System
Stories, Values, Lifestyles, Treaties, Sources of Identity Stories, Values, Lifestyles, Treaties, Sources of Identity
Health Environment Social, Cultural Economic Health Environment Social, Cultural Economic Affected Environment, Affected Environment, Affected Existingor original quality Existingor original quality
Culturally-relevant Treaty Resources, Cultural resources, Economic services Culturally-relevant Treaty Resources, Cultural resources, Economic services exposure scenario, Media, Biota Cultural activities, (food, shelter, jobs, exposure scenario, Media, Biota Cultural activities, (food, shelter, jobs, Health effects selected Relevant species, Ceremonial uses, education, etc.), Health effects selected Relevant species, Ceremonial uses, education, etc.), by the tribe, Ecosystems and cycles, Social indicators, Valuation of by the tribe, Ecosystems and cycles, Social indicators, Valuation of Multigeneration and Habitats, Watersheds Language, natural resources, Multigeneration and Habitats, Watersheds Language, natural resources, population effects, TCP, Landscapes, Rights and Access, Costs to avoid, population effects, TCP, Landscapes, Rights and Access, Costs to avoid, Functionality Functions and services “Values” mitigate or repair Functionality Functions and services “Values” mitigate or repair
Ethno-Habitats or Eco-Cultural Systems; Ethno-Habitats or Eco-Cultural Systems; Overall Health, Well-being, Quality of Life Overall Health, Well-being, Quality of Life Selection of Metrics, of Selection Metrics, of Selection
Characterize risks to each traditional or cultural Characterize risks to each traditional or cultural Assessment of risks and impacts impacts and of risks Assessment way of life and community health using impacts and of risks Assessment way of life and community health using measured or predicted impacts and co-risk factors. measured or predicted impacts and co-risk factors.
AESE, Inc. AESE, Inc.
Figure 16. Categories of Environmental Functions Contributing to Individual Figure 16. Categories of Environmental Functions Contributing to Individual and Community Health and Community Health
Introduction 24 Introduction 24
B SCENARIO METHODS B SCENARIO METHODS
B.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF SCENARIO AND APPROACH B.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF SCENARIO AND APPROACH In order to evaluate risks to environmental contamination, the amount of exposure to In order to evaluate risks to environmental contamination, the amount of exposure to potentially contaminated air, water, soil, and food must be known. The core potentially contaminated air, water, soil, and food must be known. The core component of exposure assessment is the exposure scenario. component of exposure assessment is the exposure scenario.
An exposure scenario describes a set of activities and diet(s) that compose a An exposure scenario describes a set of activities and diet(s) that compose a lifestyle and its frequency, intensity, and duration of environmental contact. When lifestyle and its frequency, intensity, and duration of environmental contact. When developing a cross-cultural scenario, and tribal subsistence scenarios in particular, developing a cross-cultural scenario, and tribal subsistence scenarios in particular, several misunderstandings can arise. Risk assessors who are unfamiliar with tribes several misunderstandings can arise. Risk assessors who are unfamiliar with tribes may think that everyone lives a suburban lifestyle with extra game and fish, and may think that everyone lives a suburban lifestyle with extra game and fish, and cultural activities or ceremonies on the weekend (Figure 17). As we have discussed, cultural activities or ceremonies on the weekend (Figure 17). As we have discussed, this is incorrect. However, if this is the mental model that the risk assessor has, then this is incorrect. However, if this is the mental model that the risk assessor has, then the development of the scenario will be from a perspective of making minor the development of the scenario will be from a perspective of making minor modifications to a conventional scenario and conventional diet. modifications to a conventional scenario and conventional diet.
“Subsistence” is a way of life “Subsistence” is a way of life
Wrong Mental Models Wrong Analytical Methods Wrong Mental Models Wrong Analytical Methods • ‘Culture’ is not an optional lifestyle choice; it is identity • ‘Culture’ is not an optional lifestyle choice; it is identity • Cultural risk is not supplemental recreational or ceremonial activities. • Cultural risk is not supplemental recreational or ceremonial activities. • Cultural risk is not a byproduct of “real risk” • Cultural risk is not a byproduct of “real risk” • Lives are not 90 % secular and 10% religious, so • Lives are not 90 % secular and 10% religious, so cleaning up to regain most of the original use does not cleaning up to regain most of the original use does not restore most of the culture; all of the culture is affected. restore most of the culture; all of the culture is affected.
Figure 17. Misunderstandings Common to Tribal Risk Assessment Figure 17. Misunderstandings Common to Tribal Risk Assessment
The scenarios we are presenting in this document lie at the intersection of The scenarios we are presenting in this document lie at the intersection of conventional risk assessment, ecological settings, and the anthropological or conventional risk assessment, ecological settings, and the anthropological or ethnographic literature (Figure 18). ethnographic literature (Figure 18).
The ethnographic literature is not generally accessed by risk assessors, but is The ethnographic literature is not generally accessed by risk assessors, but is essential to the development of tribal eco-cultural scenarios. The basic premise is essential to the development of tribal eco-cultural scenarios. The basic premise is that we want to develop the scenario to reflect traditional, subsistence, and/or that we want to develop the scenario to reflect traditional, subsistence, and/or contact-era lifestyles that match environmental protection and restoration goals and contact-era lifestyles that match environmental protection and restoration goals and support traditional uses of the natural resources. support traditional uses of the natural resources.
Introduction 25 Introduction 25
Tribal Scenarios or Exposure Factors Tribal Scenarios or Exposure Factors are at the intersection of three areas: are at the intersection of three areas:
What natural What natural resources are resources are present in the local present in the local Anthropology or Environment; what is Anthropology or Environment; what is Ecology culturally Ecology culturally Ethnography important Ethnography important Describing Describing Traditional Lifeways Traditional Lifeways With Natural With Natural Resource uses. Resource uses. Toxicology or Toxicology or Risk Assessment Risk Assessment How are people exposed, How are people exposed, What is the diet, what is What is the diet, what is the frequency, duration, and the frequency, duration, and Intensity of environmental contact. Intensity of environmental contact.
Figure 18. Information for Building a Tribal Scenario Figure 18. Information for Building a Tribal Scenario
The overall methods include using information from all these types of literature. The The overall methods include using information from all these types of literature. The general sequence of steps is general sequence of steps is
1. Describing eco-cultural zones (the environmental setting); 1. Describing eco-cultural zones (the environmental setting); 2. Determining general resource use and unique tribal exposure pathways, such 2. Determining general resource use and unique tribal exposure pathways, such as hunting, gathering, fishing, making material items, and engaging in other as hunting, gathering, fishing, making material items, and engaging in other cultural activities; cultural activities; 3. Reconstructing an original subsistence diet using multiple lines of evidence; 3. Reconstructing an original subsistence diet using multiple lines of evidence; 4. Identifying direct exposure factors (frequency, intensity, duration) and 4. Identifying direct exposure factors (frequency, intensity, duration) and resource use, and resource use, and 5. Quantifying exposure factors into metrics that can be used in CERCLA risk 5. Quantifying exposure factors into metrics that can be used in CERCLA risk assessments. assessments.
Note that we are not trying to describe a contemporary lifestyle with a food Note that we are not trying to describe a contemporary lifestyle with a food consumption survey. Rather, we are trying to help tribes regain their original natural consumption survey. Rather, we are trying to help tribes regain their original natural and healthier lifestyles by describing them accurately. and healthier lifestyles by describing them accurately.
When developing an exposure scenario for the general U.S. population, there are When developing an exposure scenario for the general U.S. population, there are national databases available for exposure factors (e.g., diet and human activity data) national databases available for exposure factors (e.g., diet and human activity data) that have been summarized in the EPA guidance.3 that have been summarized in the EPA guidance.3
3 U.S. EPA. Exposure Factors Handbook (1997) http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/ and 3 U.S. EPA. Exposure Factors Handbook (1997) http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/ and Guidelines for Exposure Assessment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Assessment Guidelines for Exposure Assessment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC, 600Z-92/001 (1992) Forum, Washington, DC, 600Z-92/001 (1992) http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/raf/recordisplay.cfm?deid=15263 http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/raf/recordisplay.cfm?deid=15263 Introduction 26 Introduction 26
In the case of tribal exposure scenarios, there are no tribal-specific databases of In the case of tribal exposure scenarios, there are no tribal-specific databases of subsistence activities, resources, or diets as there are for the general United States subsistence activities, resources, or diets as there are for the general United States population. Cross-sectional surveys of most contemporary tribal populations will not population. Cross-sectional surveys of most contemporary tribal populations will not generate that data because much resource use is currently suppressed due to loss generate that data because much resource use is currently suppressed due to loss of land and access, awareness of contamination, and other reasons. Further, tribal of land and access, awareness of contamination, and other reasons. Further, tribal communities often include people who rely largely on the natural environment and communities often include people who rely largely on the natural environment and others who participate in the Western economic system. This means that large others who participate in the Western economic system. This means that large statistical distributions for true subsistence exposure factors are not available and statistical distributions for true subsistence exposure factors are not available and cannot be developed. Rather, an ethnographic and eco-cultural approach was taken cannot be developed. Rather, an ethnographic and eco-cultural approach was taken to describe these lifestyles (Figure 19). to describe these lifestyles (Figure 19).
The amount of information extracted from the literature and from interviews with The amount of information extracted from the literature and from interviews with tribal members can be overwhelming. One of the first questions is the level of detail tribal members can be overwhelming. One of the first questions is the level of detail that is needed to (a) completely represent major components of the lifestyle and a that is needed to (a) completely represent major components of the lifestyle and a calorically complete diet, yet (b) match the level of detail that is used in the risk calorically complete diet, yet (b) match the level of detail that is used in the risk assessment process. We feel that it is difficult to reconstruct the entire diet by asking assessment process. We feel that it is difficult to reconstruct the entire diet by asking questions about every food item, or to reconstruct an entire average lifestyle by questions about every food item, or to reconstruct an entire average lifestyle by learning about everywhere people go and everything they do. learning about everywhere people go and everything they do.
Catalog or Inventory Holistic Overview Catalog or Inventory Holistic Overview Approach: Approach: Approach: Approach:
Lists of every plant eaten Major food groups with Lists of every plant eaten Major food groups with with amounts of each; total calorie estimates with amounts of each; total calorie estimates
Lists of “important” Indicators & Surrogates, Lists of “important” Indicators & Surrogates, species (typically >200); start with ecological web. species (typically >200); start with ecological web.
Lists of every place visited; General understanding of Lists of every place visited; General understanding of cultural activities for cultural activities for Statistical surveys and development of Statistical surveys and development of “real” tribal data. exposure factors “real” tribal data. exposure factors
Intrusive, data-intensive, Less probablistic but more Intrusive, data-intensive, Less probablistic but more always incomplete. complete and accurate. always incomplete. complete and accurate.
Harris & Harper Harris & Harper Figure 19. Two Approaches to Tribal Risk Assessment Figure 19. Two Approaches to Tribal Risk Assessment
B.2 ETHNOGRAPHIC AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL METHODS B.2 ETHNOGRAPHIC AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL METHODS B.2.1 Ethnohistory, Anthropology, and Multiple Lines of Evidence B.2.1 Ethnohistory, Anthropology, and Multiple Lines of Evidence Even though tribal lands have been lost and resources degraded, the objective of Even though tribal lands have been lost and resources degraded, the objective of many tribes is to regain land, restore resources, and encourage more members to many tribes is to regain land, restore resources, and encourage more members to practice healthier (i.e., more traditional) lifestyles and eat healthier (i.e., more native practice healthier (i.e., more traditional) lifestyles and eat healthier (i.e., more native Introduction 27 Introduction 27 and local whole) food. Therefore, the objective of subsistence exposure scenarios is and local whole) food. Therefore, the objective of subsistence exposure scenarios is to describe original lifestyles and resource uses. It is not to present a snapshot of to describe original lifestyles and resource uses. It is not to present a snapshot of contemporary restricted or suppressed uses, because the intent is to restore the contemporary restricted or suppressed uses, because the intent is to restore the ecology so that the original pattern of resource use is both possible (after resources ecology so that the original pattern of resource use is both possible (after resources are restored) and safe (after contamination is removed). Thus, the use of historical, are restored) and safe (after contamination is removed). Thus, the use of historical, archaeological, and ethnological data is required to identify the exact nature of these archaeological, and ethnological data is required to identify the exact nature of these past resource uses. past resource uses.
The exposure scenario reflects a traditional subsistence lifestyle. “Subsistence” The exposure scenario reflects a traditional subsistence lifestyle. “Subsistence” refers to the hunting, fishing, and gathering activities that are fundamental to the way refers to the hunting, fishing, and gathering activities that are fundamental to the way of life of many indigenous peoples. Subsistence utilizes traditional and modern of life of many indigenous peoples. Subsistence utilizes traditional and modern technologies for harvesting and preserving foods as well as for distributing the technologies for harvesting and preserving foods as well as for distributing the produce through communal networks of sharing and bartering. produce through communal networks of sharing and bartering.
In general our steps for reconstructing subsistence diets have been to: In general our steps for reconstructing subsistence diets have been to:
1. Review ecological and foraging information specific to the tribe, and the local 1. Review ecological and foraging information specific to the tribe, and the local ecosystem(s); ecosystem(s); 2. Review interviews and other archaeological and ethnographic sources for 2. Review interviews and other archaeological and ethnographic sources for supporting information of species and abundance, habitat types, human supporting information of species and abundance, habitat types, human activity levels, and methods of obtaining, preparing, and using resources; activity levels, and methods of obtaining, preparing, and using resources; 3. Develop overall percentages of major food categories and major staples 3. Develop overall percentages of major food categories and major staples within the total diet; within the total diet; 4. Estimate calories provided by the diet, and compare estimates of percentages 4. Estimate calories provided by the diet, and compare estimates of percentages of quantities and percentages of calories, and of quantities and percentages of calories, and 5. Refine estimates of major staples and food categories after considering 5. Refine estimates of major staples and food categories after considering information about medicines, sweeteners, other often-overlooked information about medicines, sweeteners, other often-overlooked food/medicine types, and other factors. food/medicine types, and other factors.
Steps 1 and 2 require engaging different forms of anthropology, ethnohistory, and Steps 1 and 2 require engaging different forms of anthropology, ethnohistory, and archaeology. In particular, ethnohistorical approaches, when combined with other archaeology. In particular, ethnohistorical approaches, when combined with other forms of data, some of which are geographic, offer the most insight into past forms of data, some of which are geographic, offer the most insight into past subsistence lifestyles. While ethnohistory was originally founded as a discipline to subsistence lifestyles. While ethnohistory was originally founded as a discipline to write the history of peoples without their own documentary past, it has since evolved write the history of peoples without their own documentary past, it has since evolved into a way of critiquing documentary histories and supplanting them with fuller, more into a way of critiquing documentary histories and supplanting them with fuller, more accurate accounts (see Krech 1991). As noted historian Richard White (1998) points accurate accounts (see Krech 1991). As noted historian Richard White (1998) points out, ethnohistorical approaches, when done correctly, are hybrid in nature—they out, ethnohistorical approaches, when done correctly, are hybrid in nature—they confront documents that preserve complementary perspectives based on different confront documents that preserve complementary perspectives based on different cultural premises, represent conflicting realities, rooted in different epistemologies, cultural premises, represent conflicting realities, rooted in different epistemologies, and bring these two types of data together for a fuller picture of history. See Figures and bring these two types of data together for a fuller picture of history. See Figures 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24 for visualizations of how cultural uses reflect the underlying 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24 for visualizations of how cultural uses reflect the underlying ecological setting. ecological setting.
Introduction 28 Introduction 28
http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm
Figure 20. Level I EPA Ecoregions Figure 20. Level I EPA Ecoregions
Introduction 29 Introduction 29
Figure 21. Culture Areas (after Waldman 2000) Figure 21. Culture Areas (after Waldman 2000)
Introduction 30 Introduction 30
Figure 22. Dominant Materials Used for Non-cooking Containers (after Driver Figure 22. Dominant Materials Used for Non-cooking Containers (after Driver and Massey 1957) and Massey 1957)
Introduction 31 Introduction 31
Figure 23. Dominant Subsistence Food Categories (after Driver and Massey Figure 23. Dominant Subsistence Food Categories (after Driver and Massey 1957) 1957)
Introduction 32 Introduction 32
Figure 24. Important Subsistence Foods (after Driver and Massey 1957) Figure 24. Important Subsistence Foods (after Driver and Massey 1957)
Introduction 33 Introduction 33
One exciting challenge for us has been to combine the various forms of data (from One exciting challenge for us has been to combine the various forms of data (from faunal analyses and bone isotopes to first hand explorer accounts, documentary faunal analyses and bone isotopes to first hand explorer accounts, documentary history, and ethnography) into one cohesive, verifiable whole, and there have been history, and ethnography) into one cohesive, verifiable whole, and there have been great rewards in our methodology. great rewards in our methodology.
Our approach is similar to the methods defined by renowned historian Patricia Our approach is similar to the methods defined by renowned historian Patricia Galloway (2006), who sees that archaeology, ethnohistory, oral tradition, first hand Galloway (2006), who sees that archaeology, ethnohistory, oral tradition, first hand accounts, and ethnography can come together in a “convergence of several lines of accounts, and ethnography can come together in a “convergence of several lines of evidence” (Galloway 2006). We are influenced by predecessors in ethnohistory, evidence” (Galloway 2006). We are influenced by predecessors in ethnohistory, because we believe, like Bruce Trigger, that succeeding “ethnohistorians have because we believe, like Bruce Trigger, that succeeding “ethnohistorians have pioneered the use of more recent ethnographic data to reveal biases and pioneered the use of more recent ethnographic data to reveal biases and inaccuracies in the historical record and to make possible the interpretation of native inaccuracies in the historical record and to make possible the interpretation of native behavior in the absence of any independent documentation of native viewpoints” behavior in the absence of any independent documentation of native viewpoints” (Trigger 1986). Thus, we have often combined more recent (usually late 19th century (Trigger 1986). Thus, we have often combined more recent (usually late 19th century and early 20th century) ethnographic accounts of subsistence lifestyles with contact and early 20th century) ethnographic accounts of subsistence lifestyles with contact period first-hand accounts and late pre-contact and contact period archaeological period first-hand accounts and late pre-contact and contact period archaeological data. This approach is slightly more difficult when the first-hand accounts are distant data. This approach is slightly more difficult when the first-hand accounts are distant in time from the ethnographic data, as is the case in much of the eastern part of in time from the ethnographic data, as is the case in much of the eastern part of North America. But first-hand accounts can still be valuable sources of information, North America. But first-hand accounts can still be valuable sources of information, since the colonial documents are often more sustained and diverse (from many since the colonial documents are often more sustained and diverse (from many different national sources) in this geographic area. different national sources) in this geographic area.
Of course, creating this convergence is not simple, and requires a way of Of course, creating this convergence is not simple, and requires a way of contextualizing each of these forms of knowledge, including the documents of first- contextualizing each of these forms of knowledge, including the documents of first- hand accounts and ethnography. As Galloway points out, this convergence is best hand accounts and ethnography. As Galloway points out, this convergence is best done when we come to the “understanding of the [historical] document as an artifact done when we come to the “understanding of the [historical] document as an artifact of a process…and that archaeology itself is going to help judge its truth” (Galloway of a process…and that archaeology itself is going to help judge its truth” (Galloway 2006). Thus, when using archaeological evidence with first hand accounts, oral 2006). Thus, when using archaeological evidence with first hand accounts, oral tradition, and ethnography we must be cognizant of the context of production—why tradition, and ethnography we must be cognizant of the context of production—why a document was preserved or a study performed in the first place, and what the a document was preserved or a study performed in the first place, and what the motivations were in recording the facts. This is not to say that the evidence in these motivations were in recording the facts. This is not to say that the evidence in these documents is not true or accurate, but that when they are brought together they can documents is not true or accurate, but that when they are brought together they can paint a deeper and more verifiable picture of past cultures. paint a deeper and more verifiable picture of past cultures.
One key question of our scenarios is what period to focus on for the subsistence One key question of our scenarios is what period to focus on for the subsistence diet, because Native cultures, like other cultures, are dynamic, creative, and respond diet, because Native cultures, like other cultures, are dynamic, creative, and respond to changes in climate and environment as well as internal preferences. In general, to changes in climate and environment as well as internal preferences. In general, we usually focus on the early treaty period, which usually happens near the time of we usually focus on the early treaty period, which usually happens near the time of initial contact with Europeans (of course this can be anywhere from the 17th century initial contact with Europeans (of course this can be anywhere from the 17th century to the 19th century, depending on the Native group). The reasons for this are many— to the 19th century, depending on the Native group). The reasons for this are many— rights to resources are usually guaranteed in these agreements, first-hand accounts rights to resources are usually guaranteed in these agreements, first-hand accounts are generally available, allowing for multiple lines of evidence, and the resources are generally available, allowing for multiple lines of evidence, and the resources themselves are usually not degraded at this time in history. themselves are usually not degraded at this time in history.
Our uses of archaeological data have been heavily influenced by approaches in Our uses of archaeological data have been heavily influenced by approaches in ethno-archaeology that use community-based experts to comment on sites and ethno-archaeology that use community-based experts to comment on sites and Introduction 34 Introduction 34
previously published reports (see Kelly 1986)—this approach has also influenced previously published reports (see Kelly 1986)—this approach has also influenced our research protocol (see section on research ethics below). We find this method our research protocol (see section on research ethics below). We find this method meshes well with our use of ethnohistory, in that each has its own strengths and meshes well with our use of ethnohistory, in that each has its own strengths and weaknesses. As Bruce Trigger points out, “archaeology is not merely a deficient or weaknesses. As Bruce Trigger points out, “archaeology is not merely a deficient or denatured copy of ethnology, as many ethnologists have assumed it to be, but a denatured copy of ethnology, as many ethnologists have assumed it to be, but a complementary discipline that is capable of providing information about cultural complementary discipline that is capable of providing information about cultural change that ethnology cannot” (Trigger 1986). change that ethnology cannot” (Trigger 1986).
Each geographic and cultural context requires a different mixture of data, and we Each geographic and cultural context requires a different mixture of data, and we recommend that researchers understand not only the resource and cultural history of recommend that researchers understand not only the resource and cultural history of a particular tribal group, but also the history of research in that area. In one example a particular tribal group, but also the history of research in that area. In one example we found that the amount of hunting and fishing gear in archaeological evidence, the we found that the amount of hunting and fishing gear in archaeological evidence, the seasonal round as identified in ethnography and archaeology, the settlement pattern seasonal round as identified in ethnography and archaeology, the settlement pattern relative to known resources, human bone isotope ratios, pollen profiles over time, relative to known resources, human bone isotope ratios, pollen profiles over time, and so on gave a fairly accurate structure of a diet (Sanger 1988). This information and so on gave a fairly accurate structure of a diet (Sanger 1988). This information was then supplemented with early first-hand and ethnological accounts on the was then supplemented with early first-hand and ethnological accounts on the amount of food needed to feed a certain number of men for a winter season, with the amount of food needed to feed a certain number of men for a winter season, with the relative abundance of certain wild foods that were brought in for trade. Whatever the relative abundance of certain wild foods that were brought in for trade. Whatever the mixture of data, we maintain that the highest standards of science are used, and this mixture of data, we maintain that the highest standards of science are used, and this is most ensured by obtaining multiple lines of evidence. is most ensured by obtaining multiple lines of evidence.
B.2.2 Research Ethics, Indigenous People, and Ground-Truthing B.2.2 Research Ethics, Indigenous People, and Ground-Truthing Using multiple lines of evidence not only creates better knowledge for environmental Using multiple lines of evidence not only creates better knowledge for environmental managers to protect subsistence lifestyles; it also creates and maintains better managers to protect subsistence lifestyles; it also creates and maintains better relations between scientists (both Native and non-Native) and Native communities. relations between scientists (both Native and non-Native) and Native communities. While our studies aim to protect traditional lifestyles, it is arrogant to ignore our part While our studies aim to protect traditional lifestyles, it is arrogant to ignore our part in a colonial history in which scientific study has harmed indigenous people and their in a colonial history in which scientific study has harmed indigenous people and their ways of life. In fact, even when researchers work for tribal communities, local ways of life. In fact, even when researchers work for tribal communities, local indigenous citizens often worry about the research and question why it is being indigenous citizens often worry about the research and question why it is being done, who it is for, and how it has been designed (Smith 1999). As Maori scholar done, who it is for, and how it has been designed (Smith 1999). As Maori scholar and activist Linda Tuhiwai Smith points out, “anthropology made the study of Others, and activist Linda Tuhiwai Smith points out, “anthropology made the study of Others, colonized peoples, its primary area, but other disciplines were employed in the colonized peoples, its primary area, but other disciplines were employed in the practices of imperialism in less direct but far more devastating ways” (Smith 1999). practices of imperialism in less direct but far more devastating ways” (Smith 1999). The use of research in the colonization of indigenous peoples is understood in most The use of research in the colonization of indigenous peoples is understood in most Native communities, but it can be overcome by being more collaborative and Native communities, but it can be overcome by being more collaborative and inclusive—in these contexts, stakeholder input into scientific production will result in inclusive—in these contexts, stakeholder input into scientific production will result in more accurate and more sustainable science. Again, as Smith points out, more accurate and more sustainable science. Again, as Smith points out, “decolonization does not mean and has not meant a total rejection of all theory or “decolonization does not mean and has not meant a total rejection of all theory or research or Western knowledge. Rather, it is about centering our concerns and research or Western knowledge. Rather, it is about centering our concerns and world views and then coming to know and understand theory and research from our world views and then coming to know and understand theory and research from our own perspectives and for our own purposes” (Smith 1999). own perspectives and for our own purposes” (Smith 1999).
Ideally, therefore, our findings on subsistence lifestyles have impacts for Ideally, therefore, our findings on subsistence lifestyles have impacts for environmental managers beyond their immediate reports. We acknowledge that environmental managers beyond their immediate reports. We acknowledge that historical reports are often irrelevant to indigenous people because “history does not historical reports are often irrelevant to indigenous people because “history does not usually deal with what they really value about their native cultures: their language, usually deal with what they really value about their native cultures: their language, Introduction 35 Introduction 35 religions, oral traditions, arts, and kin networks” (Ortiz 1988). Moreover, we realize religions, oral traditions, arts, and kin networks” (Ortiz 1988). Moreover, we realize that our reports will not be seen as discreet academic products with specific means that our reports will not be seen as discreet academic products with specific means and ends by tribal community members. As Angela Wilson points out, and ends by tribal community members. As Angela Wilson points out,
Our role as historians should be to examine as many perspectives as Our role as historians should be to examine as many perspectives as possible. But, the greatest lessons of these stories are to the young people, possible. But, the greatest lessons of these stories are to the young people, the children, and the grandchildren of the elders and storytellers, who will gain the children, and the grandchildren of the elders and storytellers, who will gain an understanding of where they come from, who they are, and what is an understanding of where they come from, who they are, and what is expected of them as a Dine, as an Apache, as a Laguna, as a Choctaw, and expected of them as a Dine, as an Apache, as a Laguna, as a Choctaw, and as a Dakota (Wilson 1998). as a Dakota (Wilson 1998).
Therefore, as researchers, we do not pretend our research exists in a vacuum of Therefore, as researchers, we do not pretend our research exists in a vacuum of academic or scientific protocol. Our work has potential political impacts, and we academic or scientific protocol. Our work has potential political impacts, and we believe, following anthropologist Peter Whitely (1997), that we consider and address believe, following anthropologist Peter Whitely (1997), that we consider and address the effects of disseminating our studies and attend to and conform to the interests of the effects of disseminating our studies and attend to and conform to the interests of the local communities in constructing our research projects. By doing this, we can the local communities in constructing our research projects. By doing this, we can make sustainable research connections with Native communities as well as meet make sustainable research connections with Native communities as well as meet their specific needs in both the short and long term (Ranco 2006). their specific needs in both the short and long term (Ranco 2006).
Most of our work has not involved sustained, direct interviews regarding cultural Most of our work has not involved sustained, direct interviews regarding cultural knowledge about resources (due to time and resource issues, we have focused on knowledge about resources (due to time and resource issues, we have focused on scientific evidence already in the public domain), but this has not prevented us from scientific evidence already in the public domain), but this has not prevented us from engaging community members, from gaining their input on the scientific evidence engaging community members, from gaining their input on the scientific evidence that founds the exposure scenario. Our self-conscious approach to collaboration (in that founds the exposure scenario. Our self-conscious approach to collaboration (in consideration of science’s role in colonization) has meant that we create many consideration of science’s role in colonization) has meant that we create many opportunities for feedback in the scientific process. One example of such a feedback opportunities for feedback in the scientific process. One example of such a feedback loop can be seen below (Figure 25). loop can be seen below (Figure 25).
Figure 25. Ecological and Anthropological Review Process (Fred Corey, Figure 25. Ecological and Anthropological Review Process (Fred Corey, Aroostook Band of Micmacs) Aroostook Band of Micmacs)
Introduction 36 Introduction 36
Figure 25 shows our concern for tribal input and review, especially in the data Figure 25 shows our concern for tribal input and review, especially in the data gathering part of the exposure scenario process. We are committed to the notion gathering part of the exposure scenario process. We are committed to the notion that all cultural and historical evidence be at least commented on by tribal cultural that all cultural and historical evidence be at least commented on by tribal cultural and natural resource personnel and elders. We also believe that tribal governmental and natural resource personnel and elders. We also believe that tribal governmental approval endorsing the study happen early on in the process, so that tribal personnel approval endorsing the study happen early on in the process, so that tribal personnel will have a mandate to engage the research as it occurs, not after-the-fact. Again, will have a mandate to engage the research as it occurs, not after-the-fact. Again, this process allows for better science, as community-based experts have the this process allows for better science, as community-based experts have the opportunity to critique scientific evidence already in the public domain—this is opportunity to critique scientific evidence already in the public domain—this is captured by the feedback loop between “Data Gathered by Anthropologists” and captured by the feedback loop between “Data Gathered by Anthropologists” and “Tribal Review” in Figure 25. For quality control purposes, we also have “Tribal Review” in Figure 25. For quality control purposes, we also have opportunities, depending on the community and funding, for project advisors and opportunities, depending on the community and funding, for project advisors and internal review before we submit the exposure scenario to a formal, external peer internal review before we submit the exposure scenario to a formal, external peer review. This process ensures both internal tribal validation as well as validation from review. This process ensures both internal tribal validation as well as validation from the scientific community. the scientific community.
B.3 ECOREGION METHODS B.3 ECOREGION METHODS One of the objectives of this project was to develop traditional tribal subsistence One of the objectives of this project was to develop traditional tribal subsistence exposure scenarios based on particular eco-cultural zones or ecoregions. Thus, one exposure scenarios based on particular eco-cultural zones or ecoregions. Thus, one of our initial tasks was to explore existing literature and various Websites to examine of our initial tasks was to explore existing literature and various Websites to examine the perspective and approach accepted by federal agencies and other research the perspective and approach accepted by federal agencies and other research organizations to describe ecoregions or ecological zones for the continental U.S. We organizations to describe ecoregions or ecological zones for the continental U.S. We sought a common developed framework that had been validated by the scientific sought a common developed framework that had been validated by the scientific community upon which to apply our work. We were also interested in a framework community upon which to apply our work. We were also interested in a framework that was Internet accessible and compatible with GIS applications, which would that was Internet accessible and compatible with GIS applications, which would allow us to layer cultural and other types of maps. allow us to layer cultural and other types of maps.
B.3.1 Development of a Common Framework of Ecoregions B.3.1 Development of a Common Framework of Ecoregions We discovered early on there is much discussion among federal agencies and We discovered early on there is much discussion among federal agencies and researchers on the subject of developing a common framework of ecoregions researchers on the subject of developing a common framework of ecoregions (Omernik 2004). Historically, earth science and resource management agencies that (Omernik 2004). Historically, earth science and resource management agencies that manage land and resources within a common geographic area have worked manage land and resources within a common geographic area have worked independently. Activities of each agency center on an individual agency’s mission independently. Activities of each agency center on an individual agency’s mission and areas of expertise, and these differences have been reflected in the spatial and areas of expertise, and these differences have been reflected in the spatial frameworks that agencies use in the planning, design, implementation, and frameworks that agencies use in the planning, design, implementation, and evaluation of their work. evaluation of their work.
The recent impetus to develop a common scheme for identifying and mapping The recent impetus to develop a common scheme for identifying and mapping ecoregions came about in 1994 when the U.S. Government Accounting Office (U.S. ecoregions came about in 1994 when the U.S. Government Accounting Office (U.S. GAO) produced a report that stipulated a need for a common geographic framework GAO) produced a report that stipulated a need for a common geographic framework that would allow management to be conducted by ecological rather than political or that would allow management to be conducted by ecological rather than political or administrative regions (U.S. GAO 1994). administrative regions (U.S. GAO 1994).
The second recent effort to develop a common ecological framework occurred in The second recent effort to develop a common ecological framework occurred in 1996, when nine federal agencies signed a Memorandum of Understanding, 1996, when nine federal agencies signed a Memorandum of Understanding, “Developing a Spatial Framework of Ecological Units of the United States” “Developing a Spatial Framework of Ecological Units of the United States” Introduction 37 Introduction 37
(McMahon et al. 2001). The group formed to address the problem was called (McMahon et al. 2001). The group formed to address the problem was called National Interagency Technical Team (NITT), and it agreed to develop a spatial National Interagency Technical Team (NITT), and it agreed to develop a spatial framework to provide the basis for interagency ecosystem management. The framework to provide the basis for interagency ecosystem management. The following agencies participated on the NITT: following agencies participated on the NITT:
• Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) • Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) • US Department of Agriculture Forest Service (USFS) • US Department of Agriculture Forest Service (USFS) • Agricultural Research Service • Agricultural Research Service • Bureau of Land Management (BLM) • Bureau of Land Management (BLM) • US Geological Survey (USGS) • US Geological Survey (USGS) • National Park Service • National Park Service • Fish and Wildlife Service • Fish and Wildlife Service • National Biological Service (currently known as Biological Resources Division • National Biological Service (currently known as Biological Resources Division of USGS) of USGS) • US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) • US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
The NITT did not include tribal representatives or non-profit organizations. The task The NITT did not include tribal representatives or non-profit organizations. The task faced by the NITT was difficult because of lack of agreement over the definition of faced by the NITT was difficult because of lack of agreement over the definition of ecoregions and how they should be mapped. Definitions were shaped not only by ecoregions and how they should be mapped. Definitions were shaped not only by agencies or programs from which these members came, but also by educational agencies or programs from which these members came, but also by educational backgrounds and experiences. For example, geographers, biologists, soil scientists, backgrounds and experiences. For example, geographers, biologists, soil scientists, regional planners, foresters, conservationists, etc. bring their bias to the meaning of regional planners, foresters, conservationists, etc. bring their bias to the meaning of the term “ecology” and how ecoregions should be defined. Geologists start with the term “ecology” and how ecoregions should be defined. Geologists start with geology and use other characteristics as they relate to geology; plant ecologists geology and use other characteristics as they relate to geology; plant ecologists probably base their regions more heavily on patterns of potential and existing probably base their regions more heavily on patterns of potential and existing vegetation, climatologists on climate, etc. vegetation, climatologists on climate, etc.
The greatest impediment to agreeing on how to define ecoregions occurs because: The greatest impediment to agreeing on how to define ecoregions occurs because: (1) of the inherent complexity of ecosystems, in that they are dynamic; features (1) of the inherent complexity of ecosystems, in that they are dynamic; features change and constantly shift, and they are not closed systems; (2) although the change and constantly shift, and they are not closed systems; (2) although the framework is hierarchical, boundaries are not precise and regions at different levels framework is hierarchical, boundaries are not precise and regions at different levels of detail do not nest perfectly, and (3) humans affect the stability of ecosystems and of detail do not nest perfectly, and (3) humans affect the stability of ecosystems and the identity of ecological regions by fragmenting the spatial structure of the the identity of ecological regions by fragmenting the spatial structure of the landscape, changing the physical and chemicals conditions within which ecological landscape, changing the physical and chemicals conditions within which ecological systems operate (McMahon et al. 2001). In fact, ecoregion boundaries are areas, systems operate (McMahon et al. 2001). In fact, ecoregion boundaries are areas, rather than lines, where the predominant characteristics of one region meet the rather than lines, where the predominant characteristics of one region meet the predominant characteristics of another. predominant characteristics of another.
The goal of the NITT was to develop a map of common ecological regions for the The goal of the NITT was to develop a map of common ecological regions for the conterminous U.S. (areas that share a common boundary) (McMahon et al. 2001). conterminous U.S. (areas that share a common boundary) (McMahon et al. 2001). They established a working definition of an ecoregion to read: areas of similarity They established a working definition of an ecoregion to read: areas of similarity regarding patterns in the mosaic of biotic, abiotic, aquatic, and terrestrial ecosystem regarding patterns in the mosaic of biotic, abiotic, aquatic, and terrestrial ecosystem components, with humans being considered part of the biota (McMahon et al. 2001, components, with humans being considered part of the biota (McMahon et al. 2001, Omernik 2004). The intent of developing the common definition and framework is Omernik 2004). The intent of developing the common definition and framework is that this effort will foster an ecological understanding of the landscape rather than an that this effort will foster an ecological understanding of the landscape rather than an understanding based on a single resource, scientific discipline, or agency understanding based on a single resource, scientific discipline, or agency Introduction 38 Introduction 38
perspective. The new framework was not intended to replace individual agency perspective. The new framework was not intended to replace individual agency frameworks that will continue to be used when they serve a specific purpose. frameworks that will continue to be used when they serve a specific purpose. However, the new framework was deemed to be useful for agency activities that are However, the new framework was deemed to be useful for agency activities that are ecologically oriented and involve interests of several participating agencies. ecologically oriented and involve interests of several participating agencies.
It was decided that the spatial framework was to be hierarchical, with ecological It was decided that the spatial framework was to be hierarchical, with ecological regions defined at two map scales: regions defined at two map scales:
1. small-map scale, with less resolution and greater extent (overall area), 1. small-map scale, with less resolution and greater extent (overall area), dividing the U.S. into 80–90 regions for state-level and broad regional and dividing the U.S. into 80–90 regions for state-level and broad regional and national assessment national assessment 2. large-map scale, with higher resolution and less extent, subdividing the U.S. 2. large-map scale, with higher resolution and less extent, subdividing the U.S. into coarser regions into coarser regions
Map compilation relies on appropriately scaled information about factors that affect Map compilation relies on appropriately scaled information about factors that affect ecological potential, such as soils, vegetation, geology, physiography, hydrology, ecological potential, such as soils, vegetation, geology, physiography, hydrology, climate, land use, and wildlife. Finally, regions defined at the larger map scale will climate, land use, and wildlife. Finally, regions defined at the larger map scale will nest into smaller map scale framework (1:7,500,000-scale) nest into smaller map scale framework (1:7,500,000-scale)
Currently, much progress has been made in developing this common framework, Currently, much progress has been made in developing this common framework, first exploring areas of agreement and disagreement in three federal natural- first exploring areas of agreement and disagreement in three federal natural- resource spatial frameworks: resource spatial frameworks:
1. Major Land Resource Areas of the USDA, 1. Major Land Resource Areas of the USDA, 2. National Hierarchy of Ecological Units of the USDA Forest Service, and 2. National Hierarchy of Ecological Units of the USDA Forest Service, and 3. Level III Ecoregions of the USEPA. 3. Level III Ecoregions of the USEPA.
The common framework effort is ongoing work and not yet completed. Ecoregions The common framework effort is ongoing work and not yet completed. Ecoregions resulting from this effort may fit within, and potentially may be used to revise, the resulting from this effort may fit within, and potentially may be used to revise, the framework of ecological regions of North America developed by the Commission for framework of ecological regions of North America developed by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). The CEC is an international, interagency Environmental Cooperation (CEC). The CEC is an international, interagency supported by the North American Free Trade Agreement. The Commission supported by the North American Free Trade Agreement. The Commission developed and published maps of two broad levels of ecological regions for N. developed and published maps of two broad levels of ecological regions for N. America (rather than just the U.S.) in 1997, which are described in Ecological America (rather than just the U.S.) in 1997, which are described in Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a Common Perspective (CEC 1997). The most Regions of North America: Toward a Common Perspective (CEC 1997). The most holistic framework to date, however, is that of the CEC, which may also be the holistic framework to date, however, is that of the CEC, which may also be the dominant framework eventually adopted by the NITT. The CEC effort, formed with a dominant framework eventually adopted by the NITT. The CEC effort, formed with a trilateral working group from the U.S., Mexico, and Canada, was the first attempt at trilateral working group from the U.S., Mexico, and Canada, was the first attempt at holistically classifying and mapping ecological regions across all three countries of holistically classifying and mapping ecological regions across all three countries of the North American continent. The working group hoped to foster cooperative work the North American continent. The working group hoped to foster cooperative work to protect the environment, to insure the sustainability of resources, and to study the to protect the environment, to insure the sustainability of resources, and to study the effect of human activities on ecosystems. effect of human activities on ecosystems.
For these reasons we have chosen Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a For these reasons we have chosen Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a Common Perspective (CEC 1997) as the framework for identifying and describing Common Perspective (CEC 1997) as the framework for identifying and describing the components of the major ecological regions in developing the exposure the components of the major ecological regions in developing the exposure Introduction 39 Introduction 39
scenarios. A large contribution to this framework came from Jim Omernik (U.S. scenarios. A large contribution to this framework came from Jim Omernik (U.S. EPA), author of the ecoregions used in National Nutrient Strategy Approach EPA), author of the ecoregions used in National Nutrient Strategy Approach (Omernik 1995). However, the CEC ecoregions are those listed on the USEPA (Omernik 1995). However, the CEC ecoregions are those listed on the USEPA Website for reference and downloading. See Website for reference and downloading. See http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm. http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm.
B.3.2 Our Choice of Framework: CEC Hierarchical Spatial Framework of B.3.2 Our Choice of Framework: CEC Hierarchical Spatial Framework of Ecoregions Ecoregions Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a Common Perspective has been Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a Common Perspective has been chosen as the classification system for identifying the major ecological regions. The chosen as the classification system for identifying the major ecological regions. The approaches used to develop the classification include: (1) opinions from ecologists approaches used to develop the classification include: (1) opinions from ecologists and other scientists on relevant features for each region and (2) a data matrix that and other scientists on relevant features for each region and (2) a data matrix that could be used to build each ecological level (CEC 1997). This ecological framework could be used to build each ecological level (CEC 1997). This ecological framework was developed by federal, state, provincial, and territorial agencies, and represented was developed by federal, state, provincial, and territorial agencies, and represented a shift towards a more comprehensive, continental scale approach—one that a shift towards a more comprehensive, continental scale approach—one that includes not only assessments of trade, but also strives to foster cooperative work to includes not only assessments of trade, but also strives to foster cooperative work to protect the environment, to insure the sustainability of resources, and to study the protect the environment, to insure the sustainability of resources, and to study the effect of human activities on ecosystems (CEC 1997). effect of human activities on ecosystems (CEC 1997).
Ecoregions denote areas of general similarity in ecosystems and in the type, quality, Ecoregions denote areas of general similarity in ecosystems and in the type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. They are designed to serve as a spatial and quantity of environmental resources. They are designed to serve as a spatial framework for the research, assessment, management, and monitoring of framework for the research, assessment, management, and monitoring of ecosystems and ecosystem components. By recognizing the spatial differences in ecosystems and ecosystem components. By recognizing the spatial differences in the capacities and potentials of ecosystems, ecoregions stratify the environment by the capacities and potentials of ecosystems, ecoregions stratify the environment by its probable response to disturbance (Bryce et al. 1999). These general purpose its probable response to disturbance (Bryce et al. 1999). These general purpose regions are critical for structuring and implementing ecosystem management regions are critical for structuring and implementing ecosystem management strategies across federal agencies, state agencies, and nongovernment strategies across federal agencies, state agencies, and nongovernment organizations that are responsible for different types of resources within the same organizations that are responsible for different types of resources within the same geographical areas. The most immediate needs by the states are for developing geographical areas. The most immediate needs by the states are for developing regional biological criteria and water resource standards, and for setting regional biological criteria and water resource standards, and for setting management goals for nonpoint-source pollution. Explanation of the methods used management goals for nonpoint-source pollution. Explanation of the methods used to delineate the ecoregions are given in Omernik (1995) and Gallant et al. (1989). to delineate the ecoregions are given in Omernik (1995) and Gallant et al. (1989). This series of maps has been produced as part of a regional interagency This series of maps has been produced as part of a regional interagency collaborative project aimed at obtaining consensus between the EPA, the NRCS, collaborative project aimed at obtaining consensus between the EPA, the NRCS, and the USFS regarding alignments of ecological regions. and the USFS regarding alignments of ecological regions.
Diagnostic criteria for the mapped areas are based on enduring ecosystem Diagnostic criteria for the mapped areas are based on enduring ecosystem components (CEC 1997). The term “enduring” means the components are relatively components (CEC 1997). The term “enduring” means the components are relatively stable and do not change appreciably over ecological time. This includes stable and do not change appreciably over ecological time. This includes components such as soil, landform, or major vegetation types. Climate is considered components such as soil, landform, or major vegetation types. Climate is considered but is unique because it must be assessed by looking at long term records. but is unique because it must be assessed by looking at long term records.
The approach used to compile ecoregion maps is based on the premise that The approach used to compile ecoregion maps is based on the premise that ecological regions can be identified through the analysis of the patterns and the ecological regions can be identified through the analysis of the patterns and the composition of biotic and abiotic phenomena that affect or reflect differences in composition of biotic and abiotic phenomena that affect or reflect differences in ecosystem quality and integrity (Wiken 1986, Omernik 1987, 1995). These ecosystem quality and integrity (Wiken 1986, Omernik 1987, 1995). These Introduction 40 Introduction 40
phenomena include geology, physiography, vegetation, climate, soils, land use, phenomena include geology, physiography, vegetation, climate, soils, land use, wildlife, and hydrology. A hierarchical scheme has been adopted for different levels wildlife, and hydrology. A hierarchical scheme has been adopted for different levels of ecological regions, and is being used by the U.S. Environmental Protection of ecological regions, and is being used by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA 2004). The relative importance of each characteristic varies from one Agency (EPA 2004). The relative importance of each characteristic varies from one ecological region to another regardless of the hierarchical level. Because of possible ecological region to another regardless of the hierarchical level. Because of possible confusion with other meanings of terms for different levels of ecological regions, a confusion with other meanings of terms for different levels of ecological regions, a Roman numeral classification scheme has been adopted for this effort. Level I is the Roman numeral classification scheme has been adopted for this effort. Level I is the coarsest level, dividing North America into 15 ecological regions, whereas at Level II coarsest level, dividing North America into 15 ecological regions, whereas at Level II the continent is subdivided into 52 classes (CEC 1997). Level III represents further the continent is subdivided into 52 classes (CEC 1997). Level III represents further detail. Level IV ecoregions are under construction, with significant number of states detail. Level IV ecoregions are under construction, with significant number of states having been completed at this level; see Figure 26. having been completed at this level; see Figure 26.
Figure 26. Example of the Hierarchical Form of EPA Ecoregions Figure 26. Example of the Hierarchical Form of EPA Ecoregions
In describing the characteristics of ecoregions in the Guidance Manual, references In describing the characteristics of ecoregions in the Guidance Manual, references from other frameworks have been made. These include: Terrestrial Ecoregions of from other frameworks have been made. These include: Terrestrial Ecoregions of North America (Ricketts et al. 1999), Freshwater Ecoregions of North America: A North America (Ricketts et al. 1999), Freshwater Ecoregions of North America: A Conservation Assessment (Abell et al. 2000), and the USDA Description of the Conservation Assessment (Abell et al. 2000), and the USDA Description of the Ecoregions of the United States (Bailey 1995). Although the literature cites Ecoregions of the United States (Bailey 1995). Although the literature cites similarities between Ecological Regions of North America: Level I and Level II and similarities between Ecological Regions of North America: Level I and Level II and the mentioned resources, additional information is needed to determine whether the mentioned resources, additional information is needed to determine whether additional frameworks can be used for describing the major ecological regions. additional frameworks can be used for describing the major ecological regions.
B.3.3 Description of Ecoregion Levels B.3.3 Description of Ecoregion Levels Level I: North America has been divided into 15 broad, Level I ecological regions Level I: North America has been divided into 15 broad, Level I ecological regions (Figure 21). Determination of the areas composing the regions has been made (Figure 21). Determination of the areas composing the regions has been made through satellite imagery and appropriate natural resource source maps at broad through satellite imagery and appropriate natural resource source maps at broad scales (1:40–1:50 million-scale presentation). These ecoregions highlight major scales (1:40–1:50 million-scale presentation). These ecoregions highlight major ecological areas and provide the broad backdrop to the ecological mosaic of the ecological areas and provide the broad backdrop to the ecological mosaic of the continent, putting it in context at global or intercontinental scales. Viewing the continent, putting it in context at global or intercontinental scales. Viewing the ecological hierarchy at this scale provides a context for seeing global or ecological hierarchy at this scale provides a context for seeing global or intercontinental patterns. Level I ecological regions are: Arctic Cordillera, Tundra, intercontinental patterns. Level I ecological regions are: Arctic Cordillera, Tundra, Taiga, Hudson Plains, Northern Forests, Northwestern Forested Mountains, Marine Taiga, Hudson Plains, Northern Forests, Northwestern Forested Mountains, Marine Introduction 41 Introduction 41
West Coast Forests, Eastern Temperate Forests, Great Plains, North American West Coast Forests, Eastern Temperate Forests, Great Plains, North American Deserts, Mediterranean California, Southern Semi-Arid Highlands, Temperate Deserts, Mediterranean California, Southern Semi-Arid Highlands, Temperate Sierras, Tropical Dry Forests, and Tropical Wet Forests. Sierras, Tropical Dry Forests, and Tropical Wet Forests.
Brief narrative descriptions of each level I region can be found in Section III of the Brief narrative descriptions of each level I region can be found in Section III of the CEC’s (1997) publication, Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a Common CEC’s (1997) publication, Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a Common Perspective. These descriptions—each of which is divided into sections describing Perspective. These descriptions—each of which is divided into sections describing the physical setting, biological setting, and human activities therein—provide an the physical setting, biological setting, and human activities therein—provide an overview of the principal attributes of each region. The intent is to provide a sense of overview of the principal attributes of each region. The intent is to provide a sense of the ecological diversity, the human interactions taking place, and how each region the ecological diversity, the human interactions taking place, and how each region differs from adjacent ones. differs from adjacent ones.
Level II: The 52 Level II ecological regions (shown in Figure 27) that have been Level II: The 52 Level II ecological regions (shown in Figure 27) that have been delineated are intended to provide a more detailed description and national/regional delineated are intended to provide a more detailed description and national/regional perspective of the large ecological areas nested within the Level I regions. For perspective of the large ecological areas nested within the Level I regions. For example, the Tropical Wet Forests of Level I is the region covering coastal portions example, the Tropical Wet Forests of Level I is the region covering coastal portions of the United States and Mexico, and is composed of six Level II regions. Level II of the United States and Mexico, and is composed of six Level II regions. Level II ecological regions are useful for national and subcontinental overviews of ecological ecological regions are useful for national and subcontinental overviews of ecological patterns. Three Level I regions (Hudson Plains, Marine West Coast Forest, and patterns. Three Level I regions (Hudson Plains, Marine West Coast Forest, and Mediterranean California) have no subdivisions at Level II. The Temperate Sierras, Mediterranean California) have no subdivisions at Level II. The Temperate Sierras, Tropical Dry Forests, and Tropical Wet Forests Level I regions, on the other hand, Tropical Dry Forests, and Tropical Wet Forests Level I regions, on the other hand, each have six Level II subdivisions. This level is useful for national and each have six Level II subdivisions. This level is useful for national and subcontinental overviews of physiography, wildlife, and land use. Level II subcontinental overviews of physiography, wildlife, and land use. Level II determination of the areas is made through satellite imagery and appropriate natural determination of the areas is made through satellite imagery and appropriate natural resource source maps at broad scales (approximately 1:20–1:30 million-scale resource source maps at broad scales (approximately 1:20–1:30 million-scale presentation). presentation).
http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/html/usecoregions.html http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/html/usecoregions.html
Figure 27. Level I and II Ecoregions of North America Figure 27. Level I and II Ecoregions of North America
Introduction 42 Introduction 42
Level III: Level III mapping describes smaller ecological areas nested within Level II Level III: Level III mapping describes smaller ecological areas nested within Level II regions. At Level III, shown in Figure 28, the continental United States contains 104 regions. At Level III, shown in Figure 28, the continental United States contains 104 ecoregions and the conterminous United States has 84 ecoregions (U.S. EPA 2003). ecoregions and the conterminous United States has 84 ecoregions (U.S. EPA 2003). These smaller divisions enhance regional environmental monitoring, assessment, These smaller divisions enhance regional environmental monitoring, assessment, and reporting, as well as decision-making. Because Level III regions are smaller, and reporting, as well as decision-making. Because Level III regions are smaller, they allow locally defining characteristics to be identified and more specific they allow locally defining characteristics to be identified and more specific management strategies to be formulated (CEC 1997). Level III ecoregion management strategies to be formulated (CEC 1997). Level III ecoregion determinations are made through remote sensing techniques and appropriate determinations are made through remote sensing techniques and appropriate regional natural resource source maps (1:2–1:4 million-scale presentation) regional natural resource source maps (1:2–1:4 million-scale presentation)
http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/html/usecoregions.html http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/html/usecoregions.html
Figure 28. Level III Ecoregions of the Continental U.S. Figure 28. Level III Ecoregions of the Continental U.S.
Level IV: The Level IV state projects depict revisions and subdivisions of Level IV: The Level IV state projects depict revisions and subdivisions of ecoregions, that were compiled at a relatively small scale. Level IV is a further ecoregions, that were compiled at a relatively small scale. Level IV is a further subdivision of Level III ecoregions. Explanations of the methods used to define the subdivision of Level III ecoregions. Explanations of the methods used to define the USEPA’s ecoregions are given in Omernik (1995), Griffith et al. (1994), and Gallant USEPA’s ecoregions are given in Omernik (1995), Griffith et al. (1994), and Gallant et al. (1989). Compilation of the Level IV maps, performed at the larger 1:250,000 et al. (1989). Compilation of the Level IV maps, performed at the larger 1:250,000 scale, has been a part of collaborative projects between United States scale, has been a part of collaborative projects between United States Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Laboratory (NHEERL)—Corvallis, OR, the U.S. Forest Service, Natural Resources Laboratory (NHEERL)—Corvallis, OR, the U.S. Forest Service, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and a variety of other state and federal resource agencies. Conservation Service, and a variety of other state and federal resource agencies. Level IV ecoregions, currently under development, will aid in localized monitoring, Level IV ecoregions, currently under development, will aid in localized monitoring, reporting, and decision-making. Level IV ecoregions of Oregon are presented below reporting, and decision-making. Level IV ecoregions of Oregon are presented below for an example (Figure 29). for an example (Figure 29).
Introduction 43 Introduction 43
ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/or/or_eco_pg.pdf ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/or/or_eco_pg.pdf
Figure 29. Level III and IV Ecoregions of Oregon Figure 29. Level III and IV Ecoregions of Oregon
B.4 DIET B.4 DIET Kelly (1995) described the concept of systematic evaluation of eco-cultural lifestyles Kelly (1995) described the concept of systematic evaluation of eco-cultural lifestyles for efficiency and resource use patterns, also known as foraging theory. This for efficiency and resource use patterns, also known as foraging theory. This concept includes labels for people such as hunter-gatherers and foragers, which concept includes labels for people such as hunter-gatherers and foragers, which unfortunately leads to mental images of people barely surviving by randomly unfortunately leads to mental images of people barely surviving by randomly foraging around the landscape for something to eat. In reality, these labels describe foraging around the landscape for something to eat. In reality, these labels describe people living within an informed educational system based on traditional people living within an informed educational system based on traditional environmental knowledge, systematic observation, rich languages, exquisite crafts, environmental knowledge, systematic observation, rich languages, exquisite crafts, and adaptability. and adaptability.
In the 1960s to 1980s the “Man the Hunter” concept of subsistence lifestyles (with In the 1960s to 1980s the “Man the Hunter” concept of subsistence lifestyles (with males providing most of the provender) prevailed due to a previous archaeological males providing most of the provender) prevailed due to a previous archaeological emphasis on hunting and warfare artifacts (Lee and Devore 1968). This gave way in emphasis on hunting and warfare artifacts (Lee and Devore 1968). This gave way in the 1990s to a more balanced foraging model that recognized the importance of the 1990s to a more balanced foraging model that recognized the importance of plants as much as meat (and equality of genders in contributing to survival) and a plants as much as meat (and equality of genders in contributing to survival) and a relatively peaceful and secure “original affluent society” (Sahlins 1972). The latter relatively peaceful and secure “original affluent society” (Sahlins 1972). The latter concept is supported by data (Kelly 1995, Winterhalder 1981, Steegman 1983) on concept is supported by data (Kelly 1995, Winterhalder 1981, Steegman 1983) on the amount of time required to obtain survival necessities and to raise children, and the amount of time required to obtain survival necessities and to raise children, and the typically abundant amount of time available for socializing, education, the typically abundant amount of time available for socializing, education, ceremonies, material items, leisure, oratories, and so on. Winterhalder (1981) further ceremonies, material items, leisure, oratories, and so on. Winterhalder (1981) further elaborated this view by evaluating information about ecotypes, biodiversity, elaborated this view by evaluating information about ecotypes, biodiversity, Introduction 44 Introduction 44
abundance, patchiness, species abundance, and travel times to various resources in abundance, patchiness, species abundance, and travel times to various resources in the boreal zone to confirm that indigenous traditional environmental knowledge is the boreal zone to confirm that indigenous traditional environmental knowledge is intimately informed through general knowledge and constant observation for efficient intimately informed through general knowledge and constant observation for efficient recovery of resources. recovery of resources.
In foraging theory, efficiency or return rate for specific resources obtained from In foraging theory, efficiency or return rate for specific resources obtained from specific habitats is estimated by evaluating the amount of calories expended in specific habitats is estimated by evaluating the amount of calories expended in getting food (search costs) by means of hunting, gathering, or fishing relative to time getting food (search costs) by means of hunting, gathering, or fishing relative to time spent or calories obtained. Foraging information is typically presented as return spent or calories obtained. Foraging information is typically presented as return rates, or net calories obtained per hour of effort. Depending on the evaluation rates, or net calories obtained per hour of effort. Depending on the evaluation methods used in a study, this return rate data may include (1) time and calories methods used in a study, this return rate data may include (1) time and calories spent in preparing to hunt, fish, or gather (e.g., making nets), (2) time and/or calories spent in preparing to hunt, fish, or gather (e.g., making nets), (2) time and/or calories spent in the actual activity, and (3) time spent in the processing of the resource after spent in the actual activity, and (3) time spent in the processing of the resource after obtaining it. Several submodels have been proposed: obtaining it. Several submodels have been proposed:
• Diet Breadth: In this model, resources are ranked by their value to the • Diet Breadth: In this model, resources are ranked by their value to the forager. Foraging is divided into two phases: search costs (time or energy) to forager. Foraging is divided into two phases: search costs (time or energy) to encounter each unit of potential resource species and the pursuit costs for encounter each unit of potential resource species and the pursuit costs for each unit. An optimal diet is one that adds resources to those pursued in each unit. An optimal diet is one that adds resources to those pursued in decreasing rank order until search costs for a resource start to exceed energy decreasing rank order until search costs for a resource start to exceed energy return. return. • Patch Selectivity: Since most resources are unevenly distributed, the forager • Patch Selectivity: Since most resources are unevenly distributed, the forager must randomly move over the environment and allocate time and effort to must randomly move over the environment and allocate time and effort to travel to various patches of various quality, according to which resources are travel to various patches of various quality, according to which resources are needed, until the travel time exceeds the value of the resource gained. needed, until the travel time exceeds the value of the resource gained. • Movement among Habitats: The marginal value model assumes that the • Movement among Habitats: The marginal value model assumes that the forager pre-selects the patches to be visited, first using the resources that are forager pre-selects the patches to be visited, first using the resources that are closest and best, and gradually moving to lower quality patches farther away closest and best, and gradually moving to lower quality patches farther away until the travel time is so great that the residence is moved and/or hi switches until the travel time is so great that the residence is moved and/or hi switches to different resources. to different resources.
The drawback of oversimplifying foraging solely to caloric efficiency is that The drawback of oversimplifying foraging solely to caloric efficiency is that micronutrients (vitamins, minerals, specific amino acids, and fatty acids), medicinal micronutrients (vitamins, minerals, specific amino acids, and fatty acids), medicinal or pharmacologically active compounds, other nutritional requirements, and non- or pharmacologically active compounds, other nutritional requirements, and non- nutritional attributes, such as aroma or dye or material uses may not be considered nutritional attributes, such as aroma or dye or material uses may not be considered (Lindstrom 1992). Similarly, many plants and animals have multiple uses or are co- (Lindstrom 1992). Similarly, many plants and animals have multiple uses or are co- located with other resources; therefore, caloric calculations must not ignore the way located with other resources; therefore, caloric calculations must not ignore the way that people actually make decisions about where to go or what to gather, or the that people actually make decisions about where to go or what to gather, or the reasons they seek to obtain particular resources. reasons they seek to obtain particular resources.
Sanger (1988) points out that developing a foraging picture based solely on Sanger (1988) points out that developing a foraging picture based solely on archaeological evidence is inadequate because the ratio between marine and archaeological evidence is inadequate because the ratio between marine and terrestrial remains in sites and the ratio between plants and fish and bone among terrestrial remains in sites and the ratio between plants and fish and bone among middens is not equal. Supplementary information would include the known middens is not equal. Supplementary information would include the known technology and the amount of biomass and phytomass that could have been technology and the amount of biomass and phytomass that could have been Introduction 45 Introduction 45 provided by the particular habitat association types and biodiversity (Winterhalder provided by the particular habitat association types and biodiversity (Winterhalder 1981). 1981).
Together, the amount of hunting and fishing gear in evidence, the seasonal round, Together, the amount of hunting and fishing gear in evidence, the seasonal round, the settlement pattern relative to known resources, human bone isotope ratios, the settlement pattern relative to known resources, human bone isotope ratios, pollen profiles over time, and so on give a fairly accurate picture of the overall diet pollen profiles over time, and so on give a fairly accurate picture of the overall diet (Sanger 1988). (Sanger 1988).
The dietary input for the risk assessment is typically somewhat less complex than a The dietary input for the risk assessment is typically somewhat less complex than a food pyramid (due to intrinsic limitations of the risk methods). Nevertheless, the risk food pyramid (due to intrinsic limitations of the risk methods). Nevertheless, the risk assessment must consider the totality of species and calories. Therefore, the food assessment must consider the totality of species and calories. Therefore, the food pyramids consider the number of species and the foraging studies with their dietary pyramids consider the number of species and the foraging studies with their dietary estimates, and identify potential toxins. estimates, and identify potential toxins.
As noted in Section B.2.1, the steps developed to reconstruct an ecologically based As noted in Section B.2.1, the steps developed to reconstruct an ecologically based diet are: diet are:
1. Review ecological and foraging information specific to the tribe, and the local 1. Review ecological and foraging information specific to the tribe, and the local ecosystem(s); ecosystem(s); 2. Review interviews and other archaeological and ethnographic sources for 2. Review interviews and other archaeological and ethnographic sources for supporting information of species and abundance, habitat types, human supporting information of species and abundance, habitat types, human activity levels, and methods of obtaining, preparing, and using resources; activity levels, and methods of obtaining, preparing, and using resources; 3. Develop overall percentages of major food categories and major staples 3. Develop overall percentages of major food categories and major staples within the total diet; within the total diet; 4. Estimate calories provided by the diet, and compare estimates of percentages 4. Estimate calories provided by the diet, and compare estimates of percentages of quantities and percentages of calories; of quantities and percentages of calories; 5. Refine estimates of major staples and food categories after considering 5. Refine estimates of major staples and food categories after considering information about medicines, sweeteners, other often-overlooked information about medicines, sweeteners, other often-overlooked food/medicine types like macronutrients, and other factors. food/medicine types like macronutrients, and other factors.
B.4.1 Nutritional Analysis B.4.1 Nutritional Analysis The basis for subsistence diets is an assumption of 2000 to 2500 kcal/day. The The basis for subsistence diets is an assumption of 2000 to 2500 kcal/day. The amount of 2000 kcal is much less than athletes in training, but is adequate for a mix amount of 2000 kcal is much less than athletes in training, but is adequate for a mix of 2 hours of high activity, 6 hours of moderate activity, 8 hours of low and sedentary of 2 hours of high activity, 6 hours of moderate activity, 8 hours of low and sedentary activity, and 8 hours of rest. Basic nutritional and energy requirements (Stipanuk activity, and 8 hours of rest. Basic nutritional and energy requirements (Stipanuk 2000) were compared to information on resource abundance to evaluate overall 2000) were compared to information on resource abundance to evaluate overall adequacy of the initial diets. The initial estimates are then refined based on adequacy of the initial diets. The initial estimates are then refined based on information on paleonutrition (Wing and Brown 1979, Sobolik 1994) and exercise information on paleonutrition (Wing and Brown 1979, Sobolik 1994) and exercise physiology (McArdle et al. 1996, 1999). Additionally, methods from other authors physiology (McArdle et al. 1996, 1999). Additionally, methods from other authors was also evaluated for relevance and compared to the results in this report was also evaluated for relevance and compared to the results in this report (Delorimer and Kuhnlein 1999, Egeland 2004, Kuhnlein et al. 1996, Kuhnlein et al. (Delorimer and Kuhnlein 1999, Egeland 2004, Kuhnlein et al. 1996, Kuhnlein et al. 2006, White 1999). 2006, White 1999).
Introduction 46 Introduction 46
The diets reflect foods obtained solely from each of the major habitat types. All of the The diets reflect foods obtained solely from each of the major habitat types. All of the caloric information is from the USDA database4 for either the exact species or a caloric information is from the USDA database4 for either the exact species or a member of the same or nearest plant or animal family. The data for fresh or cooked member of the same or nearest plant or animal family. The data for fresh or cooked foods matches the form of native plants eaten as closely as possible. The USDA foods matches the form of native plants eaten as closely as possible. The USDA derived this data from recent studies on contemporary domesticated and wild foods, derived this data from recent studies on contemporary domesticated and wild foods, including some information on different methods of food preparation. Some of the including some information on different methods of food preparation. Some of the information was obtained by USDA in response to requests from Indian tribes and is information was obtained by USDA in response to requests from Indian tribes and is appropriate as to species and cooking method (e.g., roasted beaver). In other cases appropriate as to species and cooking method (e.g., roasted beaver). In other cases nutrient data are not available (such as for wild tubers or bulbs), so data for the most nutrient data are not available (such as for wild tubers or bulbs), so data for the most natural domesticated species was used. In most cases this would probably not alter natural domesticated species was used. In most cases this would probably not alter the high-level food pyramid or food circle, even though native peoples recognize that the high-level food pyramid or food circle, even though native peoples recognize that flavor, texture, and “strength” differ between wild species and domesticated cultivars. flavor, texture, and “strength” differ between wild species and domesticated cultivars.
An example of a diet adapted to Maine coastal environments is shown in Table 1. An example of a diet adapted to Maine coastal environments is shown in Table 1. Figure 30 displays the Maine coastal diet estimate as a food wheel. Figure 31 shows Figure 30 displays the Maine coastal diet estimate as a food wheel. Figure 31 shows estimated diets for the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation estimated diets for the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation (CTUIR). (CTUIR).
4 http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=12354500 4 http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=12354500 Introduction 47 Introduction 47
Table 1. Maine coastal diet. Table 1. Maine coastal diet.
Representative 2000 kcal Diet—Coastal (Islands, Estuary) Representative 2000 kcal Diet—Coastal (Islands, Estuary) Food % of 2000 kcal per 100g Daily Amount Food % of 2000 kcal per 100g Daily Amount Category kcal (Representative Species)* (grams per day) Category kcal (Representative Species)* (grams per day) Resident fish 5% or 100 Mixed trout, cooked—190 kcal 100 kcal x 100g/175 Resident fish 5% or 100 Mixed trout, cooked—190 kcal 100 kcal x 100g/175 and other kcal Crayfish, wild cooked—82 kcal = 57gpd and other kcal Crayfish, wild cooked—82 kcal = 57gpd aquatic Turtle, raw—89 aquatic Turtle, raw—89 Anadromous and 40% or 800 Salmon, cooked—180 800 kcal x 100g/175 Anadromous and 40% or 800 Salmon, cooked—180 800 kcal x 100g/175 marine fish and kcal Shad, cooked—252 kcal = 457gpd marine fish and kcal Shad, cooked—252 kcal = 457gpd shellfish Herring, dry cooked—200 shellfish Herring, dry cooked—200 Pollock, dry cooked—118 Pollock, dry cooked—118 Eel, dry cooked—236 Eel, dry cooked—236 Oyster, dry cooked—70 Oyster, dry cooked—70 Clam, moist cooked—148 Clam, moist cooked—148 Lobster, moist heat cooked—98 Lobster, moist heat cooked—98 Seal, raw—142 Seal, raw—142 Beluga, raw—111 Beluga, raw—111 Game, large and 25% or 500 Deer, roasted—158 500 kcal x Game, large and 25% or 500 Deer, roasted—158 500 kcal x small kcal Moose, roasted—134 100g/175kcal = small kcal Moose, roasted—134 100g/175kcal = Moose liver, braised—155 286gpd Moose liver, braised—155 286gpd Rabbit, wild, roasted—173 Rabbit, wild, roasted—173 Beaver, roasted—212 Beaver, roasted—212 Muskrat, roasted—236 Muskrat, roasted—236 The items below are the same for all Maine subsistence diets (25% of calories) The items below are the same for all Maine subsistence diets (25% of calories) Fowl and eggs 12% or 240 Quail, cooked—234 240 kcal x 100g/200 Fowl and eggs 12% or 240 Quail, cooked—234 240 kcal x 100g/200 kcal Duck, cooked—200 kcal = 120gpd kcal Duck, cooked—200 kcal = 120gpd Duck eggs—185 Duck eggs—185 Pheasant (for wild turkey) —247 Pheasant (for wild turkey) —247 Roots, tubers, 2% or 40 Raw Chicory root—73 40 kcal x 100g/100 Roots, tubers, 2% or 40 Raw Chicory root—73 40 kcal x 100g/100 rhizomes kcal Boiled burdock root—88 kcal = 40gpd rhizomes kcal Boiled burdock root—88 kcal = 40gpd Potato, baked (tuber) —200 Potato, baked (tuber) —200 Bulbs 2% or 40 Leek, onions and bulbs (bulb & leaf)— 40 kcal x 100g/30 Bulbs 2% or 40 Leek, onions and bulbs (bulb & leaf)— 40 kcal x 100g/30 kcal 31 kcal = 133gpd kcal 31 kcal = 133gpd Berries, fruits 2% or 40 Raw elderberries—73 40 kcal x 100g/100 Berries, fruits 2% or 40 Raw elderberries—73 40 kcal x 100g/100 kcal Raw strawberries—70 kcal = 40gpd kcal Raw strawberries—70 kcal = 40gpd Other vegetables 2% or 40 Beans, cooked pinto, kidney or white— 40 kcal x 100g/100 Other vegetables 2% or 40 Beans, cooked pinto, kidney or white— 40 kcal x 100g/100 (above-ground) kcal 143 kcal = 40gpd (above-ground) kcal 143 kcal = 40gpd Peas, boiled pigeon or split—120 Peas, boiled pigeon or split—120 Squash, cooked winter—37 Squash, cooked winter—37 Squash, cooked Navajo—16 Squash, cooked Navajo—16 Greens, tea** 2% or 40 Raw dandelion greens—45 100 kcal x 100g/30 Greens, tea** 2% or 40 Raw dandelion greens—45 100 kcal x 100g/30 kcal Raw watercress—11 kcal = 133gpd kcal Raw watercress—11 kcal = 133gpd Fiddleheads, raw—34 Fiddleheads, raw—34 Seeds, nuts, 6% or 120 Corn, Navajo steamed—386 120 kcal x 100g/500 Seeds, nuts, 6% or 120 Corn, Navajo steamed—386 120 kcal x 100g/500 grain kcal Raw dried sunflower seeds—570 kcal = 24gpd grain kcal Raw dried sunflower seeds—570 kcal = 24gpd Chia seeds—490 Chia seeds—490 Hazelnut, dry roast—646 Hazelnut, dry roast—646 Butternuts, dried—612 Butternuts, dried—612 Honey, maple 2% or 40 Honey—304 40 kcal x 100g/275 Honey, maple 2% or 40 Honey—304 40 kcal x 100g/275 syrup, other kcal Maple syrup—261 kcal = 15gpd syrup, other kcal Maple syrup—261 kcal = 15gpd * All USDA data * All USDA data ** Greens include watercress, and the leaves, stems, shoots of other species for food, medicine, ** Greens include watercress, and the leaves, stems, shoots of other species for food, medicine, tea, flavor tea, flavor Introduction 48 Introduction 48
Coastal, by grams/day Coastal, by grams/day
Fowl & Eggs Fowl & Eggs
Game, large Roots, Tubers Game, large Roots, Tubers and small Bulbs and small Bulbs
Berries, Fruits Berries, Fruits Other Other vegetables vegetables
Greens, Tea Greens, Tea
Seeds, Nuts, Seeds, Nuts, Grain Grain Honey, Maple Honey, Maple Anadromous Anadromous Syrup, Other Syrup, Other & marine fish, & marine fish, shellfish Resident fish shellfish Resident fish and other and other aquatic aquatic
Figure 30. Food Wheel—Coastal Maine Figure 30. Food Wheel—Coastal Maine
Berries Berries Grams Kcal % of Cayuse Grams Kcal % of Cayuse Food Per per 2500 (Upland peoples) Greens Food Per per 2500 (Upland peoples) Greens Category Day day kcal Other Fish Category Day day kcal Other Fish Fish 620 1000 40% Fish 620 1000 40% Roots Roots Game, fowl, eggs 125 150 6 Game, fowl, eggs 125 150 6 (reversed for (reversed for upland Tribes) Game upland Tribes) Game
Roots 800 800 32 Roots 800 800 32
Berries, fruits 125 125 5 Berries Berries, fruits 125 125 5 Berries Walla Walla, Walla Walla, Greens, 300 300 12 Greens Greens, 300 300 12 Greens medicinal leaves, Umatilla Other Game medicinal leaves, Umatilla Other Game tea, stems, pith… (River peoples) tea, stems, pith… (River peoples) Other: 125 125 5% Roots Other: 125 125 5% Roots sweeteners, sweeteners, mushrooms, etc. mushrooms, etc. Fish Fish
Edible and/or materially useful resources includes 200 plant and animal species – Edible and/or materially useful resources includes 200 plant and animal species – a rule of thumb for any ecoregion. a rule of thumb for any ecoregion.
Harper & Harris 2006 Harper & Harris 2006
Figure 31. Two CTUIR Diets (Columbia River Basin) Figure 31. Two CTUIR Diets (Columbia River Basin) Introduction 49 Introduction 49
B.5 DIRECT EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS B.5 DIRECT EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS This section focuses on direct pathways: inhalation, dermal exposure, and ingestion This section focuses on direct pathways: inhalation, dermal exposure, and ingestion of water, sediment, and soil (including soil on the outside of food). Default exposure of water, sediment, and soil (including soil on the outside of food). Default exposure factors have been developed for conventional suburban, urban, occupational, and factors have been developed for conventional suburban, urban, occupational, and recreational scenarios based on national statistics and assumptions about the recreational scenarios based on national statistics and assumptions about the activity patterns that compose those situations. The approach for developing a tribal activity patterns that compose those situations. The approach for developing a tribal scenario is similar, except that large statistical databases are not available. The scenario is similar, except that large statistical databases are not available. The basic assumption is that traditional Native American lifeways continue to be active basic assumption is that traditional Native American lifeways continue to be active outdoor lifestyles that are moderately physically demanding, even with some modern outdoor lifestyles that are moderately physically demanding, even with some modern conveniences. Information about especially active individuals is considered; for conveniences. Information about especially active individuals is considered; for example, young Indian bachelors (“pure men” or “runners”) would run down game example, young Indian bachelors (“pure men” or “runners”) would run down game and serve as messengers (Speck 1979). Not everyone is considered to be this and serve as messengers (Speck 1979). Not everyone is considered to be this athletic, but this kind of information is used to confirm a moderately active lifestyle. athletic, but this kind of information is used to confirm a moderately active lifestyle.
The conceptual steps in this process are: The conceptual steps in this process are:
1. Understand the lifestyle and the activities that comprise the lifestyle, and are 1. Understand the lifestyle and the activities that comprise the lifestyle, and are required to obtain necessities and engage in the community culture; required to obtain necessities and engage in the community culture; 2. Describe the day, the year, and the lifetime of Maine Indian men and women 2. Describe the day, the year, and the lifetime of Maine Indian men and women to identify any significant differences in activity levels between genders or to identify any significant differences in activity levels between genders or ages; ages; 3. Cross-walk activities with exposure pathways on the basis of frequency and 3. Cross-walk activities with exposure pathways on the basis of frequency and duration of major activities, activity levels, and degree of environmental duration of major activities, activity levels, and degree of environmental contact, and contact, and 4. Estimate cumulative exposure factors. 4. Estimate cumulative exposure factors.
B.5.1 Major Activities B.5.1 Major Activities Indigenous subsistence foragers (both genders) perform a combination of aerobic Indigenous subsistence foragers (both genders) perform a combination of aerobic (high pulse and ventilation rates), strength, endurance, and stretching-flexibility (high pulse and ventilation rates), strength, endurance, and stretching-flexibility activities daily, as well as performing more sedentary work and resting. Tables 2 and activities daily, as well as performing more sedentary work and resting. Tables 2 and 3 and Figure 26 show the thought process for considering the wide range and 3 and Figure 26 show the thought process for considering the wide range and numerous activities associated with the major activity categories (hunting, fishing, numerous activities associated with the major activity categories (hunting, fishing, gathering, and sweat lodge purification). In actuality, many activities are sequential— gathering, and sweat lodge purification). In actuality, many activities are sequential— for example, a resource might be gathered in one location, used in a second location for example, a resource might be gathered in one location, used in a second location to make an implement or basket, and taken to a third location for use in hunting or to make an implement or basket, and taken to a third location for use in hunting or fishing.5 The activities shown in Figure 32 and Table 2 are so interconnected that it fishing.5 The activities shown in Figure 32 and Table 2 are so interconnected that it is virtually impossible to separate a lifestyle into distinct categories, but they are is virtually impossible to separate a lifestyle into distinct categories, but they are presented as separate for illustration. presented as separate for illustration.
5 This is similar to the Cultural Ecosystem Stories concept developed Terry Williams (Tulalip Tribes) 5 This is similar to the Cultural Ecosystem Stories concept developed Terry Williams (Tulalip Tribes) with the associated software, ICONS (see, for example, with the associated software, ICONS (see, for example, http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacademy/ wam/comresource.html). http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacademy/ wam/comresource.html). Introduction 50 Introduction 50
a day in the life of ... through the seasons, over the years a day in the life of ... through the seasons, over the years Hunting Sweatlodge Gathering Fishing Hunting Sweatlodge Gathering Fishing
Learn skills, TEK Learn skills, songs Learn skills, TEK Learn skills, TEK Learn skills, TEK Learn skills, songs Learn skills, TEK Learn skills, TEK
Making tools Build lodge from Previous gathering Make nets, poles, Making tools Build lodge from Previous gathering Make nets, poles, natural materials platforms, tools natural materials platforms, tools Sweat Purify Make baskets, bags Sweat Purify Make baskets, bags Gather rocks Travel to location Gather rocks Travel to location Vigorous Hike to areas Vigorous Hike to areas activity in Chop firewood Catch fish, haul out activity in Chop firewood Catch fish, haul out hunting Cut, dig, harvest hunting Cut, dig, harvest Prepare for use, Clean, can, hard dry, Prepare for use, Clean, can, hard dry, Pack meat out get water Carry out items soft dry, smoke, Pack meat out get water Carry out items soft dry, smoke, eat whole fish or eat whole fish or Process Use Lodge, sing, Wash, peel, process, fillet or liver or soup Process Use Lodge, sing, Wash, peel, process, fillet or liver or soup drink water, split, spin, dye drink water, split, spin, dye Scrape hides inhale steam Return carcasses Scrape hides inhale steam Return carcasses and smudges Cook and eat or to ecosystem, and smudges Cook and eat or to ecosystem, Tan, use other make product or use as fertilizer Tan, use other make product or use as fertilizer parts Close area & fire make medicine parts Close area & fire make medicine
Cook, smoke, Cook, smoke, dry, eat meat dry, eat meat and organs and organs
Figure 32. Activities within Major Activity Categories Figure 32. Activities within Major Activity Categories
Table 2. Major activity categories. Table 2. Major activity categories.
Activity Type General Description Activity Type General Description Hunting Hunting includes a variety of preparation activities of low to moderate intensity. Hunting Hunting includes a variety of preparation activities of low to moderate intensity. Hunting occurs in terrain ranging from flat and open to steep and rugged. It Hunting occurs in terrain ranging from flat and open to steep and rugged. It may also include setting traplines, waiting in blinds, climbing, etc. After the may also include setting traplines, waiting in blinds, climbing, etc. After the capture or kill, field dressing, packing or hauling, and other very strenuous capture or kill, field dressing, packing or hauling, and other very strenuous activities occur, depending on the species. Subsequent activities include activities occur, depending on the species. Subsequent activities include cutting, storing (e.g., smoking or drying), and returning the remains to the cutting, storing (e.g., smoking or drying), and returning the remains to the ecosystem. ecosystem. Fishing Fishing includes building weirs, hauling in lines and nets, gaffing or gigging, Fishing Fishing includes building weirs, hauling in lines and nets, gaffing or gigging, wading (for shellfish), followed by cleaning the fish and carrying them to the wading (for shellfish), followed by cleaning the fish and carrying them to the place of use. Activities associated with smoking and constructing drying racks place of use. Activities associated with smoking and constructing drying racks may be involved. Remains are returned to aquatic ecosystems. may be involved. Remains are returned to aquatic ecosystems. Gathering Women gathered plants, bark, and firewood up to a day or two distant from the Gathering Women gathered plants, bark, and firewood up to a day or two distant from the camp or village using a digging stick, knife, and basket or other means for camp or village using a digging stick, knife, and basket or other means for carrying resources back to camp. A variety of activities is involved, such as carrying resources back to camp. A variety of activities is involved, such as hiking, bending, stooping, wading (marsh and water plants), digging, bundling, hiking, bending, stooping, wading (marsh and water plants), digging, bundling, carrying, and climbing over a wide variety of terrains. carrying, and climbing over a wide variety of terrains. Ritual purification Sweat lodge building and repairing is intermittent, but collecting firewood is a Ritual purification Sweat lodge building and repairing is intermittent, but collecting firewood is a (sweat lodge) constant activity. Willoughby (1906) and McBride and Prins (1983, citing (sweat lodge) constant activity. Willoughby (1906) and McBride and Prins (1983, citing Denys) suggest that the sweat lodge was used weekly or monthly, either in a Denys) suggest that the sweat lodge was used weekly or monthly, either in a cave or in a small structure covered with mats or skins. cave or in a small structure covered with mats or skins. Materials use and Many activities of low to high intensity are involved in preparing materials for Materials use and Many activities of low to high intensity are involved in preparing materials for food preparation use or food storage. This category includes basket making, which is an food preparation use or food storage. This category includes basket making, which is an example of a very important activity with its own set of prescribed activities, example of a very important activity with its own set of prescribed activities, meanings, and cultural ethics. meanings, and cultural ethics.
Introduction 51 Introduction 51
Table 3 shows the cross-walk between tribal activity categories and exposure Table 3 shows the cross-walk between tribal activity categories and exposure pathways, showing how exposure factors are derived from knowledge about pathways, showing how exposure factors are derived from knowledge about activities, and interlinked resources and ecosystem stories, and the technical activities, and interlinked resources and ecosystem stories, and the technical literature. This is an iterative process that relies on multiple lines of evidence. This is literature. This is an iterative process that relies on multiple lines of evidence. This is not intended to be a complete listing of activities. It shows an example of the thought not intended to be a complete listing of activities. It shows an example of the thought process used to iteratively cross-walk exposure pathways and categories of process used to iteratively cross-walk exposure pathways and categories of subsistence activities. The last column, “Totals for major exposure factory subsistence activities. The last column, “Totals for major exposure factory categories,” shows how exposure pathways (such as soil ingestion) are evaluated by categories,” shows how exposure pathways (such as soil ingestion) are evaluated by estimating across activity categories. This is not a statistical summation but rather a estimating across activity categories. This is not a statistical summation but rather a judgment based on multiple lines of evidence such as ethnohistorical, judgment based on multiple lines of evidence such as ethnohistorical, archaeological, nutritional, and experimental information. archaeological, nutritional, and experimental information.
Table 3. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories. Table 3. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories.
Hunting and Fishing and Gathering Ritual Material and Totals for Hunting and Fishing and Gathering Ritual Material and Totals for associated associated and purification food use and major associated associated and purification food use and major activities activities associated and processing exposure activities activities associated and processing exposure activities associated factor activities associated factor activities categories activities categories Food, n deer /yr n fish /yr diet; Includes No food, but Both as- Must account Food, n deer /yr n fish /yr diet; Includes No food, but Both as- Must account medicine, tea, diet; Total pounds or foods, herbal gathered and for all medicine, tea, diet; Total pounds or foods, herbal gathered and for all other biota Total large- meals/day-wk- medicines, particulates as-eaten calories, other biota Total large- meals/day-wk- medicines, particulates as-eaten calories, ingestion small game, yr; teas, etc. are inhaled forms; breadth of ingestion small game, yr; teas, etc. are inhaled forms; breadth of (diet) fowl; Organs eaten cleaning and plant (diet) fowl; Organs eaten cleaning and plant Organs eaten cooking species; Organs eaten cooking species; methods parts eaten methods parts eaten Soil, Terrain types Sediment External soil Includes Includes Must Soil, Terrain types Sediment External soil Includes Includes Must sediment, such as contact, dust on plants; building the incidental soil consider sediment, such as contact, dust on plants; building the incidental soil consider dust, and marsh with and smoke if Cooking sweat lodge remaining on living area, dust, and marsh with and smoke if Cooking sweat lodge remaining on living area, mud more mud drying; Weir method and getting foods unpaved mud more mud drying; Weir method and getting foods unpaved ingestion contact construction, materials roads, ingestion contact construction, materials roads, tide flats regional dust tide flats regional dust and mud and mud Inhalation Days per Exertion level— Exertion level Includes Exertion level Must account Inhalation Days per Exertion level— Exertion level Includes Exertion level Must account rates terrain type; nets and gaffing for load and building the for pounding, for exertion rates terrain type; nets and gaffing for load and building the for pounding, for exertion Exertion level; methods; grade, or lodge, grinding, levels, Exertion level; methods; grade, or lodge, grinding, levels, Hide Cleaning effort gardening; chopping smoke from smokes and Hide Cleaning effort gardening; chopping smoke from smokes and scraping; Include firewood, fires smudges scraping; Include firewood, fires smudges Load & grade making items singing Load & grade making items singing Groundwater Ritual Drinking water; Drinking Steam in Soaking; Must account Groundwater Ritual Drinking water; Drinking Steam in Soaking; Must account and surface bathing, Incidental water; lodge; Washing; for climate, and surface bathing, Incidental water; lodge; Washing; for climate, water Drinking ingestion; Cooking Drinking Leaching sweat lodge, water Drinking ingestion; Cooking Drinking Leaching sweat lodge, pathways water; Wash Washing and water; water during tannins; Other ritual bathing pathways water; Wash Washing and water; water during tannins; Other ritual bathing water; Water- cooking Soaking in sweat uses water; Water- cooking Soaking in sweat uses to-game and mud or water to-game and mud or water plant plant pathways pathways Dermal Soil, air, and Immersion Same as Immersion Includes Must Dermal Soil, air, and Immersion Same as Immersion Includes Must exposure water considerations hunting with open skin basket consider skin exposure water considerations hunting with open skin basket consider skin pathways, pores making, loading and pathways, pores making, loading and plus wounds habitat types plus wounds habitat types pigments, etc. pigments, etc.
Introduction 52 Introduction 52
Seasonality: The changes in activity patterns over the annual seasonal cycle has Seasonality: The changes in activity patterns over the annual seasonal cycle has been modified in modern times, but the ecological cycle has not, so people must still been modified in modern times, but the ecological cycle has not, so people must still gather plants according to when they are ripe, hunt according to game and fowl gather plants according to when they are ripe, hunt according to game and fowl patterns, and fish when the spawning runs occur. Many items are gathered during patterns, and fish when the spawning runs occur. Many items are gathered during one season for year-round use. While specific activities change from season to one season for year-round use. While specific activities change from season to season, they are replaced by other activities with a similar environmental contact season, they are replaced by other activities with a similar environmental contact rate. For instance, a particular plant may be gathered during one month, while rate. For instance, a particular plant may be gathered during one month, while another month may be spent hunting, and a winter month may include cleaning and another month may be spent hunting, and a winter month may include cleaning and using the items obtained previously. using the items obtained previously.
We generally assume that all activities are roughly equal, that there is no decrease We generally assume that all activities are roughly equal, that there is no decrease in environmental contact rates during winter months. The main winter foods were in environmental contact rates during winter months. The main winter foods were fresh, dried, and frozen meats and fish, dried berries, seeds, dried root and seed fresh, dried, and frozen meats and fish, dried berries, seeds, dried root and seed cakes, and teas and medicines. Gathering firewood was required year-round. There cakes, and teas and medicines. Gathering firewood was required year-round. There was also winter fishing and hunting, as well as an emphasis on making tools, was also winter fishing and hunting, as well as an emphasis on making tools, baskets, and other material items. Food and material preparation were constantly baskets, and other material items. Food and material preparation were constantly required regardless of the season. required regardless of the season.
B.5.2 Exposure Factors for Direct Exposure Pathways B.5.2 Exposure Factors for Direct Exposure Pathways For the purposes of developing these exposure factors, the description of tribal For the purposes of developing these exposure factors, the description of tribal activities focused on: activities focused on:
Frequency of activity: Frequency of activity: • Daily, weekly, monthly • Daily, weekly, monthly Duration of activity: Duration of activity: • Hours at a time • Hours at a time • Number of years • Number of years Intensity of environmental contact and intensity of activity Intensity of environmental contact and intensity of activity
Drinking Water: Drinking Water: The Spokane and Umatilla scenarios (Harper et al. 2000, Harris and Harper 1997) The Spokane and Umatilla scenarios (Harper et al. 2000, Harris and Harper 1997) recommended 3L/d for the hot arid climate of the Columbia Basin. However, other recommended 3L/d for the hot arid climate of the Columbia Basin. However, other climates are cooler and moister. Two liters might be appropriate elsewhere. climates are cooler and moister. Two liters might be appropriate elsewhere.
Soil and Sediment Ingestion: Soil and Sediment Ingestion: Soil ingestion includes consideration of direct ingestion of dirt, mud, or dust, Soil ingestion includes consideration of direct ingestion of dirt, mud, or dust, swallowing inhaled dust, mouthing of objects, ingestion of dirt or dust on food, and swallowing inhaled dust, mouthing of objects, ingestion of dirt or dust on food, and hand-to-mouth contact. We recommend an indigenous soil ingestion rate of hand-to-mouth contact. We recommend an indigenous soil ingestion rate of 400mg/day based on a review of EPA guidance, soil ingestion studies in suburban 400mg/day based on a review of EPA guidance, soil ingestion studies in suburban and indigenous settings, and dermal adherence studies (see Appendix for more and indigenous settings, and dermal adherence studies (see Appendix for more detail). It is also based on knowledge about tribal subsistence lifestyles with their detail). It is also based on knowledge about tribal subsistence lifestyles with their higher environmental contact rates and local climatic and geologic conditions. It higher environmental contact rates and local climatic and geologic conditions. It reflects a variety of soil exposure pathways such as cooking, gardening or wild foods reflects a variety of soil exposure pathways such as cooking, gardening or wild foods harvesting and/or gathering, residual soil or dust on foods and medicine, holding harvesting and/or gathering, residual soil or dust on foods and medicine, holding natural materials in the mouth while processing or using the materials. It also natural materials in the mouth while processing or using the materials. It also Introduction 53 Introduction 53
considers many 1-gram days and 1-gram events, such as sports, powwows, days in considers many 1-gram days and 1-gram events, such as sports, powwows, days in wetlands or marshes, and similar activities. There are also likely to be many wetlands or marshes, and similar activities. There are also likely to be many intermediate-contact days, depending on the occupation (e.g., wildlife field work, intermediate-contact days, depending on the occupation (e.g., wildlife field work, construction or road work, cultural resource field work). construction or road work, cultural resource field work).
The soil ingestion rate of 400mg/d for all ages is the published upper bound for The soil ingestion rate of 400mg/d for all ages is the published upper bound for suburban children (EPA 1997), and is within the range of outdoor activity rates for suburban children (EPA 1997), and is within the range of outdoor activity rates for adults but lower than the typical 480mg/d applied to intermittent outdoor adults but lower than the typical 480mg/d applied to intermittent outdoor occupations. Tribal subsistence lifestyles were not considered by the EPA guidance, occupations. Tribal subsistence lifestyles were not considered by the EPA guidance, but are generally considered to be similar in soil contact rates to construction, utility but are generally considered to be similar in soil contact rates to construction, utility worker or military soil contact levels. The U.S. military assumes 480mg per exposure worker or military soil contact levels. The U.S. military assumes 480mg per exposure event6 or per field day. The UN Balkans Task Force assumes that 1 gram of soil can event6 or per field day. The UN Balkans Task Force assumes that 1 gram of soil can be ingested per military field day.7 Anecdotally, U.S. forces deployed in Iraq report be ingested per military field day.7 Anecdotally, U.S. forces deployed in Iraq report frequent grittiness in the mouth and food. Haywood and Smith (1990) also frequent grittiness in the mouth and food. Haywood and Smith (1990) also considered sensory reports of grittiness in their estimate of 1–10g/d in aboriginal considered sensory reports of grittiness in their estimate of 1–10g/d in aboriginal Australians. Australians.
Simon (1998) reviewed soil ingestion studies from a perspective of risk and dose Simon (1998) reviewed soil ingestion studies from a perspective of risk and dose assessment. Because of their high dependence on the land, indigenous peoples are assessment. Because of their high dependence on the land, indigenous peoples are at highest risk for inadvertent ingestion, along with professions that may bring at highest risk for inadvertent ingestion, along with professions that may bring workers into close and continual contact with the soil. Simon recommends using a workers into close and continual contact with the soil. Simon recommends using a soil ingestion rate for indigenous people in hunter/food gathering/nomadic societies soil ingestion rate for indigenous people in hunter/food gathering/nomadic societies of 1g/d in wet climates and 2g/d in dry climates. He recommends using 3g/d for all of 1g/d in wet climates and 2g/d in dry climates. He recommends using 3g/d for all indigenous children. This is higher than the prior EPA default value of 200mg/day indigenous children. This is higher than the prior EPA default value of 200mg/day (USEPA 1989). This rate reflects both indoor dust and continuous outdoor activities (USEPA 1989). This rate reflects both indoor dust and continuous outdoor activities analogous to gardening or camping (van Wijnen 1990), but it is less than a single- analogous to gardening or camping (van Wijnen 1990), but it is less than a single- incident sports or construction ingestion rate (Boyd 1999). After considering all of the incident sports or construction ingestion rate (Boyd 1999). After considering all of the exposure pathways and activities, this report recommends the use of 400mg/d per exposure pathways and activities, this report recommends the use of 400mg/d per day. day.
Inhalation Rate: Inhalation Rate: The inhalation rate in indigenous scenarios reflects the active, outdoor lifestyle of The inhalation rate in indigenous scenarios reflects the active, outdoor lifestyle of traditional tribal members. Traditional tribal communities have no sedentary traditional tribal members. Traditional tribal communities have no sedentary members except the frail elderly, whereas one-quarter of modern American adults of members except the frail elderly, whereas one-quarter of modern American adults of all ages report no leisure time physical activity at all.8 The activity levels associated all ages report no leisure time physical activity at all.8 The activity levels associated with the traditional lifestyle and diet based on published anthropological studies, with the traditional lifestyle and diet based on published anthropological studies, ethnographic literature on foraging theory, hunting-gathering lifestyles, and ethnographic literature on foraging theory, hunting-gathering lifestyles, and interviews with tribal members were evaluated (see Appendix). Using EPA guidance interviews with tribal members were evaluated (see Appendix). Using EPA guidance on hourly inhalation rates for different activity levels, a reasonable inhalation rate for on hourly inhalation rates for different activity levels, a reasonable inhalation rate for an average tribal member’s active lifestyle is a median rate of 26.2m3/d. This rate is an average tribal member’s active lifestyle is a median rate of 26.2m3/d. This rate is
6 http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/pesto/pest_s22.htm, citing US Environmental Protection Agency, Office 6 http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/pesto/pest_s22.htm, citing US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, “Exposure Factors Handbook,” Volume I, EPA/600/P-95/002a, of Research and Development, “Exposure Factors Handbook,” Volume I, EPA/600/P-95/002a, August 1997 as the basis for the 480mg/d. August 1997 as the basis for the 480mg/d. 7 UNEP/UNCHS Balkans Task Force (BTF) (1999). The potential effects on human health and the 7 UNEP/UNCHS Balkans Task Force (BTF) (1999). The potential effects on human health and the environment arising from possible use of depleted uranium during the 1999 Kosovo conflict. environment arising from possible use of depleted uranium during the 1999 Kosovo conflict. http://www.grid.unep.ch/btf/missions/september/dufinal.pdf. http://www.grid.unep.ch/btf/missions/september/dufinal.pdf. 8 http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pdf/ 2001prvrpt.pdf and http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pubrfdat.htm. 8 http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pdf/ 2001prvrpt.pdf and http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pubrfdat.htm. Introduction 54 Introduction 54
based on 8 hours sleeping at 0.4m3/hr, 2 hours sedentary at 0.5m3/hr, 6 hours light based on 8 hours sleeping at 0.4m3/hr, 2 hours sedentary at 0.5m3/hr, 6 hours light activity at 1m3/hr, 6 hours moderate activity at 1.6m3/hr, and 2 hours heavy activity at activity at 1m3/hr, 6 hours moderate activity at 1.6m3/hr, and 2 hours heavy activity at 3.2m3/hr. Unlike most other exposure factors, which are upper bounds, the 3.2m3/hr. Unlike most other exposure factors, which are upper bounds, the inhalation rate is a median rate. This is rounded down to 25m3/day based on the inhalation rate is a median rate. This is rounded down to 25m3/day based on the relation of oxygen utilization to caloric intake. relation of oxygen utilization to caloric intake.
Dermal Exposures: Dermal Exposures: The dermal pathway has not been fully researched for this scenario, but EPA The dermal pathway has not been fully researched for this scenario, but EPA methods9 for dermal exposure can be used. Two relevant papers are summarized methods9 for dermal exposure can be used. Two relevant papers are summarized here. Kissel et al. (1996) included reed gatherers in tide flats in a study of dermal here. Kissel et al. (1996) included reed gatherers in tide flats in a study of dermal adherence. The category of “kids in mud” at a lakeshore had by far the highest skin adherence. The category of “kids in mud” at a lakeshore had by far the highest skin loadings, with an average of 35mg/cm2 for 6 children and an average of 58mg/cm2 loadings, with an average of 35mg/cm2 for 6 children and an average of 58mg/cm2 for another 6 children. Reed gatherers were next highest at 0.66mg/cm2 with an for another 6 children. Reed gatherers were next highest at 0.66mg/cm2 with an upper bound of >1mg/cm2. This was followed by farmers and rugby players upper bound of >1mg/cm2. This was followed by farmers and rugby players (approximately 0.4mg/cm2) and irrigation installers (0.2mg/cm2). Holmes et (approximately 0.4mg/cm2) and irrigation installers (0.2mg/cm2). Holmes et al. (1999) studied 99 individuals in a variety of occupations. Farmers, reed al. (1999) studied 99 individuals in a variety of occupations. Farmers, reed gatherers, and kids in mud had the highest overall skin loadings. The next highest gatherers, and kids in mud had the highest overall skin loadings. The next highest skin loadings on the hands were for equipment operators, gardeners, construction, skin loadings on the hands were for equipment operators, gardeners, construction, and utility workers (0.3mg/cm2), followed by archaeologists, and several other and utility workers (0.3mg/cm2), followed by archaeologists, and several other occupations (0.15–0.1 mg/cm2). In the future, a more refined approach that occupations (0.15–0.1 mg/cm2). In the future, a more refined approach that considers numbers of days or hours in various habitats and activities and matches considers numbers of days or hours in various habitats and activities and matches that information with soil ingestion rate could be used. For example, the soil that information with soil ingestion rate could be used. For example, the soil ingestion rate and dermal adherence rate should both consider the number of mud- ingestion rate and dermal adherence rate should both consider the number of mud- event days and the proportion of wetlands present in the region of the location where event days and the proportion of wetlands present in the region of the location where the scenario is being applied. the scenario is being applied.
9 http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragse/ 9 http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragse/ Introduction 55 Introduction 55
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Elem (Pomo) Scenario 61 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 61
Elem (Pomo) Elem (Pomo) Human Health Risk Assessment Human Health Risk Assessment Exposure Scenario Exposure Scenario
Clear Lake1 Clear Lake1
Clear Lake Pomo Hunter on a Tule Raft2 Clear Lake Pomo Hunter on a Tule Raft2
1 Photos by Charles Webber, posted at http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?where- 1 Photos by Charles Webber, posted at http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?where- genre=Landscape&query_src=photos_landscape_index&rel-location=like&where- genre=Landscape&query_src=photos_landscape_index&rel-location=like&where- location=clear+lake&rel-plant_comm=like&where-plant_comm=&where-continent=any&where- location=clear+lake&rel-plant_comm=like&where-plant_comm=&where-continent=any&where- country=any&where-state=California+%282716%29&rel-county=eq&where-county=any&where- country=any&where-state=California+%282716%29&rel-county=eq&where-county=any&where- collectn=any&rel-photographer=eq&where-photographer=any&rel-kwid=equals&where-kwid= collectn=any&rel-photographer=eq&where-photographer=any&rel-kwid=equals&where-kwid= 2 CURTIS, Edward Sheriff, The Hunter—Lake Pomo; http://www.donaldheald.com/browse18.html 2 CURTIS, Edward Sheriff, The Hunter—Lake Pomo; http://www.donaldheald.com/browse18.html Elem (Pomo) Scenario 62 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 62
CONTENTS CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 64 1 INTRODUCTION 64 2 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 69 2 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 69 2.1 CLEAR LAKE ECOSYSTEM 69 2.1 CLEAR LAKE ECOSYSTEM 69 2.1.1 Lake, Marsh, and Riparian Habitat 74 2.1.1 Lake, Marsh, and Riparian Habitat 74 2.1.2 Uplands 74 2.1.2 Uplands 74 2.2 RARE SPECIES 75 2.2 RARE SPECIES 75 2.3 CLEAR LAKE ECOREGIONS 76 2.3 CLEAR LAKE ECOREGIONS 76 2.3.1 Northwestern Forested Mountain and Western 2.3.1 Northwestern Forested Mountain and Western Cordillera Ecoregion: Klamath Mountains (6.2.11) 79 Cordillera Ecoregion: Klamath Mountains (6.2.11) 79 2.3.2 Marine West Coast Ecoregion: Coast Range (7.1.8) 80 2.3.2 Marine West Coast Ecoregion: Coast Range (7.1.8) 80 2.3.3 Mediterranean California Ecoregions: Southern 2.3.3 Mediterranean California Ecoregions: Southern and Central Chaparral and Oak Woodlands (11.1.1) and Central Chaparral and Oak Woodlands (11.1.1) and Central California Valley (11.1.2) 81 and Central California Valley (11.1.2) 81 3 OVERVIEW OF GENERAL ELEM ECOLOGICAL LIFESTYLE 83 3 OVERVIEW OF GENERAL ELEM ECOLOGICAL LIFESTYLE 83 3.1 HISTORICAL SEASONAL PATTERNS OF THE ELEM 83 3.1 HISTORICAL SEASONAL PATTERNS OF THE ELEM 83 3.2 GENERAL RESOURCE USE 84 3.2 GENERAL RESOURCE USE 84 3.2.1 Fishing and Hunting 84 3.2.1 Fishing and Hunting 84 3.2.2 Gathering 84 3.2.2 Gathering 84 3.2.3 Resource Management 87 3.2.3 Resource Management 87 4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO 88 4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO 88 4.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET 88 4.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET 88 4.2 FORAGING STUDIES FOR CENTRAL CALIFORNIA 89 4.2 FORAGING STUDIES FOR CENTRAL CALIFORNIA 89 4.3 THE ELEM DIET 90 4.3 THE ELEM DIET 90 4.4 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS 93 4.4 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS 93 5 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS 95 5 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS 95 5.1 APPROACH 95 5.1 APPROACH 95 5.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES 95 5.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES 95 5.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME 99 5.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME 99 5.3.1 Activity Patterns 99 5.3.1 Activity Patterns 99 5.3.2 Specific Cultural Activities 99 5.3.2 Specific Cultural Activities 99 5.4 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS 100 5.4 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS 100 6 CONCLUSION 105 6 CONCLUSION 105 7 REFERENCES 106 7 REFERENCES 106
APPENDIX A 111 APPENDIX A 111
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 63 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 63
LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Clearlake Oaks quad rare species. 75 Table 1. Clearlake Oaks quad rare species. 75 Table 2. Clearlake Highlands quad rare species. 76 Table 2. Clearlake Highlands quad rare species. 76 Table 3. Acquisition estimates. 89 Table 3. Acquisition estimates. 89 Table 4. Summary of estimated relative proportions of dietary foods. 93 Table 4. Summary of estimated relative proportions of dietary foods. 93 Table 5. Nutritional content of hulled acorns. 94 Table 5. Nutritional content of hulled acorns. 94 Table 6. Nutritional content of acorns. 94 Table 6. Nutritional content of acorns. 94 Table 7. USDA information on raw acorns, dried acorns, and acorn flour, Table 7. USDA information on raw acorns, dried acorns, and acorn flour, Quercus spp. 94 Quercus spp. 94 Table 8. Traditional lifeways—Typical activities in the activity categories. 96 Table 8. Traditional lifeways—Typical activities in the activity categories. 96 Table 9. Major activity categories. 97 Table 9. Major activity categories. 97 Table 10. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories. 98 Table 10. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories. 98 Table 11. Major exposure factors for direct pathways. 101 Table 11. Major exposure factors for direct pathways. 101 Table A.1. Supplemental resource information. 111 Table A.1. Supplemental resource information. 111
LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Continental US with Clear Lake Location 69 Figure 1. Continental US with Clear Lake Location 69 Figure 2. California Watersheds 70 Figure 2. California Watersheds 70 Figure 3. Sacramento River Basin 71 Figure 3. Sacramento River Basin 71 Figure 4. Cache Creek Subregion 71 Figure 4. Cache Creek Subregion 71 Figure 5. Upper Cache Creek Subregion 72 Figure 5. Upper Cache Creek Subregion 72 Figure 6. Clear Lake Area Watersheds 73 Figure 6. Clear Lake Area Watersheds 73 Figure 7. Clear Lake Area USGS Quad Maps 75 Figure 7. Clear Lake Area USGS Quad Maps 75 Figure 8. Level I, II, and III Ecoregions 78 Figure 8. Level I, II, and III Ecoregions 78 Figure 9. Clear Lake Level III Ecoregions 79 Figure 9. Clear Lake Level III Ecoregions 79 Figure 10. Diet Estimate 91 Figure 10. Diet Estimate 91 Figure 11. Percentage of Dietary Category Ingested per Day 92 Figure 11. Percentage of Dietary Category Ingested per Day 92 Figure 12. Grams of Dietary Category Ingested per Day 92 Figure 12. Grams of Dietary Category Ingested per Day 92
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 64 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 64
1 INTRODUCTION 1 INTRODUCTION
This document presents the Elem (Southeastern Pomo) Exposure Scenario at Clear This document presents the Elem (Southeastern Pomo) Exposure Scenario at Clear Lake, California. An exposure scenario is a narrative and numerical representation Lake, California. An exposure scenario is a narrative and numerical representation of the interactions between human receptors and their immediate environment. of the interactions between human receptors and their immediate environment. Exposure scenarios include media-specific and pathway-specific exposure factors Exposure scenarios include media-specific and pathway-specific exposure factors that reflect the degree of environmental contact for each medium and each exposure that reflect the degree of environmental contact for each medium and each exposure pathway, expressed as the frequency, duration, and intensity of contact. If pathway, expressed as the frequency, duration, and intensity of contact. If environmental contamination is present, the exposure factors are used to estimate environmental contamination is present, the exposure factors are used to estimate human exposure, expressed as the dose of each contaminant to the person for human exposure, expressed as the dose of each contaminant to the person for whom the exposure scenario is developed. The dose of each contaminant is whom the exposure scenario is developed. The dose of each contaminant is combined with its toxicity to develop and estimate of health risk to the person. combined with its toxicity to develop and estimate of health risk to the person. Exposure factors can also be used to develop environmental standards to ensure Exposure factors can also be used to develop environmental standards to ensure that natural resources are safe to use. that natural resources are safe to use.
Even though many tribal lands have been lost and resources degraded, there are Even though many tribal lands have been lost and resources degraded, there are generally more traditional or subsistence practices followed by tribal members than generally more traditional or subsistence practices followed by tribal members than the general non-native population realizes. Additionally, the objective of many tribes the general non-native population realizes. Additionally, the objective of many tribes is to regain land, restore resources, and encourage more members to practice is to regain land, restore resources, and encourage more members to practice healthier (i.e., more traditional) lifestyles. Therefore, the objective of subsistence healthier (i.e., more traditional) lifestyles. Therefore, the objective of subsistence exposure scenarios is to describe the original lifestyles and resource uses, not to exposure scenarios is to describe the original lifestyles and resource uses, not to present a current snapshot of restricted or suppressed uses, because the intent is to present a current snapshot of restricted or suppressed uses, because the intent is to restore the ecology so that the original pattern of resource uses is both possible restore the ecology so that the original pattern of resource uses is both possible (after resources are restored) and safe (after contamination is removed). This is a (after resources are restored) and safe (after contamination is removed). This is a different situation than for the general American population, where the intent of different situation than for the general American population, where the intent of remediation is to allow people to continue their current (and portable) lifestyle in a remediation is to allow people to continue their current (and portable) lifestyle in a newly cleaned location. newly cleaned location.
For the general United States population, an exposure scenario is typically designed For the general United States population, an exposure scenario is typically designed to describe an upper bound (generally around the 75th percentile) of the population to describe an upper bound (generally around the 75th percentile) of the population being assessed. Some individual exposure factors are the 90th or 95th percentile; being assessed. Some individual exposure factors are the 90th or 95th percentile; others are mean values. In the case of tribal exposure scenarios, there are no tribal- others are mean values. In the case of tribal exposure scenarios, there are no tribal- specific databases of subsistence activities, resources, or diets as there are for the specific databases of subsistence activities, resources, or diets as there are for the general United States population. Cross-sectional surveys of current tribal general United States population. Cross-sectional surveys of current tribal populations will not generate that data because much resource use has been populations will not generate that data because much resource use has been suppressed due to loss of land and access, awareness of contamination, suppressed due to loss of land and access, awareness of contamination, prosecution by the dominant society, and other reasons. This means that large and prosecution by the dominant society, and other reasons. This means that large and accurate statistical distributions for subsistence exposure factors are not available accurate statistical distributions for subsistence exposure factors are not available and cannot be developed unless only a fully subsistent subset of the tribe is studied, and cannot be developed unless only a fully subsistent subset of the tribe is studied, and this is not possible because the traditional subsistent members resist being and this is not possible because the traditional subsistent members resist being studied and measured. Therefore, ranges of exposures, or specified percentiles of studied and measured. Therefore, ranges of exposures, or specified percentiles of exposure are not possible to calculate. The Elem Scenario is reconstructed as a exposure are not possible to calculate. The Elem Scenario is reconstructed as a reasonable representation of the traditional subsistence lifestyle, equivalent to a reasonable representation of the traditional subsistence lifestyle, equivalent to a central tendency of this lifestyle rather than a statistical upper bound. central tendency of this lifestyle rather than a statistical upper bound.
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 65 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 65
For the general suburban population the exposure scenario is well defined in EPA For the general suburban population the exposure scenario is well defined in EPA guidance (Exposure Factors Handbooks). The Elem tribal scenario is based on the guidance (Exposure Factors Handbooks). The Elem tribal scenario is based on the lifestyle and baseline conditions of the regional natural resources. lifestyle and baseline conditions of the regional natural resources.
This scenario identifies general exposure pathways specific to Elem lifestyles and This scenario identifies general exposure pathways specific to Elem lifestyles and key resources that the Elem people use. It starts with a general description of key resources that the Elem people use. It starts with a general description of baseline natural resources that are (or should be) present in the study area. A baseline natural resources that are (or should be) present in the study area. A general understanding of what people do (or would do in the absence of general understanding of what people do (or would do in the absence of contamination) and what resources are available for their use provides the basis for contamination) and what resources are available for their use provides the basis for developing preliminary exposure factors. Then the scenario describes the activities developing preliminary exposure factors. Then the scenario describes the activities that traditional people undertake to survive and thrive in that local ecosystem, that traditional people undertake to survive and thrive in that local ecosystem, including hunting, gathering foods and medicines, fishing, making material items, including hunting, gathering foods and medicines, fishing, making material items, farming or gardening, raising livestock, irrigating, and various cultural and domestic farming or gardening, raising livestock, irrigating, and various cultural and domestic activities. activities.
As mentioned, the exposure scenario reflects a traditional subsistence lifestyle. As mentioned, the exposure scenario reflects a traditional subsistence lifestyle. Subsistence refers to the hunting, fishing, and gathering activities that are Subsistence refers to the hunting, fishing, and gathering activities that are fundamental to the way of life of many indigenous peoples. Today’s subsistence fundamental to the way of life of many indigenous peoples. Today’s subsistence economies utilize traditional and modern technologies for harvesting and preserving economies utilize traditional and modern technologies for harvesting and preserving foods and for distributing the produce through communal networks of sharing and foods and for distributing the produce through communal networks of sharing and bartering. The following is a useful explanation of “subsistence,” taken from the bartering. The following is a useful explanation of “subsistence,” taken from the National Park Service: National Park Service:
While non-natives tend to define subsistence in terms of poverty or the While non-natives tend to define subsistence in terms of poverty or the minimum amount of food necessary to support life, native people equate minimum amount of food necessary to support life, native people equate subsistence with their culture. Among many tribes, maintaining a subsistence subsistence with their culture. Among many tribes, maintaining a subsistence lifestyle has become the symbol of their survival in the face of mounting lifestyle has become the symbol of their survival in the face of mounting political and economic pressures. It defines who they are as a people. To political and economic pressures. It defines who they are as a people. To Native Americans who continue to depend on natural resources, subsistence Native Americans who continue to depend on natural resources, subsistence is more than eking out a living. While it is important to the economic well- is more than eking out a living. While it is important to the economic well- being of their communities, the subsistence lifestyle is also the basis of being of their communities, the subsistence lifestyle is also the basis of cultural existence and survival. It is a communal activity. It unifies cultural existence and survival. It is a communal activity. It unifies communities as cohesive functioning units through collective production and communities as cohesive functioning units through collective production and distribution of the harvest. Some groups have formalized patterns of sharing, distribution of the harvest. Some groups have formalized patterns of sharing, while others do so in more informal ways. Entire families participate, including while others do so in more informal ways. Entire families participate, including elders, who assist with less physically demanding tasks. Parents teach the elders, who assist with less physically demanding tasks. Parents teach the young to hunt, fish, and farm. Food and goods are also distributed through young to hunt, fish, and farm. Food and goods are also distributed through native cultural institutions. Most require young hunters to distribute their first native cultural institutions. Most require young hunters to distribute their first catch throughout the community. Subsistence embodies cultural values that catch throughout the community. Subsistence embodies cultural values that recognize both the social obligation to share as well as the special spiritual recognize both the social obligation to share as well as the special spiritual relationship to the land and resources. This relationship is portrayed in native relationship to the land and resources. This relationship is portrayed in native art and in many ceremonies held throughout the year.3 art and in many ceremonies held throughout the year.3
In economic terms, a subsistence economy is one in which a dollar currency is In economic terms, a subsistence economy is one in which a dollar currency is limited because many goods and services are produced and consumed by the same limited because many goods and services are produced and consumed by the same
3 National Park Service: http://www.cr.nps.gov/aad/cg/fa_1999/Subsist.htm 3 National Park Service: http://www.cr.nps.gov/aad/cg/fa_1999/Subsist.htm Elem (Pomo) Scenario 66 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 66
families or bands. Today, currency (symbols of specified quantities of useful families or bands. Today, currency (symbols of specified quantities of useful resources) is limited, but important, so many indigenous families include members resources) is limited, but important, so many indigenous families include members whose role is to acquire various types of wealth. The subsistence economy does whose role is to acquire various types of wealth. The subsistence economy does include currencies of goods, services, knowledge, obligation, and respect, as well as include currencies of goods, services, knowledge, obligation, and respect, as well as ‘money’ or symbols of work that are used to ‘buy’ goods or services whose use is ‘money’ or symbols of work that are used to ‘buy’ goods or services whose use is displaced in time and space from their production. Examples of money include displaced in time and space from their production. Examples of money include wampum and, today, dollars. Wealth can be measured in other ways, including the wampum and, today, dollars. Wealth can be measured in other ways, including the security that comes from an abundance of respect that ensures that resources will security that comes from an abundance of respect that ensures that resources will be provided to the family even in lean times, as well as from community well-being be provided to the family even in lean times, as well as from community well-being and sensory loading from the beautiful and aromatic natural surroundings. For and sensory loading from the beautiful and aromatic natural surroundings. For example, subsistence in an Arctic community includes the following: example, subsistence in an Arctic community includes the following:
The modern-day subsistence family depends on the tools of the trade, most The modern-day subsistence family depends on the tools of the trade, most of which are expensive. Snowmobiles, gasoline, guns, fishing nets, and of which are expensive. Snowmobiles, gasoline, guns, fishing nets, and sleeping bags are necessities. Subsistence households also enjoy many of sleeping bags are necessities. Subsistence households also enjoy many of the modern conveniences of life, and are saddled with the economic the modern conveniences of life, and are saddled with the economic demands which come with their acquisition. Today’s subsistence family demands which come with their acquisition. Today’s subsistence family generates much-needed cash as wage-labourers, part-time workers and generates much-needed cash as wage-labourers, part-time workers and trappers, professional business people, traditional craftmakers, and seasonal trappers, professional business people, traditional craftmakers, and seasonal workers. A highly-integrated interdependence between formal (cash-based) workers. A highly-integrated interdependence between formal (cash-based) and informal (barter and subsistence-based) economic sectors has evolved.4 and informal (barter and subsistence-based) economic sectors has evolved.4
Once the activities composing a particular subsistence lifestyle are known, they are Once the activities composing a particular subsistence lifestyle are known, they are translated into a form that is used for risk assessment. This translation captures the translated into a form that is used for risk assessment. This translation captures the degree of environmental contact that occurs through activities and diet, expressed degree of environmental contact that occurs through activities and diet, expressed as numerical exposure factors. Exposure factors for direct exposure pathways as numerical exposure factors. Exposure factors for direct exposure pathways include exposure to abiotic media (air, water, soil, and sediment), which can result in include exposure to abiotic media (air, water, soil, and sediment), which can result in inhalation, soil ingestion, water ingestion, and dermal exposure. Indirect pathways inhalation, soil ingestion, water ingestion, and dermal exposure. Indirect pathways refer to contaminants that are incorporated into biota and subsequently expose refer to contaminants that are incorporated into biota and subsequently expose people who ingest or use them. There are many unique exposure pathways that are people who ingest or use them. There are many unique exposure pathways that are not accounted for in scenarios for the general public, but may be significant to not accounted for in scenarios for the general public, but may be significant to people with certain traditional specialties such as basket making, flint knapping, or people with certain traditional specialties such as basket making, flint knapping, or using natural medicines, smoke, smudges, paints, and dyes. These activities may using natural medicines, smoke, smudges, paints, and dyes. These activities may result in increased dust inhalation, soil ingestion, soil loading onto the skin for dermal result in increased dust inhalation, soil ingestion, soil loading onto the skin for dermal exposure, or exposure via wounds, to give a few examples. While the portals of exposure, or exposure via wounds, to give a few examples. While the portals of entry into the body are the same for everyone (primarily via the lungs, skin, mouth), entry into the body are the same for everyone (primarily via the lungs, skin, mouth), the amount of contaminants may be increased and the relative importance of some the amount of contaminants may be increased and the relative importance of some activities (e.g., basket making, wetlands gathering), pathways (e.g., steam activities (e.g., basket making, wetlands gathering), pathways (e.g., steam immersion or medicinal infusions), or portals of entry (e.g., dermal wounding) may immersion or medicinal infusions), or portals of entry (e.g., dermal wounding) may be different than for the general population. be different than for the general population.
Foraging theory data from the anthropological literature is particularly useful for Foraging theory data from the anthropological literature is particularly useful for developing exposure scenarios because the major dietary and resource staples may developing exposure scenarios because the major dietary and resource staples may be described, as well as how much time and effort is needed to obtain them. be described, as well as how much time and effort is needed to obtain them.
4 http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/NatResources/subsistglobal.html 4 http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/NatResources/subsistglobal.html Elem (Pomo) Scenario 67 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 67
Together, this information is then used for the food-chain portion of the scenario and Together, this information is then used for the food-chain portion of the scenario and to calculate the direct exposure factors. to calculate the direct exposure factors.
This process is laid out in the following sections according to the general sequence: This process is laid out in the following sections according to the general sequence:
1. Environmental setting—what resources are available; 1. Environmental setting—what resources are available; 2. Lifestyle description—activities and their frequency, duration and intensity, 2. Lifestyle description—activities and their frequency, duration and intensity, and resource use; and resource use; 3. Diet; 3. Diet; 4. Exposure pathways, and 4. Exposure pathways, and 5. Exposure factors—iterative cross-walk between pathways and direct 5. Exposure factors—iterative cross-walk between pathways and direct exposure factors: cumulative soil, water, air, and dietary exposures. exposure factors: cumulative soil, water, air, and dietary exposures.
Because the method for developing exposure factors is derived from an Because the method for developing exposure factors is derived from an understanding of lifestyle rather than from large statistical databases (national understanding of lifestyle rather than from large statistical databases (national drinking water rates, or USDA databases of national average food intakes) and is drinking water rates, or USDA databases of national average food intakes) and is unfamiliar to many readers, it is described briefly here (more detail is presented unfamiliar to many readers, it is described briefly here (more detail is presented below). below).
Because large databases are not available and cannot be constructed, we take a Because large databases are not available and cannot be constructed, we take a top-down approach. For example, we do not attempt to develop a complete diet top-down approach. For example, we do not attempt to develop a complete diet based on surveys of the uses of the typical 200+ natural resources available and based on surveys of the uses of the typical 200+ natural resources available and used with an ecoregion. Rather, we develop a calorically complete estimate of a used with an ecoregion. Rather, we develop a calorically complete estimate of a 2000kcal/day diet that identifies the major staples and their rough percentages in the 2000kcal/day diet that identifies the major staples and their rough percentages in the original diet. Similarly, we do not develop an average day by tracking hundreds of original diet. Similarly, we do not develop an average day by tracking hundreds of individual activities from many people. The basic process is to: individual activities from many people. The basic process is to:
1. Start with an understanding of the major categories of subsistence activities 1. Start with an understanding of the major categories of subsistence activities (such as hunting, fishing, gathering, basket making, and sweat lodge (such as hunting, fishing, gathering, basket making, and sweat lodge purification), purification), 2. Describe enough of the sub-activities that the complexity and interconnection 2. Describe enough of the sub-activities that the complexity and interconnection of resources and activities can be understood, of resources and activities can be understood, 3. Identify the major activities that contribute to exposure, and then 3. Identify the major activities that contribute to exposure, and then 4. Iteratively cross-walk between activities and conventional exposure factors to 4. Iteratively cross-walk between activities and conventional exposure factors to develop cumulative exposure factors. develop cumulative exposure factors.
To illustrate, each of the major activity categories includes activities that result in To illustrate, each of the major activity categories includes activities that result in exposure to soil, and therefore soil ingestion. By estimating the relative amount of exposure to soil, and therefore soil ingestion. By estimating the relative amount of time spent in activities that result in high, medium, or low soil exposure for each time spent in activities that result in high, medium, or low soil exposure for each activity category, an overall soil-ingestion rate can be estimated. However, we do not activity category, an overall soil-ingestion rate can be estimated. However, we do not attempt to be overly quantitative in enumerating the myriad activities and resources attempt to be overly quantitative in enumerating the myriad activities and resources in each category—this requires more precision than is warranted and is likely to in each category—this requires more precision than is warranted and is likely to require proprietary information that cannot be released. require proprietary information that cannot be released.
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 68 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 68
Finally, a review of existing literature (biomedical, anthropological, and so on) Finally, a review of existing literature (biomedical, anthropological, and so on) enables us to double-check whether multiple lines of evidence leads us to a similar enables us to double-check whether multiple lines of evidence leads us to a similar conclusion for each exposure factor. conclusion for each exposure factor.
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 69 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 69
2 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 2 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
This section provides a general introduction to habitats and plant communities This section provides a general introduction to habitats and plant communities present in Elem territory. Baseline environmental conditions are approximated. This present in Elem territory. Baseline environmental conditions are approximated. This is not a fixed year, but rather a condition of natural resources. In the case of Elem, is not a fixed year, but rather a condition of natural resources. In the case of Elem, baseline conditions refer to the early-contact time period when there were still ample baseline conditions refer to the early-contact time period when there were still ample resources and minimal land loss. This time period extends to as recently as 100–200 resources and minimal land loss. This time period extends to as recently as 100–200 years ago, before the era of the large California irrigation projects and development years ago, before the era of the large California irrigation projects and development of the California interior and the Clear Lake region. of the California interior and the Clear Lake region.
The overall territory of the Pomo peoples is north of San Francisco Bay The overall territory of the Pomo peoples is north of San Francisco Bay approximately 130 miles north to south and 100 miles east to west. Pomo approximately 130 miles north to south and 100 miles east to west. Pomo environments include the coastal and redwood belts, river valleys, and the Clear environments include the coastal and redwood belts, river valleys, and the Clear Lake area where Elem is located. It reaches from the coast to the Sacramento River Lake area where Elem is located. It reaches from the coast to the Sacramento River in the interior California central valley (Baumhoff 1978, Barrett 1908). in the interior California central valley (Baumhoff 1978, Barrett 1908).
Habitation around Clear Lake began at least 10,000 to 12,000 years ago (Willig et al. Habitation around Clear Lake began at least 10,000 to 12,000 years ago (Willig et al. 1988, McLendon and Lowry 1978). Each cluster of village communities (or ‘tribelet’) 1988, McLendon and Lowry 1978). Each cluster of village communities (or ‘tribelet’) was slightly different from the next, resulting in a wide range of cultures and seven was slightly different from the next, resulting in a wide range of cultures and seven languages. The Elem people were located in Elem, the largest of the southeastern languages. The Elem people were located in Elem, the largest of the southeastern Pomo villages, on Rattlesnake Island (or Sulphur Bank Island) in Clear Lake, and in Pomo villages, on Rattlesnake Island (or Sulphur Bank Island) in Clear Lake, and in two other smaller villages on Clear Lake (McLendon and Lowry 1978, Brown and two other smaller villages on Clear Lake (McLendon and Lowry 1978, Brown and Andrews 1969, Willig et al. 1988). Andrews 1969, Willig et al. 1988).
The Clear Lake area is shown in a map of the continental US in Figure 1. The Clear Lake area is shown in a map of the continental US in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Continental US with Clear Lake Location Figure 1. Continental US with Clear Lake Location
2.1 CLEAR LAKE ECOSYSTEM 2.1 CLEAR LAKE ECOSYSTEM Many tribal homelands are defined in terms of watershed boundaries with the water Many tribal homelands are defined in terms of watershed boundaries with the water source in the center (unlike the Western habit of using rivers as peripheral source in the center (unlike the Western habit of using rivers as peripheral boundaries). This is because native peoples use entire river valleys with their ranges boundaries). This is because native peoples use entire river valleys with their ranges Elem (Pomo) Scenario 70 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 70 of elevation from the river bottoms to the boundary ridges or mountains, and utilized of elevation from the river bottoms to the boundary ridges or mountains, and utilized the associated seasonal patterns of resource availability. Figures 2–6 show the Elem the associated seasonal patterns of resource availability. Figures 2–6 show the Elem area within its watersheds, beginning with California’s greater watersheds below. area within its watersheds, beginning with California’s greater watersheds below.
Clear Lake Clear Lake location location
http://cwp.resources.ca.gov/browser/ http://cwp.resources.ca.gov/browser/
Figure 2. California Watersheds Figure 2. California Watersheds
Figure 3 indicates the location of the Sacramento River watershed. Figures 4 and 5 Figure 3 indicates the location of the Sacramento River watershed. Figures 4 and 5 show the Clear Lake region (Cache Creek). show the Clear Lake region (Cache Creek).
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 71 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 71
Clear Lake Clear Lake
http://cwp.resources.ca.gov/browser/search.epl?idnum=05;name=;mode= http://cwp.resources.ca.gov/browser/search.epl?idnum=05;name=;mode=
Figure 3. Sacramento River Basin Figure 3. Sacramento River Basin
East arm of East arm of Clear Lake Clear Lake
http://cwp.resources.ca.gov/browser/search.epl?idnum=05513;name=;mode= http://cwp.resources.ca.gov/browser/search.epl?idnum=05513;name=;mode=
Figure 4. Cache Creek Subregion Figure 4. Cache Creek Subregion
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 72 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 72
Elem location; Elem location; Rattlesnake Island Rattlesnake Island
http://cwp.resources.ca.gov/browser/search.epl?idnum=05513.5;name=;mode= http://cwp.resources.ca.gov/browser/search.epl?idnum=05513.5;name=;mode=
Figure 5. Upper Cache Creek Subregion Figure 5. Upper Cache Creek Subregion
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 73 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 73
Figure 6. Clear Lake Area Watersheds Figure 6. Clear Lake Area Watersheds
Clear Lake is located in an area of California characterized by Mediterranean Clear Lake is located in an area of California characterized by Mediterranean climate, considerable rainfall in winter, and a long, hot, dry period in summer climate, considerable rainfall in winter, and a long, hot, dry period in summer (McLendon 1977). The vegetation in the Elem area includes a few square miles of (McLendon 1977). The vegetation in the Elem area includes a few square miles of pine-fir forest, 150 square miles of oak woodland, and 53 square miles of chaparral pine-fir forest, 150 square miles of oak woodland, and 53 square miles of chaparral types, as well as lake-marsh-riparian zones with gallery forests of oak, cottonwood, types, as well as lake-marsh-riparian zones with gallery forests of oak, cottonwood, and willow along streams (Baumhoff 1963, White et al. 2002, Anderson et al. 1997). and willow along streams (Baumhoff 1963, White et al. 2002, Anderson et al. 1997). The Elem area has two streams with Clear Lake cyprinid runs in spring (chi or Clear The Elem area has two streams with Clear Lake cyprinid runs in spring (chi or Clear Lake hitch,5 pike minnow, and sucker), and midsummer lakeshore runs of tule perch, Lake hitch,5 pike minnow, and sucker), and midsummer lakeshore runs of tule perch, Sacramento perch and blackfish. Sacramento perch and blackfish.
Briefly, the vegetation types and major species around Clear Lake follow (Goodrich Briefly, the vegetation types and major species around Clear Lake follow (Goodrich 1980, White et al. 2002). 1980, White et al. 2002).
5 Clear Lake Hitch, Lavinia exilicauda chi, are a “Species of Special Concern” in California. Clear 5 Clear Lake Hitch, Lavinia exilicauda chi, are a “Species of Special Concern” in California. Clear Lake hitch are in the minnow family. Adults reach lengths of up to 14 inches and exceed one pound in Lake hitch are in the minnow family. Adults reach lengths of up to 14 inches and exceed one pound in weight. Clear Lake hitch are a unique subspecies; the word “chi” acknowledges the name given to weight. Clear Lake hitch are a unique subspecies; the word “chi” acknowledges the name given to this species by Pomo Indians, the native people of the Clear Lake basin. this species by Pomo Indians, the native people of the Clear Lake basin. http://www.nativefish.org/articles/hitch.php http://www.nativefish.org/articles/hitch.php
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 74 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 74
2.1.1 Lake, Marsh, and Riparian Habitat 2.1.1 Lake, Marsh, and Riparian Habitat Originally there were very large marshes of willows and tule on Clear Lake, with Originally there were very large marshes of willows and tule on Clear Lake, with large nesting and spawning areas. The margins of the lake were almost completely large nesting and spawning areas. The margins of the lake were almost completely surrounded by a fringe of tules, which have an “impressive number of uses,” surrounded by a fringe of tules, which have an “impressive number of uses,” including houses, boats, clothing, plates, mats, diapers, beds, and food (Brown and including houses, boats, clothing, plates, mats, diapers, beds, and food (Brown and Andrews 1969). Andrews 1969).
Along the streams, the pepperwood or California laurel (Umbellularia californica) is Along the streams, the pepperwood or California laurel (Umbellularia californica) is much used. The willow (Salix argyrophylla) is particularly important as a basket much used. The willow (Salix argyrophylla) is particularly important as a basket material. Groves of alder (Alnus rhombifolia) are found near mountain streams and material. Groves of alder (Alnus rhombifolia) are found near mountain streams and near springs. The wild grape (Vitis californica) occurs in the alder groves. near springs. The wild grape (Vitis californica) occurs in the alder groves.
2.1.2 Uplands 2.1.2 Uplands Dry slopes and hills typically have patches of mixed evergreen—oak, madrone Dry slopes and hills typically have patches of mixed evergreen—oak, madrone (Arbutus menzeii), Douglas fir, pepperwood, with chestnut, other oaks, maple, and (Arbutus menzeii), Douglas fir, pepperwood, with chestnut, other oaks, maple, and hazelnut in lesser quantities. The understory is manzanita, berries, other browse, hazelnut in lesser quantities. The understory is manzanita, berries, other browse, plus grasses and forbs, with meadows with bulbs and clover. plus grasses and forbs, with meadows with bulbs and clover.
Oak Woodland: Oak woodlands are dominated by black oak, often with ponderosa Oak Woodland: Oak woodlands are dominated by black oak, often with ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, canyon live oak, madrone, scrub oak, manzanita, maple, and pine, Douglas fir, canyon live oak, madrone, scrub oak, manzanita, maple, and buckeye. The understory is mostly grass. One of the most common and striking buckeye. The understory is mostly grass. One of the most common and striking trees is the white oak (Quercus lobata), which provided a great amount of food, both trees is the white oak (Quercus lobata), which provided a great amount of food, both because of abundance and because of the “excellent flavor of the acorns.” Other because of abundance and because of the “excellent flavor of the acorns.” Other oaks of importance include the California black oak (Q. california), the Pacific post oaks of importance include the California black oak (Q. california), the Pacific post oak (Q. garryana), the tan-bark oak (Q. densiflora), and the maul oak (Q. oak (Q. garryana), the tan-bark oak (Q. densiflora), and the maul oak (Q. chrysolepis). chrysolepis).
Oak Grassland: Oak grassland contains blue oak (Q. douglassi), with gray pine, Oak Grassland: Oak grassland contains blue oak (Q. douglassi), with gray pine, California buckeye, toyon, poison oak, and various grasses: Bromus spp., wild oats, California buckeye, toyon, poison oak, and various grasses: Bromus spp., wild oats, fescue, filaree (Erodium), bluegrass (Poa spp), three-awn (Aristida), and fescue, filaree (Erodium), bluegrass (Poa spp), three-awn (Aristida), and needlegrass (Stipa). needlegrass (Stipa).
Chaparral: Chaparral is a patchy composite of scrub oak, chamise-dominated Chaparral: Chaparral is a patchy composite of scrub oak, chamise-dominated brush, and ceanothus-dominated brush. brush, and ceanothus-dominated brush.
• Oak chaparral includes scrub oak, leather oak, and live oak, with whiteleaf • Oak chaparral includes scrub oak, leather oak, and live oak, with whiteleaf manzanita, California buckeye, Jepson ceanothus, chamise, and sargent manzanita, California buckeye, Jepson ceanothus, chamise, and sargent cypress. cypress. • Chamise-dominated chaparral contains chamise, with wedgeleaf ceanothus, • Chamise-dominated chaparral contains chamise, with wedgeleaf ceanothus, Eastwood manzanita, creeping sage, toyon, Stanford manzanita, and Eastwood manzanita, creeping sage, toyon, Stanford manzanita, and Fremont silktassel. Fremont silktassel. • Ceanothus-dominated chaparral contains ceanothus, common manzanita, • Ceanothus-dominated chaparral contains ceanothus, common manzanita, hoary manzanita, bracken, foothill ash, and chamise. hoary manzanita, bracken, foothill ash, and chamise.
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 75 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 75
2.2 RARE SPECIES 2.2 RARE SPECIES Rare species identified by the California Department of Fish and Game presently Rare species identified by the California Department of Fish and Game presently occurring in the Clearlake Oaks and Clearlake Highlands quads are shown below, occurring in the Clearlake Oaks and Clearlake Highlands quads are shown below, tables 1 and 2, preceded by a corresponding map, Figure 7. The information was tables 1 and 2, preceded by a corresponding map, Figure 7. The information was taken from the following Web site, taken from the following Web site, http://cwp.resources.ca.gov/browser/cnddbQuery.epl?quadcode=3912216&quadna http://cwp.resources.ca.gov/browser/cnddbQuery.epl?quadcode=3912216&quadna me=Clearlake%20oaks. me=Clearlake%20oaks.
Figure 7. Clear Lake Area USGS Quad Maps Figure 7. Clear Lake Area USGS Quad Maps
Table 1. Clearlake Oaks quad rare species. Table 1. Clearlake Oaks quad rare species.
Scientific Name Common Name Federal California Sensitive Scientific Name Common Name Federal California Sensitive Status Status Status Status Archoplites interruptus Sacramento perch None None N Archoplites interruptus Sacramento perch None None N Arctostaphylos manzanita Konocti manzanita None None N Arctostaphylos manzanita Konocti manzanita None None N ssp. elegans ssp. elegans Great Valley Mixed Riparian Great Valley Mixed None None N Great Valley Mixed Riparian Great Valley Mixed None None N Forest Riparian Forest Forest Riparian Forest Lavinia exilicauda chi Clear Lake hitch None None N Lavinia exilicauda chi Clear Lake hitch None None N Layia septentrionalis Colusa layia None None N Layia septentrionalis Colusa layia None None N Potamogeton zosteriformis Eel-grass pondweed None None N Potamogeton zosteriformis Eel-grass pondweed None None N
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 76 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 76
Table 2. Clearlake Highlands quad rare species. Table 2. Clearlake Highlands quad rare species.
Scientific Name Common Name Federal California Sensitive Scientific Name Common Name Federal California Sensitive Status Status Status Status Archoplites interruptus Sacramento perch None None N Archoplites interruptus Sacramento perch None None N Arctostaphylos manzanita Konocti manzanita None None N Arctostaphylos manzanita Konocti manzanita None None N ssp. elegans ssp. elegans Clear Lake Drainage Resident Clear Lake Drainage None None N Clear Lake Drainage Resident Clear Lake Drainage None None N Trout Stream Resident Trout Stream Trout Stream Resident Trout Stream Coastal and Valley Coastal and Valley None None N Coastal and Valley Coastal and Valley None None N Freshwater Marsh Freshwater Marsh Freshwater Marsh Freshwater Marsh Coccyzus americanus Western yellow-billed cuckoo Candidate Endangered N Coccyzus americanus Western yellow-billed cuckoo Candidate Endangered N occidentalis occidentalis Dubiraphia brunnescens Brownish dubiraphian riffle None None N Dubiraphia brunnescens Brownish dubiraphian riffle None None N beetle beetle Emys (=Clemmys) marmorata Northwestern pond turtle None None N Emys (=Clemmys) marmorata Northwestern pond turtle None None N marmorata marmorata Eriastrum brandegeeae Brandegee’s eriastrum None None N Eriastrum brandegeeae Brandegee’s eriastrum None None N Eryngium constancei Loch Lomond button-celery Endangered Endangered N Eryngium constancei Loch Lomond button-celery Endangered Endangered N Harmonia hallii Hall’s harmonia None None N Harmonia hallii Hall’s harmonia None None N Hedychridium milleri None None N Hedychridium milleri None None N Hesperolinon bicarpellatum Two-carpellate western flax None None N Hesperolinon bicarpellatum Two-carpellate western flax None None N Horkelia bolanderi Bolander’s horkelia None None N Horkelia bolanderi Bolander’s horkelia None None N Lasthenia burkei Burke’s goldfields Endangered Endangered N Lasthenia burkei Burke’s goldfields Endangered Endangered N Lavinia exilicauda chi Clear Lake hitch None None N Lavinia exilicauda chi Clear Lake hitch None None N Navarretia leucocephala ssp. Baker’s navarretia None None N Navarretia leucocephala ssp. Baker’s navarretia None None N bakeri bakeri Navarretia leucocephala ssp. Few-flowered navarretia Endangered Threatened N Navarretia leucocephala ssp. Few-flowered navarretia Endangered Threatened N pauciflora pauciflora Navarretia leucocephala ssp. Many-flowered navarretia Endangered Endangered N Navarretia leucocephala ssp. Many-flowered navarretia Endangered Endangered N plieantha plieantha Northern Basalt Flow Vernal Northern Basalt Flow Vernal None None N Northern Basalt Flow Vernal Northern Basalt Flow Vernal None None N Pool Pool Pool Pool Northern Volcanic Ash Vernal Northern Volcanic Ash Vernal None None N Northern Volcanic Ash Vernal Northern Volcanic Ash Vernal None None N Pool Pool Pool Pool Potamogeton zosteriformis Eel-grass pondweed None None N Potamogeton zosteriformis Eel-grass pondweed None None N Rana boylii Foothill yellow-legged frog None None N Rana boylii Foothill yellow-legged frog None None N Sedella leiocarpa Lake County stonecrop Endangered Endangered N Sedella leiocarpa Lake County stonecrop Endangered Endangered N
2.3 CLEAR LAKE ECOREGIONS 2.3 CLEAR LAKE ECOREGIONS
“The entire region abounds in oaks of many kinds, and it is from these that “The entire region abounds in oaks of many kinds, and it is from these that the chief supply of vegetable food of the Indians was derived.” the chief supply of vegetable food of the Indians was derived.”
The basic premise of understanding ecologically-based lifeways is that people adapt The basic premise of understanding ecologically-based lifeways is that people adapt their activities and diets to their local ecological region in order to survive and their activities and diets to their local ecological region in order to survive and prosper. Therefore, the description of environmental setting must identify natural prosper. Therefore, the description of environmental setting must identify natural ecological zones, or ecoregions. Ecoregions denote areas of general similarity in ecological zones, or ecoregions. Ecoregions denote areas of general similarity in ecosystems and in the type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. They ecosystems and in the type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. They are designed to serve as a spatial framework for the research, assessment, are designed to serve as a spatial framework for the research, assessment, management, and monitoring of ecosystems and ecosystem components (Bryce et management, and monitoring of ecosystems and ecosystem components (Bryce et al. 1999). These general purpose regions are critical for structuring and al. 1999). These general purpose regions are critical for structuring and implementing ecosystem management strategies across federal and state agencies implementing ecosystem management strategies across federal and state agencies Elem (Pomo) Scenario 77 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 77
and nongovernmental organizations responsible for different types of resources in and nongovernmental organizations responsible for different types of resources in the same geographical areas (Omernik 2000). the same geographical areas (Omernik 2000).
Ecological diversity is strongly related to its varied climate, terrain, geology, and soil, Ecological diversity is strongly related to its varied climate, terrain, geology, and soil, and largely tracks the watersheds and physiographic regions shown in Section 2.1. and largely tracks the watersheds and physiographic regions shown in Section 2.1. In North America, several broad climatic zones are recognized, roughly In North America, several broad climatic zones are recognized, roughly corresponding to temperature and moisture gradients. North American vegetation corresponding to temperature and moisture gradients. North American vegetation types roughly track these zones. Of these zones, the marine west coast, types roughly track these zones. Of these zones, the marine west coast, Mediterranean California, and northwestern forested mountains are relevant to the Mediterranean California, and northwestern forested mountains are relevant to the Elem Scenario. Because the zones are defined by dominant vegetation types, the Elem Scenario. Because the zones are defined by dominant vegetation types, the composition of plant and animal species is fairly predictable for the dominant composition of plant and animal species is fairly predictable for the dominant species. Local differences in geology (soils and deeper substrates), elevation, species. Local differences in geology (soils and deeper substrates), elevation, aspect, and climate (light, temperature, precipitation and wind), and water (streams aspect, and climate (light, temperature, precipitation and wind), and water (streams and wetlands) affect individual plant associations. and wetlands) affect individual plant associations.
A hierarchical scheme has been adopted for different levels of ecological regions, A hierarchical scheme has been adopted for different levels of ecological regions, and is being used by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)6. Level I is and is being used by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)6. Level I is the coarsest level, dividing North America into 15 ecological regions. Level II divides the coarsest level, dividing North America into 15 ecological regions. Level II divides the continent into 52 regions. At Level III, the conterminous United States has 84 the continent into 52 regions. At Level III, the conterminous United States has 84 (USEPA 2005). Methods used by the USEPA to define the ecoregions are explained (USEPA 2005). Methods used by the USEPA to define the ecoregions are explained in Omernik (1995, 2004), Omernik (2000), Gallant et al. (1989), and Bailey (US in Omernik (1995, 2004), Omernik (2000), Gallant et al. (1989), and Bailey (US Forest Service)7. The approach used to compile these ecoregion maps is based on Forest Service)7. The approach used to compile these ecoregion maps is based on the premise that ecoregions can be identified through the analysis of the spatial the premise that ecoregions can be identified through the analysis of the spatial patterns and the composition of biotic and abiotic characteristics that affect or reflect patterns and the composition of biotic and abiotic characteristics that affect or reflect differences in ecosystem quality and integrity (Wiken 1986, Omernik 1987, 1995). differences in ecosystem quality and integrity (Wiken 1986, Omernik 1987, 1995). These characteristics include physiography, geology, climate, soils, land use, These characteristics include physiography, geology, climate, soils, land use, wildlife, fish, hydrology, and vegetation, including “potential natural vegetation,” wildlife, fish, hydrology, and vegetation, including “potential natural vegetation,” defined by Kuchler as vegetation that would exist today if human influence ended defined by Kuchler as vegetation that would exist today if human influence ended and the natural vegetation were restored (including the earlier fire regime of mixed and the natural vegetation were restored (including the earlier fire regime of mixed natural and indigenous origin, and natural flooding). natural and indigenous origin, and natural flooding).
Figure 8 shows the Level I and II ecoregions of North America and the Level III Figure 8 shows the Level I and II ecoregions of North America and the Level III ecoregions of the United States. ecoregions of the United States.
6 http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions.htm and 6 http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions.htm and http://www.cec.org/files/PDF/BIODIVERSITY/eco-eng_EN.pdf http://www.cec.org/files/PDF/BIODIVERSITY/eco-eng_EN.pdf 7 USFS Bailey province ecology: http://www.fs.fed.us/land/pubs/ecoregions/intro.html 7 USFS Bailey province ecology: http://www.fs.fed.us/land/pubs/ecoregions/intro.html Elem (Pomo) Scenario 78 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 78
http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/html/usecoregions.html http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/html/usecoregions.html
Figure 8. Level I, II, and III Ecoregions Figure 8. Level I, II, and III Ecoregions
Ecoregion Delineations and Vegetation Types: Ecoregion Delineations and Vegetation Types: Within the general Pomo territory ecoregions have been refined to Level III detail. Within the general Pomo territory ecoregions have been refined to Level III detail. The ecoregions that exist in this area are listed below from coarsest description The ecoregions that exist in this area are listed below from coarsest description (Level I) to a more precise description (Level III): (Level I) to a more precise description (Level III):
• 6 Northwestern Forested Mountains (Level I) • 6 Northwestern Forested Mountains (Level I) • 6.2 Western Cordillera (Level II) • 6.2 Western Cordillera (Level II) • 6.2.11 Klamath Mountains (Level III) • 6.2.11 Klamath Mountains (Level III)
• 7 Marine West Coast (Level I) • 7 Marine West Coast (Level I) • 7.1 Marine West Coast (Level II) • 7.1 Marine West Coast (Level II) • 7.1.8 Coast Range (Level III) • 7.1.8 Coast Range (Level III)
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 79 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 79
• 11 Mediterranean California (Level I) • 11 Mediterranean California (Level I) • 11.1 Mediterranean California (Level II) • 11.1 Mediterranean California (Level II) • 11.1.1 Southern and Central Chaparral and Oak Woodlands (specific to the • 11.1.1 Southern and Central Chaparral and Oak Woodlands (specific to the Clear Lake area) (Level III) Clear Lake area) (Level III) • 11.1.2 Central California Valley (Level III) • 11.1.2 Central California Valley (Level III)
Figure 9 shows the Clear Lake area and its Level III ecoregions. Figure 9 shows the Clear Lake area and its Level III ecoregions.
Figure 9. Clear Lake Level III Ecoregions Figure 9. Clear Lake Level III Ecoregions
2.3.1 Northwestern Forested Mountain and Western Cordillera Ecoregion: 2.3.1 Northwestern Forested Mountain and Western Cordillera Ecoregion: Klamath Mountains (6.2.11) Klamath Mountains (6.2.11) Level I Ecoregion 6, Northwestern Forested Mountains, and Level II Ecoregion 2, Level I Ecoregion 6, Northwestern Forested Mountains, and Level II Ecoregion 2, Western Cordillera, cover the mountainous regions of the West from southern Western Cordillera, cover the mountainous regions of the West from southern Alaska into California, Utah, and New Mexico (CEC 1997). For more information on Alaska into California, Utah, and New Mexico (CEC 1997). For more information on the Western Cordillera Ecoregion please refer to Ecological Regions of North the Western Cordillera Ecoregion please refer to Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a Common Perspective, online at America: Toward a Common Perspective, online at http://www.cec.org/files/PDF/BIODIVERSITY/eco-eng_EN.pdf. The most specific http://www.cec.org/files/PDF/BIODIVERSITY/eco-eng_EN.pdf. The most specific Level III ecological description of the Western Cordillera relevant to the Elem Pomo Level III ecological description of the Western Cordillera relevant to the Elem Pomo territory is the Klamath Mountains Ecoregion 11. The area is physically and territory is the Klamath Mountains Ecoregion 11. The area is physically and Elem (Pomo) Scenario 80 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 80
biologically diverse. Highly dissected, folded mountains, foothills, terraces, and biologically diverse. Highly dissected, folded mountains, foothills, terraces, and floodplains occur and are underlain by igneous, sedimentary, and some floodplains occur and are underlain by igneous, sedimentary, and some metamorphic rock. The climate of the Klamath Mountains is subhumid and mild, with metamorphic rock. The climate of the Klamath Mountains is subhumid and mild, with a lengthy summer drought. The region supports a mix of northern Californian and a lengthy summer drought. The region supports a mix of northern Californian and Pacific Northwest conifers (USEPA 2006b). Pacific Northwest conifers (USEPA 2006b).
The rugged coastal mountains give this region the nickname “the Klamath Knot.” The rugged coastal mountains give this region the nickname “the Klamath Knot.” Within the ecoregion, habitat ranges from wet coastal temperate rain forests to moist Within the ecoregion, habitat ranges from wet coastal temperate rain forests to moist inland forests and includes the largest concentration of wild and scenic rivers in the inland forests and includes the largest concentration of wild and scenic rivers in the United States. These diverse habitats are filled with unusual communities and many United States. These diverse habitats are filled with unusual communities and many truly unique species. An estimated 3,500 native plants species are found here truly unique species. An estimated 3,500 native plants species are found here (National Geographic 2005). The extraordinary biodiversity may be due to the lack of (National Geographic 2005). The extraordinary biodiversity may be due to the lack of extensive glaciation during recent ice ages, which would have provided both a extensive glaciation during recent ice ages, which would have provided both a refuge for many species and long periods of relatively favorable conditions for refuge for many species and long periods of relatively favorable conditions for species to adapt to specialized conditions. The mosaic of habitats includes highly species to adapt to specialized conditions. The mosaic of habitats includes highly toxic serpentine soils, hosting many specialized plants. Rivers and streams contain toxic serpentine soils, hosting many specialized plants. Rivers and streams contain freshwater mussels, nine species of native salmon and trout, and many species of freshwater mussels, nine species of native salmon and trout, and many species of snails and salamanders that are restricted to small areas. snails and salamanders that are restricted to small areas.
2.3.2 Marine West Coast Ecoregion: Coast Range (7.1.8) 2.3.2 Marine West Coast Ecoregion: Coast Range (7.1.8) The Level II Ecoregion 7.1, Marine West Coast, includes mainland and offshore The Level II Ecoregion 7.1, Marine West Coast, includes mainland and offshore islands of the Pacific Coast from Alaska south to central California (CEC 1997). For islands of the Pacific Coast from Alaska south to central California (CEC 1997). For more information on the Marine West Coast Ecoregion please refer to Ecological more information on the Marine West Coast Ecoregion please refer to Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a Common Perspective, online at Regions of North America: Toward a Common Perspective, online at http://www.cec.org/files/PDF/BIODIVERSITY/eco-eng_EN.pdf. The most specific http://www.cec.org/files/PDF/BIODIVERSITY/eco-eng_EN.pdf. The most specific Level III ecoregion relevant to the Elem Pomo is the Coast Range Ecoregion 8. Level III ecoregion relevant to the Elem Pomo is the Coast Range Ecoregion 8. Highly productive, rain-drenched coniferous forests cover the low mountains of the Highly productive, rain-drenched coniferous forests cover the low mountains of the Coast Range. Sitka spruce forests originally dominated the fog-shrouded coast, Coast Range. Sitka spruce forests originally dominated the fog-shrouded coast, while a mosaic of western red cedar, western hemlock, and Douglas fir blanketed while a mosaic of western red cedar, western hemlock, and Douglas fir blanketed inland areas. A distinguishing feature of the Northern California Coastal Forests inland areas. A distinguishing feature of the Northern California Coastal Forests ecoregion is its redwood trees, generally found within 40 miles (65 kilometers) of the ecoregion is its redwood trees, generally found within 40 miles (65 kilometers) of the coast. They are among the biggest, tallest, and oldest trees in the world. Only a few coast. They are among the biggest, tallest, and oldest trees in the world. Only a few other forests in the world can compare with the complex structure and biodiversity of other forests in the world can compare with the complex structure and biodiversity of the redwoods. From the moss and fungi on the forest floor to the rare marbled the redwoods. From the moss and fungi on the forest floor to the rare marbled murrelets that nest only in the ancient trees, the ecosystem supports communities of murrelets that nest only in the ancient trees, the ecosystem supports communities of plants and animals much more diverse than those of younger forests. On uplands plants and animals much more diverse than those of younger forests. On uplands where fire disturbance was once more common, redwoods mix with other big trees, where fire disturbance was once more common, redwoods mix with other big trees, such as Douglas fir, grand fir, western red hemlock, Sitka spruce, western red cedar, such as Douglas fir, grand fir, western red hemlock, Sitka spruce, western red cedar, tanoak, bigleaf maple, California bay, and Port Orford cedar. These forests contain a tanoak, bigleaf maple, California bay, and Port Orford cedar. These forests contain a rich understory of herbaceous plants, shrubs, treelets, ferns, and fungi, as well as a rich understory of herbaceous plants, shrubs, treelets, ferns, and fungi, as well as a great diversity of animal life. great diversity of animal life.
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 81 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 81
2.3.3 Mediterranean California Ecoregions: Southern and Central Chaparral 2.3.3 Mediterranean California Ecoregions: Southern and Central Chaparral and Oak Woodlands (11.1.1) and Central California Valley (11.1.2) and Oak Woodlands (11.1.1) and Central California Valley (11.1.2) Level II Ecoregion 11.1, Mediterranean California, extends 1,300km from Oregon in Level II Ecoregion 11.1, Mediterranean California, extends 1,300km from Oregon in the north to Baja California Norte in the south. It abuts the Pacific Ocean on the west the north to Baja California Norte in the south. It abuts the Pacific Ocean on the west and the Sierra Nevada and deserts to the east. For more information on the and the Sierra Nevada and deserts to the east. For more information on the Mediterranean California Ecoregion please refer to Ecological Regions of North Mediterranean California Ecoregion please refer to Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a Common Perspective, online at America: Toward a Common Perspective, online at http://www.cec.org/files/PDF/BIODIVERSITY/eco-eng_EN.pdf. The most specific http://www.cec.org/files/PDF/BIODIVERSITY/eco-eng_EN.pdf. The most specific ecological descriptions of the Elem Pomo territory are the Southern and Central ecological descriptions of the Elem Pomo territory are the Southern and Central Chaparral and Oak Woodlands Ecoregion 1 and the Central California Valley Chaparral and Oak Woodlands Ecoregion 1 and the Central California Valley Ecoregion 2. Ecoregion 2.
Southern and Central Chapparal and Oak Woodlands: The distinguishing Southern and Central Chapparal and Oak Woodlands: The distinguishing characteristic of this ecological region is its Mediterranean climate of hot dry characteristic of this ecological region is its Mediterranean climate of hot dry summers and cool moist winters, and the associated vegetative cover: mainly summers and cool moist winters, and the associated vegetative cover: mainly chaparral and oak woodlands, with grasslands occurring in some lower elevations chaparral and oak woodlands, with grasslands occurring in some lower elevations and patches of pine found at higher elevations. Most of the region consists of open and patches of pine found at higher elevations. Most of the region consists of open low mountains or foothills, with occasional areas of irregular plains in the south and low mountains or foothills, with occasional areas of irregular plains in the south and near the border of the adjacent Central California Valley ecological region that this near the border of the adjacent Central California Valley ecological region that this region encircles. region encircles.
Many species of oaks are native to this area: blue, scrub, coast live, canyon live, Many species of oaks are native to this area: blue, scrub, coast live, canyon live, golden-cup, valley, interior live, and maul. In several areas, a base of serpentine golden-cup, valley, interior live, and maul. In several areas, a base of serpentine rock supports plants which thrive in its presence, including several species of pines rock supports plants which thrive in its presence, including several species of pines and cypresses (such as Sargent and McNab cypress), leather oak, interior and cypresses (such as Sargent and McNab cypress), leather oak, interior silktassel, milkwort streptanthus, and Muir’s hairstreak. silktassel, milkwort streptanthus, and Muir’s hairstreak.
Mammals are diverse here, making up 10 percent of the 60 endemic species—the Mammals are diverse here, making up 10 percent of the 60 endemic species—the largest number of endemic mammals in any ecoregion in the United States or largest number of endemic mammals in any ecoregion in the United States or Canada. Sonoma chipmunks, Suisun shrews, salt marsh harvest mice, and many Canada. Sonoma chipmunks, Suisun shrews, salt marsh harvest mice, and many species of kangaroo rats call the area home. A variety of plethodontid, or lungless, species of kangaroo rats call the area home. A variety of plethodontid, or lungless, salamanders also live here, including five endemics. Scrub jays, acorn salamanders also live here, including five endemics. Scrub jays, acorn woodpeckers, and wrentits are three of the area’s 100 species of birds. Unusual woodpeckers, and wrentits are three of the area’s 100 species of birds. Unusual invertebrates found here include army ants, ancient bristletails, and land snails. invertebrates found here include army ants, ancient bristletails, and land snails.
This ecoregion supports over 2000 species of plants in addition to trees. This is This ecoregion supports over 2000 species of plants in addition to trees. This is probably due to the fact that the area is a mosaic of grasslands, chaparral probably due to the fact that the area is a mosaic of grasslands, chaparral shrublands, open oak savannas, oak woodlands, serpentine communities, closed- shrublands, open oak savannas, oak woodlands, serpentine communities, closed- cone pine forests, pockets of montane conifer forests, wetlands, salt marshes, and cone pine forests, pockets of montane conifer forests, wetlands, salt marshes, and riparian forests. The area also ranges in elevation from 300 feet (90m) to 3,000 feet riparian forests. The area also ranges in elevation from 300 feet (90m) to 3,000 feet (900m). Oak woodland and chaparral are the most common plant communities. (900m). Oak woodland and chaparral are the most common plant communities. Valleys contain foothill pines, California buckeye, manzanita, redbud, and chamise. Valleys contain foothill pines, California buckeye, manzanita, redbud, and chamise.
Central California Valley: The long, hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters of Central California Valley: The long, hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters of this flat-plained ecological region distinguish it from neighboring regions that are this flat-plained ecological region distinguish it from neighboring regions that are either hilly or mountainous, forested or shrub covered. California’s Central Valley either hilly or mountainous, forested or shrub covered. California’s Central Valley Elem (Pomo) Scenario 82 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 82
was once a large temperate grassland with bunch grasses, the California Central was once a large temperate grassland with bunch grasses, the California Central Valley grasslands ecoregion, on which herds of pronghorn and elk grazed; some Valley grasslands ecoregion, on which herds of pronghorn and elk grazed; some writers referred to it as “America’s Serengeti.” The area supported incredibly diverse writers referred to it as “America’s Serengeti.” The area supported incredibly diverse habitats, including desert areas, prairies, savannas, woodlands, marshes, vernal habitats, including desert areas, prairies, savannas, woodlands, marshes, vernal pools (seasonal wetlands), and an immense river delta. pools (seasonal wetlands), and an immense river delta.
The grasslands once provided plentiful food for pronghorn, elk, mule deer, California The grasslands once provided plentiful food for pronghorn, elk, mule deer, California ground squirrels, and kangaroo rats. Their predators included coyotes, mountain ground squirrels, and kangaroo rats. Their predators included coyotes, mountain lions, ringtails, bobcats, and San Joaquin Valley kit foxes, now a federally lions, ringtails, bobcats, and San Joaquin Valley kit foxes, now a federally endangered species found only in southern foothills. River areas were lined by a endangered species found only in southern foothills. River areas were lined by a wide swath of trees such as willows, western sycamores, box elders, Fremont wide swath of trees such as willows, western sycamores, box elders, Fremont cottonwoods, and valley oaks. These riparian forests provided stopover points and cottonwoods, and valley oaks. These riparian forests provided stopover points and breeding areas for huge flocks of migrating birds from as far as the tropics, and a breeding areas for huge flocks of migrating birds from as far as the tropics, and a home for the elderberry longhorn beetle, now a federally endangered species. In home for the elderberry longhorn beetle, now a federally endangered species. In winter, the delta marshes provided food and shelter for thousands of waterfowl. winter, the delta marshes provided food and shelter for thousands of waterfowl. Some vernal pools still support the rare Delta green ground beetle. Some vernal pools still support the rare Delta green ground beetle.
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 83 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 83
3 OVERVIEW OF GENERAL ELEM ECOLOGICAL LIFESTYLE 3 OVERVIEW OF GENERAL ELEM ECOLOGICAL LIFESTYLE
This section describes the ecologically-based lifeways and traditional resource uses This section describes the ecologically-based lifeways and traditional resource uses that compose the traditional Elem subsistence lifestyle. The Elem culture exploits a that compose the traditional Elem subsistence lifestyle. The Elem culture exploits a wide range of resources and ecological niches. The Elem territory includes several wide range of resources and ecological niches. The Elem territory includes several vegetation zones, which allows the people to take advantage of seasonal diversity of vegetation zones, which allows the people to take advantage of seasonal diversity of resources (Heizer and Elasser 1980). Clear Lake basin was characterized by resources (Heizer and Elasser 1980). Clear Lake basin was characterized by unusual resource abundance which allowed or encouraged a complex social unusual resource abundance which allowed or encouraged a complex social structure and artisanship (White 1998, McLendon 1977, Brown and Andrews 1969). structure and artisanship (White 1998, McLendon 1977, Brown and Andrews 1969). The interior valley which included the lake was originally filled with grass over 6 feet The interior valley which included the lake was originally filled with grass over 6 feet tall and large game “so abundant like flocks of sheep” (Barrett 1952). People did not tall and large game “so abundant like flocks of sheep” (Barrett 1952). People did not have to travel far to obtain all they needed (McLendon 1977). Travel between Clear have to travel far to obtain all they needed (McLendon 1977). Travel between Clear Lake villages was invariably by balsa (tule stems bound together into boats). Lake villages was invariably by balsa (tule stems bound together into boats).
Subsistence activities included traditional and modern technologies for harvesting Subsistence activities included traditional and modern technologies for harvesting and preserving foods, as well as for distributing produce and cash through and preserving foods, as well as for distributing produce and cash through communal networks of sharing and bartering. Stored foods included dried fish, communal networks of sharing and bartering. Stored foods included dried fish, seeds, acorns, buckeyes, pepperwood nuts, with seasonal supplementation of fresh seeds, acorns, buckeyes, pepperwood nuts, with seasonal supplementation of fresh vegetal foods, such as berries, clover, roots, and bulbs. Everyone participated in vegetal foods, such as berries, clover, roots, and bulbs. Everyone participated in subsistence activities, and most had additional specialties, such as knowing all the subsistence activities, and most had additional specialties, such as knowing all the uses of a particular resource (Gifford 1926). uses of a particular resource (Gifford 1926).
The Clear Lake culture was centered on resources of acorns, fish, game, and tule. The Clear Lake culture was centered on resources of acorns, fish, game, and tule. Staples (foods that are abundant, reliable, and/or storable) in the area were acorns, Staples (foods that are abundant, reliable, and/or storable) in the area were acorns, large game mammals, roots, seeds, and fish (Baumhoff 1963). The stored foods large game mammals, roots, seeds, and fish (Baumhoff 1963). The stored foods were acorns (56%), fish (28%), and small seeds (14%). Acorns, seeds and nuts were acorns (56%), fish (28%), and small seeds (14%). Acorns, seeds and nuts were most often made into two forms of food, atole and pinole,8 used throughout were most often made into two forms of food, atole and pinole,8 used throughout California. A “typical meal was dried fish and acorn mush,” and the components California. A “typical meal was dried fish and acorn mush,” and the components were available year-round in fresh and stored forms. This was supplemented with were available year-round in fresh and stored forms. This was supplemented with fresh meat or waterfowl when available, and fresh greens, roots, bulbs, berries, and fresh meat or waterfowl when available, and fresh greens, roots, bulbs, berries, and fruits in season (McLendon and Lowy 1978, McLendon 1977). Cultivation was fruits in season (McLendon and Lowy 1978, McLendon 1977). Cultivation was common among all the Pomo tribes, and fire management was practiced throughout common among all the Pomo tribes, and fire management was practiced throughout the California region. the California region.
3.1 HISTORICAL SEASONAL PATTERNS OF THE ELEM 3.1 HISTORICAL SEASONAL PATTERNS OF THE ELEM The Elem year was structured around major resources. The annual natural cycle The Elem year was structured around major resources. The annual natural cycle started with fish runs in February and March. The lake was “teeming with fish,” started with fish runs in February and March. The lake was “teeming with fish,” although fishing occurred primarily during spawning runs, when each fish species in although fishing occurred primarily during spawning runs, when each fish species in succession moved close to shore or into streams to spawn (McLendon 1977). After succession moved close to shore or into streams to spawn (McLendon 1977). After the first fish runs, the first greens were ready, followed by young tule shoots, and the first fish runs, the first greens were ready, followed by young tule shoots, and then angelica shoots and other early greens. In May or June the first tubers were then angelica shoots and other early greens. In May or June the first tubers were ready for digging. A third tuber, Indian carrot, was ready in June or July. Manzanita ready for digging. A third tuber, Indian carrot, was ready in June or July. Manzanita berries ripened in late June or July, and were eaten fresh or dried and stored to be berries ripened in late June or July, and were eaten fresh or dried and stored to be
8 Atole is a thick souplike food (mush) made from ground parched acorns or many other nutlike 8 Atole is a thick souplike food (mush) made from ground parched acorns or many other nutlike seeds. Pinole is the fine flour made from parched seeds. Balanophagy is acorn eating. seeds. Pinole is the fine flour made from parched seeds. Balanophagy is acorn eating. Elem (Pomo) Scenario 84 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 84
eaten in pinole during the winter. In July gooseberries and blackberries ripened, and eaten in pinole during the winter. In July gooseberries and blackberries ripened, and freshwater clams were boiled and eaten. In July and August tule roots were freshwater clams were boiled and eaten. In July and August tule roots were collected, peeled, and eaten. In spring and summer traps were set for various birds collected, peeled, and eaten. In spring and summer traps were set for various birds and small animals, such as ground squirrels. Rabbits, deer, and squirrels were and small animals, such as ground squirrels. Rabbits, deer, and squirrels were hunted year round. In August and September, wild cherries and grapes were ripe, hunted year round. In August and September, wild cherries and grapes were ripe, and the grains for pinole were collected and stored. In the fall honey was collected. and the grains for pinole were collected and stored. In the fall honey was collected. In October the acorns were ready. Buckeyes were gathered in November, then In October the acorns were ready. Buckeyes were gathered in November, then peppernuts, Indian tobacco, and dried milkweed stems (for twine). During the winter, peppernuts, Indian tobacco, and dried milkweed stems (for twine). During the winter, stored food, plus fresh birds, rabbits, deer, and waterfowl were eaten (McLendon stored food, plus fresh birds, rabbits, deer, and waterfowl were eaten (McLendon 1977). 1977).
3.2 GENERAL RESOURCE USE 3.2 GENERAL RESOURCE USE A detailed list of natural resources used can be found in Appendix A, at the end of A detailed list of natural resources used can be found in Appendix A, at the end of this report. this report.
3.2.1 Fishing and Hunting 3.2.1 Fishing and Hunting “While considerable fishing was done by the Pomo on the rivers, such as the “While considerable fishing was done by the Pomo on the rivers, such as the Russian and Gualala, and off the rocks of the ocean shore, this profession reached Russian and Gualala, and off the rocks of the ocean shore, this profession reached its greatest complexity and perfection among the Clear Lake Pomo, who extensively its greatest complexity and perfection among the Clear Lake Pomo, who extensively used the rafts made out of bound tules, and developed elaborate nets and fish used the rafts made out of bound tules, and developed elaborate nets and fish traps.” At Clear Lake, fishing was more clearly a specialized profession where traps.” At Clear Lake, fishing was more clearly a specialized profession where certain men did nothing but fish and traded their catch for other necessities. Often certain men did nothing but fish and traded their catch for other necessities. Often they fished all night when fish fed. Fish were grilled, baked, and dried and smoked they fished all night when fish fed. Fish were grilled, baked, and dried and smoked (Brown and Andrews 1969). Large game included mule and black-tailed deer, (Brown and Andrews 1969). Large game included mule and black-tailed deer, Roosevelt and tule elk, and pronghorn antelope (Baumhoff 1963). Roosevelt and tule elk, and pronghorn antelope (Baumhoff 1963).
3.2.2 Gathering 3.2.2 Gathering About 230 plant species are documented as used by Pomo bands in edible, About 230 plant species are documented as used by Pomo bands in edible, medicinal, or material forms (Goodrich 1980, Heizer and Elasser 1980, Holmes medicinal, or material forms (Goodrich 1980, Heizer and Elasser 1980, Holmes 1975). Almost every kind of nut, berry, seed, bulb, and root was utilized, as well as 1975). Almost every kind of nut, berry, seed, bulb, and root was utilized, as well as many kinds of leaves and young sprouts consumed as greens, flavorings, teas, or many kinds of leaves and young sprouts consumed as greens, flavorings, teas, or medicines (Barrett 1952, Stewart 1943, Bibby 1992, Loeb 1926, McLendon 1977). medicines (Barrett 1952, Stewart 1943, Bibby 1992, Loeb 1926, McLendon 1977). Goodrich documents that various Pomo bands used 11 species of plants for bread, Goodrich documents that various Pomo bands used 11 species of plants for bread, 19 for fruits, 11 for greens, and around a dozen for pinole and/or atole. Many plants 19 for fruits, 11 for greens, and around a dozen for pinole and/or atole. Many plants have pharmacologically active compounds for a wide range of ailments, including have pharmacologically active compounds for a wide range of ailments, including diabetes (black huckleberry leaves, Vaccinium ovatum), and many plants have both diabetes (black huckleberry leaves, Vaccinium ovatum), and many plants have both nutritional and medicinal qualities. Many species have material uses, including 14 nutritional and medicinal qualities. Many species have material uses, including 14 materials used in baskets, 3 for fish poison, 4 for glue, and 5 for rope. materials used in baskets, 3 for fish poison, 4 for glue, and 5 for rope.
Acorns were the primary plant food, followed by roots and bulbs, seeds and nuts, Acorns were the primary plant food, followed by roots and bulbs, seeds and nuts, berries, and greens (in that order), plus teas, medicines, sweets, salt and pepper, berries, and greens (in that order), plus teas, medicines, sweets, salt and pepper, and tobacco (McLendon and Lowry 1978). With the exception of the poisonous and tobacco (McLendon and Lowry 1978). With the exception of the poisonous Zygadenes, all the bulbous plants were used for food. A dozen kinds of bulbs were Zygadenes, all the bulbous plants were used for food. A dozen kinds of bulbs were used (Calochortus, Brodiaea, Allium, Hookera, others), and the bulbs of various used (Calochortus, Brodiaea, Allium, Hookera, others), and the bulbs of various Elem (Pomo) Scenario 85 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 85
species of lilies were important and more abundant in this region than in almost any species of lilies were important and more abundant in this region than in almost any other part of the state (Barrett 1908). Seeds included Chenopodium (chia), Clarkia, other part of the state (Barrett 1908). Seeds included Chenopodium (chia), Clarkia, Gallium (bedstraw), Madia (tarweed), Marah (wild cucumber), Pinus sabiana, Gallium (bedstraw), Madia (tarweed), Marah (wild cucumber), Pinus sabiana, Quercus, Scirpus (tule), Trifolium (clover), Umbellularia (bay), Vulpia (fescue Quercus, Scirpus (tule), Trifolium (clover), Umbellularia (bay), Vulpia (fescue grasses), and the Helianthae tribe of sunflowers. Berries include manzanita, grasses), and the Helianthae tribe of sunflowers. Berries include manzanita, strawberry, gooseberry, raspberry, thimbleberry, blackberry, elderberry, toyon, strawberry, gooseberry, raspberry, thimbleberry, blackberry, elderberry, toyon, salmonberry, salal berry, and currant. Greens include clover, angelica, anise, poppy, salmonberry, salal berry, and currant. Greens include clover, angelica, anise, poppy, fiddlehead, tule shoots and roots (3 species), and many others. Condiments fiddlehead, tule shoots and roots (3 species), and many others. Condiments included salt, pepper (pepper balls gathered from the pepper or bay tree, roasted, included salt, pepper (pepper balls gathered from the pepper or bay tree, roasted, hulled and ground), and anise roots. hulled and ground), and anise roots.
The Elem were the primary bead-makers in central California. Bead (money) makers The Elem were the primary bead-makers in central California. Bead (money) makers were a partly specialized class of men who obtained the raw materials and made it were a partly specialized class of men who obtained the raw materials and made it into various items (McLendon and Lowry 1978). Beads were used for ceremonial into various items (McLendon and Lowry 1978). Beads were used for ceremonial donation, money, funerary donations, trade, debts, trespass, payment for work done, donation, money, funerary donations, trade, debts, trespass, payment for work done, and payment of fines (Barrett 1952). Clamshell (Saxidonus nuttalli) and magnesite and payment of fines (Barrett 1952). Clamshell (Saxidonus nuttalli) and magnesite money-beads were regarded as small change and strung on strings, while money-beads were regarded as small change and strung on strings, while magnesite cylinders were counted individually. Clam shell discoid beads were made magnesite cylinders were counted individually. Clam shell discoid beads were made by rubbing the outer surface down to the white inner layer, then breaking the shell by rubbing the outer surface down to the white inner layer, then breaking the shell into fragments. A fragment was chipped into a rough-edged disc, which was drilled into fragments. A fragment was chipped into a rough-edged disc, which was drilled with a snowberry shaft fitted with a chert point. Magnesite discs were made with a snowberry shaft fitted with a chert point. Magnesite discs were made essentially the same, with the addition that the magnesite was buried under a fire to essentially the same, with the addition that the magnesite was buried under a fire to impart a pleasing color that ranged from pink to brick red to chocolate brown, or impart a pleasing color that ranged from pink to brick red to chocolate brown, or variegated. Discs were strung on wire grass for final shaping by sandstone as a variegated. Discs were strung on wire grass for final shaping by sandstone as a strand. Magnesite cylinders were ¼ inch to 2 inches in diameter and 1 to 3 inches strand. Magnesite cylinders were ¼ inch to 2 inches in diameter and 1 to 3 inches long. Silica exposure associated with this occupation is unknown. long. Silica exposure associated with this occupation is unknown.
Everyone used obsidian from abundant local sources (Mt. Konocti on the southern Everyone used obsidian from abundant local sources (Mt. Konocti on the southern shore of Clear Lake) to make arrowheads and other tools. Chert, jasper, flint, shore of Clear Lake) to make arrowheads and other tools. Chert, jasper, flint, steatite, chalcedony, petrified wood, and quartz crystals were also used for various steatite, chalcedony, petrified wood, and quartz crystals were also used for various purposes. Chert is harder and used for drills and harder arrowheads. Steatite (soap purposes. Chert is harder and used for drills and harder arrowheads. Steatite (soap stone), magnesium mica, and talc were used. Pumice was used as an abrasive, stone), magnesium mica, and talc were used. Pumice was used as an abrasive, such as for softening deer hides. Cinnabar was used for body paint. such as for softening deer hides. Cinnabar was used for body paint.
Pomo baskets are elaborate, with different styles of basket for different uses, some Pomo baskets are elaborate, with different styles of basket for different uses, some water tight. Materials included willow used as the warp (shaped, sorted and dried). water tight. Materials included willow used as the warp (shaped, sorted and dried). Woof was sedge root (dried, split down the middle, hung up for a year), redbud bark, Woof was sedge root (dried, split down the middle, hung up for a year), redbud bark, bulrush root, often dyed black, and digger pine root fibers (Brown and Andrews bulrush root, often dyed black, and digger pine root fibers (Brown and Andrews 1969). Black color in baskets roots of carex (razor grass) were buried in black oak 1969). Black color in baskets roots of carex (razor grass) were buried in black oak ashes. One medium grass basket required 3750 grass stalks from previously burned ashes. One medium grass basket required 3750 grass stalks from previously burned or pruned plants; 5 Apocynum stalks make one foot of cordage; a 40-foot deer net or pruned plants; 5 Apocynum stalks make one foot of cordage; a 40-foot deer net used fibers from 35,000 plants. used fibers from 35,000 plants.
Acorns: Acorns furnished the main article of diet and are the most characteristic Acorns: Acorns furnished the main article of diet and are the most characteristic California staple. Preference of acorn species depends on specific use. In order of California staple. Preference of acorn species depends on specific use. In order of preference, the oaks are tan oak (Lithocarpus densiflora), black oak (Quercus preference, the oaks are tan oak (Lithocarpus densiflora), black oak (Quercus kellogii), blue oak (Q. douglasii), valley oak (Q. lobata), coast live oak (Q. agrifolia), kellogii), blue oak (Q. douglasii), valley oak (Q. lobata), coast live oak (Q. agrifolia), Elem (Pomo) Scenario 86 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 86
oregon oak (Q. garryana), Englemann oak (Q. engelmannii), maul oak (Q. oregon oak (Q. garryana), Englemann oak (Q. engelmannii), maul oak (Q. chrysolepis), interior live oak (Q. wislizenii), and scrub oak (Q. dumosa) (Baumhoff chrysolepis), interior live oak (Q. wislizenii), and scrub oak (Q. dumosa) (Baumhoff 1978). 1978).
Certain oak trees or patches of trees belonged to individuals (Barrett 1952). A family Certain oak trees or patches of trees belonged to individuals (Barrett 1952). A family could easily collect several ton of acorns. During an actual collection period, 100 could easily collect several ton of acorns. During an actual collection period, 100 pounds of acorns could be gathered in an hour, producing 50 pounds of kernels. The pounds of acorns could be gathered in an hour, producing 50 pounds of kernels. The tan oak and black oak seed crop is about 125 pound per tree. The Oregon oak (Q. tan oak and black oak seed crop is about 125 pound per tree. The Oregon oak (Q. garryana) can produce 200 pounds or more per tree. Other species are also prolific, garryana) can produce 200 pounds or more per tree. Other species are also prolific, but some tend to have irregular crops (Baumhoff 1963). but some tend to have irregular crops (Baumhoff 1963).
Every old photograph of Elem villages shows multiple granaries on stilts (Baumhoff Every old photograph of Elem villages shows multiple granaries on stilts (Baumhoff 1963). The smallest granaries were roughly the size of a 50-gallon barrel. A typical 1963). The smallest granaries were roughly the size of a 50-gallon barrel. A typical granary for a family of 6 measures 5 by 12 feet, holding 2440kg (Heizer and Elasser granary for a family of 6 measures 5 by 12 feet, holding 2440kg (Heizer and Elasser 1980). Acorn granaries were lined with wormwood or bay leaves to repel insects and 1980). Acorn granaries were lined with wormwood or bay leaves to repel insects and worms (Fagan 2003). Acorns in the shell could be stored up to 2 years. Because worms (Fagan 2003). Acorns in the shell could be stored up to 2 years. Because relying on acorns as a staple requires intense activity at harvest and large storage relying on acorns as a staple requires intense activity at harvest and large storage capacity, granaries were located at permanent settlements located near oak forests capacity, granaries were located at permanent settlements located near oak forests (Fagan 2003). Processing involved labor-intensive shelling, winnowing (to remove (Fagan 2003). Processing involved labor-intensive shelling, winnowing (to remove the skin), and pounding, taking much longer than grass seeds. It takes 3 hours to the skin), and pounding, taking much longer than grass seeds. It takes 3 hours to convert 6 pounds of shelled acorns into 5.3 pounds of flour. A day’s hard pounding convert 6 pounds of shelled acorns into 5.3 pounds of flour. A day’s hard pounding provided enough flour for a family for several days. After pounding, the tannic acid is provided enough flour for a family for several days. After pounding, the tannic acid is leached out, and the leached meal can be boiled as mush or baked as bread leached out, and the leached meal can be boiled as mush or baked as bread (Baumhoff 1963). (Baumhoff 1963).
Other Nuts and Seeds: Grass seeds, though abundant, also require intensive Other Nuts and Seeds: Grass seeds, though abundant, also require intensive processing—hulling (breaking shells if large), milling (coarse grinding), and grinding processing—hulling (breaking shells if large), milling (coarse grinding), and grinding into flour (Fagan 2003). Pinole was the fine flour or meal made from parched, into flour (Fagan 2003). Pinole was the fine flour or meal made from parched, ground seeds from tansy-mustard, chia, or other grasses and flowering annuals; this ground seeds from tansy-mustard, chia, or other grasses and flowering annuals; this was eaten dry, pinch by pinch, or made into a mush with water. The meal also can was eaten dry, pinch by pinch, or made into a mush with water. The meal also can be dampened, made into balls, and eaten raw or cooked (Balls 1962, Barrett 1952). be dampened, made into balls, and eaten raw or cooked (Balls 1962, Barrett 1952).
Ground buckeye balls were also leached, but much more thoroughly, often for Ground buckeye balls were also leached, but much more thoroughly, often for months. Pine nuts (of digger and sugar pines) were eaten raw or roasted. California months. Pine nuts (of digger and sugar pines) were eaten raw or roasted. California Bay nuts were picked in the spring, roasted, shelled, ground, and stored for winter. Bay nuts were picked in the spring, roasted, shelled, ground, and stored for winter. Hazelnuts (and shoots for baskets) were gathered from carefully-managed patches. Hazelnuts (and shoots for baskets) were gathered from carefully-managed patches.
Salt: Various inland seepages occur where salt-bearing water (percolating upward Salt: Various inland seepages occur where salt-bearing water (percolating upward through salt beds) evaporates and leaves crystallized salt on the surface of the soil. through salt beds) evaporates and leaves crystallized salt on the surface of the soil. Often the crude salt is dissolved and recrystallized, which by chemical analysis is Often the crude salt is dissolved and recrystallized, which by chemical analysis is 99.2% NaCl. The crude salt is 28% insoluble material, still used raw, and still 99.2% NaCl. The crude salt is 28% insoluble material, still used raw, and still palatable (Mauldin 1975). Sea salt was obtained during trips to the coast. palatable (Mauldin 1975). Sea salt was obtained during trips to the coast.
Clay Used in Bread: It was a common culinary practice to mix ferruginous clay with Clay Used in Bread: It was a common culinary practice to mix ferruginous clay with acorn meal (one pint of clay to 3 quarts flour). The clay is referred to as “Indian acorn meal (one pint of clay to 3 quarts flour). The clay is referred to as “Indian baking powder” (masil), is somewhat sweet, and helps the cake stick together. This baking powder” (masil), is somewhat sweet, and helps the cake stick together. This Elem (Pomo) Scenario 87 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 87
clay is 10% FeO2 by weight. The purpose of the clay was to convert the tannic acid clay is 10% FeO2 by weight. The purpose of the clay was to convert the tannic acid of the acorn meal into an insoluble compound formed at the baking temperature, by of the acorn meal into an insoluble compound formed at the baking temperature, by reaction of the tannic acid with iron oxide (Mauldin 1975, Stewart 1943, Holmes reaction of the tannic acid with iron oxide (Mauldin 1975, Stewart 1943, Holmes 1975, Selinus et al. 2005). 1975, Selinus et al. 2005).
3.2.3 Resource Management 3.2.3 Resource Management Early settlers who arrived in central California saw a verdant carpet of grass with Early settlers who arrived in central California saw a verdant carpet of grass with scattered live oaks and manzanita bushes that reminded them of a well tended scattered live oaks and manzanita bushes that reminded them of a well tended garden. This is because California was not wilderness but many carefully managed garden. This is because California was not wilderness but many carefully managed habitats and plant communities that supported large populations through habitats and plant communities that supported large populations through exceptionally effective extractive and storage technology (Blackburn and Anderson exceptionally effective extractive and storage technology (Blackburn and Anderson 1993). Throughout the state, many areas were cared for by families and knowledge 1993). Throughout the state, many areas were cared for by families and knowledge was passed on to each generation. Individual families took care of individual oak was passed on to each generation. Individual families took care of individual oak trees. Mosaic vegetation and biodiversity were deliberately encouraged. Cultivating trees. Mosaic vegetation and biodiversity were deliberately encouraged. Cultivating favored plants in different patches was common among all of the Pomo tribes, as favored plants in different patches was common among all of the Pomo tribes, as well as weeding, pruning, irrigation, sowing, selective harvesting, and tilling. well as weeding, pruning, irrigation, sowing, selective harvesting, and tilling. Methods for gathering mimic natural disturbance; for example, the root harvest tool Methods for gathering mimic natural disturbance; for example, the root harvest tool (digging stick) does not harm the resource, but loosens the soil. Pomo women also (digging stick) does not harm the resource, but loosens the soil. Pomo women also weeded sedge beds to loosen the soil and remove impediments to rhizomes weeded sedge beds to loosen the soil and remove impediments to rhizomes radiating from each plant, promoting the untangled, long underground stems radiating from each plant, promoting the untangled, long underground stems desirable for basketry material (Anderson 1973, Anderson et al. 1997). Coppicing desirable for basketry material (Anderson 1973, Anderson et al. 1997). Coppicing (encouraging annual shoots of basket materials) was also practiced. (encouraging annual shoots of basket materials) was also practiced.
Natural fire caused by summer lightning strikes not associated with rain is an Natural fire caused by summer lightning strikes not associated with rain is an important component of the Mediterranean climate. Until suppression policies important component of the Mediterranean climate. Until suppression policies around 1900, late summer and early fall fires were an expected natural event, with a around 1900, late summer and early fall fires were an expected natural event, with a natural fire interval of 10–50 years in each location (in addition to more frequent fire natural fire interval of 10–50 years in each location (in addition to more frequent fire regimes employed by the native peoples). Thus, intense destructive fires were rare. regimes employed by the native peoples). Thus, intense destructive fires were rare. California plants not only evolved with fire, but some require fire. Without fire, brush California plants not only evolved with fire, but some require fire. Without fire, brush can become dominant. With fire, grasses and young shoots provide deer browse. can become dominant. With fire, grasses and young shoots provide deer browse. Without fire, chaparral becomes dense and reduced in browseability, and forbs are Without fire, chaparral becomes dense and reduced in browseability, and forbs are inhibited. Certain species were known to better with annual burning, others did better inhibited. Certain species were known to better with annual burning, others did better with burning every several years, and so on (Anderson et al. 1997, Lewis 1993). with burning every several years, and so on (Anderson et al. 1997, Lewis 1993). Native people understood the relation of plant and fire cycles and employed fire to Native people understood the relation of plant and fire cycles and employed fire to maintain browse, reduce catastrophic fire hazard, and encourage germination of maintain browse, reduce catastrophic fire hazard, and encourage germination of native plants and growth of native forbs. Undergrowth was controlled so forests were native plants and growth of native forbs. Undergrowth was controlled so forests were more open, meadows were kept clear, and marshes were deliberately fired to clear more open, meadows were kept clear, and marshes were deliberately fired to clear out dead plants, control disease and insects, and increase breeding areas and out dead plants, control disease and insects, and increase breeding areas and diversity. diversity.
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 88 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 88
4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO 4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO
The approach used in describing an overall diet is to use the information about major The approach used in describing an overall diet is to use the information about major resources present in the study area, foraging theory information, and information resources present in the study area, foraging theory information, and information from the existing literature and interviews. An overall total caloric diet with rough from the existing literature and interviews. An overall total caloric diet with rough proportions of different food groups in a typical traditional diet is shown in Section proportions of different food groups in a typical traditional diet is shown in Section 4.3 (Figure 10). This diet is reconstructed from information about what the traditional 4.3 (Figure 10). This diet is reconstructed from information about what the traditional diet actually was, rather than what it might be today if USDA recommendations diet actually was, rather than what it might be today if USDA recommendations about daily intakes were followed substituting wild for domesticated foods. about daily intakes were followed substituting wild for domesticated foods.
The steps for reconstructing the Elem diet are: The steps for reconstructing the Elem diet are:
1. Review foraging theory information presented above specific to the Tribe, the 1. Review foraging theory information presented above specific to the Tribe, the local ecosystem, and, if available, for the specific location under local ecosystem, and, if available, for the specific location under consideration; consideration; 2. Review ecological information for a rough estimate of resource abundance of 2. Review ecological information for a rough estimate of resource abundance of natural resources under baseline conditions; natural resources under baseline conditions; 3. Review interviews and other ethnographic sources for supporting information 3. Review interviews and other ethnographic sources for supporting information of species and abundance, habitat types, human activity levels, and methods of species and abundance, habitat types, human activity levels, and methods of obtaining, preparing, and using resources; of obtaining, preparing, and using resources; 4. Develop overall percentages of major food categories and major staples 4. Develop overall percentages of major food categories and major staples within the total diet; within the total diet; 5. Estimate calories provided by the diet, and compare estimates of percentages 5. Estimate calories provided by the diet, and compare estimates of percentages of quantities and percentages of calories; of quantities and percentages of calories; 6. Refine estimates of major staples and food categories after considering 6. Refine estimates of major staples and food categories after considering information about medicines, sweeteners, and other often-overlooked information about medicines, sweeteners, and other often-overlooked food/medicine types; macronutrients, and other factors. food/medicine types; macronutrients, and other factors.
4.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET 4.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET Kelly (1995) describes the concepts of eco-cultural lifestyles, also known as foraging Kelly (1995) describes the concepts of eco-cultural lifestyles, also known as foraging theory. In the 1960s to 1980s the “Man the Hunter” concept (with males providing theory. In the 1960s to 1980s the “Man the Hunter” concept (with males providing most of the provender) prevailed due to a previous archaeological emphasis on most of the provender) prevailed due to a previous archaeological emphasis on hunting and warfare artifacts (Lee and Devore 1968). This gave way in the 1980s hunting and warfare artifacts (Lee and Devore 1968). This gave way in the 1980s and 1990s to a more balanced foraging model that emphasized plants as much as and 1990s to a more balanced foraging model that emphasized plants as much as meat (and equality of genders in contributing to survival), and a relatively peaceful meat (and equality of genders in contributing to survival), and a relatively peaceful and secure “original affluent society” (Sahlins 1972). The latter concept is supported and secure “original affluent society” (Sahlins 1972). The latter concept is supported by data (Kelly 1995, Winterhalder 1981) on the amount of time required to obtain by data (Kelly 1995, Winterhalder 1981) on the amount of time required to obtain survival necessities and to raise children, and the typically abundant amount of time survival necessities and to raise children, and the typically abundant amount of time available for socializing, education, ceremonies, material items, leisure, recreation, available for socializing, education, ceremonies, material items, leisure, recreation, oratories, and so on. However, hunter-gatherers are not over-nourished, and face oratories, and so on. However, hunter-gatherers are not over-nourished, and face seasonal or cyclical shortages even though outright starvation is rare. The lifestyle is seasonal or cyclical shortages even though outright starvation is rare. The lifestyle is also “physically demanding” (Kelly 1995), giving rise to discussions about the also “physically demanding” (Kelly 1995), giving rise to discussions about the number of calories available or required and the activity levels used to develop number of calories available or required and the activity levels used to develop Elem (Pomo) Scenario 89 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 89 exposure factors. exposure factors.
Efficiency or return rate for specific resources in specific habitats is estimated using Efficiency or return rate for specific resources in specific habitats is estimated using foraging theory by evaluating the amount of calories expended in getting food foraging theory by evaluating the amount of calories expended in getting food (search costs) by means of hunting, gathering, or fishing relative to time spent or (search costs) by means of hunting, gathering, or fishing relative to time spent or calories obtained. Foraging information is typically presented as return rates, or net calories obtained. Foraging information is typically presented as return rates, or net calories obtained per hour of effort. Additional factors such as biodiversity, calories obtained per hour of effort. Additional factors such as biodiversity, abundance, and patchiness or continuity of resources result in time allocation abundance, and patchiness or continuity of resources result in time allocation decisions that are intentionally or unintentionally made by foraging societies, such as decisions that are intentionally or unintentionally made by foraging societies, such as optimal diet breadth, optimal foraging area, and optimal foraging group size for a optimal diet breadth, optimal foraging area, and optimal foraging group size for a particular ecosystem (Winterhalder 1981). Depending on the evaluation methods particular ecosystem (Winterhalder 1981). Depending on the evaluation methods used in a study, this return rate data may include (1) time and calories spent in used in a study, this return rate data may include (1) time and calories spent in preparing to hunt, fish, or gather (e.g., making nets), (2) time and/or calories spent in preparing to hunt, fish, or gather (e.g., making nets), (2) time and/or calories spent in the actual activity, and (3) time spent in the processing of the resource after the actual activity, and (3) time spent in the processing of the resource after obtaining it. The drawback of oversimplifying foraging solely to caloric efficiency is obtaining it. The drawback of oversimplifying foraging solely to caloric efficiency is that micronutrients (vitamins, minerals, specific amino acids, and fatty acids), that micronutrients (vitamins, minerals, specific amino acids, and fatty acids), medicinal or pharmacologically active compounds, other nutritional requirements, medicinal or pharmacologically active compounds, other nutritional requirements, and non-nutritional attributes, such as aroma or dye or material uses, are often not and non-nutritional attributes, such as aroma or dye or material uses, are often not considered (Lindstrom 1992). Similarly, many plants and animals have multiple uses considered (Lindstrom 1992). Similarly, many plants and animals have multiple uses or are co-located with other resources; therefore, caloric calculations must not ignore or are co-located with other resources; therefore, caloric calculations must not ignore the way that people actually make decisions about where to go or what to gather, or the way that people actually make decisions about where to go or what to gather, or the reasons they seek to obtain particular resources. the reasons they seek to obtain particular resources.
4.2 FORAGING STUDIES FOR CENTRAL CALIFORNIA 4.2 FORAGING STUDIES FOR CENTRAL CALIFORNIA Broughton (1988) evaluated the fauna of the Sacramento Valley, and developed a Broughton (1988) evaluated the fauna of the Sacramento Valley, and developed a diet breadth model. White (2002) reviewed this approach and identified problems diet breadth model. White (2002) reviewed this approach and identified problems with this and other foraging models. For example, seasonal competition affects with this and other foraging models. For example, seasonal competition affects choices if two resources are ready at the same time. Also, the lonely forager choices if two resources are ready at the same time. Also, the lonely forager assumption is not generally applicable since resources are gathered by groups with assumption is not generally applicable since resources are gathered by groups with different people procuring different resources. The Broughton model was modified different people procuring different resources. The Broughton model was modified by White to be suitable to the Clear Lake area (by omitting salmon and pronghorn), by White to be suitable to the Clear Lake area (by omitting salmon and pronghorn), although it still includes only animal resources. White’s modification of Broughton’s although it still includes only animal resources. White’s modification of Broughton’s animal-based acquisition estimates are shown in Table 3. animal-based acquisition estimates are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Acquisition estimates. Table 3. Acquisition estimates.
Total kcal/indiv Pursuit Processing NAR* Total kcal/indiv Pursuit Processing NAR* Rank Resource Rank Resource per animal hrs/kg hrs/kg kcal/hr per animal hrs/kg hrs/kg kcal/hr 1 Tule elk 10,7248 0.0015 0.012 35749 1 Tule elk 10,7248 0.0015 0.012 35749 2 Deer 42,900 0.0015 0.04 24710 2 Deer 42,900 0.0015 0.04 24710 3 Jackrabbit 1,103 0.025 0.05 14437 3 Jackrabbit 1,103 0.025 0.05 14437 4 Cottontail 637 0.04 0.083 9391 4 Cottontail 637 0.04 0.083 9391 5 Squirrel 309 0.085 0.1 5865 5 Squirrel 309 0.085 0.1 5865 6 Duck 630 0.095 0.32 2342 6 Duck 630 0.095 0.32 2342 7 Freshwater fish 160 0.2 0.05 816 7 Freshwater fish 160 0.2 0.05 816 (slow water) (slow water) * Net acquisition rate. * Net acquisition rate. Elem (Pomo) Scenario 90 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 90
White critiques these figures in several ways: White critiques these figures in several ways:
• He concludes that they do not hold for the Clear Lake Basin. In particular, fish • He concludes that they do not hold for the Clear Lake Basin. In particular, fish were greatly underestimated because they were not evaluated as they would were greatly underestimated because they were not evaluated as they would be taken during spawning runs. Fish (hitch, blackfish, pike) were actually one be taken during spawning runs. Fish (hitch, blackfish, pike) were actually one of the highest ranked resources, at least during the various spawning of the highest ranked resources, at least during the various spawning seasons. seasons. • Turtles were not included, whereas they actually comprise a substantial • Turtles were not included, whereas they actually comprise a substantial fraction of small game bones in sites in appropriate locales, and more fraction of small game bones in sites in appropriate locales, and more common in some assemblages than lagomorphs. common in some assemblages than lagomorphs. • Over time, the ratios of fish to large game can change considerably for many • Over time, the ratios of fish to large game can change considerably for many reasons, including uses of non-edible parts such as bones for tools, etc. reasons, including uses of non-edible parts such as bones for tools, etc. • Mollusks were not included, whereas they were used widely (western ridge • Mollusks were not included, whereas they were used widely (western ridge mussel, Gonidea angulata, and California floater mussel, Anodonta mussel, Gonidea angulata, and California floater mussel, Anodonta californiensis). Clear Lake mussels were gathered by feeling them with bare californiensis). Clear Lake mussels were gathered by feeling them with bare feet. feet.
Baumhoff (1963) estimated acorn and game production from vegetation maps, Baumhoff (1963) estimated acorn and game production from vegetation maps, which showed 22 vegetation types (in 1945). He reconstructed a pre-contact which showed 22 vegetation types (in 1945). He reconstructed a pre-contact resource map from vegetation information, original soil maps, and historic range land resource map from vegetation information, original soil maps, and historic range land studies. He identified vegetation types and rated them for acorn and game studies. He identified vegetation types and rated them for acorn and game production, and identified stream miles and rated them for fish production. He then production, and identified stream miles and rated them for fish production. He then determined the size of each vegetation type and stream miles available to individual determined the size of each vegetation type and stream miles available to individual tribes, and weighted them according to productivity of game, acorns, and fish. For tribes, and weighted them according to productivity of game, acorns, and fish. For example, 60 square miles of chaparral, which ranks as a secondary acorn source, example, 60 square miles of chaparral, which ranks as a secondary acorn source, gives an index of 30 for acorns (60 mi2 x ½). However, it ranks very high in game gives an index of 30 for acorns (60 mi2 x ½). However, it ranks very high in game production, which is weighted double, giving a game index of 120. Therefore, the production, which is weighted double, giving a game index of 120. Therefore, the total index for 60 acres of chaparral for both game and acorns is 150. For individual total index for 60 acres of chaparral for both game and acorns is 150. For individual tribes, Baumhoff estimated the acreage of each vegetation type, as well as the tribes, Baumhoff estimated the acreage of each vegetation type, as well as the number of stream miles suitable for primary, secondary, or tertiary fish production. number of stream miles suitable for primary, secondary, or tertiary fish production.
Clear Lake is immediately surrounded primarily by oak woodland and chaparral, with Clear Lake is immediately surrounded primarily by oak woodland and chaparral, with nearby grassland and pine-fir forest. Oak woodlands rank at the highest level for the nearby grassland and pine-fir forest. Oak woodlands rank at the highest level for the combination of game and acorn production, while grassland ranks at the highest combination of game and acorn production, while grassland ranks at the highest level for game but lower for acorn density. Baumhoff ranks production of Clear Lake level for game but lower for acorn density. Baumhoff ranks production of Clear Lake fisheries as equivalent to a secondary salmon stream in terms of total poundage. fisheries as equivalent to a secondary salmon stream in terms of total poundage. The southeastern Pomo had 200 square miles of upland available, primarily oak The southeastern Pomo had 200 square miles of upland available, primarily oak woodland. He concludes that the ranking of resource availability for the southeastern woodland. He concludes that the ranking of resource availability for the southeastern Pomo was as follows: game ranked slightly ahead of acorns, which ranked ahead of Pomo was as follows: game ranked slightly ahead of acorns, which ranked ahead of fish in terms of overall productivity. Baumhoff estimated that tribes living on primary fish in terms of overall productivity. Baumhoff estimated that tribes living on primary salmon rivers relied on acorn, game, and fish in an estimated ratio of 3:2:3. salmon rivers relied on acorn, game, and fish in an estimated ratio of 3:2:3.
4.3 THE ELEM DIET 4.3 THE ELEM DIET This section uses the information from the previous sections to derive and rank This section uses the information from the previous sections to derive and rank estimates of major categories of food types. It considers the number of species, the estimates of major categories of food types. It considers the number of species, the Elem (Pomo) Scenario 91 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 91 foraging studies with their dietary estimates, and recent interview data. This foraging studies with their dietary estimates, and recent interview data. This information is combined to reconstruct a diet that was obtained from the Clear Lake information is combined to reconstruct a diet that was obtained from the Clear Lake area. It is intended to describe what the diet actually was before contamination area. It is intended to describe what the diet actually was before contamination altered the natural resources. Figures 11 and 12 illustrate the derived diet by percent altered the natural resources. Figures 11 and 12 illustrate the derived diet by percent of calories and by grams per day. The latter illustration is more comparable to of calories and by grams per day. The latter illustration is more comparable to conventional food pyramids, which are shown by number of servings. conventional food pyramids, which are shown by number of servings.
Baumhoff (1963) estimated a ratio for intake of acorn, game, and fish for central Baumhoff (1963) estimated a ratio for intake of acorn, game, and fish for central California tribes on salmon-bearing rivers of 3:2:3. Those tribes generally used California tribes on salmon-bearing rivers of 3:2:3. Those tribes generally used acorns and game more than fish; however, the tribes immediately around Clear Lake acorns and game more than fish; however, the tribes immediately around Clear Lake used all three. We extrapolate from Baumhoff’s ratio a Clear Lake ratio for acorns, used all three. We extrapolate from Baumhoff’s ratio a Clear Lake ratio for acorns, game, and fish of 3:2:2, which accounts for fish being of secondary rather than game, and fish of 3:2:2, which accounts for fish being of secondary rather than primary quantity. primary quantity.
The general order of vegetal resources used, in order, are acorns, roots and bulbs, The general order of vegetal resources used, in order, are acorns, roots and bulbs, seeds and nuts, berries, greens, and a general category for teas, medicines, sweets, seeds and nuts, berries, greens, and a general category for teas, medicines, sweets, salt and pepper, and tobacco (McLendon and Lowry 1978). The general order of salt and pepper, and tobacco (McLendon and Lowry 1978). The general order of animal resources is fish, large game, fowl, small game, shellfish, insects, and turtles. animal resources is fish, large game, fowl, small game, shellfish, insects, and turtles. Heizer and Elasser (1980) combined vegetal and animal resource use into an Heizer and Elasser (1980) combined vegetal and animal resource use into an approximate overall diet (Figure 10) based on earlier work, particularly from approximate overall diet (Figure 10) based on earlier work, particularly from Baumhoff, but also from earlier authors who measured what was being stored. Baumhoff, but also from earlier authors who measured what was being stored.
Solar Solar
Small Small seeds seeds Acorns Acorns Roots Roots Bulbs Bulbs Greens Greens
Freshwater Large & Small Freshwater Large & Small Fish, fowl Game, Insects Fish, fowl Game, Insects
Solar Solar
Figure 10. Diet Estimate Figure 10. Diet Estimate
Based on interviews and existing literature, foraging theory, dietary calories, and Based on interviews and existing literature, foraging theory, dietary calories, and related information, the traditional Elem diet is estimated as: related information, the traditional Elem diet is estimated as:
• Acorns (30% of total calories); • Acorns (30% of total calories); • Fish (20%); • Fish (20%); • Game (large and small, and fowl) (15%); • Game (large and small, and fowl) (15%); • Roots, tubers, rhizomes, corms (10%); • Roots, tubers, rhizomes, corms (10%); • Bulbs (5%); • Bulbs (5%); Elem (Pomo) Scenario 92 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 92
• Seeds (5%); • Seeds (5%); • Fruits, berries (5%); • Fruits, berries (5%); • Greens, shoots (5%); • Greens, shoots (5%); • Teas, medicines, sweeteners (5%). • Teas, medicines, sweeteners (5%).
Dietary Categories, by percent of total calories Dietary Categories, by percent of total calories Acorns Acorns
Fish Fish
Roots Roots
Bulbs Bulbs
Game and fowl Game and fowl
Seeds, pinole Seeds, pinole
Fruits and berries Fruits and berries
Greens, shoots Greens, shoots
Teas, medicines, Teas, medicines, sweeteners sweeteners
Figure 11. Percentage of Dietary Category Ingested per Day Figure 11. Percentage of Dietary Category Ingested per Day
Dietary Categories, by grams per day Dietary Categories, by grams per day Acorns Acorns
Fish Fish
Roots Roots
Bulbs Bulbs
Game and fowl Game and fowl
Seeds, pinole Seeds, pinole
Fruits and berries Fruits and berries
Greens, shoots Greens, shoots
Teas, medicines, Teas, medicines, sweeteners sweeteners
Figure 12. Grams of Dietary Category Ingested per Day Figure 12. Grams of Dietary Category Ingested per Day
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 93 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 93
4.4 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS 4.4 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS A brief nutritional analysis is presented here in order to cross-check the amounts A brief nutritional analysis is presented here in order to cross-check the amounts eaten with an estimate of macronutrients that would be provided. This is done to eaten with an estimate of macronutrients that would be provided. This is done to ensure that a full amount of calories is accounted for, and the diet is roughly ensure that a full amount of calories is accounted for, and the diet is roughly balanced within the ranges of other foraging diets. Based on the discussion above, balanced within the ranges of other foraging diets. Based on the discussion above, an estimate of the complete diet is shown below in Table 4. Each food category is an estimate of the complete diet is shown below in Table 4. Each food category is converted to calories, and then to grams per day. It is impossible to be more converted to calories, and then to grams per day. It is impossible to be more quantitative than a rough estimate of overall percentages given the lack of data on quantitative than a rough estimate of overall percentages given the lack of data on native foods—nutritional data on native foods are almost totally lacking. Therefore, native foods—nutritional data on native foods are almost totally lacking. Therefore, all of the information in Table 4 is from the USDA database (except where noted) for all of the information in Table 4 is from the USDA database (except where noted) for an average member of the same or nearest plant or animal family (the an average member of the same or nearest plant or animal family (the “Representative Species” column in Table 4). Wherever specific information is “Representative Species” column in Table 4). Wherever specific information is available from the USDA database, such as for game species, it is used available from the USDA database, such as for game species, it is used (http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/). Where possible, the data for fresh (http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/). Where possible, the data for fresh or cooked foods matches the form of native plants eaten. We recognize that or cooked foods matches the form of native plants eaten. We recognize that domesticated species of plants have been bred for certain characteristics such as domesticated species of plants have been bred for certain characteristics such as low fiber content, more sweetness, and other characteristics. Tribal members often low fiber content, more sweetness, and other characteristics. Tribal members often refer to wild varieties as “stronger” than domesticated varieties, but the actual refer to wild varieties as “stronger” than domesticated varieties, but the actual nutritional or biochemical attributes that this refers to are not known. This is a well- nutritional or biochemical attributes that this refers to are not known. This is a well- known data gap. known data gap.
Table 4. Summary of estimated relative proportions of dietary foods. Table 4. Summary of estimated relative proportions of dietary foods.
Representative 2000 kcal Diet Representative 2000 kcal Diet % of kcal per 100g % of kcal per 100g Daily Amount Daily Amount Resource 2000 (Representative Resource 2000 (Representative (grams/day) (grams/day) kcal Species)* kcal Species)* Acorns 30% or Dried acorns & acorn flour—500 120 grams Acorns 30% or Dried acorns & acorn flour—500 120 grams 600 kcal 600 kcal Fish 20% or Mixed trout, cooked—190 200 Fish 20% or Mixed trout, cooked—190 200 400 kcal 400 kcal Game (large and small) and 15% or Deer, roasted—158 200 Game (large and small) and 15% or Deer, roasted—158 200 waterfowl, other animal 300 kcal Rabbit, wild, roasted—173 waterfowl, other animal 300 kcal Rabbit, wild, roasted—173 species Quail, cooked—234 species Quail, cooked—234 Roots, tubers, rhizomes, 10% or Raw Chicory root—73 250 Roots, tubers, rhizomes, 10% or Raw Chicory root—73 250 corms 200 kcal Potato (baked tuber)—93 corms 200 kcal Potato (baked tuber)—93 Bulbs 5% or Leek, onions and bulbs (bulb & 360 Bulbs 5% or Leek, onions and bulbs (bulb & 360 100 kcal leaf)—31 100 kcal leaf)—31 Seeds, pinole, atole 5% or Raw dried sunflower seeds— 20 Seeds, pinole, atole 5% or Raw dried sunflower seeds— 20 100 kcal 570; Sesame seed flour—526 100 kcal 570; Sesame seed flour—526 Fruits and berries 5% or Raw elderberries—73 140 Fruits and berries 5% or Raw elderberries—73 140 100 kcal 100 kcal Greens, shoots 5% or Raw dandelion greens—45 333 Greens, shoots 5% or Raw dandelion greens—45 333 100 kcal Raw watercress—11 100 kcal Raw watercress—11 Teas, medicines, 5% or Honey—304 36 Teas, medicines, 5% or Honey—304 36 sweeteners 100 kcal sweeteners 100 kcal Totals 100% - 1660g (3.6 lbs)** Totals 100% - 1660g (3.6 lbs)** * Calorie estimates are from the USDA nutrient database. * Calorie estimates are from the USDA nutrient database. ** 1 pound = 454g. ** 1 pound = 454g. Elem (Pomo) Scenario 94 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 94
A closer examination of a primary food, acorns, illustrates some issues in estimating A closer examination of a primary food, acorns, illustrates some issues in estimating food group totals. Many investigators have evaluated the nutritional quality of food group totals. Many investigators have evaluated the nutritional quality of acorns, but early reports in the anthropological literature frequently did not report acorns, but early reports in the anthropological literature frequently did not report whether their estimates were based on unshelled nuts (a stored form), the flour whether their estimates were based on unshelled nuts (a stored form), the flour (stored for shorter periods), or fresh nuts versus parched or dried. Dried acorn whole (stored for shorter periods), or fresh nuts versus parched or dried. Dried acorn whole nuts (without the shell) and ground acorn flour have 500 kcal/100g. Raw acorn nuts nuts (without the shell) and ground acorn flour have 500 kcal/100g. Raw acorn nuts (without the shell but fresh) contain 387 kcal/100g.9 (without the shell but fresh) contain 387 kcal/100g.9
Tables 5, 6, and 7 show three nutritional analyses: Baumhoff (1963), Heizer and Tables 5, 6, and 7 show three nutritional analyses: Baumhoff (1963), Heizer and Elasser (1980), and the USDA Elasser (1980), and the USDA (http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR14/sr14.html), respectively. The (http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR14/sr14.html), respectively. The difference in water content between the Baumhoff and Heizer analyses, compared to difference in water content between the Baumhoff and Heizer analyses, compared to the USDA data, suggests that the Baumhoff analysis (Table 5) was done with dried the USDA data, suggests that the Baumhoff analysis (Table 5) was done with dried acorns, while the Heizer and Elasser analysis (Table 6) was done with fresh acorns. acorns, while the Heizer and Elasser analysis (Table 6) was done with fresh acorns. Table 7 shows nutritional values for both raw, dried, and flour forms. Table 7 shows nutritional values for both raw, dried, and flour forms.
Table 5. Nutritional content of hulled acorns. Table 5. Nutritional content of hulled acorns.
Species Water % Protein % Fats % Fiber % CHO % Ash % Species Water % Protein % Fats % Fiber % CHO % Ash % Lithocarpus 9 2.9 12.1 20.1 54.4 1.4 Lithocarpus 9 2.9 12.1 20.1 54.4 1.4 Q. lobata 9 4.9 5.5 9.5 69 2.1 Q. lobata 9 4.9 5.5 9.5 69 2.1 Q. garryana 9 3.9 4.5 12.0 68.9 1.8 Q. garryana 9 3.9 4.5 12.0 68.9 1.8 Q. douglasii 9 5.5 8.1 9.8 65.5 2.1 Q. douglasii 9 5.5 8.1 9.8 65.5 2.1 Q. chrysolepis 9 4.1 8.7 12.7 63.5 2.0 Q. chrysolepis 9 4.1 8.7 12.7 63.5 2.0 Q. agrifolia 9 6.3 16.8 11.6 54.6 1.8 Q. agrifolia 9 6.3 16.8 11.6 54.6 1.8 Q. kellogii 9 4.6 18.0 11.4 55.5 1.6 Q. kellogii 9 4.6 18.0 11.4 55.5 1.6 For comparison: For comparison: Barley 10.1 8.7 1.9 5.7 71.0 2.6 Barley 10.1 8.7 1.9 5.7 71.0 2.6 Wheat 12.5 12.3 1.8 2.3 69.4 1.7 Wheat 12.5 12.3 1.8 2.3 69.4 1.7
Table 6. Nutritional content of acorns. Table 6. Nutritional content of acorns.
Species Water % Protein % Fats % Fiber % CHO % Species Water % Protein % Fats % Fiber % CHO % Q kellogii 31.4 3.44 13.55 8.6 41.81 Q kellogii 31.4 3.44 13.55 8.6 41.81 Q lobata 40.8 3.2 3.6 6.15 44.9 Q lobata 40.8 3.2 3.6 6.15 44.9 Q douglasii 33.6 4.0 5.9 7.15 47.8 Q douglasii 33.6 4.0 5.9 7.15 47.8
Table 7. USDA information on raw acorns, dried acorns, and acorn flour, Table 7. USDA information on raw acorns, dried acorns, and acorn flour, Quercus spp. Quercus spp.
Form Water % Protein % Total Lipid % CHO % Ash % Form Water % Protein % Total Lipid % CHO % Ash % Raw nuts 27.90 6.15 23.86 40.75 1.35 Raw nuts 27.90 6.15 23.86 40.75 1.35 Dried nuts 5.06 8.10 31.41 53.66 1.78 Dried nuts 5.06 8.10 31.41 53.66 1.78 Full fat flour 6.00 7.49 30.17 54.65 1.69 Full fat flour 6.00 7.49 30.17 54.65 1.69
9 USDA database (http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/) 9 USDA database (http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/) Elem (Pomo) Scenario 95 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 95
5 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS 5 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS
5.1 APPROACH 5.1 APPROACH Exposure factors reflect the activity levels and resource use of the lifestyle scenario Exposure factors reflect the activity levels and resource use of the lifestyle scenario under evaluation.10 Exposure factors for both direct and indirect pathways are under evaluation.10 Exposure factors for both direct and indirect pathways are developed. Indirect pathways include exposure via the oral ingestion of food and developed. Indirect pathways include exposure via the oral ingestion of food and medicine (see previous section). This section focuses on direct pathways: direct medicine (see previous section). This section focuses on direct pathways: direct inhalation, dermal exposure, and ingestion of water, air, dust, sediment, and soil inhalation, dermal exposure, and ingestion of water, air, dust, sediment, and soil (including soil on the outside of food or added through cooking). (including soil on the outside of food or added through cooking).
Default exposure factors have been developed for conventional suburban, urban, Default exposure factors have been developed for conventional suburban, urban, occupational, and recreational scenarios based on national statistics. Our approach occupational, and recreational scenarios based on national statistics. Our approach to developing a tribal scenario is not to inventory every activity and every resource, to developing a tribal scenario is not to inventory every activity and every resource, but to provide an overall estimate of the general activity levels, anchored with but to provide an overall estimate of the general activity levels, anchored with specific information as available. The basic assumption is that traditional lifeways specific information as available. The basic assumption is that traditional lifeways are active outdoor lifestyles that are somewhat physically demanding, even with are active outdoor lifestyles that are somewhat physically demanding, even with some modern conveniences. Subsistence foragers (both genders) perform a some modern conveniences. Subsistence foragers (both genders) perform a combination of aerobic (high heart and ventilation rates), strength, endurance, and combination of aerobic (high heart and ventilation rates), strength, endurance, and stretching-flexibility daily activities, as well as performing more sedentary work and stretching-flexibility daily activities, as well as performing more sedentary work and resting. resting.
The exposure factors here are general to traditional subsistence lifestyles, The exposure factors here are general to traditional subsistence lifestyles, regardless of their location. The conceptual steps in this process are: regardless of their location. The conceptual steps in this process are:
1. Understand the lifestyle and the activities that comprise the lifestyle, and are 1. Understand the lifestyle and the activities that comprise the lifestyle, and are required to obtain necessities and engage in the community culture; required to obtain necessities and engage in the community culture; 2. Describe the day, the year, and the lifetime of men and women to identify any 2. Describe the day, the year, and the lifetime of men and women to identify any significant differences in activity levels between genders or ages; significant differences in activity levels between genders or ages; 3. Cross-walk activities with exposure pathways on the basis of frequency and 3. Cross-walk activities with exposure pathways on the basis of frequency and duration of major activities, activity levels, and degree of environmental duration of major activities, activity levels, and degree of environmental contact, and contact, and 4. Estimate cumulative direct exposure factors. 4. Estimate cumulative direct exposure factors.
5.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES 5.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES Tables 8–10 show the thought process for considering the range and number of Tables 8–10 show the thought process for considering the range and number of activities associated with major activity categories (hunting, fishing, gathering, and activities associated with major activity categories (hunting, fishing, gathering, and sweat-lodge purification). Tables 8 and 9 list a number of individual activities within sweat-lodge purification). Tables 8 and 9 list a number of individual activities within each major category; this is included because most non-Indians have not learned each major category; this is included because most non-Indians have not learned much about traditional lifestyles and the complexity of daily life. Table 10 shows the much about traditional lifestyles and the complexity of daily life. Table 10 shows the connection between activity categories. In actuality, many activities are sequential— connection between activity categories. In actuality, many activities are sequential— for example, a resource might be gathered in one location, used in a second location for example, a resource might be gathered in one location, used in a second location to make an implement or basket, and taken to a third location for use in hunting or to make an implement or basket, and taken to a third location for use in hunting or
10 http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=85843 10 http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=85843 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 96 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 96 fishing.11 The activities shown in Table 8 are so interconnected that it is virtually fishing.11 The activities shown in Table 8 are so interconnected that it is virtually impossible to separate a lifestyle into distinct categories, but they are presented as impossible to separate a lifestyle into distinct categories, but they are presented as separate for illustration. The number of sub-activities in each column displays the separate for illustration. The number of sub-activities in each column displays the complexity of each major activity, as well as interconnections between categories. complexity of each major activity, as well as interconnections between categories. The category of gathering includes both vegetal food procurement and basket The category of gathering includes both vegetal food procurement and basket making. making.
Table 8. Traditional lifeways—typical activities in the activity categories. Table 8. Traditional lifeways—typical activities in the activity categories.
Hunting Purification Gathering Fishing Hunting Purification Gathering Fishing Learn skills Learn skills, songs Learn skills Learn skills, TEK Learn skills Learn skills, songs Learn skills Learn skills, TEK Making tools Build lodge from Previous gathering Make nets, poles, Making tools Build lodge from Previous gathering Make nets, poles, natural materials platforms, tools natural materials platforms, tools Ritual bathing Gather rocks Make baskets, bags Travel to location Ritual bathing Gather rocks Make baskets, bags Travel to location Vigorous Chop firewood Hike to areas Catch fish, haul out Vigorous Chop firewood Hike to areas Catch fish, haul out activity in activity in hunting hunting Pack meat out Prepare for use, Cut, dig, harvest Clean, can, hard dry, Pack meat out Prepare for use, Cut, dig, harvest Clean, can, hard dry, get water soft dry, smoke, eat get water soft dry, smoke, eat whole fish or fillet or whole fish or fillet or liver or other parts or liver or other parts or soup soup Process Use Lodge, sing, Carry out items Return carcasses Process Use Lodge, sing, Carry out items Return carcasses drink water, to ecosystem, drink water, to ecosystem, inhale steam use as fertilizer inhale steam use as fertilizer and smudges and smudges Scrape hides Close area & fire Wash, peel, process, Scrape hides Close area & fire Wash, peel, process, split, spin, dye split, spin, dye Tan, use other Cook and eat or make Tan, use other Cook and eat or make parts product or medicine parts product or medicine Cook, smoke, Cook, smoke, dry, eat meat dry, eat meat and organs and organs
11 This is similar to the Cultural Ecosystem Stories concept developed Terry Williams (Tulalip Tribes) 11 This is similar to the Cultural Ecosystem Stories concept developed Terry Williams (Tulalip Tribes) with the associated software, ICONS (see, for example, with the associated software, ICONS (see, for example, http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacademy/ wam/comresource.html). http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacademy/ wam/comresource.html). Elem (Pomo) Scenario 97 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 97
Table 9. Major activity categories. Table 9. Major activity categories.
Activity Type General Description Activity Type General Description Hunting Hunting includes a variety of preparation activities of low to moderate intensity. Hunting Hunting includes a variety of preparation activities of low to moderate intensity. Hunting occurs in terrain ranging from flat and open to very steep and rugged. Hunting occurs in terrain ranging from flat and open to very steep and rugged. It may also include setting traplines, waiting in blinds, digging-out small game, It may also include setting traplines, waiting in blinds, digging-out small game, climbing, etc. After the capture or kill, field dressing, packing or hauling, and climbing, etc. After the capture or kill, field dressing, packing or hauling, and other strenuous activities may occur, depending on the species. Subsequent other strenuous activities may occur, depending on the species. Subsequent activities include cutting, and storing (e.g., smoking or drying). activities include cutting, and storing (e.g., smoking or drying). Fishing Fishing includes building weirs, scooping minnows, hauling in lines (we Fishing Fishing includes building weirs, scooping minnows, hauling in lines (we assume that large nets are not used in small drainages), gaffing or gigging, assume that large nets are not used in small drainages), gaffing or gigging, wading (for shellfish), followed by cleaning the fish and carrying them to the wading (for shellfish), followed by cleaning the fish and carrying them to the place of use. Activities associated with smoking and constructing drying racks place of use. Activities associated with smoking and constructing drying racks may be involved. may be involved. Gathering A variety of activities is involved, such as hiking, bending, stooping, wading Gathering A variety of activities is involved, such as hiking, bending, stooping, wading (marsh and water plants), digging, bundling, carrying, and climbing over a wide (marsh and water plants), digging, bundling, carrying, and climbing over a wide variety of terrains. variety of terrains. Ritual Sweat-lodge building and repairing is intermittent, but collecting firewood is a Ritual Sweat-lodge building and repairing is intermittent, but collecting firewood is a purification constant activity. Cold and hot springs were used for therapeutic healing. purification constant activity. Cold and hot springs were used for therapeutic healing. (sweat lodge) (sweat lodge) Materials use Many activities of low to high intensity are involved in preparing materials for Materials use Many activities of low to high intensity are involved in preparing materials for and food use or food storage. Some are quite vigorous such as pounding or grinding and food use or food storage. Some are quite vigorous such as pounding or grinding preparation seeds and nuts into flour, preparing meat, and tanning hides. This category preparation seeds and nuts into flour, preparing meat, and tanning hides. This category includes basket making, which is an example of a very important activity with includes basket making, which is an example of a very important activity with its own set of prescribed activities. its own set of prescribed activities.
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 98 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 98
Table 10 shows the cross-walk between activity categories and exposure pathways, Table 10 shows the cross-walk between activity categories and exposure pathways, with examples of how exposure factors are derived from knowledge about activities, with examples of how exposure factors are derived from knowledge about activities, interlinked resources, and ecosystem stories, and the technical literature. Again, this interlinked resources, and ecosystem stories, and the technical literature. Again, this is an iterative process that relies on multiple lines of evidence. This is not a complete is an iterative process that relies on multiple lines of evidence. This is not a complete listing of activities. It shows an example of the thought process used to perform the listing of activities. It shows an example of the thought process used to perform the iterative cross-walk. In each case a gap identification step may be necessary, and iterative cross-walk. In each case a gap identification step may be necessary, and greater uncertainty may require placeholder values until data are obtained. The last greater uncertainty may require placeholder values until data are obtained. The last column, “Totals for major exposure factor categories,” shows exposure pathway column, “Totals for major exposure factor categories,” shows exposure pathway totals (such as soil ingestion) that are estimated across activity categories. This is totals (such as soil ingestion) that are estimated across activity categories. This is not a statistical summation but rather a judgment based on multiple lines of not a statistical summation but rather a judgment based on multiple lines of evidence. Each estimate has been checked against technical literature for evidence. Each estimate has been checked against technical literature for confirmation. confirmation.
Table 10. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories. Table 10. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories.
Hunting and Fishing and Gathering and Ritual Material and Totals for Hunting and Fishing and Gathering and Ritual Material and Totals for associated associated associated purification food use and major associated associated associated purification food use and major activities activities activities and processing exposure activities activities activities and processing exposure associated factor associated factor activities categories activities categories Food, n deer /yr diet; n fish /yr diet; Includes foods, No food, but Both as- Must account Food, n deer /yr diet; n fish /yr diet; Includes foods, No food, but Both as- Must account medicine, tea, Total large- Total pounds or medicines, herbal gathered and for all calories. medicine, tea, Total large- Total pounds or medicines, herbal gathered and for all calories. other biota small game, meals/day-wk-yr; teas, etc. particulates as-eaten Extra factor for other biota small game, meals/day-wk-yr; teas, etc. particulates as-eaten Extra factor for ingestion fowl; Organs eaten are inhaled. forms; cleaning 100–200 plant ingestion fowl; Organs eaten are inhaled. forms; cleaning 100–200 plant (diet) Organs eaten and cooking species; parts (diet) Organs eaten and cooking species; parts methods. eaten methods. eaten Soil, Terrain types Sediment External soil on Includes Includes Must also Soil, Terrain types Sediment External soil on Includes Includes Must also sediment, such as marsh contact, dust and plants; Cooking building the incidental soil include living sediment, such as marsh contact, dust and plants; Cooking building the incidental soil include living dust, and mud with more mud smoke if drying; method such as sweat lodge remaining on area, unpaved dust, and mud with more mud smoke if drying; method such as sweat lodge remaining on area, unpaved ingestion contact; Weir construction pit cooking; and getting foods, pit roads, regional ingestion contact; Weir construction pit cooking; and getting foods, pit roads, regional Degree of in mud Ingestion when materials cooking dust, local Degree of in mud Ingestion when materials cooking dust, local dermal contact; gathering dust- dermal contact; gathering dust- generating generating activities activities Inhalation Days per Exertion level— Exertion level Includes Exertion level Must account Inhalation Days per Exertion level— Exertion level Includes Exertion level Must account rates terrain; nets and gaffing for load and building the for pounding, for exertion rates terrain; nets and gaffing for load and building the for pounding, for exertion Exertion level; methods; grade, or lodge, grinding, etc. levels, Smokes Exertion level; methods; grade, or lodge, grinding, etc. levels, Smokes Hide scraping; cleaning effort. gardening; chopping and smudges Hide scraping; cleaning effort. gardening; chopping and smudges Load & grade. Include making firewood, Load & grade. Include making firewood, items singing items singing Groundwater Drinking water; Drinking water; Drinking water; Steam in Soaking, Must account Groundwater Drinking water; Drinking water; Drinking water; Steam in Soaking, Must account and surface Wash water; Incidental cooking water; lodge; Drinking possibly other for climate, and surface Wash water; Incidental cooking water; lodge; Drinking possibly other for climate, water Water-to-game ingestion etc. water during uses sweat lodge, water Water-to-game ingestion etc. water during uses sweat lodge, pathways pathways sweat ritual bathing pathways pathways sweat ritual bathing Dermal Soil, air and Immersion Same as Immersion Includes Must consider Dermal Soil, air and Immersion Same as Immersion Includes Must consider exposure water considerations hunting with open skin basket making, skin loading exposure water considerations hunting with open skin basket making, skin loading pathways, plus pores wounds and habitat pathways, plus pores wounds and habitat pigments, etc. types pigments, etc. types
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 99 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 99
5.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME 5.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME 5.3.1 Activity Patterns 5.3.1 Activity Patterns Adult Hunter/Fisher/Gatherer: Each adult hunts (male), fishes (male), or gardens Adult Hunter/Fisher/Gatherer: Each adult hunts (male), fishes (male), or gardens and gathers plants (female). Because these activities are roughly analogous with and gathers plants (female). Because these activities are roughly analogous with respect to environmental contact, they are assumed to result in the same amount of respect to environmental contact, they are assumed to result in the same amount of soil or sediment ingestion for males and females. General levels of exertion, relative soil or sediment ingestion for males and females. General levels of exertion, relative to inhalation rate, are also assumed to be the same for males and females. The to inhalation rate, are also assumed to be the same for males and females. The inland Pomo would make several trips to the coast each year during low tide. On the inland Pomo would make several trips to the coast each year during low tide. On the way back from gathering clamshells, etc., conical baskets are filled, weighing about way back from gathering clamshells, etc., conical baskets are filled, weighing about 130 pounds; “yet the Pomo not only average this amount per pack, but also carry 130 pounds; “yet the Pomo not only average this amount per pack, but also carry strings of dried fish, kelp, and lighter articles, over precipitous trains, making only strings of dried fish, kelp, and lighter articles, over precipitous trains, making only four camps along the 80 mile journey home to Clear Lake” (Hudson 1975). four camps along the 80 mile journey home to Clear Lake” (Hudson 1975).
Elder (ages 56–75): The elder gathers plants and medicines, prepares them, uses Elder (ages 56–75): The elder gathers plants and medicines, prepares them, uses them (e.g., making medicines or baskets, etc.), and teaches a variety of indoor and them (e.g., making medicines or baskets, etc.), and teaches a variety of indoor and outdoor traditional activities. The elder also provides child care in the home. “Even outdoor traditional activities. The elder also provides child care in the home. “Even old people carried immense loads gracefully and tirelessly” (Brown and Andrews old people carried immense loads gracefully and tirelessly” (Brown and Andrews 1969). Boy chiefs were 40 or under. Between 40 and 60 a chief was considered a 1969). Boy chiefs were 40 or under. Between 40 and 60 a chief was considered a young man, and at 60 or older was a man. young man, and at 60 or older was a man.
5.3.2 Specific Cultural Activities 5.3.2 Specific Cultural Activities Sweat House Purification: Each village had a sweat house. “It was the custom for Sweat House Purification: Each village had a sweat house. “It was the custom for every Pomo man to take a sweat bath each day” (Barrett 1975). Other authors also every Pomo man to take a sweat bath each day” (Barrett 1975). Other authors also report frequent or daily use of the sweat house (Gifford 1926, Barrett 1952, Brown report frequent or daily use of the sweat house (Gifford 1926, Barrett 1952, Brown and Andrews 1969, Heizer and Elasser 1980). and Andrews 1969, Heizer and Elasser 1980).
Cultural Activities: All persons participate in day-long outdoor community cultural Cultural Activities: All persons participate in day-long outdoor community cultural activities once a month, such as powwows and seasonal ceremonial and private activities once a month, such as powwows and seasonal ceremonial and private cultural activities (averaging about 0.5 hours/day). These activities tend to be large cultural activities (averaging about 0.5 hours/day). These activities tend to be large gatherings with a greater rate of dust resuspension and particulate inhalation. gatherings with a greater rate of dust resuspension and particulate inhalation. Individuals also tend to be active, resulting in a greater inhalation and water Individuals also tend to be active, resulting in a greater inhalation and water ingestion rates: “the exertion of the dance was so great that perspiration showed ingestion rates: “the exertion of the dance was so great that perspiration showed freely on their fine looking bodies” (Brown and Andrews 1969). freely on their fine looking bodies” (Brown and Andrews 1969).
Basket Making: Exposure pathways specific to basket makers are well- Basket Making: Exposure pathways specific to basket makers are well- recognized,12 but it has not been fully researched with respect to environmental recognized,12 but it has not been fully researched with respect to environmental contact rates. Gathering of some plants (e.g., willows, cattails, reeds, and rushes) contact rates. Gathering of some plants (e.g., willows, cattails, reeds, and rushes) can be very muddy, and river shore or lakeshore activities with sediment exposure can be very muddy, and river shore or lakeshore activities with sediment exposure may be underestimated. Washing, peeling, weaving rushes, and other activities may be underestimated. Washing, peeling, weaving rushes, and other activities results in additional exposure, such as dust deposited on leaves or soil adhered to results in additional exposure, such as dust deposited on leaves or soil adhered to roots. Some of the materials are held in the mouth for splitting, and cuts on the roots. Some of the materials are held in the mouth for splitting, and cuts on the fingers are common. As more information becomes available, it will be evaluated to fingers are common. As more information becomes available, it will be evaluated to
12 http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/envjust/documents/basketweaver.pdf 12 http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/envjust/documents/basketweaver.pdf Elem (Pomo) Scenario 100 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 100
ensure that the exposure factors for each route of exposure account for this ensure that the exposure factors for each route of exposure account for this particular activity. particular activity.
Other Special Activities: It is recognized that there are special circumstances when Other Special Activities: It is recognized that there are special circumstances when some people may be highly exposed to individual natural resources or media. For some people may be highly exposed to individual natural resources or media. For instance, some men hunt or fish for the general community, and many people instance, some men hunt or fish for the general community, and many people provide roots and fish and game to elders in addition to their own families. provide roots and fish and game to elders in addition to their own families. Beadmakers may receive additional exposure through obtaining and working with Beadmakers may receive additional exposure through obtaining and working with their materials. their materials.
Seasonality: The changes in activity patterns over the annual seasonal cycle has Seasonality: The changes in activity patterns over the annual seasonal cycle has been modified in modern times, but the ecological cycle has not, so people must still been modified in modern times, but the ecological cycle has not, so people must still gather plants according to when they are ripe, hunt according to game and fowl gather plants according to when they are ripe, hunt according to game and fowl patterns, and fish when the spawning runs occur. Many items are gathered during patterns, and fish when the spawning runs occur. Many items are gathered during one season for year-round use. While specific activities change from season to one season for year-round use. While specific activities change from season to season, they are replaced by other activities with a similar environmental contact season, they are replaced by other activities with a similar environmental contact rate. For instance, a particular plant may be gathered during one month, while rate. For instance, a particular plant may be gathered during one month, while another month may be spent hunting, and a winter month may include cleaning and another month may be spent hunting, and a winter month may include cleaning and using the items obtained previously. Therefore, since activity levels are roughly using the items obtained previously. Therefore, since activity levels are roughly equal throughout the seasons, there is no decrease in environmental contact rates equal throughout the seasons, there is no decrease in environmental contact rates during winter months. during winter months.
5.4 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS 5.4 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS A description of activities for the purposes of developing exposure factors focuses A description of activities for the purposes of developing exposure factors focuses on: on:
Frequency of activity: Frequency of activity: • Daily, weekly, monthly • Daily, weekly, monthly Duration of activity: Duration of activity: • Hours at a time • Hours at a time • Number of years • Number of years Intensity of environmental contact and intensity of activity: Intensity of environmental contact and intensity of activity: • For soil ingestion and dermal exposure, is the activity more than, less than, or • For soil ingestion and dermal exposure, is the activity more than, less than, or equal to gardening, camping, construction/excavation, or sports? equal to gardening, camping, construction/excavation, or sports? • For inhalation rates and calorie needs, is the activity level more than, less • For inhalation rates and calorie needs, is the activity level more than, less than, or equal to standard EPA activity levels for specific activities with known than, or equal to standard EPA activity levels for specific activities with known respiration rates and caloric expenditure? respiration rates and caloric expenditure?
The following table (Table 11) includes two adult scenarios: the suburban resident The following table (Table 11) includes two adult scenarios: the suburban resident and the subsistence forager. The scenario is typically used in risk assessments, and and the subsistence forager. The scenario is typically used in risk assessments, and the second reflects the set of activities that compose the Elem lifestyle. Each the second reflects the set of activities that compose the Elem lifestyle. Each scenario is intended to be physiologically coherent, which means that the dietary scenario is intended to be physiologically coherent, which means that the dietary intake, activity levels, and inhalation rates are physiologically linked. For instance, intake, activity levels, and inhalation rates are physiologically linked. For instance, the more sedentary suburban scenario is based on national data on typical lifestyles the more sedentary suburban scenario is based on national data on typical lifestyles (light occupational activities sitting or standing, with some moderate activity at (light occupational activities sitting or standing, with some moderate activity at home). The subsistence forager is more active, with a proportionally higher home). The subsistence forager is more active, with a proportionally higher Elem (Pomo) Scenario 101 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 101 inhalation rate, as well as a higher soil ingestion rate, due to a higher degree of soil inhalation rate, as well as a higher soil ingestion rate, due to a higher degree of soil contact. contact.
The following table shows adult values, as does the dietary discussion above. The following table shows adult values, as does the dietary discussion above. Children’s exposure factors are scaled from the subsistence forager rates, as is Children’s exposure factors are scaled from the subsistence forager rates, as is conventionally done in risk assessment (from the Children’s Exposure Factors conventionally done in risk assessment (from the Children’s Exposure Factors Handbook), with the exception of the soil ingestion rate, which is left at 400mg/d Handbook), with the exception of the soil ingestion rate, which is left at 400mg/d throughout the lifetime. Body weight is a consistent 70kg because that is the throughout the lifetime. Body weight is a consistent 70kg because that is the standard EPA assumption used in risk assessments. standard EPA assumption used in risk assessments.
Table 11. Major exposure factors for direct pathways. Table 11. Major exposure factors for direct pathways.
Exposure Factors (Adult) Exposure Factors (Adult) Direct Default Direct Default Pathway Suburban Subsistence Forager Lifestyle Pathway Suburban Subsistence Forager Lifestyle Lifestyle Lifestyle Inhalation 20m3 25m3/day: This rate is based on a lifestyle that is an outdoor Inhalation 20m3 25m3/day: This rate is based on a lifestyle that is an outdoor active lifestyle, based on EPA activity databases, foraging active lifestyle, based on EPA activity databases, foraging theory and ethnographic description of the activities theory and ethnographic description of the activities undertaken to obtain subsistence resources as well as undertaken to obtain subsistence resources as well as allotment-based food (livestock and garden). It is higher than allotment-based food (livestock and garden). It is higher than the conventional 20m3/day because the respiration rates the conventional 20m3/day because the respiration rates associated with typical activities are higher than those of associated with typical activities are higher than those of suburban activities. suburban activities. Drinking 2L/d 3L/d plus 1L for each use of the sweat lodge during ritual Drinking 2L/d 3L/d plus 1L for each use of the sweat lodge during ritual water purification, or 4L/day total. water purification, or 4L/day total. ingestion ingestion Soil 100mg/d 400 mg/d: This rate is based on indoor and outdoor activities, Soil 100mg/d 400 mg/d: This rate is based on indoor and outdoor activities, ingestion (conventional a greater rate of gathering, processing, and other uses of ingestion (conventional a greater rate of gathering, processing, and other uses of suburban); natural resources, as well as on residual soil on grown and suburban); natural resources, as well as on residual soil on grown and 50mg/d (manicured gathered plants. 50mg/d (manicured gathered plants. suburban; less Episodic events (1 gram each) are considered, such as suburban; less Episodic events (1 gram each) are considered, such as outdoor time). wetland gathering, cultural activities with higher soil contact, outdoor time). wetland gathering, cultural activities with higher soil contact, and so on. But this might be underestimated. It does not and so on. But this might be underestimated. It does not specifically include geophagia or pica. specifically include geophagia or pica. Dermal Must be included in the risk assessment. Greater environmental contacts must be Dermal Must be included in the risk assessment. Greater environmental contacts must be exposure factored in; however, suburban defaults may be used until data for traditional exposure factored in; however, suburban defaults may be used until data for traditional lifeways are developed, although a greater fraction of the skin surface and a higher lifeways are developed, although a greater fraction of the skin surface and a higher dermal loading rate should be considered. dermal loading rate should be considered. Other parameters Other parameters Exposure Up to 365 days per 365 days per year. Hours per day varies; typically 24 hrs/d. Exposure Up to 365 days per 365 days per year. Hours per day varies; typically 24 hrs/d. frequency year, but varies. Hours frequency year, but varies. Hours per day varies; per day varies; typically 24 hrs/d. typically 24 hrs/d. Exposure 30 years 70–75 years Exposure 30 years 70–75 years duration duration
Drinking Water: Harper et al. (2002) estimated an average water ingestion rate of Drinking Water: Harper et al. (2002) estimated an average water ingestion rate of 3L/day for adults, based on total fluid intake in an arid climate. In addition, each use 3L/day for adults, based on total fluid intake in an arid climate. In addition, each use of the sweat lodge requires an additional 1L for rehydration (24L per year). It should of the sweat lodge requires an additional 1L for rehydration (24L per year). It should be noted that water intake in an arid environment may be more than 3L per day. For be noted that water intake in an arid environment may be more than 3L per day. For Elem (Pomo) Scenario 102 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 102
example, the Army assumes that the maximum individual daily amount of drinking example, the Army assumes that the maximum individual daily amount of drinking water required by military personnel to remain combat-effective ranges from 5– water required by military personnel to remain combat-effective ranges from 5– 15L/day, depending on the climate, season, and intensity of work.13 The Army 15L/day, depending on the climate, season, and intensity of work.13 The Army Quartermaster assumes that military personnel in hot climates require 3 gallons per Quartermaster assumes that military personnel in hot climates require 3 gallons per day as drinking water.14 day as drinking water.14
Soil and Sediment Ingestion: Soil ingestion includes consideration of direct Soil and Sediment Ingestion: Soil ingestion includes consideration of direct ingestion of dirt, mud, or dust, swallowing inhaled dust, mouthing of objects, ingestion of dirt, mud, or dust, swallowing inhaled dust, mouthing of objects, ingestion of dirt or dust on food, and hand-to-mouth contact. The tribal soil ingestion ingestion of dirt or dust on food, and hand-to-mouth contact. The tribal soil ingestion rate of 400mg/day is based on a review of EPA guidance, soil ingestion studies in rate of 400mg/day is based on a review of EPA guidance, soil ingestion studies in suburban and indigenous settings, pica and geophagia, and dermal adherence suburban and indigenous settings, pica and geophagia, and dermal adherence studies (a small portion of which is summarized here). The Elem soil ingestion rate studies (a small portion of which is summarized here). The Elem soil ingestion rate also considers many 1-gram days and events, such as root gathering days, tule and also considers many 1-gram days and events, such as root gathering days, tule and wapato gathering days, powwows, rodeos, horse training and riding days, sweat- wapato gathering days, powwows, rodeos, horse training and riding days, sweat- lodge building or repair days, grave digging, and similar activities. However, this lodge building or repair days, grave digging, and similar activities. However, this might result in an underestimation of soil ingestion. It reflects a variety of soil might result in an underestimation of soil ingestion. It reflects a variety of soil pathways such as pit cooking, gathering and gardening, residual soil or dust on pathways such as pit cooking, gathering and gardening, residual soil or dust on foods and medicine, localized soil-generating activities, holding natural materials in foods and medicine, localized soil-generating activities, holding natural materials in the mouth while processing or using, driving on unpaved roads, and similar the mouth while processing or using, driving on unpaved roads, and similar considerations. For the Elem, the underground oven was very important. “A large considerations. For the Elem, the underground oven was very important. “A large percentage of their food, roots, berries, seeds, and even a large portion of meats percentage of their food, roots, berries, seeds, and even a large portion of meats [were] eaten in an uncooked state” (Barrett 1952). [were] eaten in an uncooked state” (Barrett 1952).
The soil ingestion rate of 400mg/d for all ages is the published upper bound for The soil ingestion rate of 400mg/d for all ages is the published upper bound for suburban children (EPA 1997), and is within the range of outdoor activity rates for suburban children (EPA 1997), and is within the range of outdoor activity rates for adults but lower than the typical 480mg/d applied to outdoor work to allow for some adults but lower than the typical 480mg/d applied to outdoor work to allow for some low-contact days. Subsistence lifestyles were not considered by the EPA guidance, low-contact days. Subsistence lifestyles were not considered by the EPA guidance, but are generally considered to be similar in soil contact rates to construction, utility but are generally considered to be similar in soil contact rates to construction, utility work or military exercise. The US military assumes 480mg per exposure event15 or work or military exercise. The US military assumes 480mg per exposure event15 or per field day. The UN Balkans Task Force assumes that 1 gram of soil can be per field day. The UN Balkans Task Force assumes that 1 gram of soil can be ingested per military field day.16 Anecdotally, US forces deployed in Iraq report ingested per military field day.16 Anecdotally, US forces deployed in Iraq report frequent grittiness in the mouth and food. Haywood and Smith (1990) also frequent grittiness in the mouth and food. Haywood and Smith (1990) also considered sensory reports of grittiness in their estimate of 1–10g/d in aboriginal considered sensory reports of grittiness in their estimate of 1–10g/d in aboriginal Australians. Australians.
Simon (1998) reviewed soil ingestion studies from a perspective of risk and dose Simon (1998) reviewed soil ingestion studies from a perspective of risk and dose assessment. Because of their high dependence on the land, indigenous peoples are assessment. Because of their high dependence on the land, indigenous peoples are at highest risk for inadvertent ingestion, along with professions that may bring at highest risk for inadvertent ingestion, along with professions that may bring
13 http://www.nap.edu/execsumm/NI000954.html Guidelines for Chemical Warfare Agents in Military 13 http://www.nap.edu/execsumm/NI000954.html Guidelines for Chemical Warfare Agents in Military Field Drinking Water (1995). Field Drinking Water (1995). 14 http://www.pasols.org/energy/water2.pdf 14 http://www.pasols.org/energy/water2.pdf 15 http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/pesto/pest_s22.htm, citing US Environmental Protection Agency, Office 15 http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/pesto/pest_s22.htm, citing US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Exposure Factors Handbook, Volume I, EPA/600/P-95/002a, August of Research and Development, Exposure Factors Handbook, Volume I, EPA/600/P-95/002a, August 1997 as the basis for the 480mg/d. 1997 as the basis for the 480mg/d. 16 UNEP/UNCHS Balkans Task Force (BTF) (1999). The potential effects on human health and the 16 UNEP/UNCHS Balkans Task Force (BTF) (1999). The potential effects on human health and the environment arising from possible use of depleted uranium during the 1999 Kosovo conflict. environment arising from possible use of depleted uranium during the 1999 Kosovo conflict. www.grid.unep.ch/btf/missions/september/dufinal.pdf www.grid.unep.ch/btf/missions/september/dufinal.pdf Elem (Pomo) Scenario 103 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 103
workers into close and continual contact with the soil. Simon recommends using a workers into close and continual contact with the soil. Simon recommends using a soil ingestion rate for indigenous people in hunters/food gathering/nomadic societies soil ingestion rate for indigenous people in hunters/food gathering/nomadic societies of 1g/d in wet climates and 2g/d in dry climates. He recommends using 3g/d for all of 1g/d in wet climates and 2g/d in dry climates. He recommends using 3g/d for all indigenous children. indigenous children.
For the Clear Lake climate and lifestyle, the soil ingestion rate for young children (0– For the Clear Lake climate and lifestyle, the soil ingestion rate for young children (0– 6 years) is assumed to be 400mg/day for 365 days/year. This is higher than the prior 6 years) is assumed to be 400mg/day for 365 days/year. This is higher than the prior EPA default value of 200mg/day (USEPA 1989). This rate reflects both indoor dust EPA default value of 200mg/day (USEPA 1989). This rate reflects both indoor dust and continuous outdoor activities analogous to gardening or camping (Van Wijnen and continuous outdoor activities analogous to gardening or camping (Van Wijnen 1990), but it is less than a single-incident sports or construction ingestion rate (Boyd 1990), but it is less than a single-incident sports or construction ingestion rate (Boyd 1999). 1999).
Inhalation Rate: The inhalation rate in the Elem scenario reflects the active, outdoor Inhalation Rate: The inhalation rate in the Elem scenario reflects the active, outdoor lifestyle of traditional tribal members. Their fitness was comparable to that of long lifestyle of traditional tribal members. Their fitness was comparable to that of long distance runners. In the late 1800s, 20 mile round trips were “regarded as so distance runners. In the late 1800s, 20 mile round trips were “regarded as so commonplace a performance as to be worth but two dollars” (Heizer and Elasser commonplace a performance as to be worth but two dollars” (Heizer and Elasser 1980). Traditional tribal communities have no sedentary members except the frail 1980). Traditional tribal communities have no sedentary members except the frail elderly, whereas one-quarter of modern American adults of all ages report no leisure elderly, whereas one-quarter of modern American adults of all ages report no leisure time physical activity at all.17 An inhalation rate of 25m3/d is more accurate for the time physical activity at all.17 An inhalation rate of 25m3/d is more accurate for the Tribe’s active, outdoor lifestyle than the EPA default rate of 20m3/d (USEPA 1997). Tribe’s active, outdoor lifestyle than the EPA default rate of 20m3/d (USEPA 1997). Using EPA guidance, a median rate of 26.2m3/d is obtained from 8 hours sleeping, 2 Using EPA guidance, a median rate of 26.2m3/d is obtained from 8 hours sleeping, 2 hours sedentary, 6 hours light activity, 6 hours moderate activity, and 2 hours heavy hours sedentary, 6 hours light activity, 6 hours moderate activity, and 2 hours heavy activity. This represents minimal heavy activity (construction, climbing hills, etc.). activity. This represents minimal heavy activity (construction, climbing hills, etc.). Most other exposure factors are upper bounds, so the use of a median rate for Most other exposure factors are upper bounds, so the use of a median rate for inhalation is inconsistent with the reasonable maximum exposure (RME) approach inhalation is inconsistent with the reasonable maximum exposure (RME) approach typically used in Superfund risk assessments, and could result in under-protection of typically used in Superfund risk assessments, and could result in under-protection of children, the elderly, athletes, asthmatics, and the half of the population with above- children, the elderly, athletes, asthmatics, and the half of the population with above- average inhalation rates. average inhalation rates.
Dermal Exposures: The dermal pathway has not been fully researched for this Dermal Exposures: The dermal pathway has not been fully researched for this scenario, but EPA methods18 for dermal exposure can be used. However, a greater scenario, but EPA methods18 for dermal exposure can be used. However, a greater surface area and a greater skin loading of soil (soil adhered to skin) should be used. surface area and a greater skin loading of soil (soil adhered to skin) should be used. Two relevant papers are summarized here. Kissel et al. (1996) included reed Two relevant papers are summarized here. Kissel et al. (1996) included reed gatherers in tide flats in a study of dermal adherence. The category of “kids in mud” gatherers in tide flats in a study of dermal adherence. The category of “kids in mud” at a lakeshore had by far the highest skin loadings, with an average of 35mg/cm2 for at a lakeshore had by far the highest skin loadings, with an average of 35mg/cm2 for 6 children and an average of 58mg/cm2 for another 6 children. Reed gatherers were 6 children and an average of 58mg/cm2 for another 6 children. Reed gatherers were next highest at 0.66mg/cm2 with an upper bound of >1mg/cm2. This was followed by next highest at 0.66mg/cm2 with an upper bound of >1mg/cm2. This was followed by farmers and rugby players (approximately 0.4mg/cm2) and irrigation installers farmers and rugby players (approximately 0.4mg/cm2) and irrigation installers (0.2mg/cm2). Holmes et al. (1999) studied 99 individuals in a variety of occupations. (0.2mg/cm2). Holmes et al. (1999) studied 99 individuals in a variety of occupations. Farmers, reed gatherers and kids in mud had the highest overall skin loadings. The Farmers, reed gatherers and kids in mud had the highest overall skin loadings. The next highest skin loadings on the hands were for equipment operators, gardeners, next highest skin loadings on the hands were for equipment operators, gardeners, construction, and utility workers (0.3mg/cm2), followed by archaeologists, and construction, and utility workers (0.3mg/cm2), followed by archaeologists, and several other occupations (0.15–0.1 mg/cm2). several other occupations (0.15–0.1 mg/cm2).
17 http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pdf/ 2001prvrpt.pdf and http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pubrfdat.htm. 17 http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pdf/ 2001prvrpt.pdf and http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pubrfdat.htm. 18 http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragse/ 18 http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragse/ Elem (Pomo) Scenario 104 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 104
Children’s Exposure Factors: Children’s exposure factors are based on “Child- Children’s Exposure Factors: Children’s exposure factors are based on “Child- Specific Exposure Factors Handbook”19 but scaled from the adult subsistence Specific Exposure Factors Handbook”19 but scaled from the adult subsistence values for the inhalation rate. The diet is scaled for children from the food categories values for the inhalation rate. The diet is scaled for children from the food categories indicated above for adults. The soil ingestion rate for children is a constant indicated above for adults. The soil ingestion rate for children is a constant 400mg/day, without age stratification. If age stratification is done for other exposure 400mg/day, without age stratification. If age stratification is done for other exposure factors, the Elem can be contacted for recommendations. factors, the Elem can be contacted for recommendations.
19 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2002) Child-specific exposure factors handbook. 19 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2002) Child-specific exposure factors handbook. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC; EPA/600/P-00/002B. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC; EPA/600/P-00/002B. Available from: National Information Service, Springfield, VA; PB2003-101678 and Available from: National Information Service, Springfield, VA; PB2003-101678 and http://www.epa.gov/ncea. http://www.epa.gov/ncea. Elem (Pomo) Scenario 105 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 105
6 CONCLUSION 6 CONCLUSION
This report has presented the Elem scenario and supporting information for use in This report has presented the Elem scenario and supporting information for use in human health risk assessments. This report is intended to describe enough about human health risk assessments. This report is intended to describe enough about the traditional subsistence lifestyle that a risk assessor who is familiar with the traditional subsistence lifestyle that a risk assessor who is familiar with developing exposure scenarios can understand the derivation of the exposure developing exposure scenarios can understand the derivation of the exposure factors even if she does not have an in-depth familiarity with the Elem lifestyle. factors even if she does not have an in-depth familiarity with the Elem lifestyle. Where information is not presented, it is assumed that conventional parameters are Where information is not presented, it is assumed that conventional parameters are suitable (e.g., skin surface area). suitable (e.g., skin surface area).
The report describes the Elem environment in the Klamath Mountains, Coast Range, The report describes the Elem environment in the Klamath Mountains, Coast Range, Southern and Central Chaparral and Oak Woodlands, and Central California Valley Southern and Central Chaparral and Oak Woodlands, and Central California Valley ecoregions, and the available resources. An ecological lifestyle is presented, one ecoregions, and the available resources. An ecological lifestyle is presented, one centered on traditional resources of acorns, fish, game, and tule. An overall diet is centered on traditional resources of acorns, fish, game, and tule. An overall diet is developed by reviewing previous foraging studies, and considering available developed by reviewing previous foraging studies, and considering available resources, with major food-type categories estimated as percentages and presented resources, with major food-type categories estimated as percentages and presented by percent of calories and by grams per day. The most prevalent food source is the by percent of calories and by grams per day. The most prevalent food source is the acorn. Exposure factors are developed based on traditional subsistence lifestyles, acorn. Exposure factors are developed based on traditional subsistence lifestyles, with attention to the activity patterns and specific activities of the Elem. Rates of with attention to the activity patterns and specific activities of the Elem. Rates of inhalation, water ingestion, and soil ingestion are higher than those of the general inhalation, water ingestion, and soil ingestion are higher than those of the general population, due in part to the Elem people’s increased outdoor activity. Increased population, due in part to the Elem people’s increased outdoor activity. Increased soil ingestion is partly attributable to the gathering and processing of food and soil ingestion is partly attributable to the gathering and processing of food and material resources, at times in wetlands. material resources, at times in wetlands.
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 106 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 106
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Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) (1997). Ecological Regions of Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) (1997). Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a Common Perspective. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: North America: Toward a Common Perspective. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: CEC. CEC.
Environmental Protection Agency (2006a). Western Ecology Division, Corvallis, Environmental Protection Agency (2006a). Western Ecology Division, Corvallis, OR. Retrieved: January 24, 2006. Access: OR. Retrieved: January 24, 2006. Access: http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm#Level%20II. http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm#Level%20II.
Environmental Protection Agency (2006b). “Commission for Environmental Environmental Protection Agency (2006b). “Commission for Environmental Cooperation: Descriptions of Level III Ecological Regions for the CEC Report Cooperation: Descriptions of Level III Ecological Regions for the CEC Report on Ecological Regions of North America.” Retrieved: January 6, 2006. on Ecological Regions of North America.” Retrieved: January 6, 2006. Access: ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/na/cec_ecoreg_desc.doc. Access: ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/na/cec_ecoreg_desc.doc.
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 108 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 108
Fagan, B. (2003). Before California: An Archaeologist Looks At Our Earliest Fagan, B. (2003). Before California: An Archaeologist Looks At Our Earliest Inhabitants. Walnut Creek, CA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers/Alta Mira Inhabitants. Walnut Creek, CA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers/Alta Mira Press. Press.
Gallant, A.L., Whittier, T.R., Larsen, D.P., Omernik, J.M., and Hughes, R.M. (1989). Gallant, A.L., Whittier, T.R., Larsen, D.P., Omernik, J.M., and Hughes, R.M. (1989). Regionalization as a tool for managing environmental resources, EPA/600/3- Regionalization as a tool for managing environmental resources, EPA/600/3- 89/060. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and 89/060. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Corvallis, OR. Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Corvallis, OR.
Gifford, E.W. (1926). “Clear Lake Pomo Society.” University of California Gifford, E.W. (1926). “Clear Lake Pomo Society.” University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 18(2): 287-390. Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 18(2): 287-390. Berkeley: University of California Press. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Gifford, E.W., and Kroeber, A.L. (1937). “Culture Element Distribution: IV.” University Gifford, E.W., and Kroeber, A.L. (1937). “Culture Element Distribution: IV.” University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 37(4): 117- of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 37(4): 117- 254. Berkeley: University of California Press. 254. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Goodrich, J., Lawson, C., and Lawson, V.P. (1980). Kashaya Pomo Plants. Goodrich, J., Lawson, C., and Lawson, V.P. (1980). Kashaya Pomo Plants. Berkeley: Heyday Books. Berkeley: Heyday Books.
Heizer, R.F., and Elasser, A.B. (1980). The Natural World of the California Indians. Heizer, R.F., and Elasser, A.B. (1980). The Natural World of the California Indians. Berkeley: University of California Press. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Holmes, W.H. (1975). “Pomo Reservation, Mendocino County.” Seven Early Holmes, W.H. (1975). “Pomo Reservation, Mendocino County.” Seven Early Accounts of the Pomo Indians and their Culture (Heizer, R.F., ed.). Accounts of the Pomo Indians and their Culture (Heizer, R.F., ed.). Archaeological Research Facility. Department of Anthropology, University of Archaeological Research Facility. Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley. California, Berkeley.
Hudson, J.W. (1975). “Pomo Wampum Makers.” Seven Early Accounts of the Pomo Hudson, J.W. (1975). “Pomo Wampum Makers.” Seven Early Accounts of the Pomo Indians and their Culture (Heizer, R.F., ed.). Archaeological Research Facility. Indians and their Culture (Heizer, R.F., ed.). Archaeological Research Facility. Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley. Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.
Lewis, H.T. (1993). “Patterns of Indian burning in California: Ecology and Lewis, H.T. (1993). “Patterns of Indian burning in California: Ecology and ethnohistory.” Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native ethnohistory.” Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians: 55-116 (Blackburn, T.C., and Anderson, K. eds.). Menlo Park, Californians: 55-116 (Blackburn, T.C., and Anderson, K. eds.). Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press. CA: Ballena Press.
Loeb, E.M. (1926). “Pomo Folkways.” University of California Publications in Loeb, E.M. (1926). “Pomo Folkways.” University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 19(2): 149-405. Berkeley: University of American Archaeology and Ethnology 19(2): 149-405. Berkeley: University of California Press. California Press.
Mauldin, H.K. (1975). “Unpublished Notes on the History of Lake County.” Lake Mauldin, H.K. (1975). “Unpublished Notes on the History of Lake County.” Lake County Library, Lake County, CA. This may be the Mauldin reference. County Library, Lake County, CA. This may be the Mauldin reference.
McLendon, S. (1977). “Ethnographic and Historical Sketch of the Eastern Pomo and McLendon, S. (1977). “Ethnographic and Historical Sketch of the Eastern Pomo and Their Neighbors, The Southeastern Pomo.” Contributions of the University of Their Neighbors, The Southeastern Pomo.” Contributions of the University of Elem (Pomo) Scenario 109 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 109
California Archaeological Research Facility 37. Department of Anthropology, California Archaeological Research Facility 37. Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley. University of California, Berkeley.
McLendon, S., and Lowy, M.J. (1978). “Eastern and Southeastern Pomo.” Handbook McLendon, S., and Lowy, M.J. (1978). “Eastern and Southeastern Pomo.” Handbook of North American Indians 8(California): 306–323 (Heizer, R.F., ed.). of North American Indians 8(California): 306–323 (Heizer, R.F., ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Press. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Press.
Merriam, D.H. (1975). “Notes on the Clear Lake Pomo, 1904–1907.” Seven Early Merriam, D.H. (1975). “Notes on the Clear Lake Pomo, 1904–1907.” Seven Early Accounts of the Pomo Indians and their Culture (Heizer, R.F., ed.). Accounts of the Pomo Indians and their Culture (Heizer, R.F., ed.). Archaeological Research Facility. Department of Anthropology, University of Archaeological Research Facility. Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley. California, Berkeley.
National Geographic (2005). “Terrestrial Ecoregions: Nearctic.” Retrieved: March 3, National Geographic (2005). “Terrestrial Ecoregions: Nearctic.” Retrieved: March 3, 2006. Access: 2006. Access: http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial_na.html. http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial_na.html.
Omernik, J.M. (1987). “Ecoregions of the conterminous United States.” Annals of Omernik, J.M. (1987). “Ecoregions of the conterminous United States.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77: 118–125. the Association of American Geographers 77: 118–125.
Omernik, J.M. (1995). “Ecoregions: A spatial framework for environmental Omernik, J.M. (1995). “Ecoregions: A spatial framework for environmental management.” Biological Assessment and Criteria: Tools for Water Resource management.” Biological Assessment and Criteria: Tools for Water Resource Planning and Decision Making (Davis, W.S., and Simon, T.P., eds.). Boca Planning and Decision Making (Davis, W.S., and Simon, T.P., eds.). Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers. Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
Omernik, J.A. (2000). “Draft aggregations of Level III ecoregions for the National Omernik, J.A. (2000). “Draft aggregations of Level III ecoregions for the National Nutrient Strategy.” Access: Nutrient Strategy.” Access: http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/standards/ecomap.html. http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/standards/ecomap.html.
Omernik, J.M. (2004). “Perspectives on the nature and definition of ecological Omernik, J.M. (2004). “Perspectives on the nature and definition of ecological regions.” Environmental Management Online First(10.1007/s00267-003-5197- regions.” Environmental Management Online First(10.1007/s00267-003-5197- 2). Access: http://springerlink.metapress.com. 2). Access: http://springerlink.metapress.com.
Ricketts, T.H., Dinerstein, E., Olson, D.M., Loucks, C.J. (1999). Terrestrial Ricketts, T.H., Dinerstein, E., Olson, D.M., Loucks, C.J. (1999). Terrestrial Ecoregions of North America: A Conservation Assessment. Washington, Ecoregions of North America: A Conservation Assessment. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. D.C.: Island Press.
Selinus, O., Alloway, B., Centeno, J.A., Finkelman, R.B., Fuge, R., Lindh, U., and Selinus, O., Alloway, B., Centeno, J.A., Finkelman, R.B., Fuge, R., Lindh, U., and Smedley, P. (2005). Essentials of Medical Geology: Impacts of the Natural Smedley, P. (2005). Essentials of Medical Geology: Impacts of the Natural Environment on Public Health. Burlington, MA: Alsevier Academic Press. Environment on Public Health. Burlington, MA: Alsevier Academic Press.
Stewart, O.C. (1943). “Notes on Pomo Ethnography.” University of California Stewart, O.C. (1943). “Notes on Pomo Ethnography.” University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 40(2): 29-62. Berkeley: Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 40(2): 29-62. Berkeley: University of California Press. University of California Press.
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Lake Basin: Final Report of the Anderson Flat Project (White, G.G., Lake Basin: Final Report of the Anderson Flat Project (White, G.G., Fredrickson, D.A., Hager, L.D., Meyer, J., Rosenthal, J.S., Waters, M.,R., Fredrickson, D.A., Hager, L.D., Meyer, J., Rosenthal, J.S., Waters, M.,R., West, G.J., and Wohlgemuth, E., eds.). Center for Archaeological Research West, G.J., and Wohlgemuth, E., eds.). Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Publication Number 15. Davis, CA: University of California Press. at Davis, Publication Number 15. Davis, CA: University of California Press.
White, G. (1998). “Rethinking the Lonely Forager Hypothesis.” Society for California White, G. (1998). “Rethinking the Lonely Forager Hypothesis.” Society for California Archaeology Newsletter 32(2), March, 1998. Department of Anthropology, Archaeology Newsletter 32(2), March, 1998. Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico. Chico, CA. California State University, Chico. Chico, CA.
Wiken, E.B. (1986). “Terrestial Ecozones of Canada.” Environment Canada, Wiken, E.B. (1986). “Terrestial Ecozones of Canada.” Environment Canada, Ecological Land Classification Series No. 19. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Ecological Land Classification Series No. 19. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Willig, J.A., Aikens, C.M., and Fagan, J.L. (1988). “Early Human Occupation in Far Willig, J.A., Aikens, C.M., and Fagan, J.L. (1988). “Early Human Occupation in Far Western North America: The Clovis-Archaic Interface.” Nevada State Western North America: The Clovis-Archaic Interface.” Nevada State Museum Anthropological Paper No. 21. Carson City, Nevada. Museum Anthropological Paper No. 21. Carson City, Nevada. Elem (Pomo) Scenario 111 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 111
APPENDIX A APPENDIX A
Table A.1 presents additional information on natural resource use from Brown and Table A.1 presents additional information on natural resource use from Brown and Andrews (1969), and Barrett (1952). Andrews (1969), and Barrett (1952).
Table A.1. Supplemental resource information. Table A.1. Supplemental resource information.
Resource Use or Knowledge Resource Use or Knowledge Miscellaneous Miscellaneous Salt From seaweed and coastal trading; also from saltlicks in the Salt From seaweed and coastal trading; also from saltlicks in the interior. Miner’s lettuce leaf ash is a substitute for salt. interior. Miner’s lettuce leaf ash is a substitute for salt. Soap plant (Chlrogalum Soap and fish poison. Soaproot grows plentifully on rocky Soap plant (Chlrogalum Soap and fish poison. Soaproot grows plentifully on rocky pomeridianum) and hills. The roasted bulb is high in saponin and low in pomeridianum) and hills. The roasted bulb is high in saponin and low in alkali, making a very good lathery but gentle soap for alkali, making a very good lathery but gentle soap for delicate fabrics and dandruff. It is also antiseptic and, as a delicate fabrics and dandruff. It is also antiseptic and, as a saponin, a laxative, and diuretic. It also stupefies fish (along saponin, a laxative, and diuretic. It also stupefies fish (along with turkey mullein, Croton setigerus). with turkey mullein, Croton setigerus). Pine pitch Gum Pine pitch Gum Seaweed—kelp and sea palm Porphyra cakes were letting the seaweed dry in the sun and Seaweed—kelp and sea palm Porphyra cakes were letting the seaweed dry in the sun and layering the leaves. The kelp bulb can be eaten raw, dried, layering the leaves. The kelp bulb can be eaten raw, dried, or cooked into cakes. or cooked into cakes. Tea Many species of leaves and berries Tea Many species of leaves and berries Sugar From sugar pine, honeycombs, rose hips. Sugar From sugar pine, honeycombs, rose hips. Tobacco (Nicotiana, with balsam and Smoked in ordinary daily life, mostly by men. Also used Tobacco (Nicotiana, with balsam and Smoked in ordinary daily life, mostly by men. Also used willow) ceremonially. willow) ceremonially. Army worm (caterpillar) Not every year. Eats ash leaves. Caught by digging small Army worm (caterpillar) Not every year. Eats ash leaves. Caught by digging small moats around trees; the caterpillars let go of the tree when moats around trees; the caterpillars let go of the tree when the leaves are eaten and crawl to the next tree. They fall in the leaves are eaten and crawl to the next tree. They fall in the moats and are scooped up. They are drowned quickly in the moats and are scooped up. They are drowned quickly in water and roasted in hot ashes or boiled and eaten in great water and roasted in hot ashes or boiled and eaten in great quantities there; the rest are sun-dried (Barrett 1936). quantities there; the rest are sun-dried (Barrett 1936). Bulbs and Roots Bulbs and Roots Brodiaea or Blue Dicks, Tritelia laxa The most abundant and widespread of all the Indian Brodiaea or Blue Dicks, Tritelia laxa The most abundant and widespread of all the Indian (Brodiae laxa). Other Brodiaea were potatoes, known as highland potato, grows in fields and (Brodiae laxa). Other Brodiaea were potatoes, known as highland potato, grows in fields and also widespread and eaten. hills; eaten raw or roasted. also widespread and eaten. hills; eaten raw or roasted. Yellow Pond Lily Baked, and seeds used for bread and soup. Yellow Pond Lily Baked, and seeds used for bread and soup. Yampah roots Washed, mashed, washed again, and cooked as potatoes. Yampah roots Washed, mashed, washed again, and cooked as potatoes. One kind was boiled until mealy. One kind was boiled until mealy. Cowparsnips roots Cooked like rutabagas. Cowparsnips roots Cooked like rutabagas. Arrowroot tubers Baked Arrowroot tubers Baked Indian potatoes, anise, Roots, bulbs, tubers, corms. In aboriginal times, they were Indian potatoes, anise, Roots, bulbs, tubers, corms. In aboriginal times, they were tule “superabundant.” Inexhaustible supply. Many were eaten tule “superabundant.” Inexhaustible supply. Many were eaten raw, others were cooked or baked. Around 20 different raw, others were cooked or baked. Around 20 different species. species. Camas (Qamasia leichtlinii) An abundant camas in high damp meadows (more northerly Camas (Qamasia leichtlinii) An abundant camas in high damp meadows (more northerly than Clear Lake), blue flowers open only at night, largest than Clear Lake), blue flowers open only at night, largest and best of all the Indian potatoes. Generally pit cooked. and best of all the Indian potatoes. Generally pit cooked. Lilies/Onions (a dozen kinds of bulbs) Nowhere in the world is there a more characteristic Lilies/Onions (a dozen kinds of bulbs) Nowhere in the world is there a more characteristic abundance and variety of bulbous-rooted liliaceous plants abundance and variety of bulbous-rooted liliaceous plants than in California, a provision of nature by which the than in California, a provision of nature by which the inhabitants have long been benefited. All are highly inhabitants have long been benefited. All are highly nutritious when cooked, and many, especially the species of nutritious when cooked, and many, especially the species of Calochortus, have a very agreeable nut-like flavor when raw Calochortus, have a very agreeable nut-like flavor when raw Elem (Pomo) Scenario 112 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 112
and are the primary below-ground food in the region. and are the primary below-ground food in the region. Brodiaea (Brodiaea grandiflora). Dichelostemma capitatum (Brodiae capitatum), very Brodiaea (Brodiaea grandiflora). Dichelostemma capitatum (Brodiae capitatum), very Small bulbs, eaten raw, June or July common on rocky hillsides, eaten raw but sweeter when Small bulbs, eaten raw, June or July common on rocky hillsides, eaten raw but sweeter when cooked in ashes. cooked in ashes. Hesperoscordum lacteum (probably Brodiae hyacinthina), Hesperoscordum lacteum (probably Brodiae hyacinthina), abundant in valleys, raw or cooked. abundant in valleys, raw or cooked. Allium (Allium bolanderi) Abundant along streams, small but easily gathered corms. Allium (Allium bolanderi) Abundant along streams, small but easily gathered corms. Allium unifolium: The wild or Indian onion, grows in high Allium unifolium: The wild or Indian onion, grows in high damp meadows; bulb and base of the leaves are fried. damp meadows; bulb and base of the leaves are fried. The Calochortus genus (Mariposa Calochortus maweanus: Grass and open hillsides, corms The Calochortus genus (Mariposa Calochortus maweanus: Grass and open hillsides, corms lilies) are sweetish and eaten by children. lilies) are sweetish and eaten by children. C. pulchellus: Very common, small corms but easily C. pulchellus: Very common, small corms but easily gathered; raw or roasted. gathered; raw or roasted. C. venustus: Commonest Mariposa lily, corms are sweet; C. venustus: Commonest Mariposa lily, corms are sweet; called sweet potatoes. called sweet potatoes. Squaw root (Carum garnderi) Thick roots are eaten raw, gathered in fall, not stored Squaw root (Carum garnderi) Thick roots are eaten raw, gathered in fall, not stored Berries Berries Berries: strawberry, gooseberry, Eaten fresh, dried, or as beverage. Several species (Ribes, Berries: strawberry, gooseberry, Eaten fresh, dried, or as beverage. Several species (Ribes, raspberry, thimbleberry, blackberry, Vaccinium, other). Variety of habitats. raspberry, thimbleberry, blackberry, Vaccinium, other). Variety of habitats. elderberry, toyon, salmon berry, salal elderberry, toyon, salmon berry, salal merry, currant, raspberry, huckleberry, merry, currant, raspberry, huckleberry, wild grape, chokecherry wild grape, chokecherry Manzanita Pulverized and mixed with water or used for flavor in other Manzanita Pulverized and mixed with water or used for flavor in other foods. Also made into a drink. Arctostaphylos manzanita (and foods. Also made into a drink. Arctostaphylos manzanita (and A. tomentosa at higher elevaitons). Found universally. A. tomentosa at higher elevaitons). Found universally. Berries are ground and molded into small flat cakes, no Berries are ground and molded into small flat cakes, no cooking necessary. Can also be used as flour (Barrett cooking necessary. Can also be used as flour (Barrett 1952). 1952). Cerasus demissa (Prunus d.) Cerasus demissa (Prunus d.) Greens Greens Leaves of Miner’s lettuce, Mimulus Early spring cowparsnip, some clovers, and others were Leaves of Miner’s lettuce, Mimulus Early spring cowparsnip, some clovers, and others were guttatus, miner’s lettuce Grows near eaten raw. Trifolium spp., clovers. Many kinds. Regarded as guttatus, miner’s lettuce Grows near eaten raw. Trifolium spp., clovers. Many kinds. Regarded as springs, substitutes for lettuce; leaf essential to the diet. springs, substitutes for lettuce; leaf essential to the diet. ash is a substitute for salt. ash is a substitute for salt. Ferns The fiddleheads (young curled tops of the bracken fern) Ferns The fiddleheads (young curled tops of the bracken fern) were eaten raw, or roasted for a day and a half. were eaten raw, or roasted for a day and a half. Flowers Several species were eaten raw. Flowers Several species were eaten raw. Greens: Many species including Eaten raw or cooked like spinach. Greens: Many species including Eaten raw or cooked like spinach. clover, angelica, anise, poppy, tule “The people moved out into the fields and reveled in the clover, angelica, anise, poppy, tule “The people moved out into the fields and reveled in the shoots, some lupine leaves, hedge abundance of these greens, eating great quantities as they shoots, some lupine leaves, hedge abundance of these greens, eating great quantities as they mustard, goosefoots gathered then, and bringing them back into the village by mustard, goosefoots gathered then, and bringing them back into the village by the burden-basketful.” the burden-basketful.” “So greedily did the people devour these greens that it was “So greedily did the people devour these greens that it was not unusual for them to be afflicted by bloating... the eating not unusual for them to be afflicted by bloating... the eating of pepperwood cakes was said to help serve as a of pepperwood cakes was said to help serve as a preventative...” preventative...” The people of the lake region used several species of tule The people of the lake region used several species of tule and cattails “in so many ways that it is no surprise to find and cattails “in so many ways that it is no surprise to find them on their list of foods.” The roots and tender shoots them on their list of foods.” The roots and tender shoots were eaten as greens. The men go out swimming in May or were eaten as greens. The men go out swimming in May or June when the shoots are emerging from the lake bottom June when the shoots are emerging from the lake bottom (Barrett 1952). (Barrett 1952). Elem (Pomo) Scenario 113 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 113
Nuts, Acorns Nuts, Acorns Acorns White oak or valley oak. Q. lobata—most common, main Acorns White oak or valley oak. Q. lobata—most common, main acorn supply, best kind for bread. Can be 80 feet high, acorn supply, best kind for bread. Can be 80 feet high, acorns can be over 2 inches long. acorns can be over 2 inches long. Black oak or California oak. Q. californica, Considered Black oak or California oak. Q. californica, Considered second best for bread and soup because they are especially second best for bread and soup because they are especially rich in oil rich in oil Tan oak or tan-bark oak Q. densiflora. Very rich and oily. Tan oak or tan-bark oak Q. densiflora. Very rich and oily. The best kind for soups and mushes. The best kind for soups and mushes. Shell, spread out to dry, remove thin papery covering, grind. Shell, spread out to dry, remove thin papery covering, grind. Leaching is most often done with flour, but sometimes of the Leaching is most often done with flour, but sometimes of the whole acorn (takes a day or more). Sand lined pits, careful whole acorn (takes a day or more). Sand lined pits, careful not to get sand in the meal. not to get sand in the meal. Black bread is made from ground meal without leaching. Black bread is made from ground meal without leaching. The red earth eliminated the bitterness and makes the The red earth eliminated the bitterness and makes the bread black and sweet. It keeps very well. bread black and sweet. It keeps very well. Peppernut: Pepperwood (California Cakes and edible husk. Dry whole fruits until hull splits; Peppernut: Pepperwood (California Cakes and edible husk. Dry whole fruits until hull splits; laurel) husks can be eaten raw. Kernels are covered with a thin laurel) husks can be eaten raw. Kernels are covered with a thin hard shell and can be stored. Shell, wash thoroughly, grind hard shell and can be stored. Shell, wash thoroughly, grind into oily meal, made into cakes and stored dry. Also eaten into oily meal, made into cakes and stored dry. Also eaten whole as condiment with clover and other greens, with whole as condiment with clover and other greens, with buckeye meal, or with acorn bread and mush. Also eaten buckeye meal, or with acorn bread and mush. Also eaten with seaweed in coastal areas (Barrett 1952). with seaweed in coastal areas (Barrett 1952). Buckeyes (horse chestnut) is fairly Char, hull, leach, or roasted then leached, or shell, bake, Buckeyes (horse chestnut) is fairly Char, hull, leach, or roasted then leached, or shell, bake, abundant. Poisonous if not leached. mash, dry, soaked to leach and squeezed dry again, leach abundant. Poisonous if not leached. mash, dry, soaked to leach and squeezed dry again, leach thoroughly then ready to eat. thoroughly then ready to eat. Hull, peel, boil, ground, sift, leach, with coarser parts Hull, peel, boil, ground, sift, leach, with coarser parts molded into balls, then leach for days. molded into balls, then leach for days. Chestnut, cinquapin, nutmeg, Chestnut, cinquapin, nutmeg, hazelnuts hazelnuts Conifers Digger pine (P. sabiniana) and sugar pine (P. lambertiana). Conifers Digger pine (P. sabiniana) and sugar pine (P. lambertiana). Fairly widespread; large cones with large nuts. Sugar pine: Fairly widespread; large cones with large nuts. Sugar pine: nuts used as food, sugar as medicine. Other pine nuts were nuts used as food, sugar as medicine. Other pine nuts were also used (Barrett 1952). Digger pine—One of the most also used (Barrett 1952). Digger pine—One of the most characteristic trees. Very large and heavy cones, sweet and characteristic trees. Very large and heavy cones, sweet and oily nuts—51% oil and 28% crude protein; cones opened by oily nuts—51% oil and 28% crude protein; cones opened by fire; cambium also eaten as a starvation food. Pitch used as fire; cambium also eaten as a starvation food. Pitch used as healing cover for burns and sores, glue for feathers; gum healing cover for burns and sores, glue for feathers; gum that accompanies the pitch is chewed as gum and as a cure that accompanies the pitch is chewed as gum and as a cure for rheumatism; roots used for large baskets; bark infusion for rheumatism; roots used for large baskets; bark infusion drunk for consumption; pine oil steam as tonic. drunk for consumption; pine oil steam as tonic. Seeds, Grain, Pinole Seeds, Grain, Pinole Pinole: made from grass seeds, meal, Seeds used as pinole. (“Pinole” is Spanish for cereal meal.) Pinole: made from grass seeds, meal, Seeds used as pinole. (“Pinole” is Spanish for cereal meal.) cakes. Pinole is meal made from Any parched seeds of grains and flowers ground into flour cakes. Pinole is meal made from Any parched seeds of grains and flowers ground into flour parched, ground seeds. The meal can (does not apply to nut flour). 32 different species of seeds parched, ground seeds. The meal can (does not apply to nut flour). 32 different species of seeds be dampened and made into balls; no have been identified. An important but secondary food. be dampened and made into balls; no have been identified. An important but secondary food. further cooking is required. Pinole can Seed types were kept separate and mixed according to the further cooking is required. Pinole can Seed types were kept separate and mixed according to the also be made into mush. desired flavor (Barrett 1952). also be made into mush. desired flavor (Barrett 1952). Elem (Pomo) Scenario 114 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 114
Manzanita berry pinole and biscuits Wild oats (Avena fatus or Danthonia californica, probably Manzanita berry pinole and biscuits Wild oats (Avena fatus or Danthonia californica, probably the latter since the former may not be native to the US). the latter since the former may not be native to the US). Gathered by elderly ladies. Hairs are singed, seeds parched Gathered by elderly ladies. Hairs are singed, seeds parched and ground. Salt or the ash from “certain plants” added. and ground. Salt or the ash from “certain plants” added. Pinole is any meal made from parched seeds. But the Pomo Pinole is any meal made from parched seeds. But the Pomo had different names for different grains and carefully mixed had different names for different grains and carefully mixed grains for particular flavors. grains for particular flavors. Pogogyne parviflora Seed is gathered in surprisingly large quantities and values Pogogyne parviflora Seed is gathered in surprisingly large quantities and values as a sweet aromatic ingredient of wheat and barley pinole. as a sweet aromatic ingredient of wheat and barley pinole. Blepharipappus platyglossus, tidy- A yellow daisy, seeds prized for pinole. Blepharipappus platyglossus, tidy- A yellow daisy, seeds prized for pinole. tips. tips. Achillea millefolium, yarrow. Seeds used for pinole. The most common kind of tarweed Achillea millefolium, yarrow. Seeds used for pinole. The most common kind of tarweed Hemizonia luzulaefolia (several different plants are called tarweed due to their Hemizonia luzulaefolia (several different plants are called tarweed due to their exudation). Important for pinole. exudation). Important for pinole. Madia dissitiflora A typical tarweed, also used for pinole. Note that tarweed Madia dissitiflora A typical tarweed, also used for pinole. Note that tarweed oils appear to be important for pinole texture or cookability oils appear to be important for pinole texture or cookability also. also. Madia densifolia Another tarweed, also important for pinole and even more Madia densifolia Another tarweed, also important for pinole and even more aromatic than Hemizonia. aromatic than Hemizonia. Salvia columbariae Seeds are mucilaginous and used for thickening soup. Salvia columbariae Seeds are mucilaginous and used for thickening soup. Other Food Information Other Food Information Hunting. Do not eat right before hunting. 4-day sweats before group hunting. Different sets of songs Hunting. Do not eat right before hunting. 4-day sweats before group hunting. Different sets of songs for each animal, fish or bird. Hunting methods—noting unique. Around Clear Lake, frequent use of for each animal, fish or bird. Hunting methods—noting unique. Around Clear Lake, frequent use of large nets to rake water birds, as well as slings with clay balls, tule boats. At Clear Lake, different large nets to rake water birds, as well as slings with clay balls, tule boats. At Clear Lake, different portions of the lake were used by individual families (Barrett 1952). portions of the lake were used by individual families (Barrett 1952). Methods of cooking: rock boiling in basket, baking bread and fish in underground ovens, roasting in Methods of cooking: rock boiling in basket, baking bread and fish in underground ovens, roasting in ashes, broiling on hot coals, parching with coals in basket (put seeds or bird eggs in basket with coals ashes, broiling on hot coals, parching with coals in basket (put seeds or bird eggs in basket with coals and shake them together). Underground oven, lined with leaves (grape, madrone, grass). and shake them together). Underground oven, lined with leaves (grape, madrone, grass). Very small mammals were singed to get rid of the hair, eviscerated, and pounded to a pulp before Very small mammals were singed to get rid of the hair, eviscerated, and pounded to a pulp before being broiled (bones as calcium source). Larger animals such as rabbits were skinned before being being broiled (bones as calcium source). Larger animals such as rabbits were skinned before being pounded and broiled. pounded and broiled. Spoons made with mussel and freshwater clam (for eating mush or soups). Spoons made with mussel and freshwater clam (for eating mush or soups). Non-Food (basket, cordage, other) Non-Food (basket, cordage, other) Tule. In addition to food and several specific kinds of baskets, tule was used for mats, padding, Tule. In addition to food and several specific kinds of baskets, tule was used for mats, padding, clothing, floats, slings, swaddling clothes, balsa. Two species are found in Clear Lake, Scirpus clothing, floats, slings, swaddling clothes, balsa. Two species are found in Clear Lake, Scirpus lacustris, robustus, and cattails (Typha latifolia) There are also words for different maturities. Tules lacustris, robustus, and cattails (Typha latifolia) There are also words for different maturities. Tules were eaten. Shoots up to a foot tall were eaten by taking the outer part off; the outer portion was were eaten. Shoots up to a foot tall were eaten by taking the outer part off; the outer portion was shredded until fluffy and used for diapers. Tule tubers (new growth only) were peeled and eaten shredded until fluffy and used for diapers. Tule tubers (new growth only) were peeled and eaten (Barrett 1952). (Barrett 1952). Cordage—dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum), milkweed (Asclepias criocarpa), Iris (Iris douglasiana, Cordage—dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum), milkweed (Asclepias criocarpa), Iris (Iris douglasiana, and (Psoralea macrostachya). Also sinew (Barrett 1952). Hemp (Apocynum androssemifoluem). and (Psoralea macrostachya). Also sinew (Barrett 1952). Hemp (Apocynum androssemifoluem). Gows in marshy areas or damp soil. Stalk gathered in the fall. Stalks split and dried, then the woody Gows in marshy areas or damp soil. Stalk gathered in the fall. Stalks split and dried, then the woody part id broken away form the fiber. Fiber made into string by rolling on the leg. part id broken away form the fiber. Fiber made into string by rolling on the leg. Cattail (flag tule; Lewis & Clark called them flags; Typha latifolia), roots and shoots used as food; Cattail (flag tule; Lewis & Clark called them flags; Typha latifolia), roots and shoots used as food; pollen eaten. Mats and baskets. pollen eaten. Mats and baskets. Sedge. Carex spp. Roots used for baskets, since they spread by root runners. The most important Sedge. Carex spp. Roots used for baskets, since they spread by root runners. The most important roots used in baskets; strongest and most durable baskets. Sedge root baskets are made by splitting roots used in baskets; strongest and most durable baskets. Sedge root baskets are made by splitting the roots into fine strands by holding one part of the root in the mouth and pulling 1/3 with each hand, the roots into fine strands by holding one part of the root in the mouth and pulling 1/3 with each hand, so the root is split into thirds. Each stand is split into smaller thirds. Used in 3-rod coiled baskets. so the root is split into thirds. Each stand is split into smaller thirds. Used in 3-rod coiled baskets. Salix argyrophylla. A shrubby white-leaved willow, common along some rivers, shoots are the best for Salix argyrophylla. A shrubby white-leaved willow, common along some rivers, shoots are the best for large coarse baskets. Roots are highly prized for other kinds of baskets. Tough fibrous inner bark can large coarse baskets. Roots are highly prized for other kinds of baskets. Tough fibrous inner bark can be made into rope and woven. Inner bark widely used as medicine. be made into rope and woven. Inner bark widely used as medicine. Cercocarpus betuloides, mountain mahogany. Common on dry brushy hillsides. Very hard wood. Cercocarpus betuloides, mountain mahogany. Common on dry brushy hillsides. Very hard wood. Elem (Pomo) Scenario 115 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 115
Symphoricarpos racemosus or albus, snowberry. Grows in great abundance on level land. White Symphoricarpos racemosus or albus, snowberry. Grows in great abundance on level land. White waxy berries, prized for light strong wood, especially for pipestems and revolving drills. waxy berries, prized for light strong wood, especially for pipestems and revolving drills. Iris douglasiana. The common wild iris, edges of the leaves are fine and strong as silk. Iris douglasiana. The common wild iris, edges of the leaves are fine and strong as silk. Byracea—Alsia abietins. A moss used for baby bedding. Byracea—Alsia abietins. A moss used for baby bedding. Maidenhair fern (Adiantum emerginatum). Keeps ear holes open. Maidenhair fern (Adiantum emerginatum). Keeps ear holes open. Lonicera interrupta, honeysuckle. Vines used for baskets. Lonicera interrupta, honeysuckle. Vines used for baskets. Multi-Use and Medicinal Uses Multi-Use and Medicinal Uses
California Nutmeg (Tumicon Trichostema lanceolatus, vinegar weed or tar weed. California Nutmeg (Tumicon Trichostema lanceolatus, vinegar weed or tar weed. californicum). Roasted nuts; roots Pungent aroma like vinegar and turpentine. Known as a fish californicum). Roasted nuts; roots Pungent aroma like vinegar and turpentine. Known as a fish used in baskets. poison. used in baskets. poison.
Juniperus californica. Berries Sambucus glauca, pale alder. Very abundant. Berries are Juniperus californica. Berries Sambucus glauca, pale alder. Very abundant. Berries are sometimes boiled and eaten. acidic but eaten raw or dried; now used with sugar in pies sometimes boiled and eaten. acidic but eaten raw or dried; now used with sugar in pies and jelly. Dried flowers are used for fever, lotion, antiseptic, and jelly. Dried flowers are used for fever, lotion, antiseptic, Trillium sessile giganteum. The anti-itch, and sores. Wood pith for tinder; hollow shaft after Trillium sessile giganteum. The anti-itch, and sores. Wood pith for tinder; hollow shaft after common trillium in damp shade, tuber- pith is removed used for wistles, straws. common trillium in damp shade, tuber- pith is removed used for wistles, straws. like rhizomes used in medicine, but like rhizomes used in medicine, but are intensely bitter. Micrampelis marah, big root. A vine common along streams, are intensely bitter. Micrampelis marah, big root. A vine common along streams, large spherical fleshy root like a man’s head, acrid and large spherical fleshy root like a man’s head, acrid and Artemesia heterophylla, wormwood. poisonous. Artemesia heterophylla, wormwood. poisonous. Bitter taste but aromatic aroma. Highly Bitter taste but aromatic aroma. Highly esteemed as medicine for colic and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Long small roots used esteemed as medicine for colic and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Long small roots used colds. Used in sweat bath for in baskets; balsamic odor valued as a tea. colds. Used in sweat bath for in baskets; balsamic odor valued as a tea. rheumatism. rheumatism. Alnus rhombifolia, mountain alder. Common, large tree in Alnus rhombifolia, mountain alder. Common, large tree in Wyethia longicaulis, sunflower. The moist places, often marking springs. The bark is astringent, Wyethia longicaulis, sunflower. The moist places, often marking springs. The bark is astringent, most common sunflower. Lower part used as a dye, decoction used to stop diarrhea and induce most common sunflower. Lower part used as a dye, decoction used to stop diarrhea and induce of young leaves and stems are edible; sweating; fresh bark colors deerskin and basket materials of young leaves and stems are edible; sweating; fresh bark colors deerskin and basket materials seed is very much used for pinole. when smoking. seed is very much used for pinole. when smoking. Resinous root used as an emetic. Resinous root used as an emetic. Yellwo pond lily, Nymphaea polysepsis. Grows profusely in Yellwo pond lily, Nymphaea polysepsis. Grows profusely in Escholtzia douglasii, California poppy. shallow lakes and winter ponds in the coast region, but not Escholtzia douglasii, California poppy. shallow lakes and winter ponds in the coast region, but not Fresh root is placed in the cavity of a very common in the interior. The fleshy roots are a favorite Fresh root is placed in the cavity of a very common in the interior. The fleshy roots are a favorite tooth to stop toothache; extract used browse of deer, and the nutritious seeds are eaten tooth to stop toothache; extract used browse of deer, and the nutritious seeds are eaten for headache. Leaves are edible. whenever available. for headache. Leaves are edible. whenever available.
Thysanocarpus elegans. Lacepod. Butneria occidentalis (or Calycanthus o.), western spice Thysanocarpus elegans. Lacepod. Butneria occidentalis (or Calycanthus o.), western spice Seeds are used in pinole; concoction bush, fairly common in shady places, fragrant and used for Seeds are used in pinole; concoction bush, fairly common in shady places, fragrant and used for of whole plant used for stomach ache. baskets. of whole plant used for stomach ache. baskets.
Heteromeles arbutifolia (Photina a.) Umbellularia californica, California laurel, grows in canyons Heteromeles arbutifolia (Photina a.) Umbellularia californica, California laurel, grows in canyons Common toyon or Christmas berry. and damp woods. Thin-shelled nuts, pungent, and sparsely Common toyon or Christmas berry. and damp woods. Thin-shelled nuts, pungent, and sparsely Evergreen, berries are eaten raw but used. Many uses of the leaves (the volatile oil). Evergreen, berries are eaten raw but used. Many uses of the leaves (the volatile oil). generally cooked first. Decoction of generally cooked first. Decoction of leaves and bark used for stomach Cercis occidentalis, redbud. Bark and thin shoots used for leaves and bark used for stomach Cercis occidentalis, redbud. Bark and thin shoots used for ache and various aches and pains. baskets; not as durable as sawgrass or sedge. ache and various aches and pains. baskets; not as durable as sawgrass or sedge.
Elem (Pomo) Scenario 116 Elem (Pomo) Scenario 116
Sanicule tuberose. Small bulb but one Sanicule tuberose. Small bulb but one of the best Indian potatoes, generally Croton setigerus, turkey mullein (not the tall introduced of the best Indian potatoes, generally Croton setigerus, turkey mullein (not the tall introduced eaten raw. mullein). Dainty mat with bristly hairs. Small seeds in great eaten raw. mullein). Dainty mat with bristly hairs. Small seeds in great abundance are a favorite of mourning dove. Bruised leaves abundance are a favorite of mourning dove. Bruised leaves Arstostaphyles manzanita. Very are a substitute for soaproot for stupefying fish. Arstostaphyles manzanita. Very are a substitute for soaproot for stupefying fish. common. The ripe fruit is dry, mealy, common. The ripe fruit is dry, mealy, and very nutritious. The green berries Rhus diversiloba, poison oak. Full-blood Indians said to be and very nutritious. The green berries Rhus diversiloba, poison oak. Full-blood Indians said to be can be eaten in small amounts to impervious. Used to remove warts and ringworm. Fresh can be eaten in small amounts to impervious. Used to remove warts and ringworm. Fresh quench thirst. Ripe berries can also be juice used for black coloration. quench thirst. Ripe berries can also be juice used for black coloration. soaked for a cider. soaked for a cider.
Dodecatheon hendersoni, shooting Vitis californica. Wild grape. Used for basket rims by Dodecatheon hendersoni, shooting Vitis californica. Wild grape. Used for basket rims by star. Roots and leaves can be roasted soaking vines in water and hot ashes, then splitting into star. Roots and leaves can be roasted soaking vines in water and hot ashes, then splitting into and eaten. strands. and eaten. strands.
Apocynum cannabinum, Indian hemp. Heracleum lanatus, cow parsnip. Umbelliferous, tender leaf Apocynum cannabinum, Indian hemp. Heracleum lanatus, cow parsnip. Umbelliferous, tender leaf Moist soil. Inner bark is soft, silky, and and flower stalks are agreeably aromatic, and are eaten as Moist soil. Inner bark is soft, silky, and and flower stalks are agreeably aromatic, and are eaten as exceedingly strong. early greens after peeling away the outer covering. The exceedingly strong. early greens after peeling away the outer covering. The basal portion of the plant is a substitute for salt. basal portion of the plant is a substitute for salt. Eriodictyon californicum, yerba santa. Eriodictyon californicum, yerba santa. Grows profusely on dry bushy Pagio bothrys campestris, snowdrops. Crimson color at Grows profusely on dry bushy Pagio bothrys campestris, snowdrops. Crimson color at hillsides, also known as mountain base of leaves used on cheeks; shoots and flowers are hillsides, also known as mountain base of leaves used on cheeks; shoots and flowers are balm, wild balsam, gum leaves, tar eaten, seeds gathered in large quantities for pinole. balm, wild balsam, gum leaves, tar eaten, seeds gathered in large quantities for pinole. weed. Found in every household; no weed. Found in every household; no plant is more highly valued as Monardells sheltonii, horsemint or pennyroyal. Aromatic plant is more highly valued as Monardells sheltonii, horsemint or pennyroyal. Aromatic medicine. Leaf is used for many leaves are used as tea for beverage, colic, and blood medicine. Leaf is used for many leaves are used as tea for beverage, colic, and blood things. purifier. things. purifier.
Amsinokia lycopsoides. Juicy shoots Cynoglossum grande, hound’s tongue. Grated roots are Amsinokia lycopsoides. Juicy shoots Cynoglossum grande, hound’s tongue. Grated roots are are eaten. anti-inflammatory for burns. are eaten. anti-inflammatory for burns.
Washoe Tribe Scenario 117 Washoe Tribe Scenario 117
Washoe Tribe Washoe Tribe Human Health Risk Assessment Human Health Risk Assessment Exposure Scenario Exposure Scenario
CONTENTS CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 120 1 INTRODUCTION 120 2 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 124 2 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 124 2.1 BOREAL ZONES 125 2.1 BOREAL ZONES 125 2.1.1 Upper Montane Zone 125 2.1.1 Upper Montane Zone 125 2.1.2 Lower Montane Zone 125 2.1.2 Lower Montane Zone 125 2.1.3 Mountain Meadows, Springs, and Creeks 126 2.1.3 Mountain Meadows, Springs, and Creeks 126 2.2 TRANSITION ZONES 126 2.2 TRANSITION ZONES 126 2.2.1 Pinyon-Juniper Habitat 126 2.2.1 Pinyon-Juniper Habitat 126 2.2.2 Sagebrush Steppe 126 2.2.2 Sagebrush Steppe 126 2.2.3 Mountain Meadows, Springs, and Creeks 127 2.2.3 Mountain Meadows, Springs, and Creeks 127 2.3 GREAT BASIN VALLEY FLOOR 127 2.3 GREAT BASIN VALLEY FLOOR 127 2.3.1 Desert Marshlands 127 2.3.1 Desert Marshlands 127 2.4 WATERSHEDS 128 2.4 WATERSHEDS 128 2.5 WASHOE ECOREGIONS 129 2.5 WASHOE ECOREGIONS 129 3 OVERVIEW OF GENERAL WASHOE ECOLOGICAL LIFESTYLE 131 3 OVERVIEW OF GENERAL WASHOE ECOLOGICAL LIFESTYLE 131 3.1 HISTORICAL SEASONAL PATTERNS OF THE WASHOE 131 3.1 HISTORICAL SEASONAL PATTERNS OF THE WASHOE 131 3.2 GENERAL RESOURCE USE 132 3.2 GENERAL RESOURCE USE 132 3.2.1 Fishing and Hunting 133 3.2.1 Fishing and Hunting 133 3.2.2 Gathering 133 3.2.2 Gathering 133 3.2.3 Sampling and Analysis Priorities 134 3.2.3 Sampling and Analysis Priorities 134 4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO 137 4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO 137 4.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET 137 4.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET 137 4.1.1 Foraging Theory 137 4.1.1 Foraging Theory 137 4.2 STUDIES ON WASHOE DIET 138 4.2 STUDIES ON WASHOE DIET 138 4.2.1 Foraging Studies 138 4.2.1 Foraging Studies 138 4.2.2 Interview Data 142 4.2.2 Interview Data 142 4.3 WASHOE DIET 144 4.3 WASHOE DIET 144 4.4 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS 145 4.4 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS 145 5 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS 149 5 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS 149 5.1 APPROACH 149 5.1 APPROACH 149 5.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES 149 5.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES 149 5.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME 153 5.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME 153 5.3.1 Lifestyle of a Representative Washoe Tribal Family 153 5.3.1 Lifestyle of a Representative Washoe Tribal Family 153 5.3.2 Activity Patterns of Each Family Member 153 5.3.2 Activity Patterns of Each Family Member 153 5.3.3 Specific Cultural Activities 154 5.3.3 Specific Cultural Activities 154 5.3.4 Time Allocation throughout the Day 156 5.3.4 Time Allocation throughout the Day 156 5.3.5 The Lifetime 157 5.3.5 The Lifetime 157 5.4 MEDIA, PATHWAYS, AND DIRECT EXPOSURE FACTORS 157 5.4 MEDIA, PATHWAYS, AND DIRECT EXPOSURE FACTORS 157 5.5 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS 158 5.5 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS 158
Washoe Tribe Scenario 118 Washoe Tribe Scenario 118
6 CONCLUSION 164 6 CONCLUSION 164 7 REFERENCES 165 7 REFERENCES 165
Washoe Tribe Scenario 119 Washoe Tribe Scenario 119
LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Priority species for sampling and contaminant analysis. 136 Table 1. Priority species for sampling and contaminant analysis. 136 Table 2. Macronutrient content based on dietary proportion. 147 Table 2. Macronutrient content based on dietary proportion. 147 Table 3. Estimated caloric content. 148 Table 3. Estimated caloric content. 148 Table 4. Estimated macronutrients of major food categories. 148 Table 4. Estimated macronutrients of major food categories. 148 Table 5. Traditional lifeways—Typical activities in the activity categories. 150 Table 5. Traditional lifeways—Typical activities in the activity categories. 150 Table 6. Major activity categories. 151 Table 6. Major activity categories. 151 Table 7. Examples of factors to consider within major activity categories. 152 Table 7. Examples of factors to consider within major activity categories. 152 Table 8. Exposure factors for direct pathways. 160 Table 8. Exposure factors for direct pathways. 160
LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Continental U.S. with Washoe Tribe Location 125 Figure 1. Continental U.S. with Washoe Tribe Location 125 Figure 2. Washoe Area Watersheds 128 Figure 2. Washoe Area Watersheds 128 Figure 3. Washoe Level III Ecoregions 130 Figure 3. Washoe Level III Ecoregions 130 Figure 4. Food Pyramid 145 Figure 4. Food Pyramid 145
Washoe Tribe Scenario 120 Washoe Tribe Scenario 120
1 INTRODUCTION 1 INTRODUCTION
This document presents the Washoe Exposure Scenario. This scenario applies to This document presents the Washoe Exposure Scenario. This scenario applies to the pinyon-juniper ecosystem between the Sierra Nevada Mountains and the Great the pinyon-juniper ecosystem between the Sierra Nevada Mountains and the Great Basin. An exposure scenario is a narrative and numerical representation of the Basin. An exposure scenario is a narrative and numerical representation of the interactions between human and/or ecological receptors and their immediate interactions between human and/or ecological receptors and their immediate environment. Exposure scenarios include media-specific and pathway-specific environment. Exposure scenarios include media-specific and pathway-specific exposure factors required to estimate a dose to the target receptor as they pursue a exposure factors required to estimate a dose to the target receptor as they pursue a defined set of activities in particular locations. defined set of activities in particular locations.
Even though many tribal lands have been lost and resources degraded, there are Even though many tribal lands have been lost and resources degraded, there are generally more traditional or subsistence practices followed by tribal members than generally more traditional or subsistence practices followed by tribal members than the general non-native population realizes. However, the objective of many tribes is the general non-native population realizes. However, the objective of many tribes is to regain land, restore resources, and encourage more members to practice to regain land, restore resources, and encourage more members to practice healthier (i.e., more traditional) lifestyles. Therefore, the objective of subsistence healthier (i.e., more traditional) lifestyles. Therefore, the objective of subsistence exposure scenarios is to describe the original lifestyles and resource uses, not to exposure scenarios is to describe the original lifestyles and resource uses, not to present a current snapshot of restricted or suppressed uses, because the intent is to present a current snapshot of restricted or suppressed uses, because the intent is to restore the ecology so that the original pattern of resource uses is both possible restore the ecology so that the original pattern of resource uses is both possible (after resources are restored) and safe (after contamination is removed). This is a (after resources are restored) and safe (after contamination is removed). This is a different situation than for the general American population, where the intent of different situation than for the general American population, where the intent of remediation is to allow people to continue their current (and portable) lifestyle in a remediation is to allow people to continue their current (and portable) lifestyle in a newly cleaned location. The intent of the Washoe Scenario is to reconstruct what the newly cleaned location. The intent of the Washoe Scenario is to reconstruct what the lifestyle and diet would have been in the affected area prior to contamination. lifestyle and diet would have been in the affected area prior to contamination.
For the general United States population, an exposure scenario is typically designed For the general United States population, an exposure scenario is typically designed to be an upper bound (generally around the 75th percentile) of the population being to be an upper bound (generally around the 75th percentile) of the population being assessed. Some individual exposure factors are the 90th or 95th percentile; others assessed. Some individual exposure factors are the 90th or 95th percentile; others are mean values. In the case of tribal exposure scenarios, there are no specific are mean values. In the case of tribal exposure scenarios, there are no specific databases of subsistence activities, resources, or diets as there are for the general databases of subsistence activities, resources, or diets as there are for the general United States population. Cross-sectional surveys of current tribal populations will United States population. Cross-sectional surveys of current tribal populations will not generate that data because much resource use has been suppressed due to not generate that data because much resource use has been suppressed due to loss of land and access, awareness of contamination, persecution by the dominant loss of land and access, awareness of contamination, persecution by the dominant society, and other reasons. This means that large and accurate statistical society, and other reasons. This means that large and accurate statistical distributions for subsistence exposure factors are not available and cannot be distributions for subsistence exposure factors are not available and cannot be developed. Therefore, ranges of exposures or specified percentiles of exposure are developed. Therefore, ranges of exposures or specified percentiles of exposure are not possible to calculate. The Washoe scenario is intended to be a reasonable not possible to calculate. The Washoe scenario is intended to be a reasonable representation of a traditional subsistence lifestyle, equivalent to a central tendency representation of a traditional subsistence lifestyle, equivalent to a central tendency rather than to an upper bound. rather than to an upper bound.
For the general suburban population the exposure scenario is well defined in EPA For the general suburban population the exposure scenario is well defined in EPA guidance (Exposure Factors Handbooks). The Washoe tribal scenario is based on guidance (Exposure Factors Handbooks). The Washoe tribal scenario is based on the lifestyle and baseline conditions of the regional natural resources. the lifestyle and baseline conditions of the regional natural resources.
This scenario identifies general exposure pathways specific to Washoe lifestyles and This scenario identifies general exposure pathways specific to Washoe lifestyles and key resources that the Washoe people use. It starts with a general description of key resources that the Washoe people use. It starts with a general description of baseline natural resources that are (or should be) present in the region. A general baseline natural resources that are (or should be) present in the region. A general
Washoe Tribe Scenario 121 Washoe Tribe Scenario 121
understanding of what people do (or would do in the absence of contamination) and understanding of what people do (or would do in the absence of contamination) and what resources are available for their use provides the basis for developing what resources are available for their use provides the basis for developing preliminary exposure factors. Then the scenario describes the activities that preliminary exposure factors. Then the scenario describes the activities that traditional people undertake to survive and thrive in the local ecosystem, including traditional people undertake to survive and thrive in the local ecosystem, including hunting, gathering foods and medicines, fishing, making material items, farming or hunting, gathering foods and medicines, fishing, making material items, farming or gardening, raising livestock, irrigating, and various cultural and domestic activities. gardening, raising livestock, irrigating, and various cultural and domestic activities.
As mentioned, the exposure scenario reflects a traditional subsistence lifestyle. As mentioned, the exposure scenario reflects a traditional subsistence lifestyle. “Subsistence” refers to the hunting, fishing, and gathering activities that are “Subsistence” refers to the hunting, fishing, and gathering activities that are fundamental to the way of life of many indigenous peoples. Today’s subsistence fundamental to the way of life of many indigenous peoples. Today’s subsistence economies utilize traditional and modern technologies for harvesting and preserving economies utilize traditional and modern technologies for harvesting and preserving foods and for distributing the produce through communal networks of sharing and foods and for distributing the produce through communal networks of sharing and bartering. The following is a useful explanation of “subsistence,” taken from the bartering. The following is a useful explanation of “subsistence,” taken from the National Park Service: National Park Service:
While non-natives tend to define subsistence in terms of poverty or the While non-natives tend to define subsistence in terms of poverty or the minimum amount of food necessary to support life, native people equate minimum amount of food necessary to support life, native people equate subsistence with their culture. Among many tribes, maintaining a subsistence subsistence with their culture. Among many tribes, maintaining a subsistence lifestyle has become the symbol of their survival in the face of mounting lifestyle has become the symbol of their survival in the face of mounting political and economic pressures. It defines who they are as a people. To political and economic pressures. It defines who they are as a people. To Native Americans who continue to depend on natural resources, subsistence Native Americans who continue to depend on natural resources, subsistence is more than eking out a living. While it is important to the economic well- is more than eking out a living. While it is important to the economic well- being of their communities, the subsistence lifestyle is also the basis of being of their communities, the subsistence lifestyle is also the basis of cultural existence and survival. It is a communal activity. It unifies cultural existence and survival. It is a communal activity. It unifies communities as cohesive functioning units through collective production and communities as cohesive functioning units through collective production and distribution of the harvest. Some groups have formalized patterns of sharing, distribution of the harvest. Some groups have formalized patterns of sharing, while others do so in more informal ways. Entire families participate, including while others do so in more informal ways. Entire families participate, including elders, who assist with less physically demanding tasks. Parents teach the elders, who assist with less physically demanding tasks. Parents teach the young to hunt, fish, and farm. Food and goods are also distributed through young to hunt, fish, and farm. Food and goods are also distributed through native cultural institutions. Most require young hunters to distribute their first native cultural institutions. Most require young hunters to distribute their first catch throughout the community. Subsistence embodies cultural values that catch throughout the community. Subsistence embodies cultural values that recognize both the social obligation to share as well as the special spiritual recognize both the social obligation to share as well as the special spiritual relationship to the land and resources. This relationship is portrayed in native relationship to the land and resources. This relationship is portrayed in native art and in many ceremonies held throughout the year.1 art and in many ceremonies held throughout the year.1
In economic terms, a subsistence economy is one in which currency is limited In economic terms, a subsistence economy is one in which currency is limited because many goods and services are produced and consumed by the same because many goods and services are produced and consumed by the same families or bands. Today, currency (symbols of specified quantities of useful families or bands. Today, currency (symbols of specified quantities of useful resources) is limited, but important. For example, subsistence in an Arctic resources) is limited, but important. For example, subsistence in an Arctic community includes the following: community includes the following:
The modern-day subsistence family depends on the tools of the trade, most The modern-day subsistence family depends on the tools of the trade, most of which are expensive. Snowmobiles, gasoline, guns, fishing nets, and of which are expensive. Snowmobiles, gasoline, guns, fishing nets, and sleeping bags are necessities. Subsistence households also enjoy many of sleeping bags are necessities. Subsistence households also enjoy many of the modern conveniences of life, and are saddled with the economic the modern conveniences of life, and are saddled with the economic
1 National Park Service: http://www.cr.nps.gov/aad/cg/fa_1999/Subsist.htm 1 National Park Service: http://www.cr.nps.gov/aad/cg/fa_1999/Subsist.htm
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demands which come with their acquisition. Today’s subsistence family demands which come with their acquisition. Today’s subsistence family generates much-needed cash as wage-labourers, part-time workers and generates much-needed cash as wage-labourers, part-time workers and trappers, professional business people, traditional craftmakers, and seasonal trappers, professional business people, traditional craftmakers, and seasonal workers. A highly-integrated interdependence between formal (cash-based) workers. A highly-integrated interdependence between formal (cash-based) and informal (barter and subsistence-based) economic sectors has evolved.2 and informal (barter and subsistence-based) economic sectors has evolved.2
Once the activities composing a particular subsistence lifestyle are known, they are Once the activities composing a particular subsistence lifestyle are known, they are translated into a form that is used for risk assessment. This translation captures the translated into a form that is used for risk assessment. This translation captures the degree of environmental contact that occurs through activities and diet, expressed degree of environmental contact that occurs through activities and diet, expressed as numerical exposure factors. Exposure factors for direct exposure pathways as numerical exposure factors. Exposure factors for direct exposure pathways include exposure to abiotic media (air, water, soil, and sediment), which can result in include exposure to abiotic media (air, water, soil, and sediment), which can result in inhalation, soil ingestion, water ingestion, and dermal exposure. Indirect pathways inhalation, soil ingestion, water ingestion, and dermal exposure. Indirect pathways refer to contaminants that are incorporated into biota and subsequently expose refer to contaminants that are incorporated into biota and subsequently expose people who ingest or use them. There are many unique exposure pathways that are people who ingest or use them. There are many unique exposure pathways that are not accounted for in scenarios for the general public, but may be significant to not accounted for in scenarios for the general public, but may be significant to people with certain traditional specialties such as basket making, flint knapping, or people with certain traditional specialties such as basket making, flint knapping, or using natural medicines, smoke, smudges, paints, and dyes. These activities may using natural medicines, smoke, smudges, paints, and dyes. These activities may result in increased dust inhalation, soil ingestion, soil loading onto the skin for dermal result in increased dust inhalation, soil ingestion, soil loading onto the skin for dermal exposure, or exposure via wounds, to give a few examples. While the portals of exposure, or exposure via wounds, to give a few examples. While the portals of entry into the body are the same for everyone (primarily via the lungs, skin, mouth), entry into the body are the same for everyone (primarily via the lungs, skin, mouth), the amount of contaminants may be increased and the relative importance of some the amount of contaminants may be increased and the relative importance of some activities (e.g., basket making, wetlands gathering), pathways (e.g., steam activities (e.g., basket making, wetlands gathering), pathways (e.g., steam immersion or medicinal infusions), or portals of entry (e.g., dermal wounding) may immersion or medicinal infusions), or portals of entry (e.g., dermal wounding) may be different than for the general population. be different than for the general population.
Foraging theory data from the anthropological literature is particularly useful for Foraging theory data from the anthropological literature is particularly useful for developing exposure scenarios, because the major dietary and resource staples developing exposure scenarios, because the major dietary and resource staples may be described, as well as how much time and effort is needed to obtain them. may be described, as well as how much time and effort is needed to obtain them. Together, this information is then used for the food-chain portion of the scenario and Together, this information is then used for the food-chain portion of the scenario and to calculate the direct exposure factors. to calculate the direct exposure factors.
This process is laid out in the following sections according to the general sequence: This process is laid out in the following sections according to the general sequence:
1. Environmental setting—what resources are available; 1. Environmental setting—what resources are available; 2. Lifestyle description—activities and their frequency, duration and intensity, 2. Lifestyle description—activities and their frequency, duration and intensity, and resource use; and resource use; 3. Diet; 3. Diet; 4. Exposure pathways, and 4. Exposure pathways, and 5. Exposure factors—iterative cross-walk between pathways and direct 5. Exposure factors—iterative cross-walk between pathways and direct exposure factors: cumulative soil, water, air, and dietary exposures. exposure factors: cumulative soil, water, air, and dietary exposures.
Because the method for developing exposure factors is derived from an Because the method for developing exposure factors is derived from an understanding of lifestyle rather than from large statistical databases (national understanding of lifestyle rather than from large statistical databases (national drinking water rates, or USDA databases of national average food intakes) and is drinking water rates, or USDA databases of national average food intakes) and is
2 http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/NatResources/subsistglobal.html 2 http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/NatResources/subsistglobal.html
Washoe Tribe Scenario 123 Washoe Tribe Scenario 123 unfamiliar to many readers, it is described briefly here (more detail is presented unfamiliar to many readers, it is described briefly here (more detail is presented below). below).
Because large databases are not available and cannot be constructed, we take a Because large databases are not available and cannot be constructed, we take a top-down approach. For example, we do not attempt to develop a complete diet top-down approach. For example, we do not attempt to develop a complete diet based on surveys of the uses of the typical 200+ natural resources available and based on surveys of the uses of the typical 200+ natural resources available and used with an ecoregion. Rather, we develop a calorically complete food pyramid that used with an ecoregion. Rather, we develop a calorically complete food pyramid that identifies the major staples and their rough percentages in the original diet. Similarly, identifies the major staples and their rough percentages in the original diet. Similarly, we do not develop an average day by tracking hundreds of individual activities from we do not develop an average day by tracking hundreds of individual activities from many people. The basic process is to: many people. The basic process is to:
1. Start with an understanding of the major categories of subsistence activities 1. Start with an understanding of the major categories of subsistence activities (such as hunting, fishing, gathering, basket making, and sweat lodge (such as hunting, fishing, gathering, basket making, and sweat lodge purification), purification), 2. Describe enough of the sub-activities that the complexity and interconnection 2. Describe enough of the sub-activities that the complexity and interconnection of resources and activities can be understood, of resources and activities can be understood, 3. Identify the major activities that contribute to exposure, and then 3. Identify the major activities that contribute to exposure, and then 4. Iteratively cross-walk between activities and conventional exposure factors to 4. Iteratively cross-walk between activities and conventional exposure factors to develop cumulative exposure factors. develop cumulative exposure factors.
To illustrate, each of the major activity categories includes activities that result in To illustrate, each of the major activity categories includes activities that result in exposure to soil, and therefore soil ingestion. By estimating the relative amount of exposure to soil, and therefore soil ingestion. By estimating the relative amount of time spent in activities that result in high, medium, or low soil exposure for each time spent in activities that result in high, medium, or low soil exposure for each activity category, an overall soil-ingestion rate can be estimated. However, we do not activity category, an overall soil-ingestion rate can be estimated. However, we do not attempt to be overly quantitative in enumerating the myriad activities and resources attempt to be overly quantitative in enumerating the myriad activities and resources in each category—this requires more precision than is warranted and is likely to in each category—this requires more precision than is warranted and is likely to require proprietary information that cannot be released. require proprietary information that cannot be released.
Finally, a review of existing literature (biomedical, anthropological, and so on) Finally, a review of existing literature (biomedical, anthropological, and so on) enables us to double-check whether multiple lines of evidence leads us to a similar enables us to double-check whether multiple lines of evidence leads us to a similar conclusion for each exposure factor. conclusion for each exposure factor.
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2 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 2 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
This section provides a general introduction to habitats and plant communities This section provides a general introduction to habitats and plant communities present in Washoe territory. General resource use throughout the Washoe territory present in Washoe territory. General resource use throughout the Washoe territory is described, with reference to the Leviathan-Bryant Creek drainage or similar is described, with reference to the Leviathan-Bryant Creek drainage or similar drainages as data are available. drainages as data are available.
The Washoe culture, which evolved around Lake Tahoe, exploits a wide range of The Washoe culture, which evolved around Lake Tahoe, exploits a wide range of resources and ecological niches. The Washoe territory includes the boreal lakes and resources and ecological niches. The Washoe territory includes the boreal lakes and Sierra crest conifer zone (including Lake Tahoe, Honey Lake, and Topaz Lake), the Sierra crest conifer zone (including Lake Tahoe, Honey Lake, and Topaz Lake), the transition zone with pinyon pines, and the Sonoran or sagebrush zone. Permanent transition zone with pinyon pines, and the Sonoran or sagebrush zone. Permanent settlements were located primarily near rivers and springs on the high ground of settlements were located primarily near rivers and springs on the high ground of larger valleys. The distribution of resources was largely the same in all major valleys, larger valleys. The distribution of resources was largely the same in all major valleys, with some north-to-south gradations. with some north-to-south gradations.
Many authors have described the general environmental setting of the Sierra Many authors have described the general environmental setting of the Sierra Nevada, Pinyon-Juniper, and Great Basin ecosystems (Barbour and Major 1977, Nevada, Pinyon-Juniper, and Great Basin ecosystems (Barbour and Major 1977, Brown 1986, Foster and Hobbs 1992, Holland and Kiel 1995, Lanner 1981, Moore Brown 1986, Foster and Hobbs 1992, Holland and Kiel 1995, Lanner 1981, Moore 2000, Muir 1988a, b, Schaffer 1998, Smith 2000, Tilford 1997, Tingley and Pizarro 2000, Muir 1988a, b, Schaffer 1998, Smith 2000, Tilford 1997, Tingley and Pizarro 2000, Winnett 1987). There are two distinct ecosystem types in the original Washoe 2000, Winnett 1987). There are two distinct ecosystem types in the original Washoe territory—the heavily timbered and well-watered Sierra Nevada and the semi-desert territory—the heavily timbered and well-watered Sierra Nevada and the semi-desert Great Basin. Great Basin.
The elevation of the Sierra Nevada causes saturated westerly winds to drop most of The elevation of the Sierra Nevada causes saturated westerly winds to drop most of their moisture on the western slope. The moister western side has more ecological their moisture on the western slope. The moister western side has more ecological zones than the eastern side, with more gradual transitions from one to the next. The zones than the eastern side, with more gradual transitions from one to the next. The western slopes mostly contain chaparrals and ponderosa pine-oak woodlands, while western slopes mostly contain chaparrals and ponderosa pine-oak woodlands, while the rain-shadowed eastern slopes, stretching from the peaks to the Great Basin the rain-shadowed eastern slopes, stretching from the peaks to the Great Basin floor, mostly contain pinyon-juniper and sagebrush-steppe plant communities. floor, mostly contain pinyon-juniper and sagebrush-steppe plant communities.
A general sequence of vegetation types from higher to lower elevation is described A general sequence of vegetation types from higher to lower elevation is described by Walker (2003), Hammett et al. (2004), and references cited therein, and is by Walker (2003), Hammett et al. (2004), and references cited therein, and is summarized in the following sections. summarized in the following sections.
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The area is shown on a map of the continental US in Figure 1 below. The area is shown on a map of the continental US in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1. Continental U.S. with Washoe Tribe Location Figure 1. Continental U.S. with Washoe Tribe Location
2.1 BOREAL ZONES 2.1 BOREAL ZONES 2.1.1 Upper Montane Zone 2.1.1 Upper Montane Zone This boreal zone typically contains Jeffrey pine, white fir, and incense cedar (on This boreal zone typically contains Jeffrey pine, white fir, and incense cedar (on gravelly dry slopes at higher elevations and moister north slopes at lower elevations) gravelly dry slopes at higher elevations and moister north slopes at lower elevations) with understories of greenleaf and pinemat manzanita, tobacco brush and/or snow with understories of greenleaf and pinemat manzanita, tobacco brush and/or snow bush, depending on soil type, moisture, canopy cover, and aspect. Oaks are shrubs bush, depending on soil type, moisture, canopy cover, and aspect. Oaks are shrubs at this elevation (huckleberry oak and bush chinquapin). This zone may include at this elevation (huckleberry oak and bush chinquapin). This zone may include white and lodgepole pine if the water table is high, and red fir in flats with deep soils. white and lodgepole pine if the water table is high, and red fir in flats with deep soils. This broad zone includes several subzones: the alpine and subalpine belts at higher This broad zone includes several subzones: the alpine and subalpine belts at higher elevations, and the lodgepole-fir belt. elevations, and the lodgepole-fir belt.
2.1.2 Lower Montane Zone 2.1.2 Lower Montane Zone This boreal zone typically contains pines, red fir, and western or Sierra juniper with This boreal zone typically contains pines, red fir, and western or Sierra juniper with chaparral understories of manzanitas, deer brush, whiteleaf, snowberry, serviceberry chaparral understories of manzanitas, deer brush, whiteleaf, snowberry, serviceberry (Amelanchier), tobacco brush (Ceanothus velutinus), mountain mahogany (Amelanchier), tobacco brush (Ceanothus velutinus), mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus lidifolius), mountain misery, or sagebrush, depending on soil type, (Cercocarpus lidifolius), mountain misery, or sagebrush, depending on soil type, moisture, canopy cover, and aspect. There are also some black oaks, western white moisture, canopy cover, and aspect. There are also some black oaks, western white pine, and sugar pine. Where fires have been suppressed, white fir and incense pine, and sugar pine. Where fires have been suppressed, white fir and incense cedar overtake ponderosa and black oaks; regular fires promote ponderosa, oaks, cedar overtake ponderosa and black oaks; regular fires promote ponderosa, oaks, and ceanothus (deer forage). In higher meadows or sand flats formed on pumice and ceanothus (deer forage). In higher meadows or sand flats formed on pumice flats, a ring of water-tolerant lodgepole pines may surround the moist flat. In drier flats, a ring of water-tolerant lodgepole pines may surround the moist flat. In drier areas, the understory may be characteristic of Basin sagebrush, with mountain areas, the understory may be characteristic of Basin sagebrush, with mountain mahogany, rabbitbrush, grasses, mule ear (Wyethia mollis), squirrel tail (Elymus mahogany, rabbitbrush, grasses, mule ear (Wyethia mollis), squirrel tail (Elymus elymoides), Great Basin wild rye, and forbs such as yarrow (Achillea millefolium), elymoides), Great Basin wild rye, and forbs such as yarrow (Achillea millefolium),
Washoe Tribe Scenario 126 Washoe Tribe Scenario 126
sulfur flower (Eriogonum umbellatum), and lupine (Lupinus argenteus). These latter sulfur flower (Eriogonum umbellatum), and lupine (Lupinus argenteus). These latter species are also being used for revegetation at the mine site.3 species are also being used for revegetation at the mine site.3
2.1.3 Mountain Meadows, Springs, and Creeks 2.1.3 Mountain Meadows, Springs, and Creeks These habitats occur throughout the boreal and transition zones. Riparian species These habitats occur throughout the boreal and transition zones. Riparian species change somewhat with elevation, and may include dogwood, alder, elderberry, change somewhat with elevation, and may include dogwood, alder, elderberry, currants, other berries, quaking aspen, willow, coffeeberry, birches, cottonwood, currants, other berries, quaking aspen, willow, coffeeberry, birches, cottonwood, rushes, sedges, grasses, horsetail, ferns, and a variety of bulbs and tubers. Springs rushes, sedges, grasses, horsetail, ferns, and a variety of bulbs and tubers. Springs and associated marshes and riparian habitats are extremely important to the Pine and associated marshes and riparian habitats are extremely important to the Pine Nut Mountains’ wildlife and to the Washoe people. They are widely scattered over Nut Mountains’ wildlife and to the Washoe people. They are widely scattered over the Pine Nut Mountains. While some wet areas are saline and alkaline marshes, the Pine Nut Mountains. While some wet areas are saline and alkaline marshes, most are small pools with warm to cool water sources. Where the water table is most are small pools with warm to cool water sources. Where the water table is highest (mesic soils), mountain meadows are present, with willows, alders, highest (mesic soils), mountain meadows are present, with willows, alders, huckleberries, wild rose, aspen, and cottonwood at lower elevations (a sign of huckleberries, wild rose, aspen, and cottonwood at lower elevations (a sign of water). Meadows have the highest plant diversity, with up to a hundred species in a water). Meadows have the highest plant diversity, with up to a hundred species in a single meadow. Mule ears (an aromatic large-leafed sunflower) can form colonies in single meadow. Mule ears (an aromatic large-leafed sunflower) can form colonies in dry meadows that are tens of acres in size. Berries, swamp onions, fern, wild dry meadows that are tens of acres in size. Berries, swamp onions, fern, wild spinach, wild lettuce, and various bulbs and tubers, such as lilies, wild potatoes, and spinach, wild lettuce, and various bulbs and tubers, such as lilies, wild potatoes, and Indian sweet potatoes, may be present. Tule, cattail, sedges, and other rushes can Indian sweet potatoes, may be present. Tule, cattail, sedges, and other rushes can be present if moist enough. On river bottomlands, wild rye, western wheatgrass, be present if moist enough. On river bottomlands, wild rye, western wheatgrass, Nevada bluegrass, sedges, rushes, silver buffaloberry, rubber rabbitbrush, Basin big Nevada bluegrass, sedges, rushes, silver buffaloberry, rubber rabbitbrush, Basin big sagebrush, Fremont cottonwood, and willow can be found. sagebrush, Fremont cottonwood, and willow can be found.
2.2 TRANSITION ZONES 2.2 TRANSITION ZONES 2.2.1 Pinyon-Juniper Habitat (Pinus monophylla-Juniperus osteosperma) 2.2.1 Pinyon-Juniper Habitat (Pinus monophylla-Juniperus osteosperma) This habitat covers slopes of the eastern Sierra in areas with gravelly, well-drained This habitat covers slopes of the eastern Sierra in areas with gravelly, well-drained soils, which transition into the lower sagebrush belt. This community is closely soils, which transition into the lower sagebrush belt. This community is closely associated with sagebrush scrub, often with pinyons on upper slopes and sage just associated with sagebrush scrub, often with pinyons on upper slopes and sage just below them on flatter drier areas. The understory is most often sage, bitterbrush, below them on flatter drier areas. The understory is most often sage, bitterbrush, rabbitbrush, green ephedra (Mormon tea), and mountain mahogany, with a variety of rabbitbrush, green ephedra (Mormon tea), and mountain mahogany, with a variety of perennial wildflowers and grasses. perennial wildflowers and grasses.
2.2.2 Sagebrush Steppe 2.2.2 Sagebrush Steppe Intermountain grassland and Basin sagebrush plant associations occur at lower and Intermountain grassland and Basin sagebrush plant associations occur at lower and drier elevations with sage (Artemesia tridendata), rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus drier elevations with sage (Artemesia tridendata), rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus), and a variety of grasses and flowers. In the Basin (by the East Fork of nauseosus), and a variety of grasses and flowers. In the Basin (by the East Fork of the Carson River around Dresslerville), the vegetation on the bench lands includes the Carson River around Dresslerville), the vegetation on the bench lands includes Wyoming big sagebrush, rabbitbrush, bitterbrush, greasewood, spiny hopsage, Wyoming big sagebrush, rabbitbrush, bitterbrush, greasewood, spiny hopsage, green ephedra (Mormon tea), Anderson peachbush, balsamroot, Thurber green ephedra (Mormon tea), Anderson peachbush, balsamroot, Thurber needlegrass, bottlebrush squirreltail, a variety of grass seeds, mustard, pigweed, needlegrass, bottlebrush squirreltail, a variety of grass seeds, mustard, pigweed,
3 Lahontan Regional Water Quality Control Board, State of California (2003). 2002 Year-End Report 3 Lahontan Regional Water Quality Control Board, State of California (2003). 2002 Year-End Report for Leviathan Mine, Alpine County, California, p.24, for Leviathan Mine, Alpine County, California, p.24, http://www.swrcb.ca.gov/rwqcb6/Leviathan/PDFs/2002_year_end_report_FINAL.pdf. http://www.swrcb.ca.gov/rwqcb6/Leviathan/PDFs/2002_year_end_report_FINAL.pdf.
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saltbrush, rabbitbrush, sand grass, and other grasses. It also includes the sego lily, a saltbrush, rabbitbrush, sand grass, and other grasses. It also includes the sego lily, a food source that sustained Washoe people and Anglo settlers during times of food source that sustained Washoe people and Anglo settlers during times of scarcity. scarcity.
2.2.3 Mountain Meadows, Springs, and Creeks 2.2.3 Mountain Meadows, Springs, and Creeks These habitats occur throughout the boreal and transition zones. Riparian species These habitats occur throughout the boreal and transition zones. Riparian species change somewhat with elevation, and may include dogwood, alder, elderberry, change somewhat with elevation, and may include dogwood, alder, elderberry, currants, other berries, quaking aspen, willow, coffeeberry, birches, cottonwood, currants, other berries, quaking aspen, willow, coffeeberry, birches, cottonwood, rushes, sedges, grasses, horsetail, ferns, and a variety of bulbs and tubers. Springs rushes, sedges, grasses, horsetail, ferns, and a variety of bulbs and tubers. Springs and associated marshes and riparian habitats are extremely important to the Pine and associated marshes and riparian habitats are extremely important to the Pine Nut Mountains’ wildlife and to the Washoe people. They are widely scattered over Nut Mountains’ wildlife and to the Washoe people. They are widely scattered over the Pine Nut Mountains. While some wet areas are saline and alkaline marshes, the Pine Nut Mountains. While some wet areas are saline and alkaline marshes, most are small pools with warm to cool water sources. Where the water table is most are small pools with warm to cool water sources. Where the water table is highest (mesic soils), mountain meadows are present, with willows, alders, highest (mesic soils), mountain meadows are present, with willows, alders, huckleberries, wild rose, aspen, and cottonwood at lower elevations (a sign of huckleberries, wild rose, aspen, and cottonwood at lower elevations (a sign of water). Meadows have the highest plant diversity, with up to a hundred species in a water). Meadows have the highest plant diversity, with up to a hundred species in a single meadow. Mule ears (an aromatic large-leafed sunflower) can form colonies in single meadow. Mule ears (an aromatic large-leafed sunflower) can form colonies in dry meadows that are tens of acres in size. Berries, swamp onions, fern, wild dry meadows that are tens of acres in size. Berries, swamp onions, fern, wild spinach, wild lettuce, and various bulbs and tubers, such as lilies, wild potatoes, and spinach, wild lettuce, and various bulbs and tubers, such as lilies, wild potatoes, and Indian sweet potatoes, may be present. Tule, cattail, sedges, and other rushes can Indian sweet potatoes, may be present. Tule, cattail, sedges, and other rushes can be present if moist enough. On river bottomlands, wild rye, western wheatgrass, be present if moist enough. On river bottomlands, wild rye, western wheatgrass, Nevada bluegrass, sedges, rushes, silver buffaloberry, rubber rabbitbrush, Basin big Nevada bluegrass, sedges, rushes, silver buffaloberry, rubber rabbitbrush, Basin big sagebrush, Fremont cottonwood, and willow can be found. sagebrush, Fremont cottonwood, and willow can be found.
2.3 GREAT BASIN VALLEY FLOOR 2.3 GREAT BASIN VALLEY FLOOR The valley floor is included because contamination from the mine may have traveled The valley floor is included because contamination from the mine may have traveled to the lower reaches of the East Fork of the Carson River. The lowest zone in the to the lower reaches of the East Fork of the Carson River. The lowest zone in the Great Basin is the shadscale zone, named after its most abundant shrub, and Great Basin is the shadscale zone, named after its most abundant shrub, and typically includes also green rabbitbrush, sagebrush, four-winged saltbrush, Bailey’s typically includes also green rabbitbrush, sagebrush, four-winged saltbrush, Bailey’s greasewood, and littleleaf horsebrush. The more saline areas may be dominated by greasewood, and littleleaf horsebrush. The more saline areas may be dominated by big greasewood, along with desert blite and green molly. big greasewood, along with desert blite and green molly.
2.3.1 Desert Marshlands 2.3.1 Desert Marshlands The Great Basin has no river outlets, but exhibits high evaporation rates; therefore, The Great Basin has no river outlets, but exhibits high evaporation rates; therefore, some wet areas can contain alkaline waters and soils/sediments. Depending on the some wet areas can contain alkaline waters and soils/sediments. Depending on the alkalinity, these waterlogged areas may contain salt-tolerant sedges and rushes. For alkalinity, these waterlogged areas may contain salt-tolerant sedges and rushes. For example, the Stillwater Marsh (near to but not in the affected area) has four lakes example, the Stillwater Marsh (near to but not in the affected area) has four lakes that drain from one to another, causing the salinity to increase sequentially. The first that drain from one to another, causing the salinity to increase sequentially. The first lake receives the freshest water (still potable) and contains cattails, bulrush, willow, lake receives the freshest water (still potable) and contains cattails, bulrush, willow, and sago pondweed. The next lake is more saline and contains muskgrass, sago and sago pondweed. The next lake is more saline and contains muskgrass, sago pondweed, and wigeongrass. The third basin contains alkali saltbrush or nutgrass. pondweed, and wigeongrass. The third basin contains alkali saltbrush or nutgrass. The final basin is the most saline (similar and up to twice as saline as seawater) and The final basin is the most saline (similar and up to twice as saline as seawater) and contains few plants but many brine shrimp and brine flies. contains few plants but many brine shrimp and brine flies.
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2.4 WATERSHEDS 2.4 WATERSHEDS Many tribal homelands are defined in terms of watershed boundaries with the water Many tribal homelands are defined in terms of watershed boundaries with the water source in the center (unlike the Western habit of using rivers as peripheral source in the center (unlike the Western habit of using rivers as peripheral boundaries). This is because native peoples use entire river valleys with their ranges boundaries). This is because native peoples use entire river valleys with their ranges of elevation from the river bottoms to the boundary ridges or mountains, and utilized of elevation from the river bottoms to the boundary ridges or mountains, and utilized the associated seasonal patterns of resource availability. Figure 2 shows the the associated seasonal patterns of resource availability. Figure 2 shows the Washoe area watersheds. Washoe area watersheds.
Figure 2. Washoe Area Watersheds Figure 2. Washoe Area Watersheds
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2.5 WASHOE ECOREGIONS 2.5 WASHOE ECOREGIONS The basic premise of understanding ecologically-based lifeways is that people adapt The basic premise of understanding ecologically-based lifeways is that people adapt their activities and diets to their local ecological region in order to survive and their activities and diets to their local ecological region in order to survive and prosper. Therefore, the description of environmental setting must identify natural prosper. Therefore, the description of environmental setting must identify natural ecological zones, or ecoregions. Ecoregions denote areas of general similarity in ecological zones, or ecoregions. Ecoregions denote areas of general similarity in ecosystems and in the type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. They ecosystems and in the type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. They are designed to serve as a spatial framework for the research, assessment, are designed to serve as a spatial framework for the research, assessment, management, and monitoring of ecosystems and ecosystem components (Bryce et management, and monitoring of ecosystems and ecosystem components (Bryce et al. 1999). These general purpose regions are critical for structuring and al. 1999). These general purpose regions are critical for structuring and implementing ecosystem management strategies across federal and state agencies implementing ecosystem management strategies across federal and state agencies and nongovernmental organizations responsible for different types of resources in and nongovernmental organizations responsible for different types of resources in the same geographical areas (Omernik 2000). the same geographical areas (Omernik 2000).
Ecological diversity is strongly related to its varied climate, terrain, geology, and soil, Ecological diversity is strongly related to its varied climate, terrain, geology, and soil, and largely tracks watersheds and physiographic regions. In North America, several and largely tracks watersheds and physiographic regions. In North America, several broad climatic zones are recognized, roughly corresponding to temperature and broad climatic zones are recognized, roughly corresponding to temperature and moisture gradients. North American vegetation types roughly track these zones. Of moisture gradients. North American vegetation types roughly track these zones. Of these zones, the Northwestern Forested Mountains and North American Deserts are these zones, the Northwestern Forested Mountains and North American Deserts are relevant to the Washoe Scenario. Because the zones are defined by dominant relevant to the Washoe Scenario. Because the zones are defined by dominant vegetation types, the composition of plant and animal species is fairly predictable for vegetation types, the composition of plant and animal species is fairly predictable for the dominant species. Local differences in geology (soils and deeper substrates), the dominant species. Local differences in geology (soils and deeper substrates), elevation, aspect, and climate (light, temperature, precipitation and wind), and water elevation, aspect, and climate (light, temperature, precipitation and wind), and water (streams and wetlands) affect individual plant associations. (streams and wetlands) affect individual plant associations.
A hierarchical scheme has been adopted for different levels of ecological regions, A hierarchical scheme has been adopted for different levels of ecological regions, and is being used by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).4 Level I is and is being used by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).4 Level I is the coarsest level, dividing North America into 15 ecological regions. Level II divides the coarsest level, dividing North America into 15 ecological regions. Level II divides the continent into 52 regions. At Level III, the conterminous United States has 84 the continent into 52 regions. At Level III, the conterminous United States has 84 (USEPA 2005). Methods used by the USEPA to define the ecoregions are explained (USEPA 2005). Methods used by the USEPA to define the ecoregions are explained in Omernik (1995, 2000, 2004), Gallant et al. (1989), and Bailey (1995).5 The in Omernik (1995, 2000, 2004), Gallant et al. (1989), and Bailey (1995).5 The approach used to compile these ecoregion maps is based on the premise that approach used to compile these ecoregion maps is based on the premise that ecoregions can be identified through the analysis of the spatial patterns and the ecoregions can be identified through the analysis of the spatial patterns and the composition of biotic and abiotic characteristics that affect or reflect differences in composition of biotic and abiotic characteristics that affect or reflect differences in ecosystem quality and integrity (Wiken 1986, Omernik 1987, 1995). These ecosystem quality and integrity (Wiken 1986, Omernik 1987, 1995). These characteristics include physiography, geology, climate, soils, land use, wildlife, fish, characteristics include physiography, geology, climate, soils, land use, wildlife, fish, hydrology, and vegetation, including “potential natural vegetation,” defined by hydrology, and vegetation, including “potential natural vegetation,” defined by Kuchler as vegetation that would exist today if human influence ended and the Kuchler as vegetation that would exist today if human influence ended and the natural vegetation were restored (including the earlier fire regime of mixed natural natural vegetation were restored (including the earlier fire regime of mixed natural and indigenous origin, and natural flooding). and indigenous origin, and natural flooding).
4 http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions.htm and 4 http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions.htm and http://www.cec.org/files/PDF/BIODIVERSITY/eco-eng_EN.pdf http://www.cec.org/files/PDF/BIODIVERSITY/eco-eng_EN.pdf 5 USFS Bailey province ecology: http://www.fs.fed.us/land/pubs/ecoregions/intro.html 5 USFS Bailey province ecology: http://www.fs.fed.us/land/pubs/ecoregions/intro.html
Washoe Tribe Scenario 130 Washoe Tribe Scenario 130
Below, Figure 3 shows the traditional Level III ecoregions of the Washoe. Below, Figure 3 shows the traditional Level III ecoregions of the Washoe.
Figure 3. Washoe Level III Ecoregions Figure 3. Washoe Level III Ecoregions
Washoe Tribe Scenario 131 Washoe Tribe Scenario 131
3 OVERVIEW OF GENERAL WASHOE ECOLOGICAL LIFESTYLE 3 OVERVIEW OF GENERAL WASHOE ECOLOGICAL LIFESTYLE
The Washoe did not have to travel very far to obtain all the resources they needed The Washoe did not have to travel very far to obtain all the resources they needed and to access trade across the Sierras into California (Cook 1941). The Washoe and to access trade across the Sierras into California (Cook 1941). The Washoe economy focused on plant gathering, fishing, and hunting (Price 1980, Kelly 1995, economy focused on plant gathering, fishing, and hunting (Price 1980, Kelly 1995, Tucker et al. 1992). The predominant staples included fish and pinyon nuts, both of Tucker et al. 1992). The predominant staples included fish and pinyon nuts, both of which were zealously defended (Downs 1966). There is evidence that Washoe which were zealously defended (Downs 1966). There is evidence that Washoe families had a form of ownership interest of pinyon plots, which is rare in hunting and families had a form of ownership interest of pinyon plots, which is rare in hunting and gathering societies. Additional staples included rabbits, acorns (obtained from gathering societies. Additional staples included rabbits, acorns (obtained from northern Washoe areas or by trade from across the Sierras into California), large northern Washoe areas or by trade from across the Sierras into California), large game, small game, fowl, and many bulbs, roots, seeds and berries (Walker 2003, game, small game, fowl, and many bulbs, roots, seeds and berries (Walker 2003, Hammett et al. 2004). An abundance of basket weaving and rabbit-skin robes Hammett et al. 2004). An abundance of basket weaving and rabbit-skin robes indicates that a considerable amount of time was available for the material aspects indicates that a considerable amount of time was available for the material aspects of the culture. In the words of one Tribe member, water was a culturally esteemed of the culture. In the words of one Tribe member, water was a culturally esteemed resource, resource,
Water has always had a special significance to the Washoe people. All life is Water has always had a special significance to the Washoe people. All life is derived from water in Washoe beliefs, and water is considered sacred. There derived from water in Washoe beliefs, and water is considered sacred. There are legends and mythologies related to water. The many uses of water range are legends and mythologies related to water. The many uses of water range from spiritual, medicinal, and ceremonial uses, to everyday uses such as from spiritual, medicinal, and ceremonial uses, to everyday uses such as drinking, bathing, cooking, and cleaning with water. Water—whether in drinking, bathing, cooking, and cleaning with water. Water—whether in springs, streams, rivers, or lakes—has such a defining and profound role in springs, streams, rivers, or lakes—has such a defining and profound role in the culture of the Washoe people that it could be described as the essence of the culture of the Washoe people that it could be described as the essence of the Washoe people.6 the Washoe people.6
The number of people who still know and practice traditional ways (or remember The number of people who still know and practice traditional ways (or remember them) is high, based on the number of people available for interviews by Walker and them) is high, based on the number of people available for interviews by Walker and Hammett. Hammett.
3.1 HISTORICAL SEASONAL PATTERNS OF THE WASHOE 3.1 HISTORICAL SEASONAL PATTERNS OF THE WASHOE
This section describes both the historical cycles and the modern adaptations that still This section describes both the historical cycles and the modern adaptations that still follow seasonal resource availability. Although this description often refers to past follow seasonal resource availability. Although this description often refers to past practices, it is important to understand that a resource-oriented lifestyle must still practices, it is important to understand that a resource-oriented lifestyle must still conform to the natural environment. Thus, even if people do not physically move conform to the natural environment. Thus, even if people do not physically move their homes seasonally, they still pursue original seasonal activities in original their homes seasonally, they still pursue original seasonal activities in original locations from a permanent home base, with modern conveyances and tools locations from a permanent home base, with modern conveyances and tools enabling them to reach these areas quicker and process resources faster. Also, pine enabling them to reach these areas quicker and process resources faster. Also, pine nut camps, hunting camps, fishing camps, or other resource-based camps are still nut camps, hunting camps, fishing camps, or other resource-based camps are still used by many native peoples. used by many native peoples.
The Washoe year includes annual cycles for fishing, gathering, and hunting (Downs The Washoe year includes annual cycles for fishing, gathering, and hunting (Downs 1966, Kelly 2001). Fishing occurs all year long, but begins in earnest as soon as the 1966, Kelly 2001). Fishing occurs all year long, but begins in earnest as soon as the snow begins to leave the lower foothills. Whitefish from Lake Tahoe and the rivers snow begins to leave the lower foothills. Whitefish from Lake Tahoe and the rivers
6 Darrel Cruz, Washoe Tribal member and Washoe Tribe Environmental Specialist, March 10, 2005. 6 Darrel Cruz, Washoe Tribal member and Washoe Tribe Environmental Specialist, March 10, 2005.
Washoe Tribe Scenario 132 Washoe Tribe Scenario 132
provided welcome fresh food, along with game and early spring plants. By June, provided welcome fresh food, along with game and early spring plants. By June, people had moved from the lake to winter camps in the pinyon belt or lowlands, to people had moved from the lake to winter camps in the pinyon belt or lowlands, to harvest spring migrations of trout and suckers from the lakes to the tributaries. Fish harvest spring migrations of trout and suckers from the lakes to the tributaries. Fish were dried and lasted most but not all of the year, supplemented by smaller fish were dried and lasted most but not all of the year, supplemented by smaller fish fresh from streams and rivers (the Carson River, Truckee River, Bryant Creek, and fresh from streams and rivers (the Carson River, Truckee River, Bryant Creek, and their tributaries). When the spring spawning runs were over, families moved to their tributaries). When the spring spawning runs were over, families moved to higher lakes, where mountain meadows provided an increasing amount and diversity higher lakes, where mountain meadows provided an increasing amount and diversity of food and more fish and animals became available. By late summer, the many of food and more fish and animals became available. By late summer, the many ripening lowland grasses spurred a round of seed gathering. In the fall, the pinyon ripening lowland grasses spurred a round of seed gathering. In the fall, the pinyon nut harvest occurred, as well as its associated ceremonies, large assemblages, and nut harvest occurred, as well as its associated ceremonies, large assemblages, and other events. Tremendous amounts of nuts were gathered, parched, and stored for other events. Tremendous amounts of nuts were gathered, parched, and stored for winter and year-round use. winter and year-round use.
Washoes were active during all seasons, although less so during the winter due to Washoes were active during all seasons, although less so during the winter due to weather conditions (Downs 1966, Kelly 1995, Hammett et al. 2004, Walker 2003, weather conditions (Downs 1966, Kelly 1995, Hammett et al. 2004, Walker 2003, Price 1980, Tucker et al. 1992). At that time, watercress was the primary fresh green Price 1980, Tucker et al. 1992). At that time, watercress was the primary fresh green plant available for gathering. The main winter foods were pine nuts, dried and frozen plant available for gathering. The main winter foods were pine nuts, dried and frozen meats, dried berries, fish, fowl, seeds, dried root and seed cakes, and teas and meats, dried berries, fish, fowl, seeds, dried root and seed cakes, and teas and medicines. Some of the pine nuts were partially processed, but grinding, winnowing, medicines. Some of the pine nuts were partially processed, but grinding, winnowing, skinning, and other activities were still required. The Tribe had to gather firewood skinning, and other activities were still required. The Tribe had to gather firewood year-round. Whitefish were sought in the winter and hunting continued, and there year-round. Whitefish were sought in the winter and hunting continued, and there was an emphasis on making tools, baskets, and other material items. Food and was an emphasis on making tools, baskets, and other material items. Food and material preparation were constantly required regardless of weather. The full range material preparation were constantly required regardless of weather. The full range of plant and animal processing was constant, including hulling, grinding, pounding, of plant and animal processing was constant, including hulling, grinding, pounding, scraping, roasting, excavating cooking pits, carrying loads of food and materials and scraping, roasting, excavating cooking pits, carrying loads of food and materials and firewood, and building smoking racks, hearths, caches, and shelters. Similarly, firewood, and building smoking racks, hearths, caches, and shelters. Similarly, people always scouted, tracked game, monitored where to harvest the next ready people always scouted, tracked game, monitored where to harvest the next ready resources, or looked for good stands. Downs noted that, “Plant foods were gathered resources, or looked for good stands. Downs noted that, “Plant foods were gathered intensively from early spring until late fall” (1966). A longer list of activities is intensively from early spring until late fall” (1966). A longer list of activities is presented in Hammett et al. (2004). presented in Hammett et al. (2004).
3.2 GENERAL RESOURCE USE 3.2 GENERAL RESOURCE USE A wide variety of species use by the Washoe is documented. Fowler (1986) lists A wide variety of species use by the Washoe is documented. Fowler (1986) lists over 200 species used throughout the Great Basin, many of which are in the over 200 species used throughout the Great Basin, many of which are in the Washoe areas, and Tilford (1997) notes that around 150 edible and medicinal Washoe areas, and Tilford (1997) notes that around 150 edible and medicinal species, including berries are in the general area, with 75% of those species (or at species, including berries are in the general area, with 75% of those species (or at least 100) expected to be present in the Washoe territory. D’Azevedo (1986) least 100) expected to be present in the Washoe territory. D’Azevedo (1986) describes “a large variety of predictable resources close at hand.” describes “a large variety of predictable resources close at hand.”
Hammett et al. (2004) and Walker (2003) analyzed information on plant and animal Hammett et al. (2004) and Walker (2003) analyzed information on plant and animal use from historical and contemporary ethnographic sources, including interviews use from historical and contemporary ethnographic sources, including interviews with tribal members. The interviews focused on the resources of the Leviathan- with tribal members. The interviews focused on the resources of the Leviathan- Bryant Creek watershed that are or were used by Washoe tribal members. The Bryant Creek watershed that are or were used by Washoe tribal members. The Walker report identifies many resources used. The Hammett report identifies and Walker report identifies many resources used. The Hammett report identifies and quantifies some of the resources of the overall diet, and also determines an activity quantifies some of the resources of the overall diet, and also determines an activity level needed to develop exposure factors for traditional activities. level needed to develop exposure factors for traditional activities.
Washoe Tribe Scenario 133 Washoe Tribe Scenario 133
3.2.1 Fishing and Hunting 3.2.1 Fishing and Hunting Fishing was a highly important vocation. In the higher mountain section of the Fishing was a highly important vocation. In the higher mountain section of the Washoe country, notably at Lake Tahoe, fishing was of similar importance as pine Washoe country, notably at Lake Tahoe, fishing was of similar importance as pine nut gathering. The Bryant Creek drainage has been a primary fishing area for the nut gathering. The Bryant Creek drainage has been a primary fishing area for the Washoe, and also has contained some of the best hunting grounds. Fish of various Washoe, and also has contained some of the best hunting grounds. Fish of various kinds were abundant in the Bryant Creek drainage. Several native species of fish kinds were abundant in the Bryant Creek drainage. Several native species of fish (Lahontan cutthroat trout, whitefish, suckers, and minnows) and introduced species (Lahontan cutthroat trout, whitefish, suckers, and minnows) and introduced species (brown trout, brook trout, rainbow trout, golden trout, and carp) are now present, (brown trout, brook trout, rainbow trout, golden trout, and carp) are now present, although diminished. although diminished.
We depended on that creek [Leviathan and Bryant] before [mining]; we used We depended on that creek [Leviathan and Bryant] before [mining]; we used to fish in it. There were big fish in it, and we fished it all the time (Walker to fish in it. There were big fish in it, and we fished it all the time (Walker 2003). 2003).
Game resources collected by the Washoe in the higher elevations, the Bryant Creek Game resources collected by the Washoe in the higher elevations, the Bryant Creek drainage, and the East Fork of the Carson River include but are not limited to deer, drainage, and the East Fork of the Carson River include but are not limited to deer, antelope, marmot, ground squirrels,7 rabbits, crayfish, clams, waterfowl, quail, sage antelope, marmot, ground squirrels,7 rabbits, crayfish, clams, waterfowl, quail, sage hens, grouse, and grasshoppers. The annual deer migration from high to lower hens, grouse, and grasshoppers. The annual deer migration from high to lower elevations through the Leviathan Creek corridor was a predictable event and the elevations through the Leviathan Creek corridor was a predictable event and the people relied upon it as a source of deer meat. However, as interviewees noted, the people relied upon it as a source of deer meat. However, as interviewees noted, the deer do not come over Monitor Pass or through the Leviathan Creek area any more, deer do not come over Monitor Pass or through the Leviathan Creek area any more, indicating disrupted migration patterns (Walker 2003). indicating disrupted migration patterns (Walker 2003).
3.2.2 Gathering 3.2.2 Gathering Price (1980) writes that “the average [Washoe] woman was comparable to a botanist Price (1980) writes that “the average [Washoe] woman was comparable to a botanist in her medical knowledge of plants,” and that “about 100 species of plants were in her medical knowledge of plants,” and that “about 100 species of plants were used in some way as food, medicine, fiber, or construction.” Hammett et al. (2004) used in some way as food, medicine, fiber, or construction.” Hammett et al. (2004) also lists about 100 plant species used. Downs (1966) describes the variety and also lists about 100 plant species used. Downs (1966) describes the variety and amounts of plant foods as “almost infinite,” but widely dispersed. amounts of plant foods as “almost infinite,” but widely dispersed.
The semi-arid portion of the general Washoe territory provides a variety of grasses The semi-arid portion of the general Washoe territory provides a variety of grasses with edible seeds, as well as the pinyon pine whose nuts, commonly referred to as with edible seeds, as well as the pinyon pine whose nuts, commonly referred to as “pine nuts,” constitute such an important article of food throughout much of the Great “pine nuts,” constitute such an important article of food throughout much of the Great Basin area. Basin area.
Leviathan Creek was one of the best sources for gathering plant to eat and willow Leviathan Creek was one of the best sources for gathering plant to eat and willow branches for basket making (Walker 2003). Many Leviathan-Bryant Creek plant branches for basket making (Walker 2003). Many Leviathan-Bryant Creek plant resources are cited in the Walker and Hammett interviews. In the spring and early resources are cited in the Walker and Hammett interviews. In the spring and early summer numerous bulbs and roots were historically available, such as wild onions, summer numerous bulbs and roots were historically available, such as wild onions,
7 Different authors and interviewees use the terms gopher, woodchuck, marmot, prairie dogs, ground 7 Different authors and interviewees use the terms gopher, woodchuck, marmot, prairie dogs, ground squirrel, and small or large ground squirrel without indicating species. We assume that woodchucks squirrel, and small or large ground squirrel without indicating species. We assume that woodchucks and large ground squirrels are actually marmots (Marmota flaviventri), and gophers and prairie dogs and large ground squirrels are actually marmots (Marmota flaviventri), and gophers and prairie dogs are actually ground squirrels (Spermophilus beldingi). are actually ground squirrels (Spermophilus beldingi).
Washoe Tribe Scenario 134 Washoe Tribe Scenario 134
watercress, sego lily, camas, bitterroot, several other types of wild lilies, several watercress, sego lily, camas, bitterroot, several other types of wild lilies, several types of wild potatoes, cattail, tule, and many medicines. One Walker (2003) types of wild potatoes, cattail, tule, and many medicines. One Walker (2003) interviewee noted of the mine site, “There is a lot of busdi [wild onions] up there.” interviewee noted of the mine site, “There is a lot of busdi [wild onions] up there.” Among the most common kinds of berries were western chokecherry, elderberry, Among the most common kinds of berries were western chokecherry, elderberry, buckberry, Saskatoon serviceberry, desert and golden currants, Sierra plum, and buckberry, Saskatoon serviceberry, desert and golden currants, Sierra plum, and Sierra gooseberry. Varieties of wild strawberries were also traditionally gathered in Sierra gooseberry. Varieties of wild strawberries were also traditionally gathered in the area and highly prized. Another Tribe member spoke of the abundance of edible the area and highly prized. Another Tribe member spoke of the abundance of edible plants (Walker 2003), “There were a lot of strawberries, spinach, and we had a lot of plants (Walker 2003), “There were a lot of strawberries, spinach, and we had a lot of greens, like watercress. Mama knew a lot of the plants, like wild spinach. There were greens, like watercress. Mama knew a lot of the plants, like wild spinach. There were currants and strawberries, lots of them. There were very sweet. Chokecherries, as currants and strawberries, lots of them. There were very sweet. Chokecherries, as well.” well.”
The leafy and/or tender parts of many plants gathered from the Bryant Creek The leafy and/or tender parts of many plants gathered from the Bryant Creek drainage and the East Fork of the Carson River were often eaten raw, although drainage and the East Fork of the Carson River were often eaten raw, although many were cooked or dried. Several species of watercress grow along many many were cooked or dried. Several species of watercress grow along many streams; some varieties are available throughout the winter months and were eaten streams; some varieties are available throughout the winter months and were eaten fresh as picked. Several types of mushrooms were gathered under trees after spring fresh as picked. Several types of mushrooms were gathered under trees after spring rains, and ephedra tea was used as a stimulating tea and for medicinal purposes rains, and ephedra tea was used as a stimulating tea and for medicinal purposes (Walker 2003). (Walker 2003).
The Washoe were especially noted for their basketry: “Washoe baskets are the The Washoe were especially noted for their basketry: “Washoe baskets are the finest in the world” (Sprout and Sprout 1999, Mason 1904, Cahodas 1979). Today, finest in the world” (Sprout and Sprout 1999, Mason 1904, Cahodas 1979). Today, the Washoes continue to make twined or coiled baskets, primarily out of willow. the Washoes continue to make twined or coiled baskets, primarily out of willow. Inner bark is used for the white twining and sewing elements, and browned from sun Inner bark is used for the white twining and sewing elements, and browned from sun exposure (Barrett 1988). The other primary colored materials are the bracken root exposure (Barrett 1988). The other primary colored materials are the bracken root (Pteridium aquilinum), black when soaked in mud, and the brown or red redbud bark (Pteridium aquilinum), black when soaked in mud, and the brown or red redbud bark (Cercis occidentalis). The latter was historically obtained by trade from the western (Cercis occidentalis). The latter was historically obtained by trade from the western Maidu (Garey-Sage 2003). Softer basket materials include cattails and a variety of Maidu (Garey-Sage 2003). Softer basket materials include cattails and a variety of grasses and sedges. Tules are used for rafts and mats. Most cordage is made from grasses and sedges. Tules are used for rafts and mats. Most cordage is made from dogbane (Apocynum), as well as milkweed (Asclepias), sagebrush, or iris (Lindstrom dogbane (Apocynum), as well as milkweed (Asclepias), sagebrush, or iris (Lindstrom 1992). 1992).
3.2.3 Sampling and Analysis Priorities 3.2.3 Sampling and Analysis Priorities Some of the major plant resources are shown in Table 1, as well as some of the Some of the major plant resources are shown in Table 1, as well as some of the animal species that could be a priority to sample and include in both the human and animal species that could be a priority to sample and include in both the human and ecological risk assessments. Higher trophic levels than those in the table would also ecological risk assessments. Higher trophic levels than those in the table would also be included in both the human and ecological risk assessments, but are not be included in both the human and ecological risk assessments, but are not recommended for sampling (they should be modeled instead). This table is not an recommended for sampling (they should be modeled instead). This table is not an exhaustive list of edible species, but includes representative edible and materially exhaustive list of edible species, but includes representative edible and materially important species. Some categories contain multiple plant families, genera, and important species. Some categories contain multiple plant families, genera, and species. Some indication as to what season a resource is gathered in (and therefore species. Some indication as to what season a resource is gathered in (and therefore when the sampling should be done) is provided. Note that many of these categories when the sampling should be done) is provided. Note that many of these categories include multiple species. In every case, co-located water, soil and/or sediment include multiple species. In every case, co-located water, soil and/or sediment should also be sampled. should also be sampled.
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One major data gap is the distinction between the as-gathered and as-eaten forms. One major data gap is the distinction between the as-gathered and as-eaten forms. Some species are merely brushed off before eating, some are ground, and some are Some species are merely brushed off before eating, some are ground, and some are pit-cooked. Residual soil on the outside of plants is known to be an exposure pit-cooked. Residual soil on the outside of plants is known to be an exposure pathway, but there is very little data on this point. Laboratory analysis should ideally pathway, but there is very little data on this point. Laboratory analysis should ideally test both what is internal to plants and what is left on the surface after being treated test both what is internal to plants and what is left on the surface after being treated by tribal members in their usual way; otherwise the contaminant load will be by tribal members in their usual way; otherwise the contaminant load will be underestimated. underestimated.
Washoe Tribe Scenario 136 Washoe Tribe Scenario 136
Table 1. Priority species for sampling and contaminant analysis. Table 1. Priority species for sampling and contaminant analysis.
Species or Class Habitat Type Rationale Species or Class Habitat Type Rationale Pine nuts Pinyon-Juniper Major food item; ripe in the fall. Pine nuts Pinyon-Juniper Major food item; ripe in the fall. Berries (different Riparian or hillside Berries from different plant families are Berries (different Riparian or hillside Berries from different plant families are classes) —elderberry, used; some are eaten as picked without classes) —elderberry, used; some are eaten as picked without chokecherry, currant, washing (dust pathway) or with washing (in chokecherry, currant, washing (dust pathway) or with washing (in gooseberry, strawberry, contaminated water); some may contain gooseberry, strawberry, contaminated water); some may contain other contaminants in the fruit. Species should other contaminants in the fruit. Species should be varied and kept separate. be varied and kept separate. Seeds—mustard or Sagebrush steppe Some Brassica and Helianthus Seeds—mustard or Sagebrush steppe Some Brassica and Helianthus sunflower/Balsamroot hyperaccumulate metals. sunflower/Balsamroot hyperaccumulate metals. Bracken fern Riparian Roots and fiddlenecks—bracken Bracken fern Riparian Roots and fiddlenecks—bracken hyperaccumulates arsenic; edible hyperaccumulates arsenic; edible fiddlenecks and basket material. fiddlenecks and basket material. Willow shoots Aquatic-Riparian Multiple uses, particularly baskets, high Willow shoots Aquatic-Riparian Multiple uses, particularly baskets, high water uptake; stems chewed and held in water uptake; stems chewed and held in mouth for splitting. Sample in spring growth mouth for splitting. Sample in spring growth cycle. cycle. Tule (Scirpus), cattail Aquatic-Riparian Multiple uses; edible. Collect shoots in Tule (Scirpus), cattail Aquatic-Riparian Multiple uses; edible. Collect shoots in (Typha), sedge (Carex) spring (eaten), leaves (baskets), pollen (Typha), sedge (Carex) spring (eaten), leaves (baskets), pollen (eaten), tubers (eaten, fall is the high (eaten), tubers (eaten, fall is the high starch storage season). The 3 species starch storage season). The 3 species should each be sampled. should each be sampled. Watercress Aquatic-Riparian In-stream; edible, eaten especially in Watercress Aquatic-Riparian In-stream; edible, eaten especially in winter. winter. Edible bulbs and Riparian or hillside- Below-ground edible foods can uptake and Edible bulbs and Riparian or hillside- Below-ground edible foods can uptake and tubers—wild potato, wild meadow retain internal contaminants and/or tubers—wild potato, wild meadow retain internal contaminants and/or onions, wild sweet potato, external residual soil when eaten. Sample onions, wild sweet potato, external residual soil when eaten. Sample yampah, Sego lily, others riparian areas as a priority. Keep plant yampah, Sego lily, others riparian areas as a priority. Keep plant families separate. families separate. Greens—miner’s lettuce, Hillside-meadow Above-ground plants may have deposited Greens—miner’s lettuce, Hillside-meadow Above-ground plants may have deposited nettle, others dust and translocated contaminants; keep nettle, others dust and translocated contaminants; keep plant families separate. plant families separate. Mushrooms Various Some species hyperaccumulate metals Mushrooms Various Some species hyperaccumulate metals Honey Widespread Bees forage, and honey can be a sentinel Honey Widespread Bees forage, and honey can be a sentinel for localized contamination. for localized contamination. Burrowing rodent— Riparian or hillside- Grooming of fur can be a major exposure Burrowing rodent— Riparian or hillside- Grooming of fur can be a major exposure marmot or ground squirrel meadow pathway; some are pit-cooked. marmot or ground squirrel meadow pathway; some are pit-cooked. Shellfish—crawfish, Aquatic Mollusks are filter feeders; crayfish are Shellfish—crawfish, Aquatic Mollusks are filter feeders; crayfish are snail, mussel eaten. Also sample co-located sediment. snail, mussel eaten. Also sample co-located sediment. Aquatic insects Aquatic Ensure that testing for contaminants Aquatic insects Aquatic Ensure that testing for contaminants occurs as far downstream as the scenario occurs as far downstream as the scenario is applied. Should be tested along with is applied. Should be tested along with sediment as an aquatic food-chain base. sediment as an aquatic food-chain base. Resident fish—minnow Aquatic Bottom feeders and predators should be Resident fish—minnow Aquatic Bottom feeders and predators should be or larger fish if present sampled. or larger fish if present sampled.
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4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO 4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO
4.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET 4.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET The approach used in describing an overall diet is to use the information about major The approach used in describing an overall diet is to use the information about major resources present in the study area, foraging theory information, and information resources present in the study area, foraging theory information, and information from existing literature and interviews. An overall total caloric food pyramid with from existing literature and interviews. An overall total caloric food pyramid with rough proportions of different food groups has been developed to show a typical rough proportions of different food groups has been developed to show a typical traditional diet (Figure 4). This food pyramid is reconstructed from information about traditional diet (Figure 4). This food pyramid is reconstructed from information about what the traditional diet actually was, rather than what it might be today if USDA what the traditional diet actually was, rather than what it might be today if USDA recommendations about daily intakes were followed substituting wild foods for recommendations about daily intakes were followed substituting wild foods for domesticated ones. In particular, the traditional Washoe diet was based on fish and domesticated ones. In particular, the traditional Washoe diet was based on fish and game rather than grains. game rather than grains.
The steps for reconstructing the Washoe diet are: The steps for reconstructing the Washoe diet are:
• Review foraging theory information specific to the Tribe, the local ecosystem, • Review foraging theory information specific to the Tribe, the local ecosystem, and, if available, for the specific location under consideration; and, if available, for the specific location under consideration; • Review ecological information for a rough estimate of resource abundance of • Review ecological information for a rough estimate of resource abundance of natural resources under baseline conditions; natural resources under baseline conditions; • Review interviews and other ethnographic sources for supporting information • Review interviews and other ethnographic sources for supporting information of species and abundance, habitat types, human activity levels, and methods of species and abundance, habitat types, human activity levels, and methods of obtaining, preparing, and using resources; of obtaining, preparing, and using resources; • Develop overall percentages of major food categories and major staples • Develop overall percentages of major food categories and major staples within the total diet; within the total diet; • Estimate calories provided by the diet, and compare estimates of percentages • Estimate calories provided by the diet, and compare estimates of percentages of quantities and percentages of calories, and of quantities and percentages of calories, and • Refine estimates of major staples and food categories after considering • Refine estimates of major staples and food categories after considering information about medicines, sweeteners, other often-overlooked information about medicines, sweeteners, other often-overlooked food/medicine types like macronutrients, and other factors. food/medicine types like macronutrients, and other factors.
The dietary input for the risk assessment is typically somewhat less complex than The dietary input for the risk assessment is typically somewhat less complex than the food pyramid (due to intrinsic limitations of the risk methods). Nevertheless, the the food pyramid (due to intrinsic limitations of the risk methods). Nevertheless, the risk assessment must consider the totality of species and calories. As noted in risk assessment must consider the totality of species and calories. As noted in Section 3.2 on general resource use, the amount and variety of species used by the Section 3.2 on general resource use, the amount and variety of species used by the Washoe is wide and abundant. Washoe is wide and abundant.
4.1.1 Foraging Theory 4.1.1 Foraging Theory Kelly (1995) describes the concepts of eco-cultural lifestyles, also known as foraging Kelly (1995) describes the concepts of eco-cultural lifestyles, also known as foraging theory. In the 1960s to 1980s the “Man the Hunter” concept (with males providing theory. In the 1960s to 1980s the “Man the Hunter” concept (with males providing most of the provender) prevailed due to a previous archaeological emphasis on most of the provender) prevailed due to a previous archaeological emphasis on hunting and warfare artifacts (Lee and Devore 1968). This gave way in the 1990s to hunting and warfare artifacts (Lee and Devore 1968). This gave way in the 1990s to a more balanced foraging model that emphasized plants as much as meat (and a more balanced foraging model that emphasized plants as much as meat (and equality of genders in contributing to survival) and a relatively peaceful and secure equality of genders in contributing to survival) and a relatively peaceful and secure “original affluent society” (Sahlins 1972). The latter concept is supported by data “original affluent society” (Sahlins 1972). The latter concept is supported by data (Kelly 1995, Winterhalder 1981) on the amount of time required to obtain survival (Kelly 1995, Winterhalder 1981) on the amount of time required to obtain survival
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necessities and to raise children, and the typically abundant amount of time necessities and to raise children, and the typically abundant amount of time available for socializing, education, ceremonies, material items, leisure, recreation, available for socializing, education, ceremonies, material items, leisure, recreation, oratories, and so on. However, hunter-gatherers are not over-nourished, and face oratories, and so on. However, hunter-gatherers are not over-nourished, and face seasonal shortages even though outright starvation is rare. The lifestyle is also seasonal shortages even though outright starvation is rare. The lifestyle is also “physically demanding” (Kelly 1995), giving rise to discussions about the number of “physically demanding” (Kelly 1995), giving rise to discussions about the number of calories available or required and the activity levels used to develop exposure calories available or required and the activity levels used to develop exposure factors. factors.
Efficiency or return rate for specific resources in specific habitats is estimated using Efficiency or return rate for specific resources in specific habitats is estimated using foraging theory by evaluating the amount of calories expended in getting food foraging theory by evaluating the amount of calories expended in getting food (search costs) by means of hunting, gathering, or fishing relative to the time spent or (search costs) by means of hunting, gathering, or fishing relative to the time spent or calories obtained. Foraging information is typically presented as return rates, or net calories obtained. Foraging information is typically presented as return rates, or net calories obtained per hour of effort. Additional factors such as biodiversity, calories obtained per hour of effort. Additional factors such as biodiversity, abundance, and patchiness or continuity of resources result in time allocation abundance, and patchiness or continuity of resources result in time allocation decisions that are intentionally or unintentionally made by foraging societies, such as decisions that are intentionally or unintentionally made by foraging societies, such as optimal diet breadth, optimal foraging area, and optimal foraging group size for a optimal diet breadth, optimal foraging area, and optimal foraging group size for a particular ecosystem (Winterhalder 1981). Depending on the evaluation methods particular ecosystem (Winterhalder 1981). Depending on the evaluation methods used in a study, this return rate data may include (1) time and calories spent in used in a study, this return rate data may include (1) time and calories spent in preparing to hunt, fish, or gather (e.g., making nets), (2) time and/or calories spent in preparing to hunt, fish, or gather (e.g., making nets), (2) time and/or calories spent in the actual activity, and (3) time spent in the processing of the resource after the actual activity, and (3) time spent in the processing of the resource after obtaining it. The drawback of oversimplifying foraging solely to caloric efficiency is obtaining it. The drawback of oversimplifying foraging solely to caloric efficiency is that micronutrients (vitamins, minerals, specific amino acids, and fatty acids), that micronutrients (vitamins, minerals, specific amino acids, and fatty acids), medicinal or pharmacologically active compounds, other nutritional requirements, medicinal or pharmacologically active compounds, other nutritional requirements, and non-nutritional attributes, such as aroma or dye or material uses, are often not and non-nutritional attributes, such as aroma or dye or material uses, are often not considered (Lindstrom 1992). Similarly, many plants and animals have multiple uses considered (Lindstrom 1992). Similarly, many plants and animals have multiple uses or are co-located with other resources; therefore, caloric calculations must not ignore or are co-located with other resources; therefore, caloric calculations must not ignore the way that people actually make decisions about where to go or what to gather, or the way that people actually make decisions about where to go or what to gather, or the reasons they seek to obtain particular resources. the reasons they seek to obtain particular resources.
4.2 STUDIES ON WASHOE DIET 4.2 STUDIES ON WASHOE DIET 4.2.1 Foraging Studies 4.2.1 Foraging Studies Three major foraging theory studies have been identified for the Washoe: (1) Three major foraging theory studies have been identified for the Washoe: (1) Lindstrom (1992) focused on fishing in the Truckee River, (2) Tucker et al. (1992) Lindstrom (1992) focused on fishing in the Truckee River, (2) Tucker et al. (1992) evaluated a more generalized area and diet, and (3) Kelly (2001) focused on Great evaluated a more generalized area and diet, and (3) Kelly (2001) focused on Great Basin wetlands resources. While these studies did not specifically focus on the Basin wetlands resources. While these studies did not specifically focus on the Leviathan-Bryant Creek drainage, they provide relevant information due to similarity Leviathan-Bryant Creek drainage, they provide relevant information due to similarity of resources and uses. Each author’s results are presented separately even if they of resources and uses. Each author’s results are presented separately even if they included the same resources since there were some differences in methods and included the same resources since there were some differences in methods and assumptions. assumptions.
Lindstrom (1992) evaluated Truckee River fishing and Great Basin aquatic and Lindstrom (1992) evaluated Truckee River fishing and Great Basin aquatic and terrestrial resources for caloric return rate efficiency associated with traditional terrestrial resources for caloric return rate efficiency associated with traditional methods, i.e., including the time needed to make fish nets and other implements and methods, i.e., including the time needed to make fish nets and other implements and processing costs for storage compared to fresh consumption. She evaluated the processing costs for storage compared to fresh consumption. She evaluated the hours spent obtaining and preparing resources (during their peak availability times). hours spent obtaining and preparing resources (during their peak availability times).
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She also gathered information from interviews with Washoe members skilled at She also gathered information from interviews with Washoe members skilled at making and using traditional implements, and information from the archaeological making and using traditional implements, and information from the archaeological record. She concluded that the Truckee River-based economy would have record. She concluded that the Truckee River-based economy would have emphasized fish, grasshoppers (during peak years and seasons), big game, rabbits, emphasized fish, grasshoppers (during peak years and seasons), big game, rabbits, small game, pinyon nuts (from the foothills), cattail pollen, and various individual small game, pinyon nuts (from the foothills), cattail pollen, and various individual seeds and roots, in that approximate order. Lindstrom writes that “a high level of seeds and roots, in that approximate order. Lindstrom writes that “a high level of energy efficiency suggests fish were used as a principal resource whenever they energy efficiency suggests fish were used as a principal resource whenever they were available.” This assumes a certain efficiency of capture or abundance, were available.” This assumes a certain efficiency of capture or abundance, especially during schooling or spawning, and ratios of specific capture methods. As especially during schooling or spawning, and ratios of specific capture methods. As she notes, her ranking of resources from most to least preferred is not entirely she notes, her ranking of resources from most to least preferred is not entirely consistent with notes from anthropologists, settlers, and visitors, or with tribal consistent with notes from anthropologists, settlers, and visitors, or with tribal traditional environmental knowledge. For instance, rabbits and pine nuts (from the traditional environmental knowledge. For instance, rabbits and pine nuts (from the pinyon pine) are ranked lower than their actual importance, primarily because her pinyon pine) are ranked lower than their actual importance, primarily because her analysis focused on a single resource area rather than on the overall Washoe analysis focused on a single resource area rather than on the overall Washoe territory. This also suggests that a number of factors are not included in typical territory. This also suggests that a number of factors are not included in typical equations used to rank resources, such as possible high seasonal abundance, equations used to rank resources, such as possible high seasonal abundance, group hunts, storability, and multiple uses of resources (e.g., rabbits hunted for both group hunts, storability, and multiple uses of resources (e.g., rabbits hunted for both food and skins, willows gathered for baskets as well as medicine, and many other food and skins, willows gathered for baskets as well as medicine, and many other material items made from mountain and foothill resources). material items made from mountain and foothill resources).
Tucker et al. (1992) describe an “idealized pre-contact Washoe diet” based on a diet Tucker et al. (1992) describe an “idealized pre-contact Washoe diet” based on a diet breadth model using ethnographic and archaeological data, such as frequency and breadth model using ethnographic and archaeological data, such as frequency and location of bones and implements commonly found in excavations. The diet is also location of bones and implements commonly found in excavations. The diet is also based on known resource abundance and caloric return rates per hour, but it based on known resource abundance and caloric return rates per hour, but it underestimates soft matter such as plants and fish bones that decompose and leave underestimates soft matter such as plants and fish bones that decompose and leave less of a physical trace. Tucker et al. do not include energy expended in chasing or less of a physical trace. Tucker et al. do not include energy expended in chasing or the efficiency of gathering co-located resources (other than indirectly through overall the efficiency of gathering co-located resources (other than indirectly through overall abundance of the resource), the energy expended in processing the resources, or abundance of the resource), the energy expended in processing the resources, or other uses that might alter the preferential sequence. The approximate order in other uses that might alter the preferential sequence. The approximate order in which individual resources would be preferred using only the caloric, seasonal which individual resources would be preferred using only the caloric, seasonal abundance and archaeological information is: abundance and archaeological information is:
1. Deer (return rate = 24,000 kcal/hr; assumes one kill per 8 hours of effort), 1. Deer (return rate = 24,000 kcal/hr; assumes one kill per 8 hours of effort), 2. Antelope (return rate = 23,000 kcal/hr), 2. Antelope (return rate = 23,000 kcal/hr), 3. Jackrabbit (return rate = 14,000 kcal/hr), 3. Jackrabbit (return rate = 14,000 kcal/hr), 4. Fish (return rate = 12,000 kcal/hr) 4. Fish (return rate = 12,000 kcal/hr) 5. Ground squirrels (return rate = 10,000 kcal/hr), 5. Ground squirrels (return rate = 10,000 kcal/hr), 6. Large ground squirrels8 (return rate = 5,000 kcal/hr), 6. Large ground squirrels8 (return rate = 5,000 kcal/hr), 7. Honey (return rate = 3,000 kcal/hr), 7. Honey (return rate = 3,000 kcal/hr), 8. Small ground squirrel (return rate = 3,000 kcal/hr), 8. Small ground squirrel (return rate = 3,000 kcal/hr), 9. Duck (return rate = 2,000 kcal/hr), 9. Duck (return rate = 2,000 kcal/hr), 10. Pine nuts (return rate = 1,000 kcal/hr, including roasting, grinding, and 10. Pine nuts (return rate = 1,000 kcal/hr, including roasting, grinding, and cooking), cooking), 11. Sunflower seeds (return rate = 500 kcal/hr), 11. Sunflower seeds (return rate = 500 kcal/hr), 12. Great Basin wild rye seeds (return rate = 400 kcal/hr), and 12. Great Basin wild rye seeds (return rate = 400 kcal/hr), and
8 Probably the marmot. 8 Probably the marmot.
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13. Indian rice grass seeds (return rate = 300 kcal/hr). 13. Indian rice grass seeds (return rate = 300 kcal/hr).
This list only partially accounts for co-locational or localized abundance. Therefore, This list only partially accounts for co-locational or localized abundance. Therefore, as noted by Tucker et al. (1992), small seeds and greens as combined categories of as noted by Tucker et al. (1992), small seeds and greens as combined categories of resources (rather than individual species) are efficient resources to gather if they are resources (rather than individual species) are efficient resources to gather if they are sufficiently abundant and if gathered concurrently with higher ranked resources. This sufficiently abundant and if gathered concurrently with higher ranked resources. This list also completely overlooks the many important greens, roots, bulbs, tubers, and list also completely overlooks the many important greens, roots, bulbs, tubers, and rhizomes that were gathered in abundance, as well as basket materials and non- rhizomes that were gathered in abundance, as well as basket materials and non- food items. Some of the listed resources would also rank higher if they store well or food items. Some of the listed resources would also rank higher if they store well or if they provide specific nutrients. The Washoes knew to expend extra energy in if they provide specific nutrients. The Washoes knew to expend extra energy in gathering storable resources as a hedge against famine, and are also well aware of gathering storable resources as a hedge against famine, and are also well aware of nutritional or medicinal benefits of specific plants. For example, spinach and nutritional or medicinal benefits of specific plants. For example, spinach and watercress were considered essential foods. A Hammett et al. (2004) interviewee watercress were considered essential foods. A Hammett et al. (2004) interviewee noted, “[Washoe] people craved this food [watercress]; must have been something noted, “[Washoe] people craved this food [watercress]; must have been something in it people need because parents insisted that children eat it.” Thus, broad in it people need because parents insisted that children eat it.” Thus, broad categories of plants (greens, fruits, roots, bulbs, tubers) are not represented at all in categories of plants (greens, fruits, roots, bulbs, tubers) are not represented at all in the above ranking. Even seeds, some of which are recovered archaeologically, are the above ranking. Even seeds, some of which are recovered archaeologically, are probably underestimated, especially native grasses “from which tons of seed were probably underestimated, especially native grasses “from which tons of seed were gathered” (Cook 1941). gathered” (Cook 1941).
Kelly (1995) evaluated Great Basin foraging in his discussion of many foraging Kelly (1995) evaluated Great Basin foraging in his discussion of many foraging societies around the world. Animals, including waterfowl, are all more efficient to societies around the world. Animals, including waterfowl, are all more efficient to gather than plants as long as they are relatively easy to catch. Return rates for a few gather than plants as long as they are relatively easy to catch. Return rates for a few resources (based on kcal/hr of effort, but not indicating how strenuous the effort is; resources (based on kcal/hr of effort, but not indicating how strenuous the effort is; on known abundance locally, and showing rates for worst to best years based on on known abundance locally, and showing rates for worst to best years based on available data) were estimated as: available data) were estimated as:
• Deer = 17,000–31,000 kcal/hr (poor year to best year), • Deer = 17,000–31,000 kcal/hr (poor year to best year), • Jackrabbit = 14,000, • Jackrabbit = 14,000, • Gopher = 10,000, • Gopher = 10,000, • Cattail = 300, and • Cattail = 300, and • Pine nuts = 800–1,400. • Pine nuts = 800–1,400.
Kelly (1995) estimated that the overall Washoe diet was obtained 30% from hunting, Kelly (1995) estimated that the overall Washoe diet was obtained 30% from hunting, 40% from gathering, and 30% from fishing. This was based on estimates of 40% from gathering, and 30% from fishing. This was based on estimates of abundance, density of resources, seasonality, and harvesting or cooking technology. abundance, density of resources, seasonality, and harvesting or cooking technology. Unlike the list in Tucker et al. (1992), plant resources are very prominent. For Unlike the list in Tucker et al. (1992), plant resources are very prominent. For example, cattail roots harvested in the summer have a poor return rate, because example, cattail roots harvested in the summer have a poor return rate, because they have expended their energy into the leaves. But when harvested in the late fall they have expended their energy into the leaves. But when harvested in the late fall or winter when energy is being stored, they have a much higher return rate and or winter when energy is being stored, they have a much higher return rate and would be a preferred food choice. Lower caloric return rates are provided by cattail would be a preferred food choice. Lower caloric return rates are provided by cattail pollen, squirrels, ducks, gambel oak acorns, tansy mustard seeds, pine nuts (low pollen, squirrels, ducks, gambel oak acorns, tansy mustard seeds, pine nuts (low overall calorie return due to the time required to roast the cones, gather seeds, and overall calorie return due to the time required to roast the cones, gather seeds, and grind them into meal), bitterroot roots, wild rye seeds, minnows (caught with nets), grind them into meal), bitterroot roots, wild rye seeds, minnows (caught with nets), saltbush seeds, bulrush seeds, other grasses, sunflowers, and roots. Among plant saltbush seeds, bulrush seeds, other grasses, sunflowers, and roots. Among plant resources, cattail pollen was estimated to have the densest caloric content, with resources, cattail pollen was estimated to have the densest caloric content, with
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acorns, pine nuts, and tansy mustard seeds next, followed by all other roots and acorns, pine nuts, and tansy mustard seeds next, followed by all other roots and seeds. However, although cattail pollen is calorically dense, it takes time and effort seeds. However, although cattail pollen is calorically dense, it takes time and effort to obtain; therefore, its return rate is lower than cattail roots, which is a poorer food to obtain; therefore, its return rate is lower than cattail roots, which is a poorer food but easier to obtain in quantity. However, cattail pollen can be eaten right off the but easier to obtain in quantity. However, cattail pollen can be eaten right off the stalk, and thus may have no processing costs (although it was typically ground into stalk, and thus may have no processing costs (although it was typically ground into flour before use). flour before use).
Kelly (2001) focused on the level of resources obtained from Great Basin wetlands Kelly (2001) focused on the level of resources obtained from Great Basin wetlands (Stillwater Marsh near Carson Lake, southeast of Pyramid Lake), based on foraging (Stillwater Marsh near Carson Lake, southeast of Pyramid Lake), based on foraging theory and a caloric balance that includes walking to a resource, carrying a load theory and a caloric balance that includes walking to a resource, carrying a load back, and harvesting and processing costs. Based on all costs, Kelly estimated that back, and harvesting and processing costs. Based on all costs, Kelly estimated that a typical family’s foraging area is 6km in radius until resources are reduced beyond a a typical family’s foraging area is 6km in radius until resources are reduced beyond a certain abundance (hunting areas might be larger). A large amount of storable certain abundance (hunting areas might be larger). A large amount of storable resources, such as dried fish or game or pine nuts, allows a family to maintain a resources, such as dried fish or game or pine nuts, allows a family to maintain a central residence such as a winter home (which was always by springs or streams). central residence such as a winter home (which was always by springs or streams). Thus, “fish, large game, seeds, and pinyon appear to have been particularly Thus, “fish, large game, seeds, and pinyon appear to have been particularly important.” Kelly concluded that the rates of return were greatest for grasshoppers important.” Kelly concluded that the rates of return were greatest for grasshoppers (collected en masse after they periodically washed up on lake shores and formed (collected en masse after they periodically washed up on lake shores and formed windrows, then roasted), followed by local large game, small game, waterfowl, a windrows, then roasted), followed by local large game, small game, waterfowl, a variety of seeds and nuts, and winter-gathered cattail and tule roots. variety of seeds and nuts, and winter-gathered cattail and tule roots.
Kelly (2001) also estimated return rates for foraging away from home and included Kelly (2001) also estimated return rates for foraging away from home and included an estimate of kcal expended during the foraging activity. Foraging in a marsh from an estimate of kcal expended during the foraging activity. Foraging in a marsh from a residential base near the marsh (camps were generally ¼ to ½ mile from a marsh a residential base near the marsh (camps were generally ¼ to ½ mile from a marsh due to mosquitoes) was based on an assumption of moderate walking at 300 kcal/hr due to mosquitoes) was based on an assumption of moderate walking at 300 kcal/hr on the way out, plus 30% more carrying a 32 liter load back, all in an 8 hour day and on the way out, plus 30% more carrying a 32 liter load back, all in an 8 hour day and with an average return rate of 1830 kcal/hr (not including processing). After taking with an average return rate of 1830 kcal/hr (not including processing). After taking the return rate and subtracting the energy cost of walking there and collecting and the return rate and subtracting the energy cost of walking there and collecting and returning with a load, the species which have the most effective return rates are returning with a load, the species which have the most effective return rates are (more examples appear in Kelly 2001; Table 3-8): (more examples appear in Kelly 2001; Table 3-8):
• Cattail pollen = 4500 kcal/hr (the highest return rate kcal/hr), • Cattail pollen = 4500 kcal/hr (the highest return rate kcal/hr), • Chub = up to 4000, • Chub = up to 4000, • Rodents, waterfowl, bulrush seeds = around 1000, and • Rodents, waterfowl, bulrush seeds = around 1000, and • Many other seeds ranging from 100 to 800. • Many other seeds ranging from 100 to 800.
It is important to note that the effective return rate for large game is more difficult to It is important to note that the effective return rate for large game is more difficult to estimate, since the time spent in finding it is so variable. Here is a list of similar more estimate, since the time spent in finding it is so variable. Here is a list of similar more variable return rates are: variable return rates are:
• Pine nuts = 800 to 9600 (depending on distance and other conditions), • Pine nuts = 800 to 9600 (depending on distance and other conditions), • Large game = up to 4,500 at 8 hours per kill, • Large game = up to 4,500 at 8 hours per kill, • Small game = up to 2500, • Small game = up to 2500, • Bitterroot = 1250, and • Bitterroot = 1250, and • Ricegrass and wild rye seeds = 350. • Ricegrass and wild rye seeds = 350.
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Kelly (2001) also compared the most efficient caloric return rates for plants in Kelly (2001) also compared the most efficient caloric return rates for plants in several habitats. These are presented as examples of methodology and species several habitats. These are presented as examples of methodology and species identification. Within each habitat, examples of species preferences are as follows identification. Within each habitat, examples of species preferences are as follows (in order of preference with the most preferred at top; the original reference has (in order of preference with the most preferred at top; the original reference has longer lists): longer lists):
Wetlands: Wetlands: • Tule bulrush (Scirpus acutus, americanus, or spp) shoots in spring, pollen in • Tule bulrush (Scirpus acutus, americanus, or spp) shoots in spring, pollen in summer, seeds in fall, tubers in fall summer, seeds in fall, tubers in fall • Nutgrass (Scirpus or Carex and spp) seeds, tubers in the fall • Nutgrass (Scirpus or Carex and spp) seeds, tubers in the fall • Cattail (Typha latifolia and spp) shoots in spring, seeds in fall, and tubers in • Cattail (Typha latifolia and spp) shoots in spring, seeds in fall, and tubers in fall fall • Sago pondweed (Potamogeton spp) tubers in summer, corms in winter or • Sago pondweed (Potamogeton spp) tubers in summer, corms in winter or spring spring • Chufa fatsedge (Cyperus esculentus) tubers in spring • Chufa fatsedge (Cyperus esculentus) tubers in spring • Water plantain (Alisma geyeri) seeds in fall • Water plantain (Alisma geyeri) seeds in fall • Spikerush (Elercharis palustris) seeds in fall • Spikerush (Elercharis palustris) seeds in fall • Seepweed (Suaeda depressa) seeds • Seepweed (Suaeda depressa) seeds • Pickleweed (Allenrolfea occidentalis) seeds • Pickleweed (Allenrolfea occidentalis) seeds • Mollusks (Anadonta spp) all year, referred to as both clams and mussels. • Mollusks (Anadonta spp) all year, referred to as both clams and mussels. • Brine fly (Ephydra) • Brine fly (Ephydra)
Lowlands and Riparian: Lowlands and Riparian: • Onion (Allium anceps, nevadense) corms and leaves in spring • Onion (Allium anceps, nevadense) corms and leaves in spring • Wild potatoes, several species • Wild potatoes, several species • Sego lily (Calochortus nuttali and other lily spp) bulbs • Sego lily (Calochortus nuttali and other lily spp) bulbs • Many seeds, berries, stems, leaves, and bark • Many seeds, berries, stems, leaves, and bark
Uplands: Uplands: • Nevada desert parsley (Lomatium nevadense) roots in spring, summer • Nevada desert parsley (Lomatium nevadense) roots in spring, summer • Yampah (Perideridia bolanderi) roots in summer • Yampah (Perideridia bolanderi) roots in summer • Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) roots in spring • Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) roots in spring • Spring beauty (Claytonia umbellata) roots in spring • Spring beauty (Claytonia umbellata) roots in spring • Other bulbs and tubers • Other bulbs and tubers • Balsamroot (Balsamorhiza spp) roots, shoots, seeds • Balsamroot (Balsamorhiza spp) roots, shoots, seeds • Many berries • Many berries
4.2.2 Interview Data 4.2.2 Interview Data Qualitative information from the interviews in Hammett et al. (2004) on resources Qualitative information from the interviews in Hammett et al. (2004) on resources gathered from the Leviathan-Bryant Creek drainage is presented for approximate gathered from the Leviathan-Bryant Creek drainage is presented for approximate relative importance of some of the resources. This is not a total amount consumed relative importance of some of the resources. This is not a total amount consumed per person per year, but it does identify many of the most important representative per person per year, but it does identify many of the most important representative species gathered from the affected area and gives a rough idea of abundance or species gathered from the affected area and gives a rough idea of abundance or
Washoe Tribe Scenario 143 Washoe Tribe Scenario 143 availability. The numbers indicate how much could be gathered by one or more availability. The numbers indicate how much could be gathered by one or more people in a season for personal use, family use, and/or sharing or trading. people in a season for personal use, family use, and/or sharing or trading.
Nuts: Nuts: • Pine nuts—up to 1500 lbs of nuts • Pine nuts—up to 1500 lbs of nuts
Note: Price (1980) indicates consumption of 300 pounds of pine nuts per person Note: Price (1980) indicates consumption of 300 pounds of pine nuts per person per year, eaten at a rate of 1 pound of pine nuts per person per day, or one-half per year, eaten at a rate of 1 pound of pine nuts per person per day, or one-half of the total food consumption. At roughly 600 kcal per 100g after shelling and of the total food consumption. At roughly 600 kcal per 100g after shelling and winnowing (USDA database), and 454g/pound, this means that 2700 kcal per winnowing (USDA database), and 454g/pound, this means that 2700 kcal per pound of pine nuts could have been available per person per day. If pine nuts pound of pine nuts could have been available per person per day. If pine nuts comprised half the diet, this would mean that 5,000 kcal/day was consumed, comprised half the diet, this would mean that 5,000 kcal/day was consumed, which is double the typical forager dietary intake (Kelly 1995). On the other hand, which is double the typical forager dietary intake (Kelly 1995). On the other hand, pine nuts are a well-known staple. “At certain seasons [the Washoe] have fish... pine nuts are a well-known staple. “At certain seasons [the Washoe] have fish... for the remainder of the year they live upon the pine nuts, which form their for the remainder of the year they live upon the pine nuts, which form their greater winter subsistence” (Lindstrom 1992, citing Nevins 1956). greater winter subsistence” (Lindstrom 1992, citing Nevins 1956).
Cook (1941) interviewed Washoe families regarding current pine nut availability. Cook (1941) interviewed Washoe families regarding current pine nut availability. Families could gather up to twenty 100-pound sacks in good years, although they Families could gather up to twenty 100-pound sacks in good years, although they typically sold up to half. Some families got far less, presumably depending on typically sold up to half. Some families got far less, presumably depending on their access to pine nut allotments, whether it was a good year, or other reasons. their access to pine nut allotments, whether it was a good year, or other reasons. A 100 pound sack yields 60 pounds of meat after shelling and winnowing (which A 100 pound sack yields 60 pounds of meat after shelling and winnowing (which Price, above, may not have considered). Cook also discussed fresh pine nuts Price, above, may not have considered). Cook also discussed fresh pine nuts versus the dried nuts (after parching for storage), which could reduce the weight versus the dried nuts (after parching for storage), which could reduce the weight by 15%. This would mean that 100 pounds of fresh nuts yields about 50 pounds by 15%. This would mean that 100 pounds of fresh nuts yields about 50 pounds of ground meal at approximately 2100 kcal per pound of nut flour, which is one of of ground meal at approximately 2100 kcal per pound of nut flour, which is one of the forms eaten. the forms eaten.
Berries: Berries: Blueberry—not quantitative Blueberry—not quantitative Buckberry—not quantitative Buckberry—not quantitative Chokecherry—up to 20 gallons Chokecherry—up to 20 gallons Currants—not quantitative Currants—not quantitative Serviceberry—not quantitative Serviceberry—not quantitative Strawberry—2 gallons Strawberry—2 gallons Elderberry—up to 100 gallons Elderberry—up to 100 gallons Gooseberry—up to 20 gallons Gooseberry—up to 20 gallons
Bulbs and Roots: Bulbs and Roots: • Green onions—5 lbs • Green onions—5 lbs • Lily—400–1200 bushels • Lily—400–1200 bushels • Sego Lily—300 lbs • Sego Lily—300 lbs • Arrowroot—not quantitative • Arrowroot—not quantitative • Sweet potato—25 lbs • Sweet potato—25 lbs • Wild garlic—12 bushels • Wild garlic—12 bushels • Indian potatoes—up to 75 lbs • Indian potatoes—up to 75 lbs
Washoe Tribe Scenario 144 Washoe Tribe Scenario 144
• Wild onions—up to 460 gallons; 7.5 gunny sacks (225 gallons) • Wild onions—up to 460 gallons; 7.5 gunny sacks (225 gallons) • Swamp onion—12 grocery sacks • Swamp onion—12 grocery sacks
Greens: Greens: • Tops of wild onion—not quantitative • Tops of wild onion—not quantitative • Wild rhubarb—up to 100 lbs • Wild rhubarb—up to 100 lbs • Watercress—3–10 gallons; 15 gunny sacks (450 gallons) • Watercress—3–10 gallons; 15 gunny sacks (450 gallons) • Tule shoots—60 plants • Tule shoots—60 plants • Wild mustard—20 lbs • Wild mustard—20 lbs
Other: Other: • Mustard seeds—6–9 lbs • Mustard seeds—6–9 lbs • Mushrooms—24 gallons • Mushrooms—24 gallons • Lomatium tea—not quantitative • Lomatium tea—not quantitative • Wyethia stems—up to 48 stems • Wyethia stems—up to 48 stems • Ephedra—1 grocery sack • Ephedra—1 grocery sack
Fowl: Fowl: • Chukkar—20–60 birds • Chukkar—20–60 birds • Dove—20–60 birds • Dove—20–60 birds • Goose—32 birds • Goose—32 birds • Quail (both mountain and valley)—20–60 individual birds each • Quail (both mountain and valley)—20–60 individual birds each • Sagehen—20–60 birds • Sagehen—20–60 birds
Game: Game: • Deer—up to 2250 lbs of meat • Deer—up to 2250 lbs of meat • Jackrabbit—up to 420 lbs of meat • Jackrabbit—up to 420 lbs of meat • Marmot—12 lbs of meat • Marmot—12 lbs of meat • Porcupine—1 animal at 30 lbs • Porcupine—1 animal at 30 lbs • Prairie dogs—up to 33 animals or 25 lbs of meat • Prairie dogs—up to 33 animals or 25 lbs of meat • Rabbit—up to 240 animals or 616 lbs of meat • Rabbit—up to 240 animals or 616 lbs of meat
Fish and Shellfish: Fish and Shellfish: • Trout (various species)—up to 168 fish per year per person • Trout (various species)—up to 168 fish per year per person
4.3 WASHOE DIET 4.3 WASHOE DIET This section uses the information from the previous sections to derive estimates of This section uses the information from the previous sections to derive estimates of major categories of food types as percentages. It considers the number of species, major categories of food types as percentages. It considers the number of species, the foraging studies with their dietary estimates, and recent interview data. This the foraging studies with their dietary estimates, and recent interview data. This information is combined to reconstruct a diet that was obtained from stream-river information is combined to reconstruct a diet that was obtained from stream-river drainages such as the Leviathan-Bryant Creek system. It is intended to describe drainages such as the Leviathan-Bryant Creek system. It is intended to describe what the diet actually was before contamination altered the natural resources. This what the diet actually was before contamination altered the natural resources. This diet is presented below as percentages and as a food pyramid (Figure 4). diet is presented below as percentages and as a food pyramid (Figure 4).
Kelly (1995) estimated the traditional Washoe diet to be obtained 30% by fishing, Kelly (1995) estimated the traditional Washoe diet to be obtained 30% by fishing, 30% by hunting, and 40% by gathering. Kelly’s estimate included the large spawning 30% by hunting, and 40% by gathering. Kelly’s estimate included the large spawning
Washoe Tribe Scenario 145 Washoe Tribe Scenario 145
runs in Lake Tahoe, whereas the present scenario is centered on smaller drainages, runs in Lake Tahoe, whereas the present scenario is centered on smaller drainages, such as Leviathan-Bryant Creek, that have lower carrying capacities. Therefore, fish such as Leviathan-Bryant Creek, that have lower carrying capacities. Therefore, fish are ranked lower in the diet shown below. It does not include acorns from the are ranked lower in the diet shown below. It does not include acorns from the northern part of the Washoe territory. northern part of the Washoe territory.
Based on interviews and existing literature, foraging theory, dietary calories, and Based on interviews and existing literature, foraging theory, dietary calories, and related information, the traditional Washoe diet for foothill drainage systems such as related information, the traditional Washoe diet for foothill drainage systems such as the Leviathan-Bryant Creek system is estimated as: the Leviathan-Bryant Creek system is estimated as:
• Pine nuts (20% of total calories); • Pine nuts (20% of total calories); • Fish and shellfish (15%); • Fish and shellfish (15%); • Game (large and small, and fowl) (15%); • Game (large and small, and fowl) (15%); • Roots, bulbs, tubers, rhizomes (15%); • Roots, bulbs, tubers, rhizomes (15%); • Greens (10%); • Greens (10%); • Berries (10%); • Berries (10%); • Seeds (10%), and • Seeds (10%), and • Honey, rose hips, medicines, teas (5% combined). • Honey, rose hips, medicines, teas (5% combined).
Honey, Medicine, Tea Honey, Medicine, Tea
Greens Greens
Berries Seeds Berries Seeds
Roots, Game Fish Roots, Game Fish Bulbs, Bulbs, Tubers Shellfish Tubers Shellfish Rhizomes Rhizomes
Pine Nuts Pine Nuts
Figure 4. Washoe Traditional Food Pyramid Figure 4. Washoe Traditional Food Pyramid
4.4 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS 4.4 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS A brief nutritional analysis is presented here in order to cross-check the amounts A brief nutritional analysis is presented here in order to cross-check the amounts eaten with an estimate of macronutrients that would be provided. This is done to eaten with an estimate of macronutrients that would be provided. This is done to ensure that a full amount of calories is accounted for, and that the diet is roughly ensure that a full amount of calories is accounted for, and that the diet is roughly balanced within the ranges of other foraging diets. It is impossible to be more balanced within the ranges of other foraging diets. It is impossible to be more quantitative than this given the lack of data on native foods—nutritional data on the quantitative than this given the lack of data on native foods—nutritional data on the specific resources available to the Washoe are almost totally lacking. Therefore, all specific resources available to the Washoe are almost totally lacking. Therefore, all of the information in Table 2 is from the USDA database (except where noted) for an of the information in Table 2 is from the USDA database (except where noted) for an
Washoe Tribe Scenario 146 Washoe Tribe Scenario 146
average member of the same or nearest plant or animal family (the “Representative average member of the same or nearest plant or animal family (the “Representative Species” column in Table 2). Specific information from the USDA database, such as Species” column in Table 2). Specific information from the USDA database, such as for game species, is used when available. Where possible, the data for fresh or for game species, is used when available. Where possible, the data for fresh or cooked foods matches the form of native plants eaten. We recognize that cooked foods matches the form of native plants eaten. We recognize that domesticated species of plants have been bred for certain characteristics, such as domesticated species of plants have been bred for certain characteristics, such as low fiber content and more sweetness. Tribal members often refer to wild varieties low fiber content and more sweetness. Tribal members often refer to wild varieties as being “stronger” than domesticated varieties. This is a well-known data gap. as being “stronger” than domesticated varieties. This is a well-known data gap.
Table 2 indicates macronutrient content for representative species, Table 3 Table 2 indicates macronutrient content for representative species, Table 3 estimates calories for the major food categories, and Table 4 estimates estimates calories for the major food categories, and Table 4 estimates macronutrients for the major food categories. We are assuming, as other authors macronutrients for the major food categories. We are assuming, as other authors have, that 2500 kcal is adequate for foraging activity levels in a 70kg person; have, that 2500 kcal is adequate for foraging activity levels in a 70kg person; however, higher calorie levels may also be appropriate. For this analysis, we are however, higher calorie levels may also be appropriate. For this analysis, we are conservatively assuming the lower calorie rate. conservatively assuming the lower calorie rate.
Table 4 estimates a Washoe daily diet in which 26% of calories come from protein, Table 4 estimates a Washoe daily diet in which 26% of calories come from protein, 170 grams per day (gpd); 36% from lipid, 102gpd, and 38% from carbohydrate 170 grams per day (gpd); 36% from lipid, 102gpd, and 38% from carbohydrate (CHO), 244gpd. (Due to the lipid content of the nuts and seeds, this diet is higher in (CHO), 244gpd. (Due to the lipid content of the nuts and seeds, this diet is higher in lipid than many foraging diets.) Protein and carbohydrate provide roughly 4 kcal/g. lipid than many foraging diets.) Protein and carbohydrate provide roughly 4 kcal/g. Fats and oils provide roughly 8–9 kcal/g. Therefore, the estimated daily Fats and oils provide roughly 8–9 kcal/g. Therefore, the estimated daily macronutrients ingested yield: macronutrients ingested yield:
170g protein x 4 kcal/g = 680 kcal, 170g protein x 4 kcal/g = 680 kcal, 102g lipid x 9 kcal/g = 918 kcal, and 102g lipid x 9 kcal/g = 918 kcal, and 244g CHO x 4 kcal/g = 976 kcal, 244g CHO x 4 kcal/g = 976 kcal, providing a total of 2574 kcal. providing a total of 2574 kcal.
For comparison, Hunn (1990) described a typical daily Columbia Plateau diet that For comparison, Hunn (1990) described a typical daily Columbia Plateau diet that included 1300gpd roots (providing 1330 kcal), 100gpd berries (62 kcal), 500gpd included 1300gpd roots (providing 1330 kcal), 100gpd berries (62 kcal), 500gpd salmon (850 kcal), and 240gpd venison (302 kcal). The total intake is 2140gpd salmon (850 kcal), and 240gpd venison (302 kcal). The total intake is 2140gpd (2543 kcal), or roughly 4 to 5 pounds of food per day. The Columbia Plateau diet (2543 kcal), or roughly 4 to 5 pounds of food per day. The Columbia Plateau diet provides 168gpd protein, 334gpd carbohydrate, and 55.4gpd lipid (30% protein, 60% provides 168gpd protein, 334gpd carbohydrate, and 55.4gpd lipid (30% protein, 60% carbohydrate, and 10% lipid). However, Walker (1998) believes that Hunn carbohydrate, and 10% lipid). However, Walker (1998) believes that Hunn overestimates roots and underestimates fish in that particular Plateau diet. overestimates roots and underestimates fish in that particular Plateau diet.
Washoe Tribe Scenario 147 Washoe Tribe Scenario 147
Table 2. Macronutrient content based on dietary proportion. Table 2. Macronutrient content based on dietary proportion.
Representative 2500 kcal Diet Representative 2500 kcal Diet
Nutrients per 100 grams Nutrients per 100 grams Food % of 2500 kcal kcal per 100g Protein Lipid CHO Food % of 2500 kcal kcal per 100g Protein Lipid CHO Category* (Representative per per per Category* (Representative per per per Species) 100g 100g 100g Species) 100g 100g 100g Pine nuts** 20% or 500 kcal 630 kcal 12 grams 61 grams 21 grams Pine nuts** 20% or 500 kcal 630 kcal 12 grams 61 grams 21 grams Fish 15% or 375 kcal Mixed trout, cooked—190 27 8.5 0 Fish 15% or 375 kcal Mixed trout, cooked—190 27 8.5 0 Roots, Raw chicory root—73 1 0.2 17 Roots, Raw chicory root—73 1 0.2 17 tubers, Potato (baked tuber) —93 2 0.1 15 tubers, Potato (baked tuber) —93 2 0.1 15 rhizomes, 15% or 375 kcal Bitterroot, fresh—90 0.7 0.1 22 rhizomes, 15% or 375 kcal Bitterroot, fresh—90 0.7 0.1 22 bulbs Camas bulb, fresh—113 0.7 0.2 27 bulbs Camas bulb, fresh—113 0.7 0.2 27 Leek, onions and bulbs Leek, onions and bulbs (bulb & leaf) —31 1 0.2 8 (bulb & leaf) —31 1 0.2 8 Game & fowl Deer, roasted—158 30 3 0 Game & fowl Deer, roasted—158 30 3 0 15% or 375 kcal Rabbit, wild, roasted—173 33 3.6 0 15% or 375 kcal Rabbit, wild, roasted—173 33 3.6 0 Quail, cooked—234 25 14 0 Quail, cooked—234 25 14 0 Berries 10% or 250 kcal Raw elderberries—73 0.7 0.5 19 Berries 10% or 250 kcal Raw elderberries—73 0.7 0.5 19 Greens† 10% or 250 kcal Raw dandelion greens—45 3 1 9 Greens† 10% or 250 kcal Raw dandelion greens—45 3 1 9 Raw watercress—11 2.3 0.1 1.3 Raw watercress—11 2.3 0.1 1.3 Seeds Raw dried sunflower seeds Seeds Raw dried sunflower seeds 10% or 250 kcal —570 23 50 19 10% or 250 kcal —570 23 50 19 Sesame seed flour—526 31 31 27 Sesame seed flour—526 31 31 27 Honey, tea, Honey, tea, sweeteners, 5% or 125 kcal Honey—304 0.3 0 82 sweeteners, 5% or 125 kcal Honey—304 0.3 0 82 misc. misc. * All USDA data except bitterroot and camas (Hunn 1990). * All USDA data except bitterroot and camas (Hunn 1990). ** Pine nuts (Pinus edulis and Pinus pinea) are in the USDA database; Pinus monophylla is not, but there ** Pine nuts (Pinus edulis and Pinus pinea) are in the USDA database; Pinus monophylla is not, but there is no indication of major differences between pine species, even though monophylla nuts are meatier is no indication of major differences between pine species, even though monophylla nuts are meatier and less greasy than other pine nuts, so there is less rancidity upon prolonged storage. and less greasy than other pine nuts, so there is less rancidity upon prolonged storage. † Greens include watercress and the leaves, stems, shoots of other species. † Greens include watercress and the leaves, stems, shoots of other species.
Washoe Tribe Scenario 148 Washoe Tribe Scenario 148
Table 3. Estimated caloric content. Table 3. Estimated caloric content.
Food Category Assumption Estimate of Daily Quantity Food Category Assumption Estimate of Daily Quantity Pine nuts 500 kcal 500 kcal x 100g/630 kcal = 80gpd* Pine nuts 500 kcal 500 kcal x 100g/630 kcal = 80gpd* Fish 375 kcal 375 kcal x 100g/190 kcal = 200gpd Fish 375 kcal 375 kcal x 100g/190 kcal = 200gpd Roots, tubers, rhizomes 275 kcal 275 kcal x 100g/90 kcal = 300gpd Roots, tubers, rhizomes 275 kcal 275 kcal x 100g/90 kcal = 300gpd Bulbs 100 kcal Allium 100 kcal x 100g/30 kcal = 300gpd (Allium Bulbs 100 kcal Allium 100 kcal x 100g/30 kcal = 300gpd (Allium family bulbs) family bulbs) Game 300 kcal game and 300 kcal x 100g/165 kcal = 180gpd Game 300 kcal game and 300 kcal x 100g/165 kcal = 180gpd Fowl 75 kcal fowl 75 kcal x 100g/200 kcal = 40 Fowl 75 kcal fowl 75 kcal x 100g/200 kcal = 40 Berries 250 kcal 250 kcal x 100g/75 kcal = 333gpd Berries 250 kcal 250 kcal x 100g/75 kcal = 333gpd Greens 250 kcal 250 kcal x 100g/30 kcal = 833gpd ** Greens 250 kcal 250 kcal x 100g/30 kcal = 833gpd ** Seeds 250 kcal 250 kcal x 100g/550 kcal = 50gpd Seeds 250 kcal 250 kcal x 100g/550 kcal = 50gpd Honey, teas, etc. 125 kcal 125 kcal x 100g/300 kcal = 40gpd Honey, teas, etc. 125 kcal 125 kcal x 100g/300 kcal = 40gpd * The original diet had 450gpd of pine nuts available per person per day (Price 1980); a lower * The original diet had 450gpd of pine nuts available per person per day (Price 1980); a lower estimate considers the lack of clarity in the forms (fresh or parched; whole or ground) analyzed by estimate considers the lack of clarity in the forms (fresh or parched; whole or ground) analyzed by prior authors. prior authors. ** Greens include watercress, leaves, stems, and shoots. This estimate includes a consideration that ** Greens include watercress, leaves, stems, and shoots. This estimate includes a consideration that a home garden would include above-ground garden vegetables and may be part of the exposure a home garden would include above-ground garden vegetables and may be part of the exposure scenario. scenario.
Table 4. Estimated macronutrients of major food categories. Table 4. Estimated macronutrients of major food categories.
Assumption Protein Assumption Protein Food Lipid (grams CHO (grams Food Lipid (grams CHO (grams of Grams per (grams per of Grams per (grams per Category per 100g) per 100g) Category per 100g) per 100g) Day 100g) Day 100g) Pine nuts 80 80 x 12/100 = 9.6 80 x 61/100 = 48.8 80 x 21/100 = 16.8 Pine nuts 80 80 x 12/100 = 9.6 80 x 61/100 = 48.8 80 x 21/100 = 16.8 Fish 200 200 x 27/100 = 54 200 x 8.5/100 = 17 0 Fish 200 200 x 27/100 = 54 200 x 8.5/100 = 17 0 Roots, tubers 300 300 x 1/100 = 3 300 x 0.2/100 = 0.6 300 x 20/100 = 60 Roots, tubers 300 300 x 1/100 = 3 300 x 0.2/100 = 0.6 300 x 20/100 = 60 Bulbs 300 300 x 1/100 = 3 300 x 0.2/100 = 6 300 x 6/100 = 18 Bulbs 300 300 x 1/100 = 3 300 x 0.2/100 = 6 300 x 6/100 = 18 Game * 180 180 x 30/100 = 54 180 x 3/100 = 5.4 0 Game * 180 180 x 30/100 = 54 180 x 3/100 = 5.4 0 Fowl ** 40 40 x 25/100 = 10 40 x 14/100 = 5.6 0 Fowl ** 40 40 x 25/100 = 10 40 x 14/100 = 5.6 0 Berries 333 333 x 0.7/100 = 2.3 333 x 0.5/100 = 1.7 333 x 19/100 = 63 Berries 333 333 x 0.7/100 = 2.3 333 x 0.5/100 = 1.7 333 x 19/100 = 63 Greens† 833 833 x 2.5/100 = 21 833 x 0.5/100 = 4.2 833 x 5/100 = 42 Greens† 833 833 x 2.5/100 = 21 833 x 0.5/100 = 4.2 833 x 5/100 = 42 Seeds 50 50 x 25/100 = 12.5 50 x 40/100 = 12.5 50 x 23/100 = 11.5 Seeds 50 50 x 25/100 = 12.5 50 x 40/100 = 12.5 50 x 23/100 = 11.5 Honey, teas . . . 40 40 x 0.3/100 = 0.1 0 40 x 82/100 = 32.8 Honey, teas . . . 40 40 x 0.3/100 = 0.1 0 40 x 82/100 = 32.8 Total 2356g 170g protein 102g lipid 244g CHO Total 2356g 170g protein 102g lipid 244g CHO * Livestock that are substituted for game are assumed to be grass fed, not grain finished. * Livestock that are substituted for game are assumed to be grass fed, not grain finished. ** Ducks and geese would have a higher lipid content ** Ducks and geese would have a higher lipid content † Greens are estimated somewhat high due to potential substitution with conventional vegetables † Greens are estimated somewhat high due to potential substitution with conventional vegetables
Washoe Tribe Scenario 149 Washoe Tribe Scenario 149
5 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS 5 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS
5.1 APPROACH 5.1 APPROACH Exposure factors reflect the activity levels and resource use of the lifestyle scenario Exposure factors reflect the activity levels and resource use of the lifestyle scenario under evaluation.9 Exposure factors for both direct and indirect pathways are under evaluation.9 Exposure factors for both direct and indirect pathways are developed. Indirect pathways include exposure via the oral ingestion of food and developed. Indirect pathways include exposure via the oral ingestion of food and medicine (see previous section). This section focuses on direct pathways: direct medicine (see previous section). This section focuses on direct pathways: direct inhalation, dermal exposure, and ingestion of water, air, dust, sediment, and soil inhalation, dermal exposure, and ingestion of water, air, dust, sediment, and soil (including soil on the outside of food or added through cooking). (including soil on the outside of food or added through cooking).
Default exposure factors have been developed for conventional suburban, urban, Default exposure factors have been developed for conventional suburban, urban, occupational, and recreational scenarios based on national statistics. Our approach occupational, and recreational scenarios based on national statistics. Our approach to developing a tribal scenario is not to inventory every activity and every resource, to developing a tribal scenario is not to inventory every activity and every resource, but to provide an overall estimate of the general activity levels, anchored with but to provide an overall estimate of the general activity levels, anchored with specific information as available. The basic assumption is that traditional lifeways specific information as available. The basic assumption is that traditional lifeways are active outdoor lifestyles that are moderately physically demanding, even with are active outdoor lifestyles that are moderately physically demanding, even with some modern conveniences. Subsistence foragers (both genders) perform a some modern conveniences. Subsistence foragers (both genders) perform a combination of aerobic (high heart and ventilation rates), strength, endurance, and combination of aerobic (high heart and ventilation rates), strength, endurance, and stretching-flexibility daily activities, as well as performing more sedentary work and stretching-flexibility daily activities, as well as performing more sedentary work and resting. resting.
The exposure factors here are general to traditional subsistence lifestyles, The exposure factors here are general to traditional subsistence lifestyles, regardless of their location. However, they may not be identical to the site-specific regardless of their location. However, they may not be identical to the site-specific RME (reasonably maximally exposed) individual, which will be tailored to the RME (reasonably maximally exposed) individual, which will be tailored to the habitats and resources found in the affected area once baseline and current habitats and resources found in the affected area once baseline and current ecological and environmental conditions are defined. ecological and environmental conditions are defined.
The conceptual steps in this process are: The conceptual steps in this process are:
1. Understand the lifestyle and the activities that comprise the lifestyle, and are 1. Understand the lifestyle and the activities that comprise the lifestyle, and are required to obtain necessities and engage in the community culture; required to obtain necessities and engage in the community culture; 2. Describe the day, the year, and the lifetime of men and women to identify any 2. Describe the day, the year, and the lifetime of men and women to identify any significant differences in activity levels between genders or ages; significant differences in activity levels between genders or ages; 3. Cross-walk activities with exposure pathways on the basis of frequency and 3. Cross-walk activities with exposure pathways on the basis of frequency and duration of major activities, activity levels, and degree of environmental duration of major activities, activity levels, and degree of environmental contact, and contact, and 4. Estimate cumulative exposure factors. 4. Estimate cumulative exposure factors.
5.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES 5.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES Tables 5–7 show the thought process for considering the range and number of Tables 5–7 show the thought process for considering the range and number of activities associated with major activity categories (hunting, fishing, gathering, and activities associated with major activity categories (hunting, fishing, gathering, and sweat-lodge purification). Tables 5 and 6 list a number of individual activities within sweat-lodge purification). Tables 5 and 6 list a number of individual activities within each major category; this is included because most non-Indians have not learned each major category; this is included because most non-Indians have not learned
9 http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=85843 9 http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=85843
Washoe Tribe Scenario 150 Washoe Tribe Scenario 150 much about traditional lifestyles and the complexity of daily life. Table 5 shows the much about traditional lifestyles and the complexity of daily life. Table 5 shows the connection between activity categories. In actuality, many activities are sequential— connection between activity categories. In actuality, many activities are sequential— for example, a resource might be gathered in one location, used in a second location for example, a resource might be gathered in one location, used in a second location to make an implement or basket, and taken to a third location for use in hunting or to make an implement or basket, and taken to a third location for use in hunting or fishing.10 The activities shown in Table 5 are so interconnected that it is virtually fishing.10 The activities shown in Table 5 are so interconnected that it is virtually impossible to separate a lifestyle into distinct categories, but they are presented as impossible to separate a lifestyle into distinct categories, but they are presented as separate for illustration. The number of sub-activities in each column displays the separate for illustration. The number of sub-activities in each column displays the complexity of each major activity, as well as interconnections between categories. complexity of each major activity, as well as interconnections between categories. The category of gathering includes both vegetal food procurement and basket The category of gathering includes both vegetal food procurement and basket making. making.
Table 5. Traditional lifeways—Typical activities in the activity categories. Table 5. Traditional lifeways—Typical activities in the activity categories.
Hunting Purification Gathering Fishing Hunting Purification Gathering Fishing Learn skills Learn skills, songs Learn skills Learn skills Learn skills Learn skills, songs Learn skills Learn skills Making tools Build lodge from Previous gathering Make nets, poles, Making tools Build lodge from Previous gathering Make nets, poles, natural materials platforms, tools natural materials platforms, tools Ritual bathing Gather rocks Make baskets, bags Travel to location Ritual bathing Gather rocks Make baskets, bags Travel to location Vigorous Chop firewood Hike to areas Catch fish, haul out Vigorous Chop firewood Hike to areas Catch fish, haul out activity in activity in hunting hunting Pack meat out Prepare for use, Cut, dig, harvest Clean, can, hard Pack meat out Prepare for use, Cut, dig, harvest Clean, can, hard get water dry, soft dry, smoke, get water dry, soft dry, smoke, eat whole fish or eat whole fish or fillet or liver or other fillet or liver or other parts or soup parts or soup Process Use Lodge, sing, Carry out items Return carcasses Process Use Lodge, sing, Carry out items Return carcasses drink water, to ecosystem, drink water, to ecosystem, inhale steam use as fertilizer inhale steam use as fertilizer and smudges and smudges Scrape hides Close area & fire Wash, peel, process, Scrape hides Close area & fire Wash, peel, process, split, spin, dye split, spin, dye Tan, use other Cook and eat or make Tan, use other Cook and eat or make parts product or medicine parts product or medicine Cook, smoke, Cook, smoke, dry, eat meat dry, eat meat and organs and organs
10 This is similar to the Cultural Ecosystem Stories concept developed Terry Williams (Tulalip Tribes) 10 This is similar to the Cultural Ecosystem Stories concept developed Terry Williams (Tulalip Tribes) with the associated software, ICONS (see, for example, with the associated software, ICONS (see, for example, http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacademy/ wam/comresource.html). http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacademy/ wam/comresource.html).
Washoe Tribe Scenario 151 Washoe Tribe Scenario 151
Table 6. Major activity categories. Table 6. Major activity categories.
Activity Type General Description Activity Type General Description Hunting Hunting includes a variety of preparation activities of low to moderate intensity. Hunting Hunting includes a variety of preparation activities of low to moderate intensity. Ritual bathing occurs before the hunt. Hunting occurs in terrain ranging from Ritual bathing occurs before the hunt. Hunting occurs in terrain ranging from flat and open to very steep and rugged. It may also include setting traplines, flat and open to very steep and rugged. It may also include setting traplines, waiting in blinds, digging-out small game, climbing, etc. After the capture or kill, waiting in blinds, digging-out small game, climbing, etc. After the capture or kill, field dressing, packing or hauling, and other strenuous activities may occur, field dressing, packing or hauling, and other strenuous activities may occur, depending on the species. Subsequent activities include cutting, storing (e.g., depending on the species. Subsequent activities include cutting, storing (e.g., smoking or drying), and returning the remains to the ecosystem. smoking or drying), and returning the remains to the ecosystem. Fishing Fishing includes building weirs, scooping minnows, hauling in lines (we Fishing Fishing includes building weirs, scooping minnows, hauling in lines (we assume that large nets are not used in small drainages), gaffing or gigging, assume that large nets are not used in small drainages), gaffing or gigging, wading (for shellfish), followed by cleaning the fish and carrying them to the wading (for shellfish), followed by cleaning the fish and carrying them to the place of use. Activities associated with smoking and constructing drying racks place of use. Activities associated with smoking and constructing drying racks may be involved. Remains are returned to aquatic ecosystems. may be involved. Remains are returned to aquatic ecosystems. Gathering Women gathered plants “perhaps within a day’s walk from camp” using a Gathering Women gathered plants “perhaps within a day’s walk from camp” using a digging stick, knife, and basket for carrying resources back to camp (Downs digging stick, knife, and basket for carrying resources back to camp (Downs 1966, Hammett et al. 2004). A variety of activities is involved, such as hiking, 1966, Hammett et al. 2004). A variety of activities is involved, such as hiking, bending, stooping, wading (marsh and water plants), digging, bundling, bending, stooping, wading (marsh and water plants), digging, bundling, carrying, and climbing over a wide variety of terrains. carrying, and climbing over a wide variety of terrains. Ritual purification Sweat-lodge building and repairing is intermittent, but collecting firewood is a Ritual purification Sweat-lodge building and repairing is intermittent, but collecting firewood is a (sweat lodge) constant activity. D’Azevedo (1986) lists 6 citations for Washoe ritual (sweat lodge) constant activity. D’Azevedo (1986) lists 6 citations for Washoe ritual purification. Cold and hot springs were used for therapeutic healing. Today, purification. Cold and hot springs were used for therapeutic healing. Today, every Washoe community has a purification lodge (Washoe Tribe, personal every Washoe community has a purification lodge (Washoe Tribe, personal communication). communication). Materials use and Many activities of low to high intensity are involved in preparing materials for Materials use and Many activities of low to high intensity are involved in preparing materials for food preparation use or food storage. Some are quite vigorous such as pounding or grinding food preparation use or food storage. Some are quite vigorous such as pounding or grinding seeds and nuts into flour, preparing meat, and tanning hides. This category seeds and nuts into flour, preparing meat, and tanning hides. This category includes basket making, which is an example of a very important activity with includes basket making, which is an example of a very important activity with its own set of prescribed activities, meanings, and cultural ethics. its own set of prescribed activities, meanings, and cultural ethics.
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Table 7 shows the cross-walk between activity categories and exposure pathways, Table 7 shows the cross-walk between activity categories and exposure pathways, with examples of how exposure factors are derived from knowledge about activities, with examples of how exposure factors are derived from knowledge about activities, interlinked resources and ecosystem stories, and the technical literature. Again, this interlinked resources and ecosystem stories, and the technical literature. Again, this is an iterative process that relies on multiple lines of evidence. Rather than a is an iterative process that relies on multiple lines of evidence. Rather than a complete listing of activities, Table 7 presents an example of the thought process complete listing of activities, Table 7 presents an example of the thought process used to perform the iterative cross-walk. In each case a gap identification step may used to perform the iterative cross-walk. In each case a gap identification step may be necessary, and greater uncertainty may require placeholder values until data are be necessary, and greater uncertainty may require placeholder values until data are obtained. The last column, “Totals for major exposure factor categories,” shows obtained. The last column, “Totals for major exposure factor categories,” shows exposure pathways totals (such as soil ingestion) are estimated across activity exposure pathways totals (such as soil ingestion) are estimated across activity categories. This is not a statistical summation but rather a judgment based on categories. This is not a statistical summation but rather a judgment based on multiple lines of evidence. Each estimate has been checked against technical multiple lines of evidence. Each estimate has been checked against technical literature for confirmation. literature for confirmation.
Table 7. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories. Table 7. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories.
Hunting and Fishing and Gathering Ritual Material and Totals for Hunting and Fishing and Gathering Ritual Material and Totals for associated associated and purification food use and major associated associated and purification food use and major activities activities associated and processing exposure activities activities associated and processing exposure activities associated factor activities associated factor activities categories activities categories Food, n deer/yr diet; n fish/yr diet; Includes No food, but Both as- Must account Food, n deer/yr diet; n fish/yr diet; Includes No food, but Both as- Must account medicine, tea, Total Total pounds or foods, herbal gathered and for all medicine, tea, Total Total pounds or foods, herbal gathered and for all other biota large/small meals/day-wk- medicines, particulates as-eaten calories; other biota large/small meals/day-wk- medicines, particulates as-eaten calories; ingestion game, fowl; yr; teas, etc. are inhaled forms; Extra factor ingestion game, fowl; yr; teas, etc. are inhaled forms; Extra factor (diet) Organs eaten Organs eaten Cleaning and for 100–200 (diet) Organs eaten Organs eaten Cleaning and for 100–200 cooking plant species, cooking plant species, methods parts eaten methods parts eaten Soil, Terrain types Sediment External soil Includes Includes Must also Soil, Terrain types Sediment External soil Includes Includes Must also sediment, such as contact, dust on plants; building the incidental soil include living sediment, such as contact, dust on plants; building the incidental soil include living dust, and marsh with and smoke if Cooking sweat lodge remaining on area, dust, and marsh with and smoke if Cooking sweat lodge remaining on area, mud more mud drying; Weir method such and getting foods, pit unpaved mud more mud drying; Weir method such and getting foods, pit unpaved ingestion contact construction in as pit materials cooking roads, ingestion contact construction in as pit materials cooking roads, mud cooking; regional dust, mud cooking; regional dust, Ingestion local dust- Ingestion local dust- when generating when generating gathering. activities gathering. activities Inhalation Days per Exertion level— Exertion level Includes Exertion level Must account Inhalation Days per Exertion level— Exertion level Includes Exertion level Must account rates terrain; nets and gaffing for load and building the for pounding, for exertion rates terrain; nets and gaffing for load and building the for pounding, for exertion Exertion methods, grade, or lodge, grinding, etc. levels; Exertion methods, grade, or lodge, grinding, etc. levels; level; Hide cleaning effort gardening; chopping Smokes and level; Hide cleaning effort gardening; chopping Smokes and scraping; Include firewood, smudges scraping; Include firewood, smudges Load & grade making items singing Load & grade making items singing Groundwater Ritual Drinking water; Drinking Steam in Soaking; Must account Groundwater Ritual Drinking water; Drinking Steam in Soaking; Must account and surface bathing; Incidental water, lodge; Washing; for climate, and surface bathing; Incidental water, lodge; Washing; for climate, water Drinking ingestion, Cooking Drinking Leaching sweat lodge, water Drinking ingestion, Cooking Drinking Leaching sweat lodge, pathways water; Wash washing and water, water during tannins; other ritual bathing pathways water; Wash washing and water, water during tannins; other ritual bathing water; Water- cooking Soaking in sweat uses water; Water- cooking Soaking in sweat uses to-game mud or water to-game mud or water pathways pathways Dermal Soil, air and Immersion Same as Immersion Includes Must consider Dermal Soil, air and Immersion Same as Immersion Includes Must consider exposure water considerations hunting with open basket skin loading exposure water considerations hunting with open basket skin loading pathways, skin pores making, and habitat pathways, skin pores making, and habitat plus wounds. types. plus wounds. types. pigments, pigments, etc. etc.
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5.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME 5.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME This section describes a family-based exposure scenario based on a traditional This section describes a family-based exposure scenario based on a traditional Washoe lifestyle and diet. It is based on habits of tribal members who live in a house Washoe lifestyle and diet. It is based on habits of tribal members who live in a house in a sparsely populated riparian corridor with a home garden, and who have a high in a sparsely populated riparian corridor with a home garden, and who have a high rate of subsistence activities, a regular schedule of other cultural activities and are rate of subsistence activities, a regular schedule of other cultural activities and are seasonally occupied as field workers monitoring natural and cultural resources, seasonally occupied as field workers monitoring natural and cultural resources, taking environmental samples, and doing reclamation or restoration work. The taking environmental samples, and doing reclamation or restoration work. The lifestyles are moderately active outdoor lifestyles. lifestyles are moderately active outdoor lifestyles.
5.3.1 Lifestyle of a Representative Washoe Tribal Family 5.3.1 Lifestyle of a Representative Washoe Tribal Family The families are intended to be reasonable maximum composites, and were The families are intended to be reasonable maximum composites, and were constructed with the guidance of the Washoe Tribal Cultural Resources Coordinator. constructed with the guidance of the Washoe Tribal Cultural Resources Coordinator. Each family includes (1) an infant/child (age 0–2 years) who breast-feeds for two Each family includes (1) an infant/child (age 0–2 years) who breast-feeds for two years and crawls and plays; (2) a child (age 2–6) who plays in the house and years and crawls and plays; (2) a child (age 2–6) who plays in the house and outdoors; (3) a youth (age 7–16) who attends school, plays outdoors near his/her outdoors; (3) a youth (age 7–16) who attends school, plays outdoors near his/her residence, and is learning traditional practices; (4) two adult workers (one male, one residence, and is learning traditional practices; (4) two adult workers (one male, one female, age 17–55; the female breast-feeds the infant) who work outdoors on female, age 17–55; the female breast-feeds the infant) who work outdoors on reclamation and environmental and cultural activities, and engage in subsistence reclamation and environmental and cultural activities, and engage in subsistence activities, and (5) an elder (age 56–75) who is partly at home and partly outdoors activities, and (5) an elder (age 56–75) who is partly at home and partly outdoors teaching and demonstrating traditional cultural practices. All members (except the teaching and demonstrating traditional cultural practices. All members (except the infant from 0–2 years) partake in cultural activities throughout the year. infant from 0–2 years) partake in cultural activities throughout the year.
Location and Type of Residence: The residence is located at the furthest Location and Type of Residence: The residence is located at the furthest upstream available allotment in the Leviathan-Bryant Creek drainage. The family upstream available allotment in the Leviathan-Bryant Creek drainage. The family lives in a house with no landscaping other than the natural vegetation, no air lives in a house with no landscaping other than the natural vegetation, no air conditioning, and wood-burning heat in the winter. The house has its own well for conditioning, and wood-burning heat in the winter. The house has its own well for domestic use and a garden irrigated with groundwater or surface water (whichever is domestic use and a garden irrigated with groundwater or surface water (whichever is more contaminated). The road and driveway are not paved. more contaminated). The road and driveway are not paved.
5.3.2 Activity Patterns of Each Family Member 5.3.2 Activity Patterns of Each Family Member Infant: The infant breast-feeds for 2 years, and crawls on the floor (a source of Infant: The infant breast-feeds for 2 years, and crawls on the floor (a source of house dust exposure) from age 6 months to 2 years. Infants ingest more fluid per house dust exposure) from age 6 months to 2 years. Infants ingest more fluid per body weight than children do, and toddlers (6 months to 2 years) are likely to have body weight than children do, and toddlers (6 months to 2 years) are likely to have the highest of the children’s exposures due to crawling and mouthing behaviors, and the highest of the children’s exposures due to crawling and mouthing behaviors, and their food and water per capita ingestion rates. their food and water per capita ingestion rates.
Child (ages 2–6 years): Beginning at age 2, the child eats the same food as Child (ages 2–6 years): Beginning at age 2, the child eats the same food as everyone else, and spends some time accompanying the mother as she gardens everyone else, and spends some time accompanying the mother as she gardens and gathers. and gathers.
Youth (ages 7–16): The adolescent is learning to hunt, gather, and fish (and spends Youth (ages 7–16): The adolescent is learning to hunt, gather, and fish (and spends equal time in each activity in their respective locations), plays outdoors, and attends equal time in each activity in their respective locations), plays outdoors, and attends school. school.
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Adult Worker (ages 17–55): Workers are assumed to work for the Tribe collecting Adult Worker (ages 17–55): Workers are assumed to work for the Tribe collecting environmental samples, engaging in restoration/remediation or construction work, environmental samples, engaging in restoration/remediation or construction work, and caring for natural and cultural resources and tribal property. This type of activity and caring for natural and cultural resources and tribal property. This type of activity is dusty in the summer and muddy in the winter. Both males and females are is dusty in the summer and muddy in the winter. Both males and females are currently employed in this type of activity. Workers could be exposed to surface soil currently employed in this type of activity. Workers could be exposed to surface soil and dust, vegetation, surface water, sediments, and seeps. These workers have an and dust, vegetation, surface water, sediments, and seeps. These workers have an average 8-hour workday. While in the field, the worker eats lunch brought from average 8-hour workday. While in the field, the worker eats lunch brought from home, possibly supplemented with native foods gathered near the workplace, and home, possibly supplemented with native foods gathered near the workplace, and does not have a place to wash food (dust ingestion). does not have a place to wash food (dust ingestion).
Adult Hunter/Fisher/Gatherer: Each adult also hunts (male), fishes (male), or Adult Hunter/Fisher/Gatherer: Each adult also hunts (male), fishes (male), or gardens and gathers plants (female). These activities are roughly analogous to each gardens and gathers plants (female). These activities are roughly analogous to each other with respect to the degree of environmental contact, and therefore are other with respect to the degree of environmental contact, and therefore are assumed to result in the same amount of soil or sediment ingestion for males and assumed to result in the same amount of soil or sediment ingestion for males and females. The additional time and contact during game processing, plant washing females. The additional time and contact during game processing, plant washing and preparation are also roughly equal. The location of hunting small game or fowl is and preparation are also roughly equal. The location of hunting small game or fowl is in the same area as the residence, and the location of big game hunting covers a in the same area as the residence, and the location of big game hunting covers a larger area. The garden is at the place of residence and uses the same water as the larger area. The garden is at the place of residence and uses the same water as the household, while the gathering occurs in a larger area. All of the hunters, gatherers household, while the gathering occurs in a larger area. All of the hunters, gatherers and fishers spend some time near water, if it is present in the area, on activities such and fishers spend some time near water, if it is present in the area, on activities such as washing plants or game, gathering aquatic plants and mollusks/crustaceans, and as washing plants or game, gathering aquatic plants and mollusks/crustaceans, and so on, with concomitant exposure to mud or sediment. so on, with concomitant exposure to mud or sediment.
Elder (ages 56–75): The elder gathers plants and medicines, prepares them, uses Elder (ages 56–75): The elder gathers plants and medicines, prepares them, uses them (e.g., making medicines or baskets, etc.) and teaches a variety of indoor and them (e.g., making medicines or baskets, etc.) and teaches a variety of indoor and outdoor traditional activities. The elder also provides child care in the home. outdoor traditional activities. The elder also provides child care in the home.
5.3.3 Specific Cultural Activities 5.3.3 Specific Cultural Activities This section considers activities that are engaged in at varying levels by the Tribe This section considers activities that are engaged in at varying levels by the Tribe and by varying age-groups, and other factors that affect exposure. and by varying age-groups, and other factors that affect exposure.
Ritual Purification (Sweat Lodge) (ages 10–75): A sizeable fraction of Washoe Ritual Purification (Sweat Lodge) (ages 10–75): A sizeable fraction of Washoe youth and adults participate in purification ceremonies in private or community youth and adults participate in purification ceremonies in private or community ceremonial (sweat) lodges. The basic mechanics of lodge construction and use have ceremonial (sweat) lodges. The basic mechanics of lodge construction and use have been described in the open literature. The size of Washoe sweat lodges is roughly 5 been described in the open literature. The size of Washoe sweat lodges is roughly 5 feet high and 12 feet wide. The duration is generally about 2 hours per ceremony. feet high and 12 feet wide. The duration is generally about 2 hours per ceremony. The frequency is calculated based on 8 months of participation in one 2-hour The frequency is calculated based on 8 months of participation in one 2-hour ceremony plus 4 months of participation in a four-sweat series, for a total of 24 2- ceremony plus 4 months of participation in a four-sweat series, for a total of 24 2- hour sweats per year. This frequency is an average for Washoes who participate in hour sweats per year. This frequency is an average for Washoes who participate in purification ceremonies, but may somewhat underestimate the frequency for purification ceremonies, but may somewhat underestimate the frequency for ceremonial leaders. During the ceremony, approximately 4 gallons of water is ceremonial leaders. During the ceremony, approximately 4 gallons of water is poured on heated rocks, forming steam (one gallon per half hour). Either poured on heated rocks, forming steam (one gallon per half hour). Either groundwater or surface water may be used. Inhalation and heart rates and inhalation groundwater or surface water may be used. Inhalation and heart rates and inhalation rates may be higher depending on activities that occur during the sweat-lodge rates may be higher depending on activities that occur during the sweat-lodge ceremony (e.g., singing). ceremony (e.g., singing).
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Cultural Activities: All age-groups participate in day-long outdoor community Cultural Activities: All age-groups participate in day-long outdoor community cultural activities once a month, including seasonal ceremonial and private cultural cultural activities once a month, including seasonal ceremonial and private cultural activities (averaging about 0.5 hours/day). These are often gatherings which consist activities (averaging about 0.5 hours/day). These are often gatherings which consist of activities that result in a greater rate of dust resuspension and particulate of activities that result in a greater rate of dust resuspension and particulate inhalation, as well as greater personal inhalation and water ingestion rates. If this inhalation, as well as greater personal inhalation and water ingestion rates. If this scenario is applied in other locations, additional activities such as powwows could be scenario is applied in other locations, additional activities such as powwows could be considered. considered.
Basket Making: Exposure pathways specific to basket makers are well- Basket Making: Exposure pathways specific to basket makers are well- recognized,11 but data useful for exposure assessment are almost totally lacking. recognized,11 but data useful for exposure assessment are almost totally lacking. Gathering of some plants (e.g., willows, cattails, reeds, and rushes) can be very Gathering of some plants (e.g., willows, cattails, reeds, and rushes) can be very muddy, and therefore river-shore or lakeshore sediment exposure may be muddy, and therefore river-shore or lakeshore sediment exposure may be underestimated. Washing, peeling, weaving rushes, and other activities result in underestimated. Washing, peeling, weaving rushes, and other activities result in additional exposure to dust deposited on leaves or soil adhered to roots. Some of additional exposure to dust deposited on leaves or soil adhered to roots. Some of the materials are held in the mouth for splitting, and cuts on fingers are common. As the materials are held in the mouth for splitting, and cuts on fingers are common. As more information becomes available, it will be evaluated so that exposure factors for more information becomes available, it will be evaluated so that exposure factors for each route of exposure account for these particular activities. each route of exposure account for these particular activities.
Other Special Activities: It is recognized that there are special circumstances when Other Special Activities: It is recognized that there are special circumstances when some people may be highly exposed (and their exposure would be underestimated). some people may be highly exposed (and their exposure would be underestimated). For instance, some men hunt or fish for the general community, and many people For instance, some men hunt or fish for the general community, and many people provide roots and fish and game to elders in addition to their own families. Flint provide roots and fish and game to elders in addition to their own families. Flint knappers may receive additional exposure through obtaining and working with their knappers may receive additional exposure through obtaining and working with their materials. Elders with special traditional environmental knowledge may spend more materials. Elders with special traditional environmental knowledge may spend more time in the field teaching. time in the field teaching.
As with the exposure pathways of basket making, other pathways unique to As with the exposure pathways of basket making, other pathways unique to traditional practices also lack data and are therefore sources of uncertainty. For traditional practices also lack data and are therefore sources of uncertainty. For example, pharmacologically active medicinal plants may have differential uptake of example, pharmacologically active medicinal plants may have differential uptake of contaminants into the plant as well as affecting the metabolism of the person and/or contaminants into the plant as well as affecting the metabolism of the person and/or interacting with contaminants. Alkaloids in ephedra tea and other plants affect interacting with contaminants. Alkaloids in ephedra tea and other plants affect metabolism in various ways. Materials released from firewood, smokes, and metabolism in various ways. Materials released from firewood, smokes, and smudges may contain contaminants or affect physiological parameters of the smudges may contain contaminants or affect physiological parameters of the person. We have tried to consider these and other pathways in the cumulative roll- person. We have tried to consider these and other pathways in the cumulative roll- up of exposure factors, but they remain as potential exposure pathways or can up of exposure factors, but they remain as potential exposure pathways or can potentially affect the way that a person reacts to single or multiple contaminants. potentially affect the way that a person reacts to single or multiple contaminants.
Seasonality: The changes in activity patterns over the annual seasonal cycle has Seasonality: The changes in activity patterns over the annual seasonal cycle has been modified in modern times, but the ecological cycle has not, so people must still been modified in modern times, but the ecological cycle has not, so people must still gather plants according to when they are ripe, hunt according to game and fowl gather plants according to when they are ripe, hunt according to game and fowl patterns, and fish when the spawning runs occur. Many items are gathered during patterns, and fish when the spawning runs occur. Many items are gathered during one season for year-round use. While specific activities change from season to one season for year-round use. While specific activities change from season to season, they are replaced by other activities with a similar environmental contact season, they are replaced by other activities with a similar environmental contact rate. For instance, a particular plant may be gathered during one month, while rate. For instance, a particular plant may be gathered during one month, while another month may be spent hunting, and a winter month may include cleaning and another month may be spent hunting, and a winter month may include cleaning and
11 http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/envjust/documents/basketweaver.pdf 11 http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/envjust/documents/basketweaver.pdf
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using the items obtained previously. We assume that all activities are roughly equal, using the items obtained previously. We assume that all activities are roughly equal, so there is no decrease in environmental contact rates during winter months. so there is no decrease in environmental contact rates during winter months.
5.3.4 Time Allocation throughout the Day 5.3.4 Time Allocation throughout the Day This section describes the time allocation that is reflected in daily exposure factors. This section describes the time allocation that is reflected in daily exposure factors. The locations at which these activities occur will be defined in the RME report. The locations at which these activities occur will be defined in the RME report.
Identical Activities: From the age of 2 to 75 years, 15 hours of every day are Identical Activities: From the age of 2 to 75 years, 15 hours of every day are similar: 8 hours sleep, 3.5 hours in other indoor activities, some time in the sweat similar: 8 hours sleep, 3.5 hours in other indoor activities, some time in the sweat lodge (averaged), 2 hours in nearby outside activity, such as small game hunting, lodge (averaged), 2 hours in nearby outside activity, such as small game hunting, 0.5 hour in community cultural activities, and 1 hour traveling on unpaved roads. 0.5 hour in community cultural activities, and 1 hour traveling on unpaved roads. These activities are referred to as common time. These activities are referred to as common time.
Infant: Standard infant exposure parameters are used. House dust is assumed to Infant: Standard infant exposure parameters are used. House dust is assumed to have similar concentrations of contaminants as outside soil. The infant is breast-fed have similar concentrations of contaminants as outside soil. The infant is breast-fed for 2 years. The risk assessment may be performed assuming two different for 2 years. The risk assessment may be performed assuming two different scenarios: (1) the mother has received 25 years of prior exposure from a scenarios: (1) the mother has received 25 years of prior exposure from a contaminated area; and (2) the mother has not received such exposure. In situations contaminated area; and (2) the mother has not received such exposure. In situations where exposure has been occurring, a new mother may have been exposed as she where exposure has been occurring, a new mother may have been exposed as she was growing up and may carry a body burden or heritable mutation that she might was growing up and may carry a body burden or heritable mutation that she might pass on to a fetus during gestation, as well as during lactation. If contamination pass on to a fetus during gestation, as well as during lactation. If contamination remains on site into the future, then future mothers could be exposed as children, remains on site into the future, then future mothers could be exposed as children, and then through pregnancy. In other situations, a female might not return to the site and then through pregnancy. In other situations, a female might not return to the site until after the baby is born, so the infant’s exposure would not start until birth, and until after the baby is born, so the infant’s exposure would not start until birth, and would not have been exposed in utero. would not have been exposed in utero.
Child: The child, through age 6, spends the same amount of common time in the Child: The child, through age 6, spends the same amount of common time in the same activities, and 4 hours indoors and 5 hours outdoors with the mother as she same activities, and 4 hours indoors and 5 hours outdoors with the mother as she gardens and gathers. gardens and gathers.
Youth: Common time plus 6 hours at school 5 days/week (averaging 4.5 hours/day), Youth: Common time plus 6 hours at school 5 days/week (averaging 4.5 hours/day), 2.5 hours indoors, and 3 hours outdoors playing or accompanying an adult or elder, 2.5 hours indoors, and 3 hours outdoors playing or accompanying an adult or elder, learning traditional activities. It is assumed that the school is uncontaminated unless learning traditional activities. It is assumed that the school is uncontaminated unless there is data about chemical usage or contamination, and it is also assumed that his there is data about chemical usage or contamination, and it is also assumed that his or her near-residence outdoor time results in a higher amount of soil contact than at or her near-residence outdoor time results in a higher amount of soil contact than at other ages; therefore, the youth’s average contact rates are the same as those of other ages; therefore, the youth’s average contact rates are the same as those of the child and the adult. the child and the adult.
Adult: Common time plus 8 hours working 5 days/week (about 5.5 hours/day), 0.5 Adult: Common time plus 8 hours working 5 days/week (about 5.5 hours/day), 0.5 hour at home, and 3 hours in one of the subsistence activities. hour at home, and 3 hours in one of the subsistence activities.
Elder: Common time plus 3 hours at home providing child care, 3 hours outdoors Elder: Common time plus 3 hours at home providing child care, 3 hours outdoors teaching, 1 hour gardening or gathering, and 2 hours at home processing materials teaching, 1 hour gardening or gathering, and 2 hours at home processing materials and making items. and making items.
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5.3.5 The Lifetime 5.3.5 The Lifetime Traditionally, daily tasks were somewhat different for males and females: males tend Traditionally, daily tasks were somewhat different for males and females: males tend to hunt and fish, while females gather and cook. However, even where activity to hunt and fish, while females gather and cook. However, even where activity patterns show gender dimorphism, the rates of environmental contact were and are patterns show gender dimorphism, the rates of environmental contact were and are probably similar. In addition, both women and men are employed as environmental probably similar. In addition, both women and men are employed as environmental and construction workers, as well. Therefore, for the purposes of the exposure and construction workers, as well. Therefore, for the purposes of the exposure scenario, the genders have identical exposure factors. scenario, the genders have identical exposure factors.
Male Lifetime: The male lifetime consists of the standard infancy, childhood, and Male Lifetime: The male lifetime consists of the standard infancy, childhood, and youth. At age 17 he specializes in either hunting or fishing and begins working as a youth. At age 17 he specializes in either hunting or fishing and begins working as a reclamation/restoration/environmental worker. These activities are specified solely to reclamation/restoration/environmental worker. These activities are specified solely to determine their locations, which may have different contaminant concentrations. As determine their locations, which may have different contaminant concentrations. As an elder he changes his activity patterns to teaching and demonstrating, as an elder he changes his activity patterns to teaching and demonstrating, as described above. described above.
Female Lifetime: The female lifetime consists of the standard infancy, childhood, Female Lifetime: The female lifetime consists of the standard infancy, childhood, and youth. At age 17 she engages in gathering and gardening and also works the and youth. At age 17 she engages in gathering and gardening and also works the same job as the male. During motherhood, the woman may remain at home, which same job as the male. During motherhood, the woman may remain at home, which is located in the same sparsely populated area, and she continues to garden and is located in the same sparsely populated area, and she continues to garden and gather, so her exposure does not diminish. Her earlier exposure may result in a dose gather, so her exposure does not diminish. Her earlier exposure may result in a dose to the fetus and breast-feeding infant. to the fetus and breast-feeding infant.
5.4 MEDIA, PATHWAYS, AND DIRECT EXPOSURE FACTORS 5.4 MEDIA, PATHWAYS, AND DIRECT EXPOSURE FACTORS As described previously, exposure factors are developed by cross-walking the As described previously, exposure factors are developed by cross-walking the activities described above with specific media-based exposure pathways. The activities described above with specific media-based exposure pathways. The identification of media pathways begins to sum exposures; for instance, all the soil identification of media pathways begins to sum exposures; for instance, all the soil exposures from hunting, gathering, household activities, processing and using exposures from hunting, gathering, household activities, processing and using materials, food processing, and other activities are summed qualitatively. At a later materials, food processing, and other activities are summed qualitatively. At a later step in the RME, the time spent in various locations will be defined so location- step in the RME, the time spent in various locations will be defined so location- specific exposure point concentrations can be determined. specific exposure point concentrations can be determined.
Ground Water and/or Surface Water Pathways: The importance of bathing in Ground Water and/or Surface Water Pathways: The importance of bathing in Washoe ritual life makes access to clean and uncontaminated water particularly Washoe ritual life makes access to clean and uncontaminated water particularly important. As mentioned previously, water is central to Washoe identify and life. important. As mentioned previously, water is central to Washoe identify and life. Ritual bathing and/or steam purification occurs before hunting and other cultural Ritual bathing and/or steam purification occurs before hunting and other cultural activities. Water is also important for general cleanliness (which has always been activities. Water is also important for general cleanliness (which has always been very important to tribal members), soaking plant materials, and processing foods and very important to tribal members), soaking plant materials, and processing foods and materials. For purposes of evaluating risk, both ground water and/or surface water materials. For purposes of evaluating risk, both ground water and/or surface water are directly ingested as drinking water. Both are also used to create steam in the are directly ingested as drinking water. Both are also used to create steam in the sweat lodge. Other uses of these resources include typical household use (e.g., sweat lodge. Other uses of these resources include typical household use (e.g., cooking, bathing, showering), irrigation of crops and/or garden, and livestock cooking, bathing, showering), irrigation of crops and/or garden, and livestock watering. watering.
Washoe Tribe Scenario 158 Washoe Tribe Scenario 158
Air and Dust Pathways: As a general rule, the air pathway can result in exposure Air and Dust Pathways: As a general rule, the air pathway can result in exposure to any present volatiles, aerosols, and resuspended dust. Dust resuspension from to any present volatiles, aerosols, and resuspended dust. Dust resuspension from unpaved roads and other unvegetated surfaces should be included as part of the unpaved roads and other unvegetated surfaces should be included as part of the inhalation exposure pathway. If there is a potential for exposure, inhalation of fire inhalation exposure pathway. If there is a potential for exposure, inhalation of fire smoke or smudge should be included because some of these pathways can be smoke or smudge should be included because some of these pathways can be frequent and significant. frequent and significant.
Soil and Sediment Pathways: This pathway includes soil ingestion from hand to Soil and Sediment Pathways: This pathway includes soil ingestion from hand to mouth activities associated with daily activities, gathering (e.g., digging roots) and mouth activities associated with daily activities, gathering (e.g., digging roots) and gardening, food and material processing (e.g., grinding, scraping, pit cooking). gardening, food and material processing (e.g., grinding, scraping, pit cooking). Several foods are prepared by pit cooking: fish, ground squirrels, wild garlic, wild Several foods are prepared by pit cooking: fish, ground squirrels, wild garlic, wild onions, acorns, pine nuts, and marmots (Hammett et al. 2004, Walker 2003). onions, acorns, pine nuts, and marmots (Hammett et al. 2004, Walker 2003).
This pathway also includes direct ingestion resulting from residual soil on roots and This pathway also includes direct ingestion resulting from residual soil on roots and bulbs. The as-gathered and as-eaten conditions of plants are important. Many bulbs. The as-gathered and as-eaten conditions of plants are important. Many vegetable foods were eaten raw and on the spot. Hammett et al. (2004) describes vegetable foods were eaten raw and on the spot. Hammett et al. (2004) describes such eating of lily bulbs, with the only preparation being brushing the dirt off. such eating of lily bulbs, with the only preparation being brushing the dirt off. Grinding seeds and nuts also adds rock dust to the flour. Grinding seeds and nuts also adds rock dust to the flour.
Gathering of willows, bracken fern, and other basket and cordage materials results Gathering of willows, bracken fern, and other basket and cordage materials results in soil ingestion. Further exposure is received when one splits shoots into weaving in soil ingestion. Further exposure is received when one splits shoots into weaving strips by holding one end in the mouth while pulling strips off with each hand. strips by holding one end in the mouth while pulling strips off with each hand.
5.5 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS 5.5 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS A description of activities for the purposes of developing exposure factors focuses A description of activities for the purposes of developing exposure factors focuses on: on:
Frequency of activity: Frequency of activity: • Daily, weekly, monthly • Daily, weekly, monthly Duration of activity: Duration of activity: • Hours at a time • Hours at a time • Number of years • Number of years Intensity of environmental contact and intensity of activity: Intensity of environmental contact and intensity of activity: • For soil ingestion and dermal exposure, is the activity more than, less than, or • For soil ingestion and dermal exposure, is the activity more than, less than, or equal to gardening, camping, construction/excavation, or sports? equal to gardening, camping, construction/excavation, or sports? • For inhalation rates and calorie needs, is the activity level more than, less • For inhalation rates and calorie needs, is the activity level more than, less than, or equal to standard EPA activity levels for specific activities with known than, or equal to standard EPA activity levels for specific activities with known respiration rates and caloric expenditure? respiration rates and caloric expenditure?
The following table (Table 8) includes three adult scenarios: the suburban resident, The following table (Table 8) includes three adult scenarios: the suburban resident, the rural residential farmer-gardener, and the subsistence forager. The first two the rural residential farmer-gardener, and the subsistence forager. The first two scenarios are typically used in risk assessments, and the third reflects the set of scenarios are typically used in risk assessments, and the third reflects the set of activities that compose the Washoe lifestyle. Each scenario is intended to be activities that compose the Washoe lifestyle. Each scenario is intended to be physiologically coherent, which means that the dietary intake, activity levels, and physiologically coherent, which means that the dietary intake, activity levels, and inhalation rates are physiologically linked. For instance, the more sedentary inhalation rates are physiologically linked. For instance, the more sedentary suburban scenario is based on national data on typical lifestyles (light occupational suburban scenario is based on national data on typical lifestyles (light occupational
Washoe Tribe Scenario 159 Washoe Tribe Scenario 159 activities sitting or standing, with some moderate activity at home), while the rural activities sitting or standing, with some moderate activity at home), while the rural residential farmer has a higher activity level, higher inhalation rate, and higher soil residential farmer has a higher activity level, higher inhalation rate, and higher soil ingestion rate due to his farming activity pattern. The subsistence forager is still ingestion rate due to his farming activity pattern. The subsistence forager is still more active, with a proportionally higher inhalation rate, as well as a higher soil more active, with a proportionally higher inhalation rate, as well as a higher soil ingestion rate, due to a higher degree of soil contact. ingestion rate, due to a higher degree of soil contact.
The table shows adult values, as does the dietary discussion above. Children’s The table shows adult values, as does the dietary discussion above. Children’s exposure factors are scaled from the subsistence forager rates, as is conventionally exposure factors are scaled from the subsistence forager rates, as is conventionally done in risk assessment (from the Children’s Exposure Factors Handbook), with the done in risk assessment (from the Children’s Exposure Factors Handbook), with the exception of the soil ingestion rate, which is left at 400mg/d throughout the lifetime. exception of the soil ingestion rate, which is left at 400mg/d throughout the lifetime. Body weight is a consistent 70kg because that is the standard EPA assumption used Body weight is a consistent 70kg because that is the standard EPA assumption used in risk assessments. in risk assessments.
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Table 8. Exposure factors for direct pathways. Table 8. Exposure factors for direct pathways.
Exposure Factors (Adults) Exposure Factors (Adults) Rural Rural Direct Default Direct Default Residential Subsistence Forager Residential Subsistence Forager Pathway Suburban Pathway Suburban Farmer Lifestyle Farmer Lifestyle Lifestyle Lifestyle Lifestyle Lifestyle Inhalation 20m3 25m3: While EPA 30m3/day: This rate is based on a Inhalation 20m3 25m3: While EPA 30m3/day: This rate is based on a does not have lifestyle that is an outdoor active does not have lifestyle that is an outdoor active official exposure lifestyle, based on EPA activity official exposure lifestyle, based on EPA activity factors for this databases, foraging theory, and factors for this databases, foraging theory, and lifestyle, it is ethnographic description of the lifestyle, it is ethnographic description of the reasonable to activities undertaken to obtain reasonable to activities undertaken to obtain assume that a subsistence resources as well as assume that a subsistence resources as well as person who farms, allotment-based food (livestock and person who farms, allotment-based food (livestock and gardens, irrigates, garden). It is higher than the gardens, irrigates, garden). It is higher than the and cares for conventional 20m3/day because the and cares for conventional 20m3/day because the livestock has an activities with associated respiration livestock has an activities with associated respiration intermediate rates are higher than suburban intermediate rates are higher than suburban inhalation rate. activities. inhalation rate. activities. Drinking water 2L/d 3L/day: This rate 3L/d plus 1L for each use of the Drinking water 2L/d 3L/day: This rate 3L/d plus 1L for each use of the ingestion is based on water sweat lodge during ritual purification: ingestion is based on water sweat lodge during ritual purification: requirements in at 24 uses per year, this is 3.065L/d, requirements in at 24 uses per year, this is 3.065L/d, an outdoor which we are rounding down to 3L. an outdoor which we are rounding down to 3L. moderately arid moderately arid environment. environment. Soil ingestion 100mg/d 300mg/d 400mg/d: This rate is based on Soil ingestion 100mg/d 300mg/d 400mg/d: This rate is based on (conventional indoor and outdoor activities, a (conventional indoor and outdoor activities, a suburban); greater rate of gathering, processing, suburban); greater rate of gathering, processing, 50mg/d and other uses of natural resources, 50mg/d and other uses of natural resources, (manicured as well as on residual soil on grown (manicured as well as on residual soil on grown suburban; and gathered plants. suburban; and gathered plants. less outdoor Episodic events (1 gram each) are less outdoor Episodic events (1 gram each) are time) considered, such as wetland time) considered, such as wetland gathering, cultural activities with gathering, cultural activities with higher soil contact, and so on. It higher soil contact, and so on. It does not specifically include does not specifically include geophagia or pica. geophagia or pica. Dermal Must be included in the risk assessment. Greater environmental contacts Dermal Must be included in the risk assessment. Greater environmental contacts Pathways must be factored in; however, suburban defaults may be used until data for Pathways must be factored in; however, suburban defaults may be used until data for traditional lifeways are developed, although a greater fraction of the skin traditional lifeways are developed, although a greater fraction of the skin surface and a higher dermal loading rate should be considered. surface and a higher dermal loading rate should be considered. Other parameters Other parameters Exposure Up to 365 days Up to 365 days per 365 days per year; Hours per day varies, Exposure Up to 365 days Up to 365 days per 365 days per year; Hours per day varies, frequency per year, but year, but varies; typically 24 hrs/d frequency per year, but year, but varies; typically 24 hrs/d varies; Hours Hours per day varies; Hours Hours per day per day varies, varies, typically 24 per day varies, varies, typically 24 typically 24 hrs/d typically 24 hrs/d hrs/d hrs/d Exposure 30 years 30 or 70–75 years 70–75 years Exposure 30 years 30 or 70–75 years 70–75 years duration duration
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Drinking Water: Harper et al. (2002) estimated an average water ingestion rate of Drinking Water: Harper et al. (2002) estimated an average water ingestion rate of 3L/day for adults, based on total fluid intake in an arid climate. In addition, each use 3L/day for adults, based on total fluid intake in an arid climate. In addition, each use of the sweat lodge requires an additional 1L for rehydration (24L per year). It should of the sweat lodge requires an additional 1L for rehydration (24L per year). It should be noted that water intake in an arid environment may be more than 3L per day. For be noted that water intake in an arid environment may be more than 3L per day. For example, the Army assumes that the maximum individual daily amount of drinking example, the Army assumes that the maximum individual daily amount of drinking water required by military personnel to remain combat-effective ranges from 5– water required by military personnel to remain combat-effective ranges from 5– 15L/day, depending on the climate, season, and intensity of work.12 The Army 15L/day, depending on the climate, season, and intensity of work.12 The Army Quartermaster assumes that military personnel in hot climates require 3 gallons per Quartermaster assumes that military personnel in hot climates require 3 gallons per day as drinking water.13 day as drinking water.13
Soil and Sediment Ingestion: Soil ingestion includes consideration of direct Soil and Sediment Ingestion: Soil ingestion includes consideration of direct ingestion of dirt, mud, or dust, swallowing inhaled dust, mouthing of objects, ingestion of dirt, mud, or dust, swallowing inhaled dust, mouthing of objects, ingestion of dirt or dust on food, and hand-to-mouth contact. The Washoe soil ingestion of dirt or dust on food, and hand-to-mouth contact. The Washoe soil ingestion rate of 400mg/day is based on a review of EPA guidance, soil ingestion ingestion rate of 400mg/day is based on a review of EPA guidance, soil ingestion studies in suburban and indigenous settings, and dermal adherence studies (a small studies in suburban and indigenous settings, and dermal adherence studies (a small portion of which is summarized here). It is also based on knowledge about portion of which is summarized here). It is also based on knowledge about subsistence lifestyles with their higher environmental contact rates and local climatic subsistence lifestyles with their higher environmental contact rates and local climatic and geologic conditions. It reflects a variety of soil pathways such as pit cooking, and geologic conditions. It reflects a variety of soil pathways such as pit cooking, gathering and gardening, residual soil or dust on foods and medicine, localized soil- gathering and gardening, residual soil or dust on foods and medicine, localized soil- generating activities, holding natural materials in the mouth while processing or generating activities, holding natural materials in the mouth while processing or using, driving on unpaved roads, and similar considerations. It also considers many using, driving on unpaved roads, and similar considerations. It also considers many 1-gram days and events, such as root gathering days, tule and reed gathering days, 1-gram days and events, such as root gathering days, tule and reed gathering days, horse training and riding days, sweat-lodge building or repair days, grave digging, horse training and riding days, sweat-lodge building or repair days, grave digging, and similar activities. There are also likely to be many high or intermediate-contact and similar activities. There are also likely to be many high or intermediate-contact days, depending on the occupation (e.g., wildlife field work, construction or road days, depending on the occupation (e.g., wildlife field work, construction or road work, cultural resource field work). A baseline number of these events is work, cultural resource field work). A baseline number of these events is incorporated, but this would need to be reconsidered in the RME if a large number of incorporated, but this would need to be reconsidered in the RME if a large number of such events becomes evident. such events becomes evident.
The soil ingestion rate of 400mg/d for all ages is the published upper bound for The soil ingestion rate of 400mg/d for all ages is the published upper bound for suburban children (EPA 1997), and is within the range of outdoor activity rates for suburban children (EPA 1997), and is within the range of outdoor activity rates for adults but lower than the typical 480mg/d applied to outdoor work, to allow for some adults but lower than the typical 480mg/d applied to outdoor work, to allow for some low-contact days. Subsistence lifestyles were not considered by the EPA guidance, low-contact days. Subsistence lifestyles were not considered by the EPA guidance, but are generally considered to be similar in soil contact rates to construction, utility but are generally considered to be similar in soil contact rates to construction, utility work, or military exercise. The US military assumes 480mg per exposure event14 or work, or military exercise. The US military assumes 480mg per exposure event14 or per field day. The UN Balkans Task Force assumes that 1 gram of soil can be per field day. The UN Balkans Task Force assumes that 1 gram of soil can be ingested per military field day.15 Anecdotally, US forces deployed in Iraq report ingested per military field day.15 Anecdotally, US forces deployed in Iraq report frequent grittiness in the mouth and food. Haywood and Smith (1990) also frequent grittiness in the mouth and food. Haywood and Smith (1990) also
12 http://www.nap.edu/execsumm/NI000954.html Guidelines for Chemical Warfare Agents in Military 12 http://www.nap.edu/execsumm/NI000954.html Guidelines for Chemical Warfare Agents in Military Field Drinking Water (1995). Field Drinking Water (1995). 13 http://www.pasols.org/energy/water2.pdf 13 http://www.pasols.org/energy/water2.pdf 14 http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/pesto/pest_s22.htm, citing US Environmental Protection Agency, Office 14 http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/pesto/pest_s22.htm, citing US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, “Exposure Factors Handbook,” Volume I, EPA/600/P-95/002a, August of Research and Development, “Exposure Factors Handbook,” Volume I, EPA/600/P-95/002a, August 1997 as the basis for the 480mg/d. 1997 as the basis for the 480mg/d. 15 UNEP/UNCHS Balkans Task Force (BTF) (1999). The potential effects on human health and the 15 UNEP/UNCHS Balkans Task Force (BTF) (1999). The potential effects on human health and the environment arising from possible use of depleted uranium during the 1999 Kosovo conflict. environment arising from possible use of depleted uranium during the 1999 Kosovo conflict. http://www.grid.unep.ch/btf/missions/september/dufinal.pdf http://www.grid.unep.ch/btf/missions/september/dufinal.pdf
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considered sensory reports of grittiness in their estimate of 1–10g/d in aboriginal considered sensory reports of grittiness in their estimate of 1–10g/d in aboriginal Australians. Australians.
Simon (1998) reviewed soil ingestion studies from a perspective of risk and dose Simon (1998) reviewed soil ingestion studies from a perspective of risk and dose assessment. Because of their high dependence on the land, indigenous peoples are assessment. Because of their high dependence on the land, indigenous peoples are at highest risk for inadvertent ingestion, along with professions that may bring at highest risk for inadvertent ingestion, along with professions that may bring workers into close and continual contact with the soil. Simon recommends using a workers into close and continual contact with the soil. Simon recommends using a soil ingestion rate for indigenous people in hunter/food gathering/nomadic societies soil ingestion rate for indigenous people in hunter/food gathering/nomadic societies of 1g/d in wet climates and 2g/d in dry climates. He recommends using 3g/d for all of 1g/d in wet climates and 2g/d in dry climates. He recommends using 3g/d for all indigenous children. indigenous children.
For the Washoe climate and lifestyle, the soil ingestion rate for young children (0–6 For the Washoe climate and lifestyle, the soil ingestion rate for young children (0–6 years) is assumed to be 400mg/day for 365 days/year. This is higher than the prior years) is assumed to be 400mg/day for 365 days/year. This is higher than the prior EPA default value of 200mg/day (USEPA 1989). This rate reflects both indoor dust EPA default value of 200mg/day (USEPA 1989). This rate reflects both indoor dust and continuous outdoor activities analogous to gardening or camping (van Wijnen and continuous outdoor activities analogous to gardening or camping (van Wijnen 1990), but it is less than a single-incident sports or construction ingestion rate (Boyd 1990), but it is less than a single-incident sports or construction ingestion rate (Boyd 1999). 1999).
Inhalation Rate: The inhalation rate in the Washoe scenario reflects the active, Inhalation Rate: The inhalation rate in the Washoe scenario reflects the active, outdoor lifestyle of traditional tribal members. Traditional tribal communities have no outdoor lifestyle of traditional tribal members. Traditional tribal communities have no sedentary members except the frail elderly, whereas one-quarter of modern sedentary members except the frail elderly, whereas one-quarter of modern American adults of all ages report no leisure time physical activity at all.16 We have American adults of all ages report no leisure time physical activity at all.16 We have documented the activity levels associated with the traditional lifestyle and diet with documented the activity levels associated with the traditional lifestyle and diet with published anthropological studies, ethnographic literature on foraging theory, published anthropological studies, ethnographic literature on foraging theory, hunting-gathering lifestyles, and interviews with tribal members. Using EPA hunting-gathering lifestyles, and interviews with tribal members. Using EPA guidance on hourly inhalation rates for different activity levels, a reasonable guidance on hourly inhalation rates for different activity levels, a reasonable inhalation rate for an average tribal member’s active lifestyle is a median rate of inhalation rate for an average tribal member’s active lifestyle is a median rate of 26.2m3/d. This rate is based on 8 hours sleeping at 0.4m3/hr, 2 hours sedentary at 26.2m3/d. This rate is based on 8 hours sleeping at 0.4m3/hr, 2 hours sedentary at 0.5m3/hr, 6 hours light activity at 1m3/hr, 6 hours moderate activity at 1.6m3/hr, and 2 0.5m3/hr, 6 hours light activity at 1m3/hr, 6 hours moderate activity at 1.6m3/hr, and 2 hours heavy activity at 3.2m3/hr. Most other exposure factors are upper bounds, so hours heavy activity at 3.2m3/hr. Most other exposure factors are upper bounds, so the use of a median rate for inhalation is inconsistent with the usual RME approach the use of a median rate for inhalation is inconsistent with the usual RME approach used in Superfund risk assessments, and could result in under-protection of children, used in Superfund risk assessments, and could result in under-protection of children, the elderly, athletes, asthmatics, and the half of the population with above-average the elderly, athletes, asthmatics, and the half of the population with above-average inhalation rates. Due to a tribal desire to protect more than just the average inhalation rates. Due to a tribal desire to protect more than just the average traditional person, the inhalation rate is rounded up, from 26.2m3/d to 30m3/day. traditional person, the inhalation rate is rounded up, from 26.2m3/d to 30m3/day.
Dermal Exposures: The dermal pathway has not been fully researched for this Dermal Exposures: The dermal pathway has not been fully researched for this scenario, but EPA methods17 for dermal exposure can be used. However, a greater scenario, but EPA methods17 for dermal exposure can be used. However, a greater surface area and a greater skin loading of soil (soil adhered to skin) should be used. surface area and a greater skin loading of soil (soil adhered to skin) should be used. Two relevant papers are summarized here. Kissel et al. (1996) included reed Two relevant papers are summarized here. Kissel et al. (1996) included reed gatherers in tide flats in a study of dermal adherence. The category of “kids in mud” gatherers in tide flats in a study of dermal adherence. The category of “kids in mud” at a lakeshore had by far the highest skin loadings, with an average of 35mg/cm2 for at a lakeshore had by far the highest skin loadings, with an average of 35mg/cm2 for 6 children and an average of 58mg/cm2 for another 6 children. Reed gatherers were 6 children and an average of 58mg/cm2 for another 6 children. Reed gatherers were next highest at 0.66mg/cm2 with an upper bound of >1mg/cm2. This was followed by next highest at 0.66mg/cm2 with an upper bound of >1mg/cm2. This was followed by
16 http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pdf/ 2001prvrpt.pdf and http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pubrfdat.htm. 16 http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pdf/ 2001prvrpt.pdf and http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pubrfdat.htm. 17 http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragse/ 17 http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragse/
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farmers and rugby players (approximately 0.4mg/cm2) and irrigation installers farmers and rugby players (approximately 0.4mg/cm2) and irrigation installers (0.2mg/cm2). Holmes et al. (1999) studied 99 individuals in a variety of occupations. (0.2mg/cm2). Holmes et al. (1999) studied 99 individuals in a variety of occupations. Farmers, reed gatherers, and kids in mud had the highest overall skin loadings. The Farmers, reed gatherers, and kids in mud had the highest overall skin loadings. The next highest skin loadings on the hands were for equipment operators, gardeners, next highest skin loadings on the hands were for equipment operators, gardeners, construction, and utility workers (0.3mg/cm2), followed by archaeologists, and construction, and utility workers (0.3mg/cm2), followed by archaeologists, and several other occupations (0.15–0.1mg/cm2). several other occupations (0.15–0.1mg/cm2).
Children’s Exposure Factors: Children’s exposure factors are based on “Child- Children’s Exposure Factors: Children’s exposure factors are based on “Child- Specific Exposure Factors Handbook”18 but scaled from the adult subsistence Specific Exposure Factors Handbook”18 but scaled from the adult subsistence values for the inhalation rate. The diet is scaled for children from the food categories values for the inhalation rate. The diet is scaled for children from the food categories indicated above for adults. The soil ingestion rate for children is a constant indicated above for adults. The soil ingestion rate for children is a constant 400mg/day, without age stratification. If age stratification is done for other exposure 400mg/day, without age stratification. If age stratification is done for other exposure factors, the Washoe Tribe can be contacted for recommendations. factors, the Washoe Tribe can be contacted for recommendations.
18 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2002) Child-specific exposure factors handbook. 18 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2002) Child-specific exposure factors handbook. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC; EPA/600/P-00/002B. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC; EPA/600/P-00/002B. Available from: National Information Service, Springfield, VA; PB2003-101678 and Available from: National Information Service, Springfield, VA; PB2003-101678 and http://www.epa.gov/ncea. http://www.epa.gov/ncea.
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6 CONCLUSION 6 CONCLUSION
This report has presented the Washoe scenario and supporting information for use This report has presented the Washoe scenario and supporting information for use in human health risk assessments. This report is intended to describe enough about in human health risk assessments. This report is intended to describe enough about the traditional subsistence lifestyle that a risk assessor who is familiar with the traditional subsistence lifestyle that a risk assessor who is familiar with developing exposure scenarios can understand the derivation of the exposure developing exposure scenarios can understand the derivation of the exposure factors even if she does not have an in-depth familiarity with the Washoe lifestyle. factors even if she does not have an in-depth familiarity with the Washoe lifestyle. Where information is not presented, it is assumed that conventional parameters are Where information is not presented, it is assumed that conventional parameters are suitable (e.g., skin surface area). suitable (e.g., skin surface area).
The report describes the Tribe’s environment in the Sierra Nevada and Great Basin The report describes the Tribe’s environment in the Sierra Nevada and Great Basin ecosystems, and the available resources. An ecological lifestyle is presented, one ecosystems, and the available resources. An ecological lifestyle is presented, one that traditionally followed seasonal areas for fishing and food and material gathering, that traditionally followed seasonal areas for fishing and food and material gathering, and placed cultural significance on water for use in ritual and day-to-day activity. An and placed cultural significance on water for use in ritual and day-to-day activity. An overall diet is developed by reviewing previous foraging studies and ethnographic overall diet is developed by reviewing previous foraging studies and ethnographic data, and considering available resources, with major food-type categories data, and considering available resources, with major food-type categories estimated as percentages and presented in a food pyramid. The most prevalent food estimated as percentages and presented in a food pyramid. The most prevalent food source is the pine nut, which corresponds to a diet higher in lipids than the typical source is the pine nut, which corresponds to a diet higher in lipids than the typical forager diet. Exposure factors are developed based on traditional subsistence forager diet. Exposure factors are developed based on traditional subsistence lifestyles, with attention to the lifestyle, activity patterns, specific activities, daily time lifestyles, with attention to the lifestyle, activity patterns, specific activities, daily time allocation, and lifetime of the Washoe. Rates of inhalation, water ingestion, and allocation, and lifetime of the Washoe. Rates of inhalation, water ingestion, and particularly soil ingestion are higher than those of the general population, due in part particularly soil ingestion are higher than those of the general population, due in part to the Tribe’s increased outdoor activity in an arid climate. Increased soil ingestion is to the Tribe’s increased outdoor activity in an arid climate. Increased soil ingestion is partly attributable to the gathering and processing of food and material resources, at partly attributable to the gathering and processing of food and material resources, at times in wetlands. times in wetlands.
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7 REFERENCES 7 REFERENCES
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Boyd, H.B., Pedersen, F., Cohn, K.-H., Damborg, A., Jakobsen, B.M., Kristensen, Boyd, H.B., Pedersen, F., Cohn, K.-H., Damborg, A., Jakobsen, B.M., Kristensen, P., and Samsoe-Petersen, L. (1999). Exposure scenarios and guidance P., and Samsoe-Petersen, L. (1999). Exposure scenarios and guidance values for urban soil pollutants. Reg. Toxicol. Phar. 30: 197-208. values for urban soil pollutants. Reg. Toxicol. Phar. 30: 197-208.
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CTUIR Scenario 170 CTUIR Scenario 170
CTUIR Scenario 171 CTUIR Scenario 171
Confederated Tribes of the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation Umatilla Indian Reservation Human Health Risk Assessment Human Health Risk Assessment Exposure Scenario Exposure Scenario
CONTENTS CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 173 1 INTRODUCTION 173 1.1 BASIS 176 1.1 BASIS 176 1.2 LOCATION 178 1.2 LOCATION 178 2 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO 179 2 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO 179 2.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET 179 2.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET 179 2.2 CTUIR RIVER-BASED DIET 179 2.2 CTUIR RIVER-BASED DIET 179 2.3 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS 180 2.3 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS 180 3 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS 182 3 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS 182 3.1 APPROACH 182 3.1 APPROACH 182 3.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES 183 3.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES 183 3.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME 187 3.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME 187 3.3.1 Lifestyle of a Representative Traditional CTUIR Family 187 3.3.1 Lifestyle of a Representative Traditional CTUIR Family 187 3.3.2 Activity Patterns of Each Family Member 187 3.3.2 Activity Patterns of Each Family Member 187 3.3.3 Specific Cultural Activities 188 3.3.3 Specific Cultural Activities 188 3.3.4 Time Allocation throughout the Day 189 3.3.4 Time Allocation throughout the Day 189 3.3.5 The Lifetime 190 3.3.5 The Lifetime 190 3.4 MEDIA, PATHWAYS, AND EXPOSURE FACTORS 191 3.4 MEDIA, PATHWAYS, AND EXPOSURE FACTORS 191 3.5 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS 192 3.5 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS 192 3.6 SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE FACTORS 194 3.6 SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE FACTORS 194 4 CONCLUSION 196 4 CONCLUSION 196 5 REFERENCES 197 5 REFERENCES 197
APPENDIX A 198 APPENDIX A 198 APPENDIX B 217 APPENDIX B 217
CTUIR Scenario 172 CTUIR Scenario 172
LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Summary of estimated relative proportions of dietary foods. 181 Table 1. Summary of estimated relative proportions of dietary foods. 181 Table 2. Traditional lifeways—Typical activities in the activity categories. 184 Table 2. Traditional lifeways—Typical activities in the activity categories. 184 Table 3. Major activity categories. 185 Table 3. Major activity categories. 185 Table 4. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories. 186 Table 4. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories. 186 Table 5. Exposure factors for direct pathways. 193 Table 5. Exposure factors for direct pathways. 193 Table 6. Summary of exposure factors. 195 Table 6. Summary of exposure factors. 195
Table A.1. Summary of selected fish ingestion rates. 199 Table A.1. Summary of selected fish ingestion rates. 199 Table A.2. Major Pacific Northwest cross-sectional studies of current suppressed Table A.2. Major Pacific Northwest cross-sectional studies of current suppressed fish consumption rates. 202 fish consumption rates. 202 Table A.3. Combined Tulalip and Squaxin Island results. 205 Table A.3. Combined Tulalip and Squaxin Island results. 205 Table A.4. Consumption Rates of Asian/Pacific Islanders in King County. 208 Table A.4. Consumption Rates of Asian/Pacific Islanders in King County. 208 Table B.1. Typical parameter values for calculating intake via inhalation (Iinh) for Table B.1. Typical parameter values for calculating intake via inhalation (Iinh) for volatile and semi-volatile compounds. 220 volatile and semi-volatile compounds. 220 Table B.2. Typical parameter values for calculating intake via inhalation (Iinh) for Table B.2. Typical parameter values for calculating intake via inhalation (Iinh) for nonvolatile compounds. 222 nonvolatile compounds. 222 Table B.3. Typical parameter values for calculating total dermal exposure rate (Id,total) Table B.3. Typical parameter values for calculating total dermal exposure rate (Id,total) for volatile and semi-volatile compounds. 224 for volatile and semi-volatile compounds. 224 Table B.4. Typical parameter values for calculating total dermal exposure for Table B.4. Typical parameter values for calculating total dermal exposure for nonvolatile compounds (Id,total). 226 nonvolatile compounds (Id,total). 226
LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Continental U.S. with CTUIR Location. 178 Figure 1. Continental U.S. with CTUIR Location. 178 Figure 2. Traditional CTUIR River-Based Food Pyramid. 180 Figure 2. Traditional CTUIR River-Based Food Pyramid. 180
CTUIR Scenario 173 CTUIR Scenario 173
1 INTRODUCTION 1 INTRODUCTION
This document presents the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation This document presents the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation (CTUIR) Exposure Scenario. An exposure scenario is a narrative and numerical (CTUIR) Exposure Scenario. An exposure scenario is a narrative and numerical representation of the interactions between human and/or ecological receptors and representation of the interactions between human and/or ecological receptors and their immediate environment. Exposure scenarios include media-specific and their immediate environment. Exposure scenarios include media-specific and pathway-specific exposure factors required to estimate a dose to the target receptor pathway-specific exposure factors required to estimate a dose to the target receptor as they pursue a defined set of activities in particular locations. as they pursue a defined set of activities in particular locations.
Even though many tribal lands have been lost and resources degraded, there are Even though many tribal lands have been lost and resources degraded, there are generally more traditional or subsistence practices followed by tribal members than generally more traditional or subsistence practices followed by tribal members than the general non-native population realizes. However, the objective of many tribes is the general non-native population realizes. However, the objective of many tribes is to regain land, restore resources, and encourage more members to practice to regain land, restore resources, and encourage more members to practice healthier (i.e., more traditional) lifestyles. Therefore, the objective of subsistence healthier (i.e., more traditional) lifestyles. Therefore, the objective of subsistence exposure scenarios is to describe the original lifestyles and resource uses, not to exposure scenarios is to describe the original lifestyles and resource uses, not to present a current snapshot of restricted or suppressed uses, because the intent is to present a current snapshot of restricted or suppressed uses, because the intent is to restore the ecology so that the original pattern of resource uses is both possible restore the ecology so that the original pattern of resource uses is both possible (after resources are restored) and safe (after contamination is removed). This is a (after resources are restored) and safe (after contamination is removed). This is a different situation than for the general American population, where the intent of different situation than for the general American population, where the intent of remediation is to allow people to continue their current (and portable) lifestyle in a remediation is to allow people to continue their current (and portable) lifestyle in a newly cleaned location. The intent of the CTUIR Scenario is to reconstruct what the newly cleaned location. The intent of the CTUIR Scenario is to reconstruct what the lifestyle and diet would have been in the affected area prior to contamination. lifestyle and diet would have been in the affected area prior to contamination.
For the general United States population, an exposure scenario is typically designed For the general United States population, an exposure scenario is typically designed to be an upper bound (generally around the 75th percentile) of the population being to be an upper bound (generally around the 75th percentile) of the population being assessed. Some individual exposure factors are the 90th or 95th percentile; others assessed. Some individual exposure factors are the 90th or 95th percentile; others are mean values. In the case of tribal exposure scenarios, there are no specific are mean values. In the case of tribal exposure scenarios, there are no specific databases of subsistence activities, resources, or diets as there are for the general databases of subsistence activities, resources, or diets as there are for the general United States population. Cross-sectional surveys of current tribal populations will United States population. Cross-sectional surveys of current tribal populations will not generate that data because much resource use has been suppressed due to not generate that data because much resource use has been suppressed due to loss of land and access, awareness of contamination, persecution by the dominant loss of land and access, awareness of contamination, persecution by the dominant society, and other reasons. This means that large and accurate statistical society, and other reasons. This means that large and accurate statistical distributions for subsistence exposure factors are not available and cannot be distributions for subsistence exposure factors are not available and cannot be developed. Therefore, ranges of exposures or specified percentiles of exposure are developed. Therefore, ranges of exposures or specified percentiles of exposure are not possible to calculate. The CTUIR scenario is intended to be a reasonable not possible to calculate. The CTUIR scenario is intended to be a reasonable representation of a traditional subsistence lifestyle, equivalent to a central tendency representation of a traditional subsistence lifestyle, equivalent to a central tendency rather than to an upper bound. rather than to an upper bound.
For the general suburban population the exposure scenario is well defined in EPA For the general suburban population the exposure scenario is well defined in EPA guidance (Exposure Factors Handbooks). The CTUIR scenario is based on the guidance (Exposure Factors Handbooks). The CTUIR scenario is based on the lifestyle and baseline conditions of the regional natural resources. lifestyle and baseline conditions of the regional natural resources.
This scenario identifies general exposure pathways specific to CTUIR lifestyles and This scenario identifies general exposure pathways specific to CTUIR lifestyles and key resources that the CTUIR people use. A general understanding of what people key resources that the CTUIR people use. A general understanding of what people do (or would do in the absence of contamination) and what resources are available do (or would do in the absence of contamination) and what resources are available for their use provides the basis for developing preliminary exposure factors. Then for their use provides the basis for developing preliminary exposure factors. Then
CTUIR Scenario 174 CTUIR Scenario 174 the scenario describes the activities that traditional people undertake to survive and the scenario describes the activities that traditional people undertake to survive and thrive in the local ecosystem, including hunting, gathering foods and medicines, thrive in the local ecosystem, including hunting, gathering foods and medicines, fishing, making material items, farming or gardening, raising livestock, irrigating, and fishing, making material items, farming or gardening, raising livestock, irrigating, and various cultural and domestic activities. various cultural and domestic activities.
As mentioned, the exposure scenario reflects a traditional subsistence lifestyle. As mentioned, the exposure scenario reflects a traditional subsistence lifestyle. “Subsistence” refers to the hunting, fishing, and gathering activities that are “Subsistence” refers to the hunting, fishing, and gathering activities that are fundamental to the way of life of many indigenous peoples. Today’s subsistence fundamental to the way of life of many indigenous peoples. Today’s subsistence economies utilize traditional and modern technologies for harvesting and preserving economies utilize traditional and modern technologies for harvesting and preserving foods and for distributing the produce through communal networks of sharing and foods and for distributing the produce through communal networks of sharing and bartering. The following is a useful explanation of “subsistence,” taken from the bartering. The following is a useful explanation of “subsistence,” taken from the National Park Service: National Park Service:
While non-natives tend to define subsistence in terms of poverty or the While non-natives tend to define subsistence in terms of poverty or the minimum amount of food necessary to support life, native people equate minimum amount of food necessary to support life, native people equate subsistence with their culture. Among many tribes, maintaining a subsistence subsistence with their culture. Among many tribes, maintaining a subsistence lifestyle has become the symbol of their survival in the face of mounting lifestyle has become the symbol of their survival in the face of mounting political and economic pressures. It defines who they are as a people. To political and economic pressures. It defines who they are as a people. To Native Americans who continue to depend on natural resources, subsistence Native Americans who continue to depend on natural resources, subsistence is more than eking out a living. While it is important to the economic well- is more than eking out a living. While it is important to the economic well- being of their communities, the subsistence lifestyle is also the basis of being of their communities, the subsistence lifestyle is also the basis of cultural existence and survival. It is a communal activity. It unifies cultural existence and survival. It is a communal activity. It unifies communities as cohesive functioning units through collective production and communities as cohesive functioning units through collective production and distribution of the harvest. Some groups have formalized patterns of sharing, distribution of the harvest. Some groups have formalized patterns of sharing, while others do so in more informal ways. Entire families participate, including while others do so in more informal ways. Entire families participate, including elders, who assist with less physically demanding tasks. Parents teach the elders, who assist with less physically demanding tasks. Parents teach the young to hunt, fish, and farm. Food and goods are also distributed through young to hunt, fish, and farm. Food and goods are also distributed through native cultural institutions. Most require young hunters to distribute their first native cultural institutions. Most require young hunters to distribute their first catch throughout the community. Subsistence embodies cultural values that catch throughout the community. Subsistence embodies cultural values that recognize both the social obligation to share as well as the special spiritual recognize both the social obligation to share as well as the special spiritual relationship to the land and resources. This relationship is portrayed in native relationship to the land and resources. This relationship is portrayed in native art and in many ceremonies held throughout the year.1 art and in many ceremonies held throughout the year.1
In economic terms, a subsistence economy is one in which currency is limited In economic terms, a subsistence economy is one in which currency is limited because many goods and services are produced and consumed by the same because many goods and services are produced and consumed by the same families or bands. Today, currency (symbols of specified quantities of useful families or bands. Today, currency (symbols of specified quantities of useful resources) is limited, but important. For example, subsistence in an Arctic resources) is limited, but important. For example, subsistence in an Arctic community includes the following: community includes the following:
The modern-day subsistence family depends on the tools of the trade, most The modern-day subsistence family depends on the tools of the trade, most of which are expensive. Snowmobiles, gasoline, guns, fishing nets, and of which are expensive. Snowmobiles, gasoline, guns, fishing nets, and sleeping bags are necessities. Subsistence households also enjoy many of sleeping bags are necessities. Subsistence households also enjoy many of the modern conveniences of life, and are saddled with the economic the modern conveniences of life, and are saddled with the economic demands which come with their acquisition. Today’s subsistence family demands which come with their acquisition. Today’s subsistence family generates much-needed cash as wage-labourers, part-time workers and generates much-needed cash as wage-labourers, part-time workers and
1 National Park Service: http://www.cr.nps.gov/aad/cg/fa_1999/Subsist.htm 1 National Park Service: http://www.cr.nps.gov/aad/cg/fa_1999/Subsist.htm
CTUIR Scenario 175 CTUIR Scenario 175
trappers, professional business people, traditional craftmakers, and seasonal trappers, professional business people, traditional craftmakers, and seasonal workers. A highly-integrated interdependence between formal (cash-based) workers. A highly-integrated interdependence between formal (cash-based) and informal (barter and subsistence-based) economic sectors has evolved.2 and informal (barter and subsistence-based) economic sectors has evolved.2
Once the activities composing a particular subsistence lifestyle are known, they are Once the activities composing a particular subsistence lifestyle are known, they are translated into a form that is used for risk assessment. This translation captures the translated into a form that is used for risk assessment. This translation captures the degree of environmental contact that occurs through activities and diet, expressed degree of environmental contact that occurs through activities and diet, expressed as numerical exposure factors. Exposure factors for direct exposure pathways as numerical exposure factors. Exposure factors for direct exposure pathways include exposure to abiotic media (air, water, soil, and sediment), which can result in include exposure to abiotic media (air, water, soil, and sediment), which can result in inhalation, soil ingestion, water ingestion, and dermal exposure. Indirect pathways inhalation, soil ingestion, water ingestion, and dermal exposure. Indirect pathways refer to contaminants that are incorporated into biota and subsequently expose refer to contaminants that are incorporated into biota and subsequently expose people who ingest or use them. There are many unique exposure pathways that are people who ingest or use them. There are many unique exposure pathways that are not accounted for in scenarios for the general public, but may be significant to not accounted for in scenarios for the general public, but may be significant to people with certain traditional specialties such as basket making, flint knapping, or people with certain traditional specialties such as basket making, flint knapping, or using natural medicines, smoke, smudges, paints, and dyes. These activities may using natural medicines, smoke, smudges, paints, and dyes. These activities may result in increased dust inhalation, soil ingestion, soil loading onto the skin for dermal result in increased dust inhalation, soil ingestion, soil loading onto the skin for dermal exposure, or exposure via wounds, to give a few examples. While the portals of exposure, or exposure via wounds, to give a few examples. While the portals of entry into the body are the same for everyone (primarily via the lungs, skin, mouth), entry into the body are the same for everyone (primarily via the lungs, skin, mouth), the amount of contaminants may be increased and the relative importance of some the amount of contaminants may be increased and the relative importance of some activities (e.g., basket making, wetlands gathering), pathways (e.g., steam activities (e.g., basket making, wetlands gathering), pathways (e.g., steam immersion or medicinal infusions), or portals of entry (e.g., dermal wounding) may immersion or medicinal infusions), or portals of entry (e.g., dermal wounding) may be different than for the general population. be different than for the general population.
Foraging theory data from the anthropological literature is particularly useful for Foraging theory data from the anthropological literature is particularly useful for developing exposure scenarios, because the major dietary and resource staples developing exposure scenarios, because the major dietary and resource staples may be described, as well as how much time and effort is needed to obtain them. may be described, as well as how much time and effort is needed to obtain them. Together, this information is then used for the food-chain portion of the Scenario and Together, this information is then used for the food-chain portion of the Scenario and to calculate the direct exposure factors. to calculate the direct exposure factors.
This process is laid out in the following sections according to the general sequence: This process is laid out in the following sections according to the general sequence:
1. Environmental setting—what resources are available; 1. Environmental setting—what resources are available; 2. Lifestyle description—activities and their frequency, duration and intensity, 2. Lifestyle description—activities and their frequency, duration and intensity, and resource use; and resource use; 3. Diet; 3. Diet; 4. Exposure pathways, and 4. Exposure pathways, and 5. Exposure factors—iterative cross-walk between pathways and direct 5. Exposure factors—iterative cross-walk between pathways and direct exposure factors: cumulative soil, water, air, and dietary exposures. exposure factors: cumulative soil, water, air, and dietary exposures.
Because the method for developing exposure factors is derived from an Because the method for developing exposure factors is derived from an understanding of lifestyle rather than from large statistical databases (national understanding of lifestyle rather than from large statistical databases (national drinking water rates, or USDA databases of national average food intakes) and is drinking water rates, or USDA databases of national average food intakes) and is unfamiliar to many readers, it is described briefly here (more detail is presented unfamiliar to many readers, it is described briefly here (more detail is presented below). below).
2 http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/NatResources/subsistglobal.html 2 http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/NatResources/subsistglobal.html
CTUIR Scenario 176 CTUIR Scenario 176
Because large databases are not available and cannot be constructed, we take a Because large databases are not available and cannot be constructed, we take a top-down approach. For example, we do not attempt to develop a complete diet top-down approach. For example, we do not attempt to develop a complete diet based on surveys of the uses of the typical 200+ natural resources available and based on surveys of the uses of the typical 200+ natural resources available and used with an ecoregion. Rather, we develop a calorically complete food pyramid that used with an ecoregion. Rather, we develop a calorically complete food pyramid that identifies the major staples and their rough percentages in the original diet. Similarly, identifies the major staples and their rough percentages in the original diet. Similarly, we do not develop an average day by tracking hundreds of individual activities from we do not develop an average day by tracking hundreds of individual activities from many people. The basic process is to: many people. The basic process is to:
1. Start with an understanding of the major categories of subsistence activities 1. Start with an understanding of the major categories of subsistence activities (such as hunting, fishing, gathering, basket making, and sweat lodge (such as hunting, fishing, gathering, basket making, and sweat lodge purification), purification), 2. Describe enough of the sub-activities that the complexity and interconnection 2. Describe enough of the sub-activities that the complexity and interconnection of resources and activities can be understood, of resources and activities can be understood, 3. Identify the major activities that contribute to exposure, and then 3. Identify the major activities that contribute to exposure, and then 4. Iteratively cross-walk between activities and conventional exposure factors to 4. Iteratively cross-walk between activities and conventional exposure factors to develop cumulative exposure factors. develop cumulative exposure factors.
To illustrate, each of the major activity categories includes activities that result in To illustrate, each of the major activity categories includes activities that result in exposure to soil, and therefore soil ingestion. By estimating the relative amount of exposure to soil, and therefore soil ingestion. By estimating the relative amount of time spent in activities that result in high, medium, or low soil exposure for each time spent in activities that result in high, medium, or low soil exposure for each activity category, an overall soil-ingestion rate can be estimated. However, we do not activity category, an overall soil-ingestion rate can be estimated. However, we do not attempt to be overly quantitative in enumerating the myriad activities and resources attempt to be overly quantitative in enumerating the myriad activities and resources in each category—this requires more precision than is warranted and is likely to in each category—this requires more precision than is warranted and is likely to require proprietary information that cannot be released. require proprietary information that cannot be released.
Finally, a review of existing literature (biomedical, anthropological, and so on) Finally, a review of existing literature (biomedical, anthropological, and so on) enables us to double-check whether multiple lines of evidence leads us to a similar enables us to double-check whether multiple lines of evidence leads us to a similar conclusion for each exposure factor. conclusion for each exposure factor.
1.1 BASIS 1.1 BASIS Information on the CTUIR eco-cultural lifestyle has been presented previously, and Information on the CTUIR eco-cultural lifestyle has been presented previously, and is summarized as follows. is summarized as follows.
The CTUIR culture, which has co-evolved with nature through thousands of The CTUIR culture, which has co-evolved with nature through thousands of ecological education, has provided its people with their traditional ecological education, has provided its people with their traditional environmental knowledge. Throughout the year, when the CTUIR traditional environmental knowledge. Throughout the year, when the CTUIR traditional American Indian participates in activities such as hunting and gathering for American Indian participates in activities such as hunting and gathering for foods, medicines, ceremonies, and subsistence, the associated activities are foods, medicines, ceremonies, and subsistence, the associated activities are as important as the end product. All of the foods and implements gathered as important as the end product. All of the foods and implements gathered and manufactured by the traditional American Indian are interconnected in at and manufactured by the traditional American Indian are interconnected in at least one, but more often in many ways. The people of the CTUIR community least one, but more often in many ways. The people of the CTUIR community follow cultural teachings brought down through history from the elders. Our follow cultural teachings brought down through history from the elders. Our individual and collective well-being is derived from membership in a healthy individual and collective well-being is derived from membership in a healthy community that has access to ancestral lands and traditional resources and community that has access to ancestral lands and traditional resources and from having the ability to satisfy the personal responsibility to participate in from having the ability to satisfy the personal responsibility to participate in traditional community activities and to help maintain the spiritual quality of our traditional community activities and to help maintain the spiritual quality of our
CTUIR Scenario 177 CTUIR Scenario 177
resources. This is an ancient oral tradition of cultural norms. The material or resources. This is an ancient oral tradition of cultural norms. The material or fabric of this tradition is unique, and is woven into a single tapestry that fabric of this tradition is unique, and is woven into a single tapestry that extends from far in the past to long into the future. In order to encompass the extends from far in the past to long into the future. In order to encompass the wide range of factors [directly] tied to the traditional American Indians of the wide range of factors [directly] tied to the traditional American Indians of the CTUIR, a risk assessment has to be designed and scaled appropriately CTUIR, a risk assessment has to be designed and scaled appropriately (Harris 1998). (Harris 1998).
EPA is required to identify populations who are more highly exposed; for example, EPA is required to identify populations who are more highly exposed; for example, subsistence populations and those who practice subsistence consumption of natural subsistence populations and those who practice subsistence consumption of natural resources (Executive Order 128983). EPA is also required to protect sensitive resources (Executive Order 128983). EPA is also required to protect sensitive populations.4 Some of the factors known to increase sensitivity include populations.4 Some of the factors known to increase sensitivity include developmental stage, age (very young and very old), gender, genetics, and health developmental stage, age (very young and very old), gender, genetics, and health status,5 and this is part of EPA’s human health research strategy.6 status,5 and this is part of EPA’s human health research strategy.6
The Superfund law requires cleanup of the site to levels which are protective The Superfund law requires cleanup of the site to levels which are protective of human health and the environment, which will serve to minimize any of human health and the environment, which will serve to minimize any disproportionately high and adverse environmental burdens impacting the EJ disproportionately high and adverse environmental burdens impacting the EJ community.7 community.7
CERCLA ARARs include treaties such as the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, 16 CERCLA ARARs include treaties such as the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, 16 U.S.C. § 703 et seq. Therefore, CTUIR believes that other treaties, including the U.S.C. § 703 et seq. Therefore, CTUIR believes that other treaties, including the Treaty of 1855, are ARARs as well. In addition, the situation that existed when Treaty of 1855, are ARARs as well. In addition, the situation that existed when Hanford was established included CTUIR members living in permanent fishing Hanford was established included CTUIR members living in permanent fishing villages along the Hanford Reach. This scenario reflects that fact. villages along the Hanford Reach. This scenario reflects that fact.
Section 120(a)(2) of CERCLA provides that all guidelines, rules, regulations, Section 120(a)(2) of CERCLA provides that all guidelines, rules, regulations, and criteria for preliminary assessments, site investigations, National and criteria for preliminary assessments, site investigations, National Priorities List (NPL) listing, and remedial actions are applicable to federal Priorities List (NPL) listing, and remedial actions are applicable to federal facilities to the same extent as they are applicable to other facilities. No facilities to the same extent as they are applicable to other facilities. No federal agency may adopt or utilize any such guidelines, rules, regulations, or federal agency may adopt or utilize any such guidelines, rules, regulations, or criteria that are inconsistent with those established by EPA under CERCLA.8 criteria that are inconsistent with those established by EPA under CERCLA.8
CTUIR believes that this CERCLA language means that DOE and USFWS cannot CTUIR believes that this CERCLA language means that DOE and USFWS cannot abrogate the Treaty of 1855 by developing land use plans that do not include the abrogate the Treaty of 1855 by developing land use plans that do not include the exercise of treaty rights where they existed before Hanford was established, or do exercise of treaty rights where they existed before Hanford was established, or do not recognize case law such as fishing and hunting rights cases. not recognize case law such as fishing and hunting rights cases.
3 White House, 1994. Federal Actions To Address Environmental Justice In Minority Populations And 3 White House, 1994. Federal Actions To Address Environmental Justice In Minority Populations And Low income Populations: Feb. 11, 1994; 59 FR 7629, Feb. 16, 1994. Low income Populations: Feb. 11, 1994; 59 FR 7629, Feb. 16, 1994. 4 Superfund Exposure Assessment Manual. EPA/540/1-88/001 OSWER directive 9285.5-1. U.S. 4 Superfund Exposure Assessment Manual. EPA/540/1-88/001 OSWER directive 9285.5-1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Remedial Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Environmental Protection Agency Office of Remedial Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 1988. Agency, Washington, D.C. 1988. 5 http://www.epa.gov/nheerl/research/childrens_health.html 5 http://www.epa.gov/nheerl/research/childrens_health.html 6 EPA/600/R-02/050, September 2003 (posted at http://www.epa.gov/nheerl/publications/). 6 EPA/600/R-02/050, September 2003 (posted at http://www.epa.gov/nheerl/publications/). 7 http://www.epa.gov/region02/community/ej/superfund.htm 7 http://www.epa.gov/region02/community/ej/superfund.htm 8 40CFR300 National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, Preamble 8 40CFR300 National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, Preamble http://www.epa.gov/superfund/action/guidance/remedy/pdfs/ncppreamble61.pdf http://www.epa.gov/superfund/action/guidance/remedy/pdfs/ncppreamble61.pdf
CTUIR Scenario 178 CTUIR Scenario 178
1.2 LOCATION 1.2 LOCATION The CTUIR area is shown in a map of the continental US in Figure 1. The CTUIR area is shown in a map of the continental US in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Continental U.S. with CTUIR Location Figure 1. Continental U.S. with CTUIR Location
CTUIR Scenario 179 CTUIR Scenario 179
2 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO 2 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EXPOSURE SCENARIO
2.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET 2.1 METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DIET The approach used in describing an overall diet is to use the information about major The approach used in describing an overall diet is to use the information about major resources present in the study area, foraging theory information, and information resources present in the study area, foraging theory information, and information from existing literature and interviews. An overall total caloric food pyramid with from existing literature and interviews. An overall total caloric food pyramid with rough proportions of different food groups has been developed to show a typical rough proportions of different food groups has been developed to show a typical traditional diet (Figure 2). This food pyramid is reconstructed from information about traditional diet (Figure 2). This food pyramid is reconstructed from information about what the traditional diet actually was, rather than what it might be today if USDA what the traditional diet actually was, rather than what it might be today if USDA recommendations about daily intakes were followed substituting wild foods for recommendations about daily intakes were followed substituting wild foods for domesticated ones. In particular, the traditional CTUIR river-based diet was based domesticated ones. In particular, the traditional CTUIR river-based diet was based on fish. on fish.
The dietary input for the risk assessment is typically somewhat less complex than The dietary input for the risk assessment is typically somewhat less complex than the food pyramid (due to intrinsic limitations of the risk methods). Nevertheless, the the food pyramid (due to intrinsic limitations of the risk methods). Nevertheless, the risk assessment must consider the totality of species and calories. risk assessment must consider the totality of species and calories.
2.2 CTUIR RIVER-BASED DIET 2.2 CTUIR RIVER-BASED DIET Approximately 135 species of plants are used as foods, flavorings, or beverages; Approximately 135 species of plants are used as foods, flavorings, or beverages; approximately 125 species are used in traditional technologies; nearly 120 species approximately 125 species are used in traditional technologies; nearly 120 species of medicinal plants are used by the southern Columbia Plateau tribes and up to 200 of medicinal plants are used by the southern Columbia Plateau tribes and up to 200 by northern tribes (Hunn 1990). This wide variety of plants is typical of foraging by northern tribes (Hunn 1990). This wide variety of plants is typical of foraging societies. For risk assessment, however, this is collapsed into a few food categories. societies. For risk assessment, however, this is collapsed into a few food categories. This is because the simple risk equations cannot handle more detailed information, This is because the simple risk equations cannot handle more detailed information, and data on species-specific soil-to-plant uptake is lacking. Further compounding and data on species-specific soil-to-plant uptake is lacking. Further compounding this problem is the tendency of game to be treated like livestock, and native plants this problem is the tendency of game to be treated like livestock, and native plants like domesticated plants. Many pathways such as medicines and teas are typically like domesticated plants. Many pathways such as medicines and teas are typically ignored altogether. For this reason, the upper bounds for food categories are ignored altogether. For this reason, the upper bounds for food categories are evaluated in the same way that direct exposure factors are rounded up to account evaluated in the same way that direct exposure factors are rounded up to account for the myriad of small and otherwise ignored pathways. for the myriad of small and otherwise ignored pathways.
There are two distinct diets within the Umatilla Tribes: the game-focused diet and the There are two distinct diets within the Umatilla Tribes: the game-focused diet and the fish-focused diet. Because this scenario is applied to Hanford and the Columbia fish-focused diet. Because this scenario is applied to Hanford and the Columbia River, only the fish-based diet is presented here. The estimated diet is shown below River, only the fish-based diet is presented here. The estimated diet is shown below as a food pyramid (Figure 2). The percentages of each food category in the diet are: as a food pyramid (Figure 2). The percentages of each food category in the diet are:
• Fish (40% of total calories); • Fish (40% of total calories); • Roots (including tubers, corms, and bulbs) (32%); • Roots (including tubers, corms, and bulbs) (32%); • Greens (including medicinal leaves, tea, stems, pith, and cambium) (12%); • Greens (including medicinal leaves, tea, stems, pith, and cambium) (12%); • Game (including fowl) (6%); • Game (including fowl) (6%); • Berries and fruits (5%), and • Berries and fruits (5%), and • Sweeteners, mushrooms, lichens (5%). • Sweeteners, mushrooms, lichens (5%).
CTUIR Scenario 180 CTUIR Scenario 180
BERRIES BERRIES
GREENS GREENS OTHER GAME OTHER GAME
ROOTS ROOTS
FISH FISH
Figure 2. Traditional CTUIR River-Based Food Pyramid Figure 2. Traditional CTUIR River-Based Food Pyramid
2.3 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS 2.3 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS After making appropriate simplifying assumptions, the general CTUIR 2500 kcal After making appropriate simplifying assumptions, the general CTUIR 2500 kcal subsistence diet that is focused on rivers is estimated in Table 1 (based on subsistence diet that is focused on rivers is estimated in Table 1 (based on references by Hunn and Walker, see also DOE9). CTUIR can be contacted if more references by Hunn and Walker, see also DOE9). CTUIR can be contacted if more detail is needed (for instance, the ratio between tubers and bulbs, from different detail is needed (for instance, the ratio between tubers and bulbs, from different plant families, and so on). Related information on the CTUIR fish consumption rate plant families, and so on). Related information on the CTUIR fish consumption rate can be found in Appendix A of this report. can be found in Appendix A of this report.
9 www.hanford.gov/doe/culres/mpd/toc.htm 9 www.hanford.gov/doe/culres/mpd/toc.htm
CTUIR Scenario 181 CTUIR Scenario 181
Table 1. Summary of estimated relative proportions of dietary foods. Table 1. Summary of estimated relative proportions of dietary foods.
Representative 2500 kcal Diet Representative 2500 kcal Diet % of Daily Amount % of Daily Amount Food Category Comments Food Category Comments 2500 kcal (grams/day) 2500 kcal (grams/day) Fish 40% or 620 grams Consumption of parts with higher lipid Fish 40% or 620 grams Consumption of parts with higher lipid - 75% anadromous 1000 kcal content needs to be added to this total. - 75% anadromous 1000 kcal content needs to be added to this total. - 25% resident The lipid content will vary with species; the - 25% resident The lipid content will vary with species; the ratio of species can be provided on ratio of species can be provided on request. request. Game, fowl 6% or 150 125 Consumption of organs with higher Game, fowl 6% or 150 125 Consumption of organs with higher kcal contaminant concentration (10x) needs to kcal contaminant concentration (10x) needs to be added to this total. If 10% is organ meat be added to this total. If 10% is organ meat with 10x bioconcentration, the total is with 10x bioconcentration, the total is 250gpd equivalents. 250gpd equivalents. Roots 32% or 800 800 Depending on the habitat, this needs to Roots 32% or 800 800 Depending on the habitat, this needs to (unspeciated, kcal allocated among tubers and bulbs (unspeciated, kcal allocated among tubers and bulbs including tubers, (different plant families) and terrestrial or including tubers, (different plant families) and terrestrial or corms, bulbs) aquatic species. corms, bulbs) aquatic species. Berries, fruits 5% or 125 125 Berries, fruits 5% or 125 125 kcal kcal Greens, medicinal 12% or 300 300 Above-ground plants may have Greens, medicinal 12% or 300 300 Above-ground plants may have leaves, tea, stems, kcal contaminants translocated from the roots leaves, tea, stems, kcal contaminants translocated from the roots pith, cambium as well as dust deposited on the leaves. pith, cambium as well as dust deposited on the leaves. Other: sweeteners, 5% 125 General assumption of 1 kcal per gram. Other: sweeteners, 5% 125 General assumption of 1 kcal per gram. mushrooms, lichens combined mushrooms, lichens combined or 125 kcal or 125 kcal Total 100% 2095g This is 4.6 pounds of food per day; this Total 100% 2095g This is 4.6 pounds of food per day; this includes a much higher fiber content than includes a much higher fiber content than domesticated varieties, which were bred domesticated varieties, which were bred for lower fiber and easier commercial for lower fiber and easier commercial processing. processing.
CTUIR Scenario 182 CTUIR Scenario 182
3 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS 3 EXPOSURE FACTORS AND PATHWAYS
3.1 APPROACH 3.1 APPROACH Exposure factors reflect the activity levels and resource use of the lifestyle scenario Exposure factors reflect the activity levels and resource use of the lifestyle scenario under evaluation.10 Exposure factors for both direct and indirect pathways are under evaluation.10 Exposure factors for both direct and indirect pathways are developed. Indirect pathways include exposure via the oral ingestion of food and developed. Indirect pathways include exposure via the oral ingestion of food and medicine (see previous section). This section focuses on direct pathways: direct medicine (see previous section). This section focuses on direct pathways: direct inhalation, dermal exposure, and ingestion of water, air, dust, sediment, and soil inhalation, dermal exposure, and ingestion of water, air, dust, sediment, and soil (including soil on the outside of food or added through cooking). (including soil on the outside of food or added through cooking).
Default exposure factors have been developed for conventional suburban, urban, Default exposure factors have been developed for conventional suburban, urban, occupational, and recreational scenarios based on national statistics. Our approach occupational, and recreational scenarios based on national statistics. Our approach to developing a tribal scenario is not to inventory every activity and every resource, to developing a tribal scenario is not to inventory every activity and every resource, but to provide an overall estimate of the general activity levels, anchored with but to provide an overall estimate of the general activity levels, anchored with specific information as available. The basic assumption is that traditional lifeways specific information as available. The basic assumption is that traditional lifeways are active outdoor lifestyles that are somewhat physically demanding, even with are active outdoor lifestyles that are somewhat physically demanding, even with some modern conveniences. Subsistence foragers (both genders) perform a some modern conveniences. Subsistence foragers (both genders) perform a combination of aerobic (high heart and ventilation rates), strength, endurance, and combination of aerobic (high heart and ventilation rates), strength, endurance, and stretching-flexibility daily activities, as well as performing more sedentary work and stretching-flexibility daily activities, as well as performing more sedentary work and resting. resting.
The exposure factors here are general to traditional subsistence lifestyles, The exposure factors here are general to traditional subsistence lifestyles, regardless of their location. The conceptual steps in this process are: regardless of their location. The conceptual steps in this process are:
5. Understand the lifestyle and the activities that compose the lifestyle, and are 5. Understand the lifestyle and the activities that compose the lifestyle, and are required to obtain necessities and engage in the community culture; required to obtain necessities and engage in the community culture; 6. Describe the day, the year, and the lifetime of men and women to identify any 6. Describe the day, the year, and the lifetime of men and women to identify any significant differences in activity levels between genders or ages; significant differences in activity levels between genders or ages; 7. Cross-walk activities with exposure pathways on the basis of frequency and 7. Cross-walk activities with exposure pathways on the basis of frequency and duration of major activities, activity levels, and degree of environmental duration of major activities, activity levels, and degree of environmental contact, and contact, and 8. Estimate cumulative direct exposure factors. 8. Estimate cumulative direct exposure factors.
This scenario reflects an active, outdoor lifestyle with a subsistence economic base. This scenario reflects an active, outdoor lifestyle with a subsistence economic base. Subsistence food sources include gathering, gardening, hunting, pasturing livestock, Subsistence food sources include gathering, gardening, hunting, pasturing livestock, and fishing. The forager relies all or in part on native foods and medicines, while the and fishing. The forager relies all or in part on native foods and medicines, while the residential farmer relies on domesticated but self-produced foods. Thus, the CTUIR residential farmer relies on domesticated but self-produced foods. Thus, the CTUIR scenario is at the foraging end of the subsistence spectrum, while the residential scenario is at the foraging end of the subsistence spectrum, while the residential farmer is at the domesticated end of the subsistence spectrum. Both are active, farmer is at the domesticated end of the subsistence spectrum. Both are active, outdoor lifestyles, and are consistent with the reasonable maximum exposure (RME) outdoor lifestyles, and are consistent with the reasonable maximum exposure (RME) approach to baseline risk assessment. approach to baseline risk assessment.
This is a full-time multipathway scenario, to be applied within each area being This is a full-time multipathway scenario, to be applied within each area being assessed, consistent with EPA guidance on performing baseline risk assessments. assessed, consistent with EPA guidance on performing baseline risk assessments.
10 http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=85843 10 http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=85843
CTUIR Scenario 183 CTUIR Scenario 183
The purpose of CERCLA baseline risk assessments is to evaluate the risks that The purpose of CERCLA baseline risk assessments is to evaluate the risks that would occur to a person engaging in defined sets of activities absent land use would occur to a person engaging in defined sets of activities absent land use restrictions. It reflects the activities that the person would engage in if the site were restrictions. It reflects the activities that the person would engage in if the site were not contaminated. Therefore, a baseline risk assessment is applied irrespective of not contaminated. Therefore, a baseline risk assessment is applied irrespective of possible institutional controls or other restrictions that may be needed as part of the possible institutional controls or other restrictions that may be needed as part of the remedy in order to protect human health. remedy in order to protect human health.
Unrestricted access is the typical baseline risk assessment “no action” scenario. Unrestricted access is the typical baseline risk assessment “no action” scenario. This includes CTUIR residence, because permanent year-round fishing villages with This includes CTUIR residence, because permanent year-round fishing villages with resident CTUIR members were present along the Hanford Reach when Hanford was resident CTUIR members were present along the Hanford Reach when Hanford was established. This scenario is not a visiting scenario like a recreational scenario. It is established. This scenario is not a visiting scenario like a recreational scenario. It is a full-time scenario. This means that the forager may obtain a site-specific a full-time scenario. This means that the forager may obtain a site-specific percentage of his and her food from an irrigated garden to supplement the native percentage of his and her food from an irrigated garden to supplement the native plants in his or her diet. The ratio of gathered to grown plants will vary with the size plants in his or her diet. The ratio of gathered to grown plants will vary with the size and resources of the assessment area, as will the ratio of game to livestock, upland and resources of the assessment area, as will the ratio of game to livestock, upland to riparian resources, and so on. The forager also uses a well and/or seep and/or to riparian resources, and so on. The forager also uses a well and/or seep and/or river for drinking water, sweat lodge water, and irrigation, also consistent with the river for drinking water, sweat lodge water, and irrigation, also consistent with the general CERCLA principles of evaluating reasonable maximum exposures. general CERCLA principles of evaluating reasonable maximum exposures.
Exposure factors for the traditional CTUIR lifestyle are presented below. One of the Exposure factors for the traditional CTUIR lifestyle are presented below. One of the key misunderstandings is how a subsistence lifestyle can be applied to a key misunderstandings is how a subsistence lifestyle can be applied to a constrained area. The risk assessment methodology uses an interface between constrained area. The risk assessment methodology uses an interface between lifestyle and contamination termed an exposure point concentration. The guidance lifestyle and contamination termed an exposure point concentration. The guidance for risk assessment is to assume that the RME individual is constrained to the area for risk assessment is to assume that the RME individual is constrained to the area being assessed (for subsistence or residential scenarios), or receives exposures being assessed (for subsistence or residential scenarios), or receives exposures only during visits to the area being assessed (for recreational or occupational only during visits to the area being assessed (for recreational or occupational scenarios). The subsistence scenario is not to be divided into partial scenarios, such scenarios). The subsistence scenario is not to be divided into partial scenarios, such as upland hunting or localized gathering, unless those are also complete scenarios, as upland hunting or localized gathering, unless those are also complete scenarios, accounting for a full life but with emphasis on a specialized activity (e.g., the accounting for a full life but with emphasis on a specialized activity (e.g., the subsistence person who specializes in fishing for himself and others and trades fish subsistence person who specializes in fishing for himself and others and trades fish for game and plants, or the subsistence person who specializes in gathering food for game and plants, or the subsistence person who specializes in gathering food and medicinal plants and materials and trades those items for fish and game). and medicinal plants and materials and trades those items for fish and game).
3.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES 3.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES Tables 2–4 show the thought process for considering the range and number of Tables 2–4 show the thought process for considering the range and number of activities associated with major activity categories (hunting, fishing, gathering, and activities associated with major activity categories (hunting, fishing, gathering, and sweat-lodge purification). Tables 2 and 3 list a number of individual activities within sweat-lodge purification). Tables 2 and 3 list a number of individual activities within each major category; this is included because most non-Indians have not learned each major category; this is included because most non-Indians have not learned much about traditional lifestyles and the complexity of daily life. Table 2 shows the much about traditional lifestyles and the complexity of daily life. Table 2 shows the connection between activity categories. In actuality, many activities are sequential— connection between activity categories. In actuality, many activities are sequential— for example, a resource might be gathered in one location, used in a second location for example, a resource might be gathered in one location, used in a second location to make an implement or basket, and taken to a third location for use in hunting or to make an implement or basket, and taken to a third location for use in hunting or
CTUIR Scenario 184 CTUIR Scenario 184 fishing.11 At times, a hide must be brain-tanned to make a drum head to sing the fishing.11 At times, a hide must be brain-tanned to make a drum head to sing the songs required for ceremonies in preparation for fishing. The activities shown in songs required for ceremonies in preparation for fishing. The activities shown in Table 2 are so interconnected that it is virtually impossible to separate a lifestyle into Table 2 are so interconnected that it is virtually impossible to separate a lifestyle into distinct categories, but they are presented as separate for illustration. The number of distinct categories, but they are presented as separate for illustration. The number of sub-activities in each column displays the complexity of each major activity, as well sub-activities in each column displays the complexity of each major activity, as well as interconnections between categories. The category of gathering includes both as interconnections between categories. The category of gathering includes both vegetal food procurement and basket making. vegetal food procurement and basket making.
Table 2. Traditional lifeways—Typical activities in the activity categories. Table 2. Traditional lifeways—Typical activities in the activity categories.
Hunting Purification Gathering Fishing Hunting Purification Gathering Fishing Learn skills, TEK Learn skills, songs Learn skills, TEK Learn skills, TEK Learn skills, TEK Learn skills, songs Learn skills, TEK Learn skills, TEK Making tools Build lodge from Previous gathering Make nets, poles, Making tools Build lodge from Previous gathering Make nets, poles, natural materials platforms, tools natural materials platforms, tools Ritual bathing Gather rocks Make baskets, bags Travel to location Ritual bathing Gather rocks Make baskets, bags Travel to location Vigorous Chop firewood Hike to areas Catch fish, haul out Vigorous Chop firewood Hike to areas Catch fish, haul out activity in activity in hunting hunting Pack meat out Prepare for use, Cut, dig, harvest Clean, can, hard Pack meat out Prepare for use, Cut, dig, harvest Clean, can, hard get water dry, soft dry, smoke, get water dry, soft dry, smoke, eat whole fish or eat whole fish or fillet or liver or other fillet or liver or other parts or soup parts or soup Process Use Lodge, sing, Carry out items Return carcasses Process Use Lodge, sing, Carry out items Return carcasses drink water, to ecosystem, drink water, to ecosystem, inhale steam use as fertilizer inhale steam use as fertilizer and smudges and smudges Scrape hides Close area & fire Wash, peel, process, Scrape hides Close area & fire Wash, peel, process, split, spin, dye split, spin, dye Tan, use other Cook and eat or make Tan, use other Cook and eat or make parts product or medicine parts product or medicine Cook, smoke, Cook, smoke, dry, eat meat dry, eat meat and organs and organs
11 This is similar to the Cultural Ecosystem Stories concept developed Terry Williams (Tulalip Tribes) 11 This is similar to the Cultural Ecosystem Stories concept developed Terry Williams (Tulalip Tribes) with the associated software, ICONS (see, for example, with the associated software, ICONS (see, for example, http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacademy/ wam/comresource.html). http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacademy/ wam/comresource.html).
CTUIR Scenario 185 CTUIR Scenario 185
Table 3. Major activity categories. Table 3. Major activity categories.
Activity Type General Description Activity Type General Description Hunting Hunting includes a variety of preparation activities of low to moderate intensity. Hunting Hunting includes a variety of preparation activities of low to moderate intensity. Hunting occurs in terrain ranging from flat and open to very steep and rugged. Hunting occurs in terrain ranging from flat and open to very steep and rugged. It may also include setting traplines, waiting in blinds, digging, climbing, etc. It may also include setting traplines, waiting in blinds, digging, climbing, etc. After the capture or kill, field dressing, packing or hauling, and other very After the capture or kill, field dressing, packing or hauling, and other very strenuous activities may occur, depending on the species. Subsequent strenuous activities may occur, depending on the species. Subsequent activities include cutting, storing (e.g., smoking or drying), etc. activities include cutting, storing (e.g., smoking or drying), etc. Fishing Fishing includes building weirs and platforms, hauling in lines and nets, gaffing Fishing Fishing includes building weirs and platforms, hauling in lines and nets, gaffing or gigging, wading (for shellfish), followed by cleaning the fish and carrying or gigging, wading (for shellfish), followed by cleaning the fish and carrying them to the place of use. Activities associated with smoking and constructing them to the place of use. Activities associated with smoking and constructing drying racks may be involved. drying racks may be involved. Gathering A variety of activities is involved in gathering, such as hiking, bending, Gathering A variety of activities is involved in gathering, such as hiking, bending, stooping, wading (marsh and water plants), digging, and carrying. stooping, wading (marsh and water plants), digging, and carrying. Ritual purification Sweat lodge building and repairing is intermittent, but collecting firewood is a Ritual purification Sweat lodge building and repairing is intermittent, but collecting firewood is a (sweat lodge) constant activity. (sweat lodge) constant activity. Materials and Many activities of varying intensity are involved in preparing materials for use Materials and Many activities of varying intensity are involved in preparing materials for use food use or food storage. Some are quite vigorous such as pounding or grinding seeds food use or food storage. Some are quite vigorous such as pounding or grinding seeds and nuts into flour, preparing meat, and tanning hides. Many others are semi- and nuts into flour, preparing meat, and tanning hides. Many others are semi- active, such as basket making, flint knapping, construction of storage active, such as basket making, flint knapping, construction of storage containers, cleaning village sites, sanitation activities, home repairs, and so on. containers, cleaning village sites, sanitation activities, home repairs, and so on.
CTUIR Scenario 186 CTUIR Scenario 186
Table 4 shows the cross-walk between activity categories and exposure pathways, Table 4 shows the cross-walk between activity categories and exposure pathways, with examples of how exposure factors are derived from knowledge about activities, with examples of how exposure factors are derived from knowledge about activities, interlinked resources and ecosystem stories, and the technical literature. Again, this interlinked resources and ecosystem stories, and the technical literature. Again, this is an iterative process that relies on multiple lines of evidence. Rather than a is an iterative process that relies on multiple lines of evidence. Rather than a complete listing of activities, Table 4 presents an example of the thought process complete listing of activities, Table 4 presents an example of the thought process used to perform the iterative cross-walk. In each case a gap identification step may used to perform the iterative cross-walk. In each case a gap identification step may be necessary, and greater uncertainty may require placeholder values until data are be necessary, and greater uncertainty may require placeholder values until data are obtained. The last column, “Totals for major exposure factor categories,” shows obtained. The last column, “Totals for major exposure factor categories,” shows exposure pathways totals (such as soil ingestion) are estimated across activity exposure pathways totals (such as soil ingestion) are estimated across activity categories. This is not a statistical summation but rather a judgment based on categories. This is not a statistical summation but rather a judgment based on multiple lines of evidence. Each estimate has been checked against technical multiple lines of evidence. Each estimate has been checked against technical literature for confirmation. literature for confirmation.
Table 4. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories. Table 4. Example exposure considerations for major activity categories.
Hunting and Fishing and Gathering Ritual Material and Totals for Hunting and Fishing and Gathering Ritual Material and Totals for associated associated and purification food use and major associated associated and purification food use and major activities activities associated and processing exposure activities activities associated and processing exposure activities associated factor activities associated factor activities categories activities categories Food, n deer /yr n fish /yr diet; Includes No food, but Both as- Must account Food, n deer /yr n fish /yr diet; Includes No food, but Both as- Must account medicine, diet; Total pounds or foods, herbal gathered and for all calories medicine, diet; Total pounds or foods, herbal gathered and for all calories tea, other Total large- meals/day-wk- medicines, particulates as-eaten and 100–200 tea, other Total large- meals/day-wk- medicines, particulates as-eaten and 100–200 biota small game, yr; teas, etc. are inhaled. forms; plant species; biota small game, yr; teas, etc. are inhaled. forms; plant species; ingestion fowl; Organs eaten cleaning and parts eaten ingestion fowl; Organs eaten cleaning and parts eaten (diet) Organs eaten cooking (diet) Organs eaten cooking methods methods Soil, Terrain Sediment External soil Includes Includes Must consider Soil, Terrain Sediment External soil Includes Includes Must consider sediment, types; contact, dust on plants; building the incidental soil living area, sediment, types; contact, dust on plants; building the incidental soil living area, dust, and Degree of and smoke if Cooking sweat lodge remaining on roads, and gap dust, and Degree of and smoke if Cooking sweat lodge remaining on roads, and gap mud dermal drying; Weir method such and getting foods, pit identification. mud dermal drying; Weir method such and getting foods, pit identification. ingestion contact; How construction in as pit materials. cooking. ingestion contact; How construction in as pit materials. cooking. much dirt and mud cooking; much dirt and mud cooking; mud Ingestion mud Ingestion when when gathering gathering Inhalation Days per Exertion level— Exertion level Includes Exertion level Must account Inhalation Days per Exertion level— Exertion level Includes Exertion level Must account rates terrain; nets and gaffing for load and building the for pounding, for exertion rates terrain; nets and gaffing for load and building the for pounding, for exertion Exertion methods; grade, or lodge, grinding, etc. levels; Smokes Exertion methods; grade, or lodge, grinding, etc. levels; Smokes level; Hide cleaning effort. gardening; chopping and smudges. level; Hide cleaning effort. gardening; chopping and smudges. scraping; Include firewood, scraping; Include firewood, Load & grade making items. singing. Load & grade making items. singing. Groundwater Drinking Drinking water; Drinking Steam in Soaking, Must account Groundwater Drinking Drinking water; Drinking Steam in Soaking, Must account and surface water; Wash Incidental water, lodge; possibly other for climate, and surface water; Wash Incidental water, lodge; possibly other for climate, water water; Water- ingestion Cooking Drinking uses sweat lodge, water water; Water- ingestion Cooking Drinking uses sweat lodge, pathways to-game water, etc. water during ritual bathing. pathways to-game water, etc. water during ritual bathing. pathways sweat pathways sweat Dermal Soil, air and Immersion Same as Immersion Includes Must consider Dermal Soil, air and Immersion Same as Immersion Includes Must consider exposure water considerations hunting with open basket skin loading exposure water considerations hunting with open basket skin loading pathways, skin pores. making, and habitat pathways, skin pores. making, and habitat plus wounds. types. plus wounds. types. pigments etc. pigments etc.
CTUIR Scenario 187 CTUIR Scenario 187
3.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME 3.3 THE FAMILY, THE DAY, AND THE LIFETIME This section describes a family-based exposure scenario based on traditional CTUIR This section describes a family-based exposure scenario based on traditional CTUIR lifestyles and diets. Only the fish-based diet is discussed here, since it is to be lifestyles and diets. Only the fish-based diet is discussed here, since it is to be applied within 20 miles of a major fishing river. It is based on habits of members who applied within 20 miles of a major fishing river. It is based on habits of members who live in the sagebrush steppe, gather native foods supplemented with a home garden, live in the sagebrush steppe, gather native foods supplemented with a home garden, have a high rate of subsistence activities, have a regular schedule of other cultural have a high rate of subsistence activities, have a regular schedule of other cultural activities, and work as field workers monitoring natural and cultural resources, taking activities, and work as field workers monitoring natural and cultural resources, taking environmental samples, and doing reclamation or restoration work. The lifestyles are environmental samples, and doing reclamation or restoration work. The lifestyles are moderately active outdoor lifestyles, with daily sweat lodge use. moderately active outdoor lifestyles, with daily sweat lodge use.
3.3.1 Lifestyle of a Representative Traditional CTUIR Family 3.3.1 Lifestyle of a Representative Traditional CTUIR Family The families are intended to be reasonable composites. Each family includes an The families are intended to be reasonable composites. Each family includes an infant/child (age 0–2 years) who breastfeeds for two years and crawls and plays; a infant/child (age 0–2 years) who breastfeeds for two years and crawls and plays; a child (age 2–6) who plays in the house and outdoors, a youth (age 7–16) who child (age 2–6) who plays in the house and outdoors, a youth (age 7–16) who attends school, plays outdoors near his/her residence, and is learning traditional attends school, plays outdoors near his/her residence, and is learning traditional practices; two adult workers (one male, one female, age 17–55; the female practices; two adult workers (one male, one female, age 17–55; the female breast-feeds the infant) who work outdoors on reclamation and environmental and breast-feeds the infant) who work outdoors on reclamation and environmental and cultural activities and who also engage in subsistence activities; and an elder (age cultural activities and who also engage in subsistence activities; and an elder (age 56–75) who is partly at home and partly outdoors teaching and demonstrating 56–75) who is partly at home and partly outdoors teaching and demonstrating traditional cultural practices. All members (except the infant from 0–2 years) partake traditional cultural practices. All members (except the infant from 0–2 years) partake in family sweat lodge use and in cultural activities throughout the year. in family sweat lodge use and in cultural activities throughout the year.
Location and Type of Residence: The residence is located within the assessment Location and Type of Residence: The residence is located within the assessment area. The family lives in a house with little or no landscaping other than the natural area. The family lives in a house with little or no landscaping other than the natural vegetation. Each house has its own well for domestic use and a garden irrigated vegetation. Each house has its own well for domestic use and a garden irrigated with groundwater or surface water (whichever is more contaminated). This is not a with groundwater or surface water (whichever is more contaminated). This is not a fully traditional pit house or tule mat house, but a typical reservation-quality house, fully traditional pit house or tule mat house, but a typical reservation-quality house, with seasonally open windows. The road and driveway are not paved. with seasonally open windows. The road and driveway are not paved.
3.3.2 Activity Patterns of Each Family Member 3.3.2 Activity Patterns of Each Family Member Infant: The infant breast-feeds for 2 years, and crawls on the floor (with house-dust Infant: The infant breast-feeds for 2 years, and crawls on the floor (with house-dust exposure) from age 6 months to 2 years. Infants ingest more fluid per body weight exposure) from age 6 months to 2 years. Infants ingest more fluid per body weight than children do, and toddlers (6 months to 2 years) are likely to have the highest of than children do, and toddlers (6 months to 2 years) are likely to have the highest of the children’s exposures due to crawling and mouthing behaviors, and their higher the children’s exposures due to crawling and mouthing behaviors, and their higher food and water per capita ingestion rates. food and water per capita ingestion rates.
Child (ages 2–6 years): Beginning at age 2, the child eats the same food as Child (ages 2–6 years): Beginning at age 2, the child eats the same food as everyone else, participates in family sweat lodge, and spends some time everyone else, participates in family sweat lodge, and spends some time accompanying the mother as she gardens and gathers. accompanying the mother as she gardens and gathers.
Youth (ages 7–16): The adolescent is learning to hunt, gather, and fish (and spends Youth (ages 7–16): The adolescent is learning to hunt, gather, and fish (and spends equal time in each activity in their respective locations), plays outdoors, and attends equal time in each activity in their respective locations), plays outdoors, and attends school. school.
CTUIR Scenario 188 CTUIR Scenario 188
Adult Worker (ages 17–55): Workers are assumed to work for the Tribe collecting Adult Worker (ages 17–55): Workers are assumed to work for the Tribe collecting environmental samples, engaging in restoration/remediation or construction work, environmental samples, engaging in restoration/remediation or construction work, and caring for natural and cultural resources and tribal property. This type of activity and caring for natural and cultural resources and tribal property. This type of activity is dusty in the summer and muddy in the winter. Both males and females are is dusty in the summer and muddy in the winter. Both males and females are currently employed in this type of activity. Workers could be exposed to external currently employed in this type of activity. Workers could be exposed to external irradiation, surface soil and dust, vegetation, surface water, sediments, seeps, and irradiation, surface soil and dust, vegetation, surface water, sediments, seeps, and radon and daughter products in outdoor air and water. These workers have an radon and daughter products in outdoor air and water. These workers have an average 8-hour workday. average 8-hour workday.
Adult Hunter/Fisher/Gatherer: Each adult also hunts (male), fishes (male), or Adult Hunter/Fisher/Gatherer: Each adult also hunts (male), fishes (male), or gardens and gathers plants (female). These activities are roughly analogous with gardens and gathers plants (female). These activities are roughly analogous with respect to environmental contact, and therefore are assumed to result in the same respect to environmental contact, and therefore are assumed to result in the same amount of soil or sediment ingestion for males and females. The additional time and amount of soil or sediment ingestion for males and females. The additional time and contact during game processing and plant washing and preparation are also roughly contact during game processing and plant washing and preparation are also roughly equal. The location of hunting small game or fowl is in the same area as the equal. The location of hunting small game or fowl is in the same area as the residence, and the location of big game hunting covers a larger area, although the residence, and the location of big game hunting covers a larger area, although the livestock are located in the same area as the residence. The time spent hunting or livestock are located in the same area as the residence. The time spent hunting or fishing versus livestock tending is proportional to the diet and the size of the fishing versus livestock tending is proportional to the diet and the size of the assessment area. The garden is at the place of residence and uses the same water assessment area. The garden is at the place of residence and uses the same water as the household, while the gathering occurs in a larger area, also proportional to as the household, while the gathering occurs in a larger area, also proportional to the size of the assessment area. All of the hunters, gatherers, and fishers spend the size of the assessment area. All of the hunters, gatherers, and fishers spend some time near water, if it is present in the area, on activities such as washing plants some time near water, if it is present in the area, on activities such as washing plants or game, gathering aquatic plants and mollusks/crustaceans, and so on, with or game, gathering aquatic plants and mollusks/crustaceans, and so on, with concomitant exposure to mud or sediment. concomitant exposure to mud or sediment.
Elder (ages 56–75): The elder gathers plants and medicines, prepares them, uses Elder (ages 56–75): The elder gathers plants and medicines, prepares them, uses them (e.g., making medicines or baskets, etc.) and teaches a variety of indoor and them (e.g., making medicines or baskets, etc.) and teaches a variety of indoor and outdoor traditional activities. The elder also provides child care in the home. outdoor traditional activities. The elder also provides child care in the home.
3.3.3 Specific Cultural Activities 3.3.3 Specific Cultural Activities This section considers activities that are engaged in at varying levels by the Tribe This section considers activities that are engaged in at varying levels by the Tribe and by varying age-groups, and other factors that affect exposure. and by varying age-groups, and other factors that affect exposure.
Ritual Purification (Sweat Lodge) (ages 2–75): The daily use of the sweat lodge is Ritual Purification (Sweat Lodge) (ages 2–75): The daily use of the sweat lodge is an integral part of the lifestyle that starts at age 2. Sweat lodge construction has an integral part of the lifestyle that starts at age 2. Sweat lodge construction has been described in the open literature. Although the details vary among Tribes and been described in the open literature. Although the details vary among Tribes and among individual families, they are generally round structures (6 feet in diameter for among individual families, they are generally round structures (6 feet in diameter for single-family use) constructed of natural materials (i.e., branches, moss, leaves with single-family use) constructed of natural materials (i.e., branches, moss, leaves with a dirt floor covered with mats or cedar boughs) near a source of surface or a dirt floor covered with mats or cedar boughs) near a source of surface or groundwater. A nearby fire is used to heat rocks that are brought into the sweat groundwater. A nearby fire is used to heat rocks that are brought into the sweat lodge. Water (4L) is poured over the rocks to form steam (a confined hemispheric lodge. Water (4L) is poured over the rocks to form steam (a confined hemispheric space with complete evaporation of the water which is available for inhalation and space with complete evaporation of the water which is available for inhalation and dermal exposure over the entire skin area). Either groundwater or surface water may dermal exposure over the entire skin area). Either groundwater or surface water may be used. Inhalation and heart rates may be higher depending on activities that occur be used. Inhalation and heart rates may be higher depending on activities that occur during the sweat lodge ceremony (e.g., singing). during the sweat lodge ceremony (e.g., singing).
CTUIR Scenario 189 CTUIR Scenario 189
Cultural Activities: All age-groups participate in day-long outdoor community Cultural Activities: All age-groups participate in day-long outdoor community cultural activities once a month, such as powwows, horse races, and seasonal cultural activities once a month, such as powwows, horse races, and seasonal ceremonial and private cultural activities (together averaging about 0.5 hours/day). ceremonial and private cultural activities (together averaging about 0.5 hours/day). These activities tend to be large gatherings with a greater rate of dust resuspension These activities tend to be large gatherings with a greater rate of dust resuspension and particulate inhalation. Individuals also tend to be active, resulting in a greater and particulate inhalation. Individuals also tend to be active, resulting in a greater inhalation and water ingestion rates. inhalation and water ingestion rates.
Basket Making: Exposure specific to basket makers is a well-recognized problem1, Basket Making: Exposure specific to basket makers is a well-recognized problem1, but data useful for exposure assessment are almost totally lacking. Gathering of but data useful for exposure assessment are almost totally lacking. Gathering of some plants (e.g., willows, cattails, tules, reeds, and rushes) can be very muddy, some plants (e.g., willows, cattails, tules, reeds, and rushes) can be very muddy, and river shore or lakeshore activities with sediment exposure may be and river shore or lakeshore activities with sediment exposure may be underestimated. Washing, peeling, weaving rushes, and other activities results in underestimated. Washing, peeling, weaving rushes, and other activities results in additional exposure, such as dust deposited on leaves or soil adhered to roots. additional exposure, such as dust deposited on leaves or soil adhered to roots. Some of the materials are held in the mouth for splitting, and cuts on the fingers are Some of the materials are held in the mouth for splitting, and cuts on the fingers are common. As more information becomes available, it will be evaluated so that common. As more information becomes available, it will be evaluated so that exposure factors for each route of exposure account for these particular activities. exposure factors for each route of exposure account for these particular activities.
Other Special Activities: It is recognized that there are special circumstances when Other Special Activities: It is recognized that there are special circumstances when some people may be highly exposed (and their exposure would be underestimated). some people may be highly exposed (and their exposure would be underestimated). For instance, some men hunt or fish for the general community, and many people For instance, some men hunt or fish for the general community, and many people provide roots and fish and game to elders in addition to their own families. Flint provide roots and fish and game to elders in addition to their own families. Flint knappers may receive additional exposure through obtaining and working with their knappers may receive additional exposure through obtaining and working with their materials. Healers handle pharmacologically active plants, some of which may materials. Healers handle pharmacologically active plants, some of which may uptake contaminants differentially. Materials released from firewood, smokes, and uptake contaminants differentially. Materials released from firewood, smokes, and smudges may contain contaminants or affect physiological parameters of the smudges may contain contaminants or affect physiological parameters of the person. These types of activities may require special consideration with respect to person. These types of activities may require special consideration with respect to exposures. exposures.
Seasonality: The changes in activity patterns over the annual seasonal cycle has Seasonality: The changes in activity patterns over the annual seasonal cycle has been modified in modern times, but the ecological cycle has not, so people must still been modified in modern times, but the ecological cycle has not, so people must still gather plants according to when they are ripe, hunt according to game and fowl gather plants according to when they are ripe, hunt according to game and fowl patterns, and fish when the spawning runs occur. Items are gathered during a patterns, and fish when the spawning runs occur. Items are gathered during a harvest season for year-round use. While specific activities change from season to harvest season for year-round use. While specific activities change from season to season, they are replaced by other activities with a similar environmental contact season, they are replaced by other activities with a similar environmental contact rate. For instance, a particular plant may be gathered during one month, while rate. For instance, a particular plant may be gathered during one month, while another month may be spent hunting, and a winter month may include cleaning and another month may be spent hunting, and a winter month may include cleaning and using the items obtained previously. Therefore, since we are assuming that all using the items obtained previously. Therefore, since we are assuming that all activities are roughly equal, there is no decrease in environmental contact rates activities are roughly equal, there is no decrease in environmental contact rates during winter months. during winter months.
3.3.4 Time Allocation throughout the Day 3.3.4 Time Allocation throughout the Day This section describes the time allocation that is reflected in daily exposure factors. This section describes the time allocation that is reflected in daily exposure factors. The time adds up to slightly more than 24 hours per day, as is typical for any The time adds up to slightly more than 24 hours per day, as is typical for any exposure scenario, in order to allow specific pathways to drive the risk should they exposure scenario, in order to allow specific pathways to drive the risk should they
1 http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/envjust/documents/basketweaver.pdf 1 http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/envjust/documents/basketweaver.pdf
CTUIR Scenario 190 CTUIR Scenario 190
be contaminated. This also accounts for specialization by the person who spends be contaminated. This also accounts for specialization by the person who spends more than an average amount of time in particular activities. more than an average amount of time in particular activities.
Identical Activities: From the age of 2 to 75 years, 15 hours of every day are Identical Activities: From the age of 2 to 75 years, 15 hours of every day are similar: 8 hours sleep, 2.5 hours in other indoor activities, 2 hours in the sweat lodge, similar: 8 hours sleep, 2.5 hours in other indoor activities, 2 hours in the sweat lodge, 1 hour in nearby outside activity, such as small game hunting, 0.5 hour in community 1 hour in nearby outside activity, such as small game hunting, 0.5 hour in community cultural activities, and 0.5 hour traveling on unpaved roads. These activities are cultural activities, and 0.5 hour traveling on unpaved roads. These activities are referred to as common time. referred to as common time.
Infant: Standard infant exposure parameters are used. House dust is assumed to Infant: Standard infant exposure parameters are used. House dust is assumed to have similar concentrations of contaminants as outside soil. The infant is breast-fed have similar concentrations of contaminants as outside soil. The infant is breast-fed for 2 years, assuming two different scenarios: (1) the mother has received 25 years for 2 years, assuming two different scenarios: (1) the mother has received 25 years of prior exposure from a contaminated area; and (2) the mother has not received of prior exposure from a contaminated area; and (2) the mother has not received such exposure. The issue of fetal exposure remains to be determined. such exposure. The issue of fetal exposure remains to be determined.
Child: The child, up through age 6, spends the same amount of common time in the Child: The child, up through age 6, spends the same amount of common time in the same activities, and 4 hours indoors and 5 hours outdoors with the mother as she same activities, and 4 hours indoors and 5 hours outdoors with the mother as she gardens and gathers. gardens and gathers.
Youth: Common time plus 6 hours at school 5 days/week (averaging 4.5 hours/day Youth: Common time plus 6 hours at school 5 days/week (averaging 4.5 hours/day over a full week), 2.5 hours indoors, and 3 hours outdoors playing or accompanying over a full week), 2.5 hours indoors, and 3 hours outdoors playing or accompanying an adult or elder, learning traditional activities. It is assumed that the school is an adult or elder, learning traditional activities. It is assumed that the school is uncontaminated unless there is data about chemical usage or contamination, and it uncontaminated unless there is data about chemical usage or contamination, and it is also assumed that his or her near-residence outdoor time results in a higher is also assumed that his or her near-residence outdoor time results in a higher amount of soil contact than at other ages; therefore, the youth’s average contact amount of soil contact than at other ages; therefore, the youth’s average contact rates are the same as the child and adult’s. rates are the same as the child and adult’s.
Adult: Common time plus 8 hours working 5 days/week (about 5.5 hours/day), 0.5 Adult: Common time plus 8 hours working 5 days/week (about 5.5 hours/day), 0.5 hour at home, and 3 hours in one of the subsistence activities (hunting = 1 hour plus hour at home, and 3 hours in one of the subsistence activities (hunting = 1 hour plus 2 hours processing, smoking, etc.; fishing = 2 hours plus 1 hour processing; 2 hours processing, smoking, etc.; fishing = 2 hours plus 1 hour processing; gathering/gardening = 1 hour gathering in the assessment area, 1 hour gardening at gathering/gardening = 1 hour gathering in the assessment area, 1 hour gardening at home, and 1 hour washing, processing, etc.). home, and 1 hour washing, processing, etc.).
Elder: Common time plus 3 hours at home providing child care, 3 hours outdoors Elder: Common time plus 3 hours at home providing child care, 3 hours outdoors teaching, 1 hour gardening or gathering, and 2 hours at home processing materials teaching, 1 hour gardening or gathering, and 2 hours at home processing materials and making items. and making items.
3.3.5 The Lifetime 3.3.5 The Lifetime Traditionally, daily tasks were somewhat different for males and females: males tend Traditionally, daily tasks were somewhat different for males and females: males tend to hunt and fish, while females gather and cook. However, even where activity to hunt and fish, while females gather and cook. However, even where activity patterns show gender dimorphism, the rates of environmental contact were and are patterns show gender dimorphism, the rates of environmental contact were and are probably similar. In addition, both women and men are employed as environmental probably similar. In addition, both women and men are employed as environmental and construction workers, as well. Therefore, for the purposes of the exposure and construction workers, as well. Therefore, for the purposes of the exposure scenario, the genders have identical exposure factors. scenario, the genders have identical exposure factors.
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Male Lifetime: The male lifetime consists of the standard infancy, childhood, and Male Lifetime: The male lifetime consists of the standard infancy, childhood, and youth. At age 17 he specializes in either hunting or fishing and begins working as a youth. At age 17 he specializes in either hunting or fishing and begins working as a reclamation/restoration/environmental worker. These activities are specified solely to reclamation/restoration/environmental worker. These activities are specified solely to determine their locations, which may have different contaminant concentrations. As determine their locations, which may have different contaminant concentrations. As an elder he changes his activity patterns to teaching and demonstrating as an elder he changes his activity patterns to teaching and demonstrating as described above. described above.
Female Lifetime: The female lifetime consists of the standard infancy, childhood, Female Lifetime: The female lifetime consists of the standard infancy, childhood, and youth. At age 17 she engages in gathering and gardening and also works the and youth. At age 17 she engages in gathering and gardening and also works the same job as the male. During motherhood, the woman may remain at home, which same job as the male. During motherhood, the woman may remain at home, which is located in the same sparsely populated area, and she continues to garden and is located in the same sparsely populated area, and she continues to garden and gather, so her exposure does not diminish. Her earlier exposure may result in a dose gather, so her exposure does not diminish. Her earlier exposure may result in a dose to the fetus and breast-feeding infant. to the fetus and breast-feeding infant.
3.4 MEDIA, PATHWAYS, AND EXPOSURE FACTORS 3.4 MEDIA, PATHWAYS, AND EXPOSURE FACTORS As described previously, exposure factors are developed by cross-walking the As described previously, exposure factors are developed by cross-walking the activities described above with specific media-based exposure pathways. The activities described above with specific media-based exposure pathways. The identification of media pathways begins to sum exposures; for instance, all the soil identification of media pathways begins to sum exposures; for instance, all the soil exposures from hunting, gathering, household activities, processing and using exposures from hunting, gathering, household activities, processing and using materials, food processing, and other activities are summed qualitatively. materials, food processing, and other activities are summed qualitatively.
Ground Water and/or Surface Water Pathways: Ground water and/or surface Ground Water and/or Surface Water Pathways: Ground water and/or surface water are directly ingested as drinking water. Both are used to create steam in the water are directly ingested as drinking water. Both are used to create steam in the sweat lodge. Other uses of these resources include typical household use (e.g. sweat lodge. Other uses of these resources include typical household use (e.g. flushing, cooking, bathing, and showering), irrigation of crops and/or garden, and flushing, cooking, bathing, and showering), irrigation of crops and/or garden, and livestock. livestock.
Air and Dust Pathways: As a general rule, the air pathway can result in exposure Air and Dust Pathways: As a general rule, the air pathway can result in exposure to any present volatiles, aerosols, and resuspended dust. Dust resuspension from to any present volatiles, aerosols, and resuspended dust. Dust resuspension from unpaved roads and other unvegetated surfaces should be included as part of the unpaved roads and other unvegetated surfaces should be included as part of the inhalation exposure pathway. If there is a potential for exposure, inhalation of fire inhalation exposure pathway. If there is a potential for exposure, inhalation of fire smoke or smudge should be included because some of these pathways can be smoke or smudge should be included because some of these pathways can be frequent and significant. frequent and significant.
Soil and Sediment Pathways: This pathway includes soil ingestion from hand to Soil and Sediment Pathways: This pathway includes soil ingestion from hand to mouth activities associated with daily activities, gathering (e.g., digging roots) and mouth activities associated with daily activities, gathering (e.g., digging roots) and gardening, food and material processing (e.g. grinding, scraping, pit cooking). This gardening, food and material processing (e.g. grinding, scraping, pit cooking). This pathway also includes direct ingestion resulting from residual soil on roots and bulbs. pathway also includes direct ingestion resulting from residual soil on roots and bulbs. The as-gathered and as-eaten conditions of plants are important. Some vegetable The as-gathered and as-eaten conditions of plants are important. Some vegetable foods are eaten raw on the spot after being brushed off. Grinding seeds and nuts foods are eaten raw on the spot after being brushed off. Grinding seeds and nuts also adds rock dust to the flour. also adds rock dust to the flour.
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3.5 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS 3.5 EXPOSURE FACTORS FOR DIRECT EXPOSURE PATHWAYS A description of activities for the purposes of developing exposure factors focuses A description of activities for the purposes of developing exposure factors focuses on: on:
Frequency of activity: Frequency of activity: • Daily, weekly, monthly • Daily, weekly, monthly Duration of activity: Duration of activity: • Hours at a time • Hours at a time • Number of years • Number of years Intensity of environmental contact and intensity of activity: Intensity of environmental contact and intensity of activity: • For soil ingestion and dermal exposure, is the activity more than, less than, or • For soil ingestion and dermal exposure, is the activity more than, less than, or equal to gardening, camping, construction/excavation, or sports? equal to gardening, camping, construction/excavation, or sports? • For inhalation rates and calorie needs, is the activity level more than, less • For inhalation rates and calorie needs, is the activity level more than, less than, or equal to standard EPA activity levels for specific activities with known than, or equal to standard EPA activity levels for specific activities with known respiration rates and caloric expenditure? respiration rates and caloric expenditure?
The following table (Table 5) includes three adult scenarios: the suburban resident, The following table (Table 5) includes three adult scenarios: the suburban resident, the rural residential farmer-gardener, and the subsistence forager. The first two the rural residential farmer-gardener, and the subsistence forager. The first two scenarios are typically used in risk assessments, and the third reflects the set of scenarios are typically used in risk assessments, and the third reflects the set of activities that compose the CTUIR lifestyle. Each scenario is intended to be activities that compose the CTUIR lifestyle. Each scenario is intended to be physiologically coherent, which means that the dietary intake, activity levels, and physiologically coherent, which means that the dietary intake, activity levels, and inhalation rates are physiologically linked. For instance, the more sedentary inhalation rates are physiologically linked. For instance, the more sedentary suburban scenario is based on national data on typical lifestyles (light occupational suburban scenario is based on national data on typical lifestyles (light occupational activities sitting or standing, with some moderate activity at home), while the rural activities sitting or standing, with some moderate activity at home), while the rural residential farmer has a higher activity level, higher inhalation rate, and higher soil residential farmer has a higher activity level, higher inhalation rate, and higher soil ingestion rate due to his farming activity pattern. The subsistence forager is still ingestion rate due to his farming activity pattern. The subsistence forager is still more active, with a proportionally higher inhalation rate, as well as a higher soil more active, with a proportionally higher inhalation rate, as well as a higher soil ingestion rate, due to a higher degree of soil contact. We have included the rural ingestion rate, due to a higher degree of soil contact. We have included the rural residential farmer-gardener information for consideration, since it describes an residential farmer-gardener information for consideration, since it describes an intermediate lifestyle between that of the suburban resident and subsistence forager. intermediate lifestyle between that of the suburban resident and subsistence forager.
The following table shows adult values, as does the dietary discussion above. The following table shows adult values, as does the dietary discussion above. Children’s exposure factors are scaled from the subsistence forager rates, as is Children’s exposure factors are scaled from the subsistence forager rates, as is conventionally done in risk assessment (from the Children’s Exposure Factors conventionally done in risk assessment (from the Children’s Exposure Factors Handbook), with the exception of the soil ingestion rate, which is left at 400mg/d Handbook), with the exception of the soil ingestion rate, which is left at 400mg/d throughout the lifetime. Body weight is a consistent 70kg because that is the throughout the lifetime. Body weight is a consistent 70kg because that is the standard EPA assumption used in risk assessments. standard EPA assumption used in risk assessments.
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Table 5. Exposure factors for direct pathways. Table 5. Exposure factors for direct pathways.
Exposure Factors (Adults) Exposure Factors (Adults) Direct Rural Direct Rural Default Default Pathway Residential Subsistence Forager Pathway Residential Subsistence Forager Suburban Suburban Gardener Gardener Inhalation 20m3 25m3: While EPA 30m3/day: This rate is based on a lifestyle Inhalation 20m3 25m3: While EPA 30m3/day: This rate is based on a lifestyle does not have that is an outdoor active lifestyle, based on does not have that is an outdoor active lifestyle, based on official exposure EPA activity databases, foraging theory, official exposure EPA activity databases, foraging theory, factors for this and ethnographic description of the factors for this and ethnographic description of the lifestyle, it is activities undertaken to obtain subsistence lifestyle, it is activities undertaken to obtain subsistence reasonable to resources as well as allotment-based food reasonable to resources as well as allotment-based food assume that a (livestock and garden). It is higher than the assume that a (livestock and garden). It is higher than the person who farms, conventional 20m3/day because the person who farms, conventional 20m3/day because the gardens, irrigates, activities with associated respiration rates gardens, irrigates, activities with associated respiration rates and cares for are higher than suburban activities. and cares for are higher than suburban activities. livestock has an livestock has an intermediate intermediate inhalation rate. inhalation rate. Drinking water 2L/d 3L/day: This rate 3L/d plus 1L for each use of the sweat Drinking water 2L/d 3L/day: This rate 3L/d plus 1L for each use of the sweat ingestion is based on water lodge. ingestion is based on water lodge. requirements in requirements in an outdoor an outdoor moderately arid moderately arid environment. environment. Soil ingestion 100mg/d 300mg/d 400mg/d: This rate is based on indoor and Soil ingestion 100mg/d 300mg/d 400mg/d: This rate is based on indoor and (conventional outdoor activities, a greater rate of (conventional outdoor activities, a greater rate of suburban); gathering, processing, and other uses of suburban); gathering, processing, and other uses of 50mg/d natural resources, as well as on residual 50mg/d natural resources, as well as on residual (manicured soil on grown and gathered plants. (manicured soil on grown and gathered plants. suburban; Episodic events (1 gram each) are suburban; Episodic events (1 gram each) are less outdoor considered, such as very muddy gathering, less outdoor considered, such as very muddy gathering, time). cultural activities with higher soil contact, time). cultural activities with higher soil contact, and so on. It does not specifically include and so on. It does not specifically include geophagy or pica. geophagy or pica. Other parameters Other parameters Exposure Up to 365 days Up to 365 days per 365 days per year. Hours per day varies; Exposure Up to 365 days Up to 365 days per 365 days per year. Hours per day varies; frequency per year, but year, but varies. typically 24 hrs/d. frequency per year, but year, but varies. typically 24 hrs/d. varies. Hours Hours per day varies. Hours Hours per day per day varies; varies; typically 24 per day varies; varies; typically 24 typically 24 hrs/d. typically 24 hrs/d. hrs/d. hrs/d. Exposure 30 years 30 or 70–75 years 70–75 years Exposure 30 years 30 or 70–75 years 70–75 years duration duration
Drinking Water: Harper et al. (2002) estimated an average water ingestion rate of Drinking Water: Harper et al. (2002) estimated an average water ingestion rate of 3L/day for adults, based on total fluid intake for an arid climate. In addition, each use 3L/day for adults, based on total fluid intake for an arid climate. In addition, each use of the sweat lodge requires an additional 1L for rehydration, for a total of 4L per day. of the sweat lodge requires an additional 1L for rehydration, for a total of 4L per day. It should be noted that water intake in an arid environment may be more than 3L per It should be noted that water intake in an arid environment may be more than 3L per day. For example, the Army assumes that the maximum individual daily amount of day. For example, the Army assumes that the maximum individual daily amount of drinking water required by military personnel to remain combat-effective ranges from drinking water required by military personnel to remain combat-effective ranges from
CTUIR Scenario 194 CTUIR Scenario 194
5–15L/day, depending on the climate, season, and intensity of work.2 The Army 5–15L/day, depending on the climate, season, and intensity of work.2 The Army Quartermaster assumes that military personnel in hot climates require 3 gallons per Quartermaster assumes that military personnel in hot climates require 3 gallons per day as drinking water.3 day as drinking water.3
Soil Ingestion: Soil ingestion by young children (0–6 years) is assumed to be Soil Ingestion: Soil ingestion by young children (0–6 years) is assumed to be 400mg/day for 365 days/year. This is higher than the prior EPA default value of 400mg/day for 365 days/year. This is higher than the prior EPA default value of 200mg/day (USEPA 1989), and is the children’s upper bound value. This rate 200mg/day (USEPA 1989), and is the children’s upper bound value. This rate reflects both indoor dust and continuous outdoor activities analogous to gardening or reflects both indoor dust and continuous outdoor activities analogous to gardening or camping, but it is less than a single-incident sports or construction ingestion rate. For camping, but it is less than a single-incident sports or construction ingestion rate. For adults, the soil ingestion value is also 400mg/day, reflecting an unspecified upper adults, the soil ingestion value is also 400mg/day, reflecting an unspecified upper percentile (EPA 1997). percentile (EPA 1997).
Inhalation Rate: An inhalation rate of 30m3/d is more accurate for the active outdoor Inhalation Rate: An inhalation rate of 30m3/d is more accurate for the active outdoor lifestyle than the EPA default rate of 20m3/d (EPA 1997). Using EPA guidance, an lifestyle than the EPA default rate of 20m3/d (EPA 1997). Using EPA guidance, an average rate of 26.2m3/d is obtained from 8 hours sleeping, 2 hours sedentary, 6 average rate of 26.2m3/d is obtained from 8 hours sleeping, 2 hours sedentary, 6 hours light activity, 6 hours moderate activity, and 2 hours heavy activity. This hours light activity, 6 hours moderate activity, and 2 hours heavy activity. This represents minimal heavy activity (construction, climbing hills, etc.), and is an represents minimal heavy activity (construction, climbing hills, etc.), and is an average rather than a reasonable maximum. Most other exposure factors are upper average rather than a reasonable maximum. Most other exposure factors are upper bounds, so the use of a median rate for inhalation is inconsistent with the reasonable bounds, so the use of a median rate for inhalation is inconsistent with the reasonable maximum exposure (RME) approach typically used in Superfund risk assessments, maximum exposure (RME) approach typically used in Superfund risk assessments, and could result in under-protection of children, the elderly, athletes, asthmatics, and and could result in under-protection of children, the elderly, athletes, asthmatics, and the half of the population with above-average inhalation rates. the half of the population with above-average inhalation rates.
Sweat Lodge: Inhalation and dermal exposure in the sweat lodge are evaluated by Sweat Lodge: Inhalation and dermal exposure in the sweat lodge are evaluated by assuming: (1) one hour of use daily; (2) 4 liters of water is poured on heated rocks assuming: (1) one hour of use daily; (2) 4 liters of water is poured on heated rocks resulting in instant vaporization; (3) the sweat lodge is a hemisphere 6 feet in resulting in instant vaporization; (3) the sweat lodge is a hemisphere 6 feet in diameter; and (4) dermal exposure is over the entire body surface area. More detail diameter; and (4) dermal exposure is over the entire body surface area. More detail is given in Appendix B. is given in Appendix B.
Children’s Exposure Factors: Children’s exposure factors are based on “Child- Children’s Exposure Factors: Children’s exposure factors are based on “Child- Specific Exposure Factors Handbook”4 but scaled from the adult subsistence values Specific Exposure Factors Handbook”4 but scaled from the adult subsistence values for inhalation rate. The soil ingestion rate for children is a constant 400mg/day, for inhalation rate. The soil ingestion rate for children is a constant 400mg/day, without age stratification. without age stratification.
3.6 SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE FACTORS 3.6 SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE FACTORS A summary of primary exposures are presented in Table 6. Further documentation is A summary of primary exposures are presented in Table 6. Further documentation is provided in appendices for the three major exposure factors: inhalation rate, soil provided in appendices for the three major exposure factors: inhalation rate, soil ingestion rate, and fish consumption rate. Additional detail on exposure factors or ingestion rate, and fish consumption rate. Additional detail on exposure factors or
2 http://www.nap.edu/execsumm/NI000954.html Guidelines for Chemical Warfare Agents in Military 2 http://www.nap.edu/execsumm/NI000954.html Guidelines for Chemical Warfare Agents in Military Field Drinking Water (1995). Field Drinking Water (1995). 3 http://www.pasols.org/energy/water2.pdf 3 http://www.pasols.org/energy/water2.pdf 4 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2002). Child-specific exposure factors handbook. 4 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2002). Child-specific exposure factors handbook. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC; EPA/600/P-00/002B. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC; EPA/600/P-00/002B. Available from: National Information Service, Springfield, VA; PB2003-101678 and Available from: National Information Service, Springfield, VA; PB2003-101678 and http://www.epa.gov/ncea. http://www.epa.gov/ncea.
CTUIR Scenario 195 CTUIR Scenario 195 guidance on the application of the scenario to particular locations will be provided on guidance on the application of the scenario to particular locations will be provided on request. This summary draws on the 1997 and 2004 references. All exposure request. This summary draws on the 1997 and 2004 references. All exposure duration and averaging times are daily for 70 years unless otherwise noted. duration and averaging times are daily for 70 years unless otherwise noted. Children’s factors are scaled from adults except where noted. Children’s factors are scaled from adults except where noted.
Table 6. Summary of exposure factors. Table 6. Summary of exposure factors.
Exposure Exposure Medium Exposure Factor Value Medium Exposure Factor Value Pathway Pathway Soil Ingestion Ingestion rate 400mg/d (all ages) Soil Ingestion Ingestion rate 400mg/d (all ages) Dermal Adherence rate (<150 1mg/cm2 (all ages) Dermal Adherence rate (<150 1mg/cm2 (all ages) um particle size) um particle size) Skin surface area 5700cm2 (adult) Skin surface area 5700cm2 (adult) (head, hands, forearms, 2800cm2 child) (head, hands, forearms, 2800cm2 child) lower legs) lower legs) Air Inhalation Inhalation rate 30m3//day (adult) Air Inhalation Inhalation rate 30m3//day (adult) Water Dermal Skin surface area 18,000cm2 (adult) Water Dermal Skin surface area 18,000cm2 (adult) 14,900cm2 (child) 14,900cm2 (child) Dermal and Ingestion Swimming 13 days/yr, 2.6 Dermal and Ingestion Swimming 13 days/yr, 2.6 hrs/event, 50ml/event hrs/event, 50ml/event Ingestion Ingestion rate 4L/d Ingestion Ingestion rate 4L/d Biota Foodchain Fish ingestion rate 500 lbs per capita per Biota Foodchain Fish ingestion rate 500 lbs per capita per year, or 620gpd year, or 620gpd Game, meat, fowl 125gpd Game, meat, fowl 125gpd Fruit, greens Berries—125gpd Fruit, greens Berries—125gpd (unprotected) Greens—300gpd (unprotected) Greens—300gpd Other—125gpd Other—125gpd Below-ground roots 800gpd Below-ground roots 800gpd Milk Use children’s rate Milk Use children’s rate (children only) (children only) Notes Notes • Soil adherence rate is correlated to grain size; soil samples must be sieved, and data for • Soil adherence rate is correlated to grain size; soil samples must be sieved, and data for particle size <0.044cm (RAGSe, App. C, Table C-4) should be used for dose estimation. particle size <0.044cm (RAGSe, App. C, Table C-4) should be used for dose estimation. Inhalation is also related to particle size, so the dust resuspension estimate must also include Inhalation is also related to particle size, so the dust resuspension estimate must also include particle size. The adherence rate of 1mg/cm2 is higher than most commercial rates but lower particle size. The adherence rate of 1mg/cm2 is higher than most commercial rates but lower than the kid-in-mud rate (RAGSe, Ch.3, Table C-3) to account for longer events and more wet than the kid-in-mud rate (RAGSe, Ch.3, Table C-3) to account for longer events and more wet soil (riparian, wetlands) contact. soil (riparian, wetlands) contact. • Animal meats include organs, which have a bioconcentration potential. Assume that 10% of • Animal meats include organs, which have a bioconcentration potential. Assume that 10% of animal food is organs with 10x higher concentration. animal food is organs with 10x higher concentration. • Sweat lodge parameters are included in the attached appendix. • Sweat lodge parameters are included in the attached appendix.
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4 CONCLUSION 4 CONCLUSION
This report has presented the CTUIR scenario and supporting information for use in This report has presented the CTUIR scenario and supporting information for use in human health risk assessments. This report is intended to describe enough about human health risk assessments. This report is intended to describe enough about the traditional subsistence lifestyle that a risk assessor who is familiar with the traditional subsistence lifestyle that a risk assessor who is familiar with developing exposure scenarios can understand the derivation of the exposure developing exposure scenarios can understand the derivation of the exposure factors even if she does not have an in-depth familiarity with the CTUIR lifestyle. factors even if she does not have an in-depth familiarity with the CTUIR lifestyle. Where information is not presented, it is assumed that conventional parameters are Where information is not presented, it is assumed that conventional parameters are suitable (e.g., skin surface area). suitable (e.g., skin surface area).
The report describes the Tribes’ environment. An overall river-based diet is The report describes the Tribes’ environment. An overall river-based diet is developed, with major food-type categories estimated as percentages and presented developed, with major food-type categories estimated as percentages and presented in a food pyramid. The most prevalent food source is fish. Exposure factors are in a food pyramid. The most prevalent food source is fish. Exposure factors are developed based on traditional subsistence lifestyles, with attention to the lifestyle, developed based on traditional subsistence lifestyles, with attention to the lifestyle, activity patterns, specific activities, daily time allocation, and lifetime of a CTUIR activity patterns, specific activities, daily time allocation, and lifetime of a CTUIR person. Rates of inhalation, water ingestion, and particularly soil ingestion are higher person. Rates of inhalation, water ingestion, and particularly soil ingestion are higher than those of the general population, due in part to increased outdoor activity in an than those of the general population, due in part to increased outdoor activity in an arid climate. arid climate.
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5 REFERENCES 5 REFERENCES
Harris, S.G. (1998). “Cultural Legacies.” Plenary Address, Society of Risk Analysis Harris, S.G. (1998). “Cultural Legacies.” Plenary Address, Society of Risk Analysis Annual Meeting; December 7, 1998, Phoenix, AZ. Annual Meeting; December 7, 1998, Phoenix, AZ.
Harris, S.G., and Harper, B.L., (1997). “A Native American Exposure Scenario.” Harris, S.G., and Harper, B.L., (1997). “A Native American Exposure Scenario.” Risk Analysis 17(6): 789–795. Risk Analysis 17(6): 789–795.
Harper, B.L., Flett, B., Harris, S.G., Abeyta, C., and Kirschner, F. (2002). “The Harper, B.L., Flett, B., Harris, S.G., Abeyta, C., and Kirschner, F. (2002). “The Spokane Tribe’s Multipathway Subsistence Exposure Scenario and Spokane Tribe’s Multipathway Subsistence Exposure Scenario and Screening Level RME.” Risk Analysis 22(3): 513–526. Screening Level RME.” Risk Analysis 22(3): 513–526.
Hunn, E.S., Turner, N.J., and French, D.H. (1998). “Ethnobiology and Subsistence.” Hunn, E.S., Turner, N.J., and French, D.H. (1998). “Ethnobiology and Subsistence.” Handbook of North American Indians 12(Plateau): 535–545 (Walker, D.E., Handbook of North American Indians 12(Plateau): 535–545 (Walker, D.E., ed.). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press. ed.). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press.
Hunn, E.S. (1990). Nch’i-Wana, The Big River: Mid-Columbians and Their Land. Hunn, E.S. (1990). Nch’i-Wana, The Big River: Mid-Columbians and Their Land. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Walker, D.E. (ed.) (1998). Handbook of North American Indians 12(Plateau). Walker, D.E. (ed.) (1998). Handbook of North American Indians 12(Plateau). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press (and references therein). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press (and references therein).
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APPENDIX A APPENDIX A
FISH CONSUMPTION RATE FISH CONSUMPTION RATE
CTUIR Fish Consumption Rate = 620g/d or 500 pounds per year (adult). CTUIR Fish Consumption Rate = 620g/d or 500 pounds per year (adult).
A.1 INTRODUCTION A.1 INTRODUCTION Although many indigenous peoples living along coasts or major waterways originally Although many indigenous peoples living along coasts or major waterways originally had very high fish consumption rates, most are now suppressed due to destruction had very high fish consumption rates, most are now suppressed due to destruction of fisheries, lost access to aboriginal lands, or awareness of contamination. of fisheries, lost access to aboriginal lands, or awareness of contamination. Therefore, studies that assess the current fish consumption rates are not measuring Therefore, studies that assess the current fish consumption rates are not measuring the true subsistence rate, but a modern suppressed rate. Even so, a subset of tribal the true subsistence rate, but a modern suppressed rate. Even so, a subset of tribal members remains heavily fish-dependent, creating a bimodal distribution that is members remains heavily fish-dependent, creating a bimodal distribution that is missed in most conventional survey methods. missed in most conventional survey methods.
The Confederated Tribes (Cayuse, Umatilla, Walla Walla) have relied on resident The Confederated Tribes (Cayuse, Umatilla, Walla Walla) have relied on resident and anadromous fish in the Columbia River and its tributaries for at least 10,000 and anadromous fish in the Columbia River and its tributaries for at least 10,000 years. Salmon and the people are inseparable, and people will and must continue to years. Salmon and the people are inseparable, and people will and must continue to partake in the circle of life with salmon as a partner. We regard current fish numbers partake in the circle of life with salmon as a partner. We regard current fish numbers as a temporary decline, with continued improvement through concerted efforts in as a temporary decline, with continued improvement through concerted efforts in watershed restoration. Therefore, since Hanford cleanup must remain protective for watershed restoration. Therefore, since Hanford cleanup must remain protective for thousands of years, we are using our subsistence consumption rate, not the current thousands of years, we are using our subsistence consumption rate, not the current average suppressed consumption rate. average suppressed consumption rate.
The subsistence consumption rate is an average of 620 grams per day for adults. The subsistence consumption rate is an average of 620 grams per day for adults. This is known through anthro-historical data, anecdotal information by early This is known through anthro-historical data, anecdotal information by early observers such as Lewis & Clark, nutritional analysis, and documentation from the observers such as Lewis & Clark, nutritional analysis, and documentation from the era of dam construction (1920–1950), interviews of current subsistence fishers, and era of dam construction (1920–1950), interviews of current subsistence fishers, and literature review. Table A.1 shows examples of the range of consumption rates that literature review. Table A.1 shows examples of the range of consumption rates that were reviewed. were reviewed.
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Table A.1. Summary of selected fish ingestion rates. Table A.1. Summary of selected fish ingestion rates.
Fish Fish Ingestion Derivation Ingestion Derivation Rate Rate 6.5g/day Previously used in federal promulgations based on national food consumption 6.5g/day Previously used in federal promulgations based on national food consumption surveys of the general non-tribal population; now superceded by 17.5g/d. surveys of the general non-tribal population; now superceded by 17.5g/d. 17.5g/day EPA’s new recommendation for the general non-tribal population and recreational 17.5g/day EPA’s new recommendation for the general non-tribal population and recreational fishers fishers 48.5g/day EPA and FDA recommendations for adults to eat two 6-ounce meals per week 48.5g/day EPA and FDA recommendations for adults to eat two 6-ounce meals per week 54g/d Model Toxics Control Act (Washington State) and OSWER (Combustor risk 54g/d Model Toxics Control Act (Washington State) and OSWER (Combustor risk assessment guidelines). assessment guidelines). 63.2g/day CRITFC (1994) average for current tribal fish consumers, excluding subsistence 63.2g/day CRITFC (1994) average for current tribal fish consumers, excluding subsistence (about 1 fishers; see commentary below (about 1 fishers; see commentary below pound/week) pound/week) 142.4g/day EPA proposed average rate for tribal subsistence fishers and 99th percentile of the 142.4g/day EPA proposed average rate for tribal subsistence fishers and 99th percentile of the general non-tribal population general non-tribal population 389g/day CRITFC 99th percentile of non-subsistence fish consumers plus non-consumers, 389g/day CRITFC 99th percentile of non-subsistence fish consumers plus non-consumers, minus 7 outliers. The 90th percentile was between 97 and 130g/day, and the 95th minus 7 outliers. The 90th percentile was between 97 and 130g/day, and the 95th percentile was between 170 and 194g/day. percentile was between 170 and 194g/day. 454g/day Anecdotal subsistence estimate, commonly cited during interviews with traditional 454g/day Anecdotal subsistence estimate, commonly cited during interviews with traditional (1 pound/day) and subsistence people (1 pound/day) and subsistence people 540g/day Harris & Harper (1997), based on averages for traditional CTUIR fishing families, 540g/day Harris & Harper (1997), based on averages for traditional CTUIR fishing families, and the lower end of the Treaty-based range; approved by BOT for use at Hanford and the lower end of the Treaty-based range; approved by BOT for use at Hanford and Columbia River. The authors sought out and interviewed traditional and and Columbia River. The authors sought out and interviewed traditional and subsistence fishing members. subsistence fishing members. 620g/day Cited in the Boldt decision (“Salmon, however, both fresh and cured, was a staple in 620g/day Cited in the Boldt decision (“Salmon, however, both fresh and cured, was a staple in the food supply of these Indians. It was annually consumed by these Indians in the the food supply of these Indians. It was annually consumed by these Indians in the neighborhood of 500 pounds per capita”). U.S. District Judge George Boldt, U.S. v. neighborhood of 500 pounds per capita”). U.S. District Judge George Boldt, U.S. v. Washington, February 12, 1974, note 151. Note: Boldt was referring to Columbia Washington, February 12, 1974, note 151. Note: Boldt was referring to Columbia mainstem fishers when he wrote this. This does not include resident fish. mainstem fishers when he wrote this. This does not include resident fish. 650g/day Walker (1999), mid-range of top third of Yakama members using the Columbia 650g/day Walker (1999), mid-range of top third of Yakama members using the Columbia River during the 1950s and 1960s (both resident and anadromous fish). This is River during the 1950s and 1960s (both resident and anadromous fish). This is based on interviews of tribal fishermen, fish market records, nutritional analysis, based on interviews of tribal fishermen, fish market records, nutritional analysis, archaeological and ethnographic evidence, and literature reviews. Walker cites archaeological and ethnographic evidence, and literature reviews. Walker cites other studies that support this number. Walker estimated that minimal river users other studies that support this number. Walker estimated that minimal river users ate 80g/d, and the median river user ate 350g/d. The BOT endorsed the numbers in ate 80g/d, and the median river user ate 350g/d. The BOT endorsed the numbers in this paper. this paper. 1000g/day Walker (1985) estimate of pre-dam rates for Columbia Plateau tribes, accounting for 1000g/day Walker (1985) estimate of pre-dam rates for Columbia Plateau tribes, accounting for calorie loss as fish migrate upriver and other documentation. calorie loss as fish migrate upriver and other documentation. Notes Notes To convert from ounces to grams, multiply by 28.35. There are 3.53 ounces in 100 grams. To convert from ounces to grams, multiply by 28.35. There are 3.53 ounces in 100 grams. To convert from pounds to grams, multiply by 453.6. To convert from pounds to grams, multiply by 453.6. There are 16 ounces in a pound. There are 16 ounces in a pound. 100 grams or 3.5 ounces is about the size of a deck of cards. 100 grams or 3.5 ounces is about the size of a deck of cards. Meal sizes are generally assumed to be 8 ounce portions for adults. Meal sizes are generally assumed to be 8 ounce portions for adults.
A.2 APPROACH AND ASSUMPTIONS A.2 APPROACH AND ASSUMPTIONS Within the Confederation of Cayuse, Walla Walla, and Umatilla tribes, there are Within the Confederation of Cayuse, Walla Walla, and Umatilla tribes, there are different family natural resource uses according to the specific area that a family is different family natural resource uses according to the specific area that a family is from. Nevertheless, while the Cayuse Tribe emphasized hunting more than fishing from. Nevertheless, while the Cayuse Tribe emphasized hunting more than fishing and the Walla Walla and Umatilla Tribes emphasized fishing more than hunting, both and the Walla Walla and Umatilla Tribes emphasized fishing more than hunting, both
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diets are “subsistence” diets because they provide all the food and medicine that a diets are “subsistence” diets because they provide all the food and medicine that a family needs to survive and thrive. However, in this scenario we are using the term family needs to survive and thrive. However, in this scenario we are using the term “subsistence fisher” to refer to original consumption rates along the Columbia River “subsistence fisher” to refer to original consumption rates along the Columbia River and its major tributaries, which the Treaty of 1855 was intended to protect. and its major tributaries, which the Treaty of 1855 was intended to protect.
The development of the CTUIR fish consumption rate was based on the following The development of the CTUIR fish consumption rate was based on the following premise: premise:
• Subsistence consumption rates were practiced by many or all members of a • Subsistence consumption rates were practiced by many or all members of a tribe, but today are practiced by a subset of tribal members; tribe, but today are practiced by a subset of tribal members; • Within tribes or confederations of tribes there may be distinct patterns of • Within tribes or confederations of tribes there may be distinct patterns of natural resource use that are obscured by statistical cross-sectional surveys. natural resource use that are obscured by statistical cross-sectional surveys. Therefore, cross-sectional fish consumption surveys in tribal communities Therefore, cross-sectional fish consumption surveys in tribal communities may not be able to identify subsistence fishers, and may not be able to identify subsistence fishers, and • In order to develop a subsistence consumption rate, subsistence fishers must • In order to develop a subsistence consumption rate, subsistence fishers must be specifically identified and interviewed, and existing studies must be be specifically identified and interviewed, and existing studies must be reviewed to determine whether they are suitable for developing true reviewed to determine whether they are suitable for developing true subsistence rates, or combined/suppressed consumption rates. subsistence rates, or combined/suppressed consumption rates.
Our goal was to identify the subsistence consumption rate, because that is the rate Our goal was to identify the subsistence consumption rate, because that is the rate that the Treaty of 1855 was designed to protect and which is upheld by case law. It that the Treaty of 1855 was designed to protect and which is upheld by case law. It also reflects tribal fish restoration goals and healthy lifestyle goals. also reflects tribal fish restoration goals and healthy lifestyle goals.
As other investigators have done (Walker, in particular), the CTUIR fish consumption As other investigators have done (Walker, in particular), the CTUIR fish consumption rate was developed using multiple lines of evidence: literature review of rate was developed using multiple lines of evidence: literature review of ethnohistorical evidence, review of cross-sectional fish consumption surveys (a ethnohistorical evidence, review of cross-sectional fish consumption surveys (a combination of subsistence and non-subsistence fishers), interviews of current combination of subsistence and non-subsistence fishers), interviews of current subsistence fishers, and caloric and nutritional analysis. subsistence fishers, and caloric and nutritional analysis.
A.3 CURRENT FEDERAL AND STATE GUIDANCE A.3 CURRENT FEDERAL AND STATE GUIDANCE The EPA Office of Water provides guidance for setting ambient water quality The EPA Office of Water provides guidance for setting ambient water quality standards for surface water, and includes a consideration of fish consumption rates. standards for surface water, and includes a consideration of fish consumption rates. The prior national fish consumption rate for the general population, 6.5gpd, was The prior national fish consumption rate for the general population, 6.5gpd, was based on the mean national per capita (for both consumer and non-consumers) based on the mean national per capita (for both consumer and non-consumers) consumption rate of freshwater and estuarine finfish and shellfish from 3-day diary consumption rate of freshwater and estuarine finfish and shellfish from 3-day diary results that were reported in the 1973–74 National Purchase Diary Survey (Javitz results that were reported in the 1973–74 National Purchase Diary Survey (Javitz 1980). 1980).
The EPA Office of Water5 now recommends a default fish intake rate of 17.5 The EPA Office of Water5 now recommends a default fish intake rate of 17.5 grams/day to adequately protect the general population of fish consumers including grams/day to adequately protect the general population of fish consumers including sport fishers, and 142.4 grams/day for subsistence fishers. The basis for the fish sport fishers, and 142.4 grams/day for subsistence fishers. The basis for the fish
5 Estimated Per Capita Fish Consumption in the United States. (EPA-821-C-02-003) (August 2002). 5 Estimated Per Capita Fish Consumption in the United States. (EPA-821-C-02-003) (August 2002). http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/fish/consumption_report.pdf; and Methodology for Deriving Ambient http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/fish/consumption_report.pdf; and Methodology for Deriving Ambient Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Human Health (2000) EPA-822-B-00-004, October 2000. Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Human Health (2000) EPA-822-B-00-004, October 2000. http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/humanhealth/method/chapter4.pdf http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/humanhealth/method/chapter4.pdf
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intake rates is the 1994–96 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals and intake rates is the 1994–96 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals and 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) conducted by the 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. U.S. Department of Agriculture.
When tribes develop ambient water quality standards, EPA6 recommends using When tribes develop ambient water quality standards, EPA6 recommends using either an upper percentile of a cross-section or an average rate specific for a higher either an upper percentile of a cross-section or an average rate specific for a higher fishing group, according to the policies of the tribe. EPA says that the two numbers fishing group, according to the policies of the tribe. EPA says that the two numbers should be compared to ensure that the higher fishing group (if one is present within should be compared to ensure that the higher fishing group (if one is present within a general tribal population) is protected. In the case of the CTUIR, these two a general tribal population) is protected. In the case of the CTUIR, these two numbers are quite different (see discussion below), so the CTUIR rate is based on numbers are quite different (see discussion below), so the CTUIR rate is based on the average rate specific to the higher fishing group rather than the average for the the average rate specific to the higher fishing group rather than the average for the whole Tribe. whole Tribe.
The U.S. EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (OSWER) also The U.S. EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (OSWER) also considers fish consumption in the Superfund program. OSWER’s policy is to assume considers fish consumption in the Superfund program. OSWER’s policy is to assume an ingestion rate of 54g/day for high recreational consumers of locally caught fish an ingestion rate of 54g/day for high recreational consumers of locally caught fish (OSWER directive 9285.6-03). This number is based on recreational, not Native (OSWER directive 9285.6-03). This number is based on recreational, not Native American data. Region 10 of the U.S. EPA recommends the use of results from local American data. Region 10 of the U.S. EPA recommends the use of results from local or regional seafood-intake surveys for use in the regional Superfund program.7 If or regional seafood-intake surveys for use in the regional Superfund program.7 If tribal-specific or local information is not available, EPA-OSWER recommends using tribal-specific or local information is not available, EPA-OSWER recommends using the U.S. EPA Exposure Factors Handbook, which recommends a mean and 95th the U.S. EPA Exposure Factors Handbook, which recommends a mean and 95th percentile for the general U.S. population of 20.1g/day and 63g/day, respectively percentile for the general U.S. population of 20.1g/day and 63g/day, respectively (USEPA 1997). For Native American subsistence populations the recommended (USEPA 1997). For Native American subsistence populations the recommended value for mean intake is 70g/day and the recommended 95th percentile is 170g/day. value for mean intake is 70g/day and the recommended 95th percentile is 170g/day.
The Washington State Department of Ecology recently recommended a draft The Washington State Department of Ecology recently recommended a draft statewide default of 177g/day to protect all Washington residents including the statewide default of 177g/day to protect all Washington residents including the highest consumers, subsistence fishers. The draft report recommends, highest consumers, subsistence fishers. The draft report recommends,
final default consumption values of approximately 178 and 175 g/day for final default consumption values of approximately 178 and 175 g/day for marine and freshwater areas, respectively. These values represent marine and freshwater areas, respectively. These values represent approximately the 90th percentile of the fish consumption rate distribution approximately the 90th percentile of the fish consumption rate distribution from the Toy et al. study and the 95th percentile from the CRITFC study, from the Toy et al. study and the 95th percentile from the CRITFC study, respectively.8 State-wide criteria may use the mid-point between these respectively.8 State-wide criteria may use the mid-point between these values, or 177 g/day as a reasonably protective default. Shellfish may be values, or 177 g/day as a reasonably protective default. Shellfish may be separated out from the marine values. Shellfish estimates are recommended separated out from the marine values. Shellfish estimates are recommended as 68 g/day based on the Toy et al. study. as 68 g/day based on the Toy et al. study.
6 www.epa.gov/ost/standards/tribal/tribalfact2004.html or 6 www.epa.gov/ost/standards/tribal/tribalfact2004.html or www.epa.gov/ost/standards/tribal/tribalfact2004.pdf. www.epa.gov/ost/standards/tribal/tribalfact2004.pdf. 7 Currently being revised: http://yosemite.epa.gov/r10/oea.nsf/af6d4571f3e2b1698825650f0071180a 7 Currently being revised: http://yosemite.epa.gov/r10/oea.nsf/af6d4571f3e2b1698825650f0071180a /db6a5cf0b287291c88256c55006cd81e?OpenDocument /db6a5cf0b287291c88256c55006cd81e?OpenDocument 8 Washington Department of Ecology, Analysis and selection of fish consumption rates for 8 Washington Department of Ecology, Analysis and selection of fish consumption rates for Washington State risk assessments and risk-based standards, external review draft, March 1999. Washington State risk assessments and risk-based standards, external review draft, March 1999. http://www.ecy.wa.gov/biblio/99200.html http://www.ecy.wa.gov/biblio/99200.html
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The Washington Department of Ecology’s 1997 standards for surface water refer to The Washington Department of Ecology’s 1997 standards for surface water refer to WAC 173-340-730 (Model Toxics Control Act), which includes a placeholder for fish WAC 173-340-730 (Model Toxics Control Act), which includes a placeholder for fish consumption of 54gpd. consumption of 54gpd.
A.4 FISH CONSUMPTION SURVEYS OF CURRENT SUPPRESSED RATES A.4 FISH CONSUMPTION SURVEYS OF CURRENT SUPPRESSED RATES Several studies have evaluated current tribal fish consumption rates in the Pacific Several studies have evaluated current tribal fish consumption rates in the Pacific Northwest in order to evaluate current exposures and risks (Table A.2). None of Northwest in order to evaluate current exposures and risks (Table A.2). None of them addressed the issue of original fish consumption rates which are protected by them addressed the issue of original fish consumption rates which are protected by treaty or by judicial decisions, and none addressed the current tribal conditions treaty or by judicial decisions, and none addressed the current tribal conditions which forced many people off the river and away from their hereditary or usual and which forced many people off the river and away from their hereditary or usual and accustomed fishing sites. Additionally, none of them specifically consider the range accustomed fishing sites. Additionally, none of them specifically consider the range of lifestyles within tribal communities, but assumed that tribes are all composed of a of lifestyles within tribal communities, but assumed that tribes are all composed of a homogeneous population, even if tribes with different histories, homelands, and homogeneous population, even if tribes with different histories, homelands, and languages were forced onto the same reservation. This results in bimodal or more languages were forced onto the same reservation. This results in bimodal or more distributions within many tribes. In the case of the Confederated Umatilla Tribes, distributions within many tribes. In the case of the Confederated Umatilla Tribes, there is a subset of tribal members who maintain high fishing rates and consumption there is a subset of tribal members who maintain high fishing rates and consumption rates (see next section). The studies summarized in Section A.4 assumed that tribes rates (see next section). The studies summarized in Section A.4 assumed that tribes were homogeneous in their activities and lifestyles, and therefore took a statistical were homogeneous in their activities and lifestyles, and therefore took a statistical cross-section approach. In contrast, the studies summarized in Section A.5 cross-section approach. In contrast, the studies summarized in Section A.5 specifically focused on the subset of tribal members who maintain a true subsistence specifically focused on the subset of tribal members who maintain a true subsistence lifestyle, and on documenting original consumption rates. lifestyle, and on documenting original consumption rates.
Table A.2. Major Pacific Northwest cross-sectional studies of current Table A.2. Major Pacific Northwest cross-sectional studies of current suppressed fish consumption rates. suppressed fish consumption rates.
Mean (converted to g/person/d) 95th 99th Mean (converted to g/person/d) 95th 99th Survey Survey Finfish Shellfish Combined Fish and Shellfish Finfish Shellfish Combined Fish and Shellfish CRITFC 63.2 - 63.2 170–194 389 CRITFC 63.2 - 63.2 170–194 389 Suquamish 81.8 132.7 213.9 798 ND Suquamish 81.8 132.7 213.9 798 ND Toy—Tulalip/Squaxin 48.8 22.3 72.9 177 ND Toy—Tulalip/Squaxin 48.8 22.3 72.9 177 ND Sechena—Asian/Pac Isl. - - 119.3 ? ? Sechena—Asian/Pac Isl. - - 119.3 ? ? CRITFC—outliers were eliminated from the database (implies a presumption of not valid). CRITFC—outliers were eliminated from the database (implies a presumption of not valid). Suquamish—no labeling of high end consumers as outliers; says they were assumed to be accurate Suquamish—no labeling of high end consumers as outliers; says they were assumed to be accurate reports. reports. Tulalip—recoded outliers (implies a presumption that these were valid but mistaken). Tulalip—recoded outliers (implies a presumption that these were valid but mistaken).
A.4.1 CRITFC (1994) A.4.1 CRITFC (1994) CRITFC (1994). “A Fish Consumption Survey of the Umatilla, Nez Perce, CRITFC (1994). “A Fish Consumption Survey of the Umatilla, Nez Perce, Yakama, and Warm Springs Tribes of the Columbia River Basin.” Yakama, and Warm Springs Tribes of the Columbia River Basin.” CRITFC Technical Report No. 94-3, Portland, OR. CRITFC Technical Report No. 94-3, Portland, OR.
The CRITFC fish consumption survey was designed in a way that is conventionally The CRITFC fish consumption survey was designed in a way that is conventionally used in typical suburban populations. It used statistical rather than ethnographic used in typical suburban populations. It used statistical rather than ethnographic research methods. Both methods are scientific in that they are systematic, research methods. Both methods are scientific in that they are systematic, repeatable, and verifiable, but they are suitable for different populations and repeatable, and verifiable, but they are suitable for different populations and situations. The CRITFC survey was a random cross-section of tribal members situations. The CRITFC survey was a random cross-section of tribal members
CTUIR Scenario 203 CTUIR Scenario 203
(names were randomly selected from enrollment lists), with ultimate surveys of 126 (names were randomly selected from enrollment lists), with ultimate surveys of 126 Warm Springs, 133 Nez Perce, 131 CTUIR, and about 130 Yakama members. The Warm Springs, 133 Nez Perce, 131 CTUIR, and about 130 Yakama members. The mean age of respondents was 39 years old (less than 10% were elders 60 years old mean age of respondents was 39 years old (less than 10% were elders 60 years old or older). Tribal members were contacted by phone, mail, or in person. They were or older). Tribal members were contacted by phone, mail, or in person. They were asked to drive to a central location on a particular day, and answer a lengthy set of asked to drive to a central location on a particular day, and answer a lengthy set of questions read from a script (for consistency) by an interviewer. The overall questions read from a script (for consistency) by an interviewer. The overall response rate was 69% (31% of selected people either refused, could not be response rate was 69% (31% of selected people either refused, could not be located, or did not participate for unknown reasons). It is likely that traditional located, or did not participate for unknown reasons). It is likely that traditional members were under-represented due to refusal, lack of a phone, car, or permanent members were under-represented due to refusal, lack of a phone, car, or permanent address, or inability to respond for the small amount of payment ($40). address, or inability to respond for the small amount of payment ($40).
Seven individuals reported that they ate more than 389g/day, or more than 99% of Seven individuals reported that they ate more than 389g/day, or more than 99% of the amount eaten by fish consumers (4 people ate 486g/day, and one person each the amount eaten by fish consumers (4 people ate 486g/day, and one person each ate 648g/d, 778g/d, and 972g/d). These values were treated as statistical outliers ate 648g/d, 778g/d, and 972g/d). These values were treated as statistical outliers and were eliminated from the database. No follow-up was done to find out whether and were eliminated from the database. No follow-up was done to find out whether these higher rates were accurate or not, but we assume that these people are true these higher rates were accurate or not, but we assume that these people are true subsistence fishers. Because these numbers are based on a reported meal subsistence fishers. Because these numbers are based on a reported meal frequency and size, we assume that the underlying answers by the interviewees frequency and size, we assume that the underlying answers by the interviewees were accurate, because people can provide information about meal frequency more were accurate, because people can provide information about meal frequency more easily than poundage. easily than poundage.
During the research for the Harris & Harper paper (1977) traditional members who During the research for the Harris & Harper paper (1977) traditional members who had been included in the CRITFC survey were asked if they gave accurate had been included in the CRITFC survey were asked if they gave accurate information, and several said no. Some traditional fishers said they simply refused to information, and several said no. Some traditional fishers said they simply refused to participate, or reported lower consumption rates than reality, due to a fear of law participate, or reported lower consumption rates than reality, due to a fear of law enforcement or fear of being accused of knowingly eating contaminated fish. Other enforcement or fear of being accused of knowingly eating contaminated fish. Other factors are unknown, such as whether traditional members were away from home factors are unknown, such as whether traditional members were away from home during a fishing season, or otherwise engaged in activities that prevented them from during a fishing season, or otherwise engaged in activities that prevented them from participating. The personal experiences of the people we are most interested in participating. The personal experiences of the people we are most interested in (elders and subsistence fishing families) make them less likely to answer questions, (elders and subsistence fishing families) make them less likely to answer questions, even when posed by a member of the community. Fishing families often have a even when posed by a member of the community. Fishing families often have a family history of having to fish clandestinely and being persecuted by authorities or family history of having to fish clandestinely and being persecuted by authorities or jailed as a result of fishing in their own rivers to feed their families. jailed as a result of fishing in their own rivers to feed their families.
The point of this discussion is that the makeup and history of the community must be The point of this discussion is that the makeup and history of the community must be understood before conducting a conventional survey. In addition to the above items, understood before conducting a conventional survey. In addition to the above items, we know that elders tend to eat more traditionally (including people who return to we know that elders tend to eat more traditionally (including people who return to traditional ways as they get older). Within the Umatilla and Walla Walla membership traditional ways as they get older). Within the Umatilla and Walla Walla membership there are people who lost access to their hereditary fishing sites, or who have full- there are people who lost access to their hereditary fishing sites, or who have full- time day jobs or other family circumstances that prevent them from designating a time day jobs or other family circumstances that prevent them from designating a family member as a fish provider. family member as a fish provider.
Arithmetic mean = 63.2 grams/day Arithmetic mean = 63.2 grams/day 50th percentile = 38.9 to 40.5gpd 50th percentile = 38.9 to 40.5gpd 90th percentile = 127gpd (Table 10 says the weighted 90th = 97–130gpd). 90th percentile = 127gpd (Table 10 says the weighted 90th = 97–130gpd).
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95th percentile = 182 (Table 10 says the weighted 95th = 170–194gpd. The 95th percentile = 182 (Table 10 says the weighted 95th = 170–194gpd. The 95th percentile is also cited as 175 from Table 18 by the 95th percentile is also cited as 175 from Table 18 by the same author in her discussion of the Portland Harbor same author in her discussion of the Portland Harbor workplan) workplan) 98th percentile = 317gpd 98th percentile = 317gpd 99th percentile = 389gpd 99th percentile = 389gpd Average serving size = 8.42 oz +/- 0.13 oz. Average serving size = 8.42 oz +/- 0.13 oz.
A.4.2 Toy et al. (1996) A.4.2 Toy et al. (1996) Toy, K.A., Polissar, N.L., Liao, S., and Mittelstaedt, G.D. (1996). “A Fish Toy, K.A., Polissar, N.L., Liao, S., and Mittelstaedt, G.D. (1996). “A Fish Consumption Survey of the Tulalip and Squaxin Island Tribes of the Consumption Survey of the Tulalip and Squaxin Island Tribes of the Puget Sound Region.” Tulalip Tribes, Department of the Environment, Puget Sound Region.” Tulalip Tribes, Department of the Environment, 7615 Totem Beach Road, Marysville, WA 98721. 7615 Totem Beach Road, Marysville, WA 98721.
This survey was designed to focus on frequency (daily, weekly, monthly, annually) This survey was designed to focus on frequency (daily, weekly, monthly, annually) and portion size of fish and shellfish, both fresh and frozen. Commercial fishing and and portion size of fish and shellfish, both fresh and frozen. Commercial fishing and shellfishing is an important source of income for both tribes, but for the Tulalip, “at shellfishing is an important source of income for both tribes, but for the Tulalip, “at present, the consumption of shellfish is limited to a personal-use activity.” Sample present, the consumption of shellfish is limited to a personal-use activity.” Sample size goals were developed by assuming a homogeneous (not bimodal) population size goals were developed by assuming a homogeneous (not bimodal) population and a certain standard deviation. Random names were generated, and children and a certain standard deviation. Random names were generated, and children were evaluated if a parent was included (limited to one child per family). The final were evaluated if a parent was included (limited to one child per family). The final sample sizes were 73 Tulalip and 117 Squaxin adults over 18 and 68 children. A sample sizes were 73 Tulalip and 117 Squaxin adults over 18 and 68 children. A scripted questionnaire with food models was used. scripted questionnaire with food models was used.
52 edible species were divided into anadromous, pelagic, bottom fish, shellfish, and 52 edible species were divided into anadromous, pelagic, bottom fish, shellfish, and other (canned tuna or trout) categories. Consumption per body weight was recorded other (canned tuna or trout) categories. Consumption per body weight was recorded (average weight = 81kg). Participants were paid $25. There was no correlation of (average weight = 81kg). Participants were paid $25. There was no correlation of consumption with income (i.e., low income did not drive people to eat more fish; high consumption with income (i.e., low income did not drive people to eat more fish; high income did not allow more fish as a luxury purchase; or the two factors balanced income did not allow more fish as a luxury purchase; or the two factors balanced each other). each other).
Outliers were recoded to the 3 SD value. “The distribution of consumption rates was Outliers were recoded to the 3 SD value. “The distribution of consumption rates was skewed toward large values.” At least 25 people (out of 190, or 13% of participants) skewed toward large values.” At least 25 people (out of 190, or 13% of participants) ate more than the 95th percentile of total finfish. This suggests that there is an ate more than the 95th percentile of total finfish. This suggests that there is an underlying bimodal distribution of higher consumers, rather than a single underlying bimodal distribution of higher consumers, rather than a single homogeneous population. homogeneous population.
The weighted means of total finfish and shellfish consumption rates for both tribes The weighted means of total finfish and shellfish consumption rates for both tribes combined were: combined were:
Shellfish = 0.272g/kg/d, Shellfish = 0.272g/kg/d, Finfish = 0.596g/kg/d, and Finfish = 0.596g/kg/d, and Total fish = 0.890g/kg/d. Total fish = 0.890g/kg/d.
Table A.3, adapted from the Toy et al.’s table A2, shows consumption rates in grams Table A.3, adapted from the Toy et al.’s table A2, shows consumption rates in grams per kg body weight per day and grams per person (assumed to weigh 70kg) per day. per kg body weight per day and grams per person (assumed to weigh 70kg) per day.
CTUIR Scenario 205 CTUIR Scenario 205
Table A.3. Combined Tulalip and Squaxin Island results. Table A.3. Combined Tulalip and Squaxin Island results.
Finfish (g/70kg/d) Shellfish (g/70kg/d) Total fish (g/70kg/d) Finfish (g/70kg/d) Shellfish (g/70kg/d) Total fish (g/70kg/d) 50th percentile 22.2 8.1 37.2 50th percentile 22.2 8.1 37.2 . th . th 90 122.5 58.8 161.8 90 122.5 58.8 161.8 95th 153.2 91.6 205.5 95th 153.2 91.6 205.5 th th 99 Not calculated Not calculated Not calculated 99 Not calculated Not calculated Not calculated
A.4.3 Suquamish (2000) A.4.3 Suquamish (2000) Suquamish Tribe (2000). “Fish Consumption Survey of the Suquamish Suquamish Tribe (2000). “Fish Consumption Survey of the Suquamish Indian Tribe of the Port Madison Indian Reservation, Puget Sound Indian Tribe of the Port Madison Indian Reservation, Puget Sound Region.” Suquamish Tribe, Fisheries Department, PO Box 498, Region.” Suquamish Tribe, Fisheries Department, PO Box 498, Suquamish, WA. Suquamish, WA.
This study used a questionnaire with food models, as well as maps, pictures, and This study used a questionnaire with food models, as well as maps, pictures, and interviews. The study used scripted statistical methods for the questionnaire and interviews. The study used scripted statistical methods for the questionnaire and ethnographic methods for oral history and elders’ interviews. There were 3 special ethnographic methods for oral history and elders’ interviews. There were 3 special interest groups: children under 6, women between 16 and 42, and elders 55 and interest groups: children under 6, women between 16 and 42, and elders 55 and over. According to the study, over. According to the study,
Despite degraded water quality and habitat, tribal members continue to rely Despite degraded water quality and habitat, tribal members continue to rely on fish and shellfish as a significant part of their diet. All species of seafood on fish and shellfish as a significant part of their diet. All species of seafood are an integral component of the cultural fabric that weaves people, the water, are an integral component of the cultural fabric that weaves people, the water, and the land together in an interdependent linkage which was been and the land together in an interdependent linkage which was been experienced and passed on for countless generations. experienced and passed on for countless generations.
Given a SD of 1.26 (from the span of ingestion rates for the Toy study), and a target Given a SD of 1.26 (from the span of ingestion rates for the Toy study), and a target precision of +/-20%, the target sample size was n = 150, indicating that one-quarter precision of +/-20%, the target sample size was n = 150, indicating that one-quarter of the adults should be sampled. The final sample size was 92 adults (out of 425 of the adults should be sampled. The final sample size was 92 adults (out of 425 eligible) and 31 children. Participants were paid $25. The participation rate was 65%. eligible) and 31 children. Participants were paid $25. The participation rate was 65%.
Consumption rates “have very little correlation with body weights among adults,” but Consumption rates “have very little correlation with body weights among adults,” but people did not want to report their weights or be weighed. The average weight people did not want to report their weights or be weighed. The average weight (males and females combined) was 79kg. As with the Tulalip study, some people (males and females combined) was 79kg. As with the Tulalip study, some people report eating more for health benefits, but twice as many people ate less now than report eating more for health benefits, but twice as many people ate less now than 20 years ago due to contamination and restricted access. 20 years ago due to contamination and restricted access.
Outliers were not recoded because high values were believed to reflect actual high Outliers were not recoded because high values were believed to reflect actual high consumption. When tested, it was found that recoding outliers had “virtually no consumption. When tested, it was found that recoding outliers had “virtually no effect” on results. The distribution graph again appears bimodal, with a group of effect” on results. The distribution graph again appears bimodal, with a group of people eating 9–10g/kg/d (750g/d), but the best fit line obscures this. One people eating 9–10g/kg/d (750g/d), but the best fit line obscures this. One respondent reported an ingestion of 1kg/d, which is nutritionally possible, although it respondent reported an ingestion of 1kg/d, which is nutritionally possible, although it may also have reflected a short-term seasonal availability—it is known that people may also have reflected a short-term seasonal availability—it is known that people tend to overestimate whatever is seasonally available and underestimate whatever tend to overestimate whatever is seasonally available and underestimate whatever is out of season. is out of season.
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Adults total mean finfish and shellfish = 2.7g/kg/d Adults total mean finfish and shellfish = 2.7g/kg/d Average finfish = 1.03g/kg/d; shellfish = 1.68g/kg/d Average finfish = 1.03g/kg/d; shellfish = 1.68g/kg/d 90th percentile = 2.5 finfish, 4.6 shellfish, 6.2 total (all in g/kg/d) 90th percentile = 2.5 finfish, 4.6 shellfish, 6.2 total (all in g/kg/d) (or 175, 322, 434 in g/70kg/d) (or 175, 322, 434 in g/70kg/d) 95th percentile = 3.4 finfish, 7.75 shellfish, 10.1 total (all in g/kg/d) 95th percentile = 3.4 finfish, 7.75 shellfish, 10.1 total (all in g/kg/d) (or 238, 542.5, 707 in g/70kg/d) (or 238, 542.5, 707 in g/70kg/d) 99th percentile = not calculated 99th percentile = not calculated
A.4.4 Sechena et al. (1999) A.4.4 Sechena et al. (1999) Sechena, R., Nakano, C., Liao, S., Polissar, N., Lorenzana, R., Truong, S., Sechena, R., Nakano, C., Liao, S., Polissar, N., Lorenzana, R., Truong, S., and Fenske, R. (1999). “Asian and Pacific Islander Seafood and Fenske, R. (1999). “Asian and Pacific Islander Seafood Consumption Study,” (EPA 910/R-99-003). Seattle: EPA Region 10; Consumption Study,” (EPA 910/R-99-003). Seattle: EPA Region 10; http://www.epa.gov/r10earth/offices/oea/risk/a&pi.pdf. http://www.epa.gov/r10earth/offices/oea/risk/a&pi.pdf.
Sechena, R., Liao, S., Lorenzana, R., Nakano, C., Polissar, N., and Sechena, R., Liao, S., Lorenzana, R., Nakano, C., Polissar, N., and Fenske, R. (2003). “Asian American and Pacific Islander seafood Fenske, R. (2003). “Asian American and Pacific Islander seafood consumption—a community-based study in King County, Washington.” consumption—a community-based study in King County, Washington.” J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 13(4): 256–66. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 13(4): 256–66.
This paper describes and quantifies seafood consumption rates and acquisition and This paper describes and quantifies seafood consumption rates and acquisition and preparation habits of 202 first- and second-generation Asian-American and Pacific preparation habits of 202 first- and second-generation Asian-American and Pacific Islanders (API) from 10 ethnic groups (Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, Hmong, Islanders (API) from 10 ethnic groups (Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, Hmong, Japanese, Korean, Laotian, Mien, Samoan, and Vietnamese) in King County, Japanese, Korean, Laotian, Mien, Samoan, and Vietnamese) in King County, Washington, in 1997. Washington, in 1997.
A sample size of 200 fish consumers was the target, and 202 people participated, A sample size of 200 fish consumers was the target, and 202 people participated, with 5–30 interviews per ethnic group. Because it was not possible to pre-identify with 5–30 interviews per ethnic group. Because it was not possible to pre-identify first and second generation API for random name generation, half the participants first and second generation API for random name generation, half the participants were invited to participate from rosters provided by community leaders for random were invited to participate from rosters provided by community leaders for random contact, and half were volunteers who had previously been recruited for a Dietary contact, and half were volunteers who had previously been recruited for a Dietary Habits Study. The interviewee pool was adjusted to reflect age and gender of the Habits Study. The interviewee pool was adjusted to reflect age and gender of the populations (from census and other information), so the participants had to fit the populations (from census and other information), so the participants had to fit the ethnic, age, and gender profiles before inclusion in the study. If groups were still too ethnic, age, and gender profiles before inclusion in the study. If groups were still too small, relatives of participants were actively recruited. The sample size of some small, relatives of participants were actively recruited. The sample size of some ethnicities was deliberately larger than others, according to a judgment about how ethnicities was deliberately larger than others, according to a judgment about how well established that group was in the Seattle area (e.g., they knew where and how well established that group was in the Seattle area (e.g., they knew where and how to get fish, etc.). The majority of the 202 respondents (89%) were first generation to get fish, etc.). The majority of the 202 respondents (89%) were first generation (i.e., born outside the United States). There were slightly more women (53%) than (i.e., born outside the United States). There were slightly more women (53%) than men (47%), and 35% lived under the 1997 Federal Poverty Line. Participants were men (47%), and 35% lived under the 1997 Federal Poverty Line. Participants were paid $25 or given a store voucher paid $25 or given a store voucher
In general, the API members consumed seafood at a very high rate. The average In general, the API members consumed seafood at a very high rate. The average overall consumption rate for all seafood combined was 1.891 grams/per kilogram overall consumption rate for all seafood combined was 1.891 grams/per kilogram body weight/day (g/kg/day), with a median consumption rate of 1.439g/kg/day (or a body weight/day (g/kg/day), with a median consumption rate of 1.439g/kg/day (or a mean of 117.2 and a median of 89g/70kg/day). Seafood consumption based on mean of 117.2 and a median of 89g/70kg/day). Seafood consumption based on
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gender, age, income, and fishermen status did not differ significantly. However, gender, age, income, and fishermen status did not differ significantly. However, mean consumption rates varied significantly between ethnic groups with Vietnamese mean consumption rates varied significantly between ethnic groups with Vietnamese (2.63g/kg/day) and Japanese (2.18g/kg/day) having the highest average (2.63g/kg/day) and Japanese (2.18g/kg/day) having the highest average consumption rates, and Mien (0.58g/kg/day) and Hmong (0.59g/kg/day) the lowest. consumption rates, and Mien (0.58g/kg/day) and Hmong (0.59g/kg/day) the lowest.
The predominant seafood consumed was shellfish (46% of all seafood). The most The predominant seafood consumed was shellfish (46% of all seafood). The most frequently consumed finfish and invertebrates were salmon (93% of respondents), frequently consumed finfish and invertebrates were salmon (93% of respondents), tuna (86%), shrimp (98%), crab (96%), and squid (82%). Fish fillets were eaten with tuna (86%), shrimp (98%), crab (96%), and squid (82%). Fish fillets were eaten with the skin 55% of the time, and the head, bones, eggs, and/or other organs were the skin 55% of the time, and the head, bones, eggs, and/or other organs were eaten 20% of the time. Crabmeat including the hepatopancreas was consumed 43% eaten 20% of the time. Crabmeat including the hepatopancreas was consumed 43% of the time. of the time.
Outliers (more than 3 SD from the mean) had “large but uncertain” ingestion rates. Outliers (more than 3 SD from the mean) had “large but uncertain” ingestion rates. They were recoded to 3 SD. Again, fish consumption rates were skewed They were recoded to 3 SD. Again, fish consumption rates were skewed considerably for all fish groups. The skewed distribution indicates that a few considerably for all fish groups. The skewed distribution indicates that a few respondents had a larger consumption rate than other respondents. Because respondents had a larger consumption rate than other respondents. Because outliers had already been recoded within each fish group, these large consumption outliers had already been recoded within each fish group, these large consumption rates reflected the fact that some API members were, indeed, higher consumers of rates reflected the fact that some API members were, indeed, higher consumers of seafood. seafood.
People over 55 ate more fish (131gpd) than younger people (111gpd). There was no People over 55 ate more fish (131gpd) than younger people (111gpd). There was no correlation with income. Volunteer participants ate very slightly more than roster correlation with income. Volunteer participants ate very slightly more than roster recruits (random contact from lists). Fishermen and non-fishermen did not show any recruits (random contact from lists). Fishermen and non-fishermen did not show any statistical difference, and there was little or no difference between first generation statistical difference, and there was little or no difference between first generation (foreign born) and second generation (bore here). (foreign born) and second generation (bore here).
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Below, Table A.4, adapted from Sechena et al.’s table R-1, presents the Below, Table A.4, adapted from Sechena et al.’s table R-1, presents the consumption rates found. consumption rates found.
Table A.4. Consumption Rates of Asian/Pacific Islanders in King County. Table A.4. Consumption Rates of Asian/Pacific Islanders in King County.
95% 95% Median Mean Percentage of 95%UCI** 90% Median Mean Percentage of 95%UCI** 90% Category N S.E. LCI* Category N S.E. LCI* g/kg/d g/kg/d Consumption g/kg/d g/kg/d g/kg/d g/kg/d Consumption g/kg/d g/kg/d g/kg/d g/kg/d Anadromous 202 0.093 0.201 10.6% 0.008 0.187 0.216 0.509 Anadromous 202 0.093 0.201 10.6% 0.008 0.187 0.216 0.509 fish fish Pelagic 202 0.215 0.382 20.2% 0.013 0.357 0.407 0.829 Pelagic 202 0.215 0.382 20.2% 0.013 0.357 0.407 0.829 fish fish Freshwater 202 0.043 0.110 5.8% 0.005 0.101 0.119 0.271 Freshwater 202 0.043 0.110 5.8% 0.005 0.101 0.119 0.271 fish fish Bottom 202 0.047 0.125 6.6% 0.006 0.113 0.137 0.272 Bottom 202 0.047 0.125 6.6% 0.006 0.113 0.137 0.272 fish fish Shellfish 202 0.498 0.867 45.9% 0.023 0.821 0.913 1.727 Shellfish 202 0.498 0.867 45.9% 0.023 0.821 0.913 1.727 Fish Fish Seaweed/ 202 0.014 0.084 4.4% 0.005 0.075 0.093 0.294 Seaweed/ 202 0.014 0.084 4.4% 0.005 0.075 0.093 0.294 kelp kelp Miscellaneous 202 0.056 0.121 6.4% 0.004 0.112 0.130 0.296 Miscellaneous 202 0.056 0.121 6.4% 0.004 0.112 0.130 0.296 seafood seafood Totals Totals All finfish 202 0.515 0.818 43.3% 0.023 0.774 0.863 1.638 All finfish 202 0.515 0.818 43.3% 0.023 0.774 0.863 1.638 All fish 202 1.363 1.807 95.6% 0.042 1.724 1.889 3.909 All fish 202 1.363 1.807 95.6% 0.042 1.724 1.889 3.909 All 202 1.439 1.891 100.0% 0.043 1.805 1.976 3.928 All 202 1.439 1.891 100.0% 0.043 1.805 1.976 3.928 seafood seafood All seafood, 100.7 132.4 126.4 138.3 274.5 All seafood, 100.7 132.4 126.4 138.3 274.5 converted to converted to g/70kg person/d g/70kg person/d * LCI= lower confidence interval * LCI= lower confidence interval ** UCI = upper confidence interval ** UCI = upper confidence interval
A.5 STUDIES OF SUBSISTENCE FISHERS AND TREATY-BASED A.5 STUDIES OF SUBSISTENCE FISHERS AND TREATY-BASED CONSUMPTION RATES CONSUMPTION RATES In order to document original fish consumption rates, as well as to evaluate the In order to document original fish consumption rates, as well as to evaluate the subset of tribal members who maintain a subsistence level of fish consumption, a subset of tribal members who maintain a subsistence level of fish consumption, a combination of historical documentation, literature review, and additional combination of historical documentation, literature review, and additional ethnographic interviews were used. These three lines of evidence indicate that the ethnographic interviews were used. These three lines of evidence indicate that the range of original rates (also referred to as a treaty-protected rate) is 540 to 1000gpd. range of original rates (also referred to as a treaty-protected rate) is 540 to 1000gpd. Interviews confirm that there are quite a few people who consume fish two to three Interviews confirm that there are quite a few people who consume fish two to three times a day in various forms (whole filet, soup, powdered thickener or flavoring, times a day in various forms (whole filet, soup, powdered thickener or flavoring, dried or smoked as snacks). Some of the primary references are summarized below, dried or smoked as snacks). Some of the primary references are summarized below, with citations of other literature included. It should be noted that these rates persist with citations of other literature included. It should be noted that these rates persist to the present despite the decimation of salmon runs by canneries and dams, and to the present despite the decimation of salmon runs by canneries and dams, and knowledge of contamination. knowledge of contamination.
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A.5.1 Harris and Harper (1997) A.5.1 Harris and Harper (1997) Harris, S.G., and Harper, B.L. (1997). “A Native American Exposure Harris, S.G., and Harper, B.L. (1997). “A Native American Exposure Scenario.” Risk Analysis 17(6): 789–795. Scenario.” Risk Analysis 17(6): 789–795.
Harris interviewed 75 people in order to identify members of the special interest Harris interviewed 75 people in order to identify members of the special interest group (the higher fishing group). A subset of 35 traditional fishers, including many group (the higher fishing group). A subset of 35 traditional fishers, including many elders, was then interviewed in detail using ethnographic methods. The elders, was then interviewed in detail using ethnographic methods. The ethnographic interview is actually a process (Schensul et al. 1999a, b, Spradley ethnographic interview is actually a process (Schensul et al. 1999a, b, Spradley 1979, Emerson et al. 1995, Fetterman 1998, Thornton 1998, Mihesuah 1998). It 1979, Emerson et al. 1995, Fetterman 1998, Thornton 1998, Mihesuah 1998). It involves establishing community standing and personal credibility, and involves establishing community standing and personal credibility, and demonstrating cultural sensitivity and an understanding of what information is demonstrating cultural sensitivity and an understanding of what information is proprietary. Without this process, information collected from interviews or proprietary. Without this process, information collected from interviews or questionnaires with Native Americans risks being inaccurate. Interviewees were questionnaires with Native Americans risks being inaccurate. Interviewees were asked how the accuracy of their responses compared to other studies, including the asked how the accuracy of their responses compared to other studies, including the CRITFC study, and many stated that they do not try to provide accurate information CRITFC study, and many stated that they do not try to provide accurate information (or actively seek to avoid revealing information) unless they know the person and (or actively seek to avoid revealing information) unless they know the person and know how the information could be used or misused. The authors consider this to be know how the information could be used or misused. The authors consider this to be an essential part of the bioethics and informed consent safeguards, even if this takes an essential part of the bioethics and informed consent safeguards, even if this takes considerably more time than simply asking people to answer questions. considerably more time than simply asking people to answer questions.
Interviewees reported eating fish daily, with fresh and dried fish in equal weights. Interviewees reported eating fish daily, with fresh and dried fish in equal weights. This amount reflects one 4-ounce portion of fresh fish and 4 ounces of dried fish, This amount reflects one 4-ounce portion of fresh fish and 4 ounces of dried fish, which is equivalent to 12 ounces of wet weight. Since these interviews, more which is equivalent to 12 ounces of wet weight. Since these interviews, more research has been done which indicates that several forms of fish consumption were research has been done which indicates that several forms of fish consumption were overlooked, including use of thickeners and flavorings, and the use of whole fish and overlooked, including use of thickeners and flavorings, and the use of whole fish and eggs were probably underestimated. In addition, the CRITFC (1994) results indicate eggs were probably underestimated. In addition, the CRITFC (1994) results indicate that half of the interviewees ate less than they did twenty years previously. The that half of the interviewees ate less than they did twenty years previously. The resulting rate is 540 grams per day. resulting rate is 540 grams per day.
Anecdotally, people are now eating more fish as the salmon runs are being restored Anecdotally, people are now eating more fish as the salmon runs are being restored in the Umatilla and Walla Walla rivers. The Umatilla tribes have invested a large in the Umatilla and Walla Walla rivers. The Umatilla tribes have invested a large amount of money, time, and effort to restore these runs, with the goal of regaining amount of money, time, and effort to restore these runs, with the goal of regaining subsistence fishing capabilities. subsistence fishing capabilities.
A.5.2 Walker (1967) A.5.2 Walker (1967) Walker, D.E. (1967). “Mutual Cross-Utilization of Economic Resources in Walker, D.E. (1967). “Mutual Cross-Utilization of Economic Resources in the Plateau: from aboriginal Nez Perce Fishing Practices.” Washington the Plateau: from aboriginal Nez Perce Fishing Practices.” Washington State University Laboratory of Anthropology, Report of Investigations, State University Laboratory of Anthropology, Report of Investigations, No. 21, Pullman WA. No. 21, Pullman WA.
Walker estimated that fish consumption rates before dam construction ranged from Walker estimated that fish consumption rates before dam construction ranged from 365 to 800 pounds per year. 365 to 800 pounds per year.
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A.5.3 Walker (1985) A.5.3 Walker (1985) cited in: Scholtz, A., O’Laughlin, K., Geist, D., Peone, D., Uehara, J., cited in: Scholtz, A., O’Laughlin, K., Geist, D., Peone, D., Uehara, J., Fields, L., Kleist, T., Zozaya, I., Peone, T., and Teesatuskie, K. (1985). Fields, L., Kleist, T., Zozaya, I., Peone, T., and Teesatuskie, K. (1985). “Compilation of information on salmon and steelhead total run size, “Compilation of information on salmon and steelhead total run size, catch, and hydropower related losses in the Upper Columbia River catch, and hydropower related losses in the Upper Columbia River Basin, above Grand Coulee Dam.” Fisheries Technical Report No. 2., Basin, above Grand Coulee Dam.” Fisheries Technical Report No. 2., Upper Columbia United Tribes Fisheries Center, Eastern Washington Upper Columbia United Tribes Fisheries Center, Eastern Washington University, Department of Biology, Cheney, WA 99004. University, Department of Biology, Cheney, WA 99004.
Walker reviewed the ethno-historical and scientific literature to estimate the pre-dam Walker reviewed the ethno-historical and scientific literature to estimate the pre-dam fish consumption rates of tribes along the Columbia River. He estimated that total fish consumption rates of tribes along the Columbia River. He estimated that total fish consumption (not harvest) was 1000 lbs per capita for lower Columbia tribes, of fish consumption (not harvest) was 1000 lbs per capita for lower Columbia tribes, of which 75% was salmon (Umatilla and Yakama estimates), and the Nez Perce also which 75% was salmon (Umatilla and Yakama estimates), and the Nez Perce also ate 1000 lbs per capita, of which 90% were salmonids (including trout and whitefish). ate 1000 lbs per capita, of which 90% were salmonids (including trout and whitefish). Other early estimates are very close to this. Hewes (1947, 1973) originally estimated Other early estimates are very close to this. Hewes (1947, 1973) originally estimated from 50 to 900 pounds per year for Plateau tribes by estimating a total catch, from 50 to 900 pounds per year for Plateau tribes by estimating a total catch, subtracting an estimate of the amount of salmon that was traded, used as dog food subtracting an estimate of the amount of salmon that was traded, used as dog food or otherwise, and adding an additional 1/3 of the weight of the salmon to account for or otherwise, and adding an additional 1/3 of the weight of the salmon to account for resident fish consumption during the 1/3 of the year that salmon are not running resident fish consumption during the 1/3 of the year that salmon are not running (considering the dried, pounded (pemmican or powder) fish that are eaten in the (considering the dried, pounded (pemmican or powder) fish that are eaten in the winter). winter).
Walker improved on Hewes’ estimate by using historical observational counts of the Walker improved on Hewes’ estimate by using historical observational counts of the Indian catch, rather than a global estimate of a tribe’s entire catch for a season. The Indian catch, rather than a global estimate of a tribe’s entire catch for a season. The median annual per capita consumption of salmonids for the Columbia Plateau tribes median annual per capita consumption of salmonids for the Columbia Plateau tribes derived by Walker was 585 pounds per capita. “Walker’s figures provide a more derived by Walker was 585 pounds per capita. “Walker’s figures provide a more accurate picture of the catch...based on direct observation and ethnographic accurate picture of the catch...based on direct observation and ethnographic fieldwork.” fieldwork.”
Other authors were also cited in this reference: Other authors were also cited in this reference:
Schalk (1985) pointed out that the early caloric estimates were for salmon Schalk (1985) pointed out that the early caloric estimates were for salmon flesh in the ocean. Since salmon lose calories as they migrate upstream, flesh in the ocean. Since salmon lose calories as they migrate upstream, tribes living upriver would actually have to take more fish than tribes living tribes living upriver would actually have to take more fish than tribes living downriver to obtain an equivalent amount of calories. downriver to obtain an equivalent amount of calories.
He estimated that 1.5 pounds of wet weight are equivalent to 1 pound dried, and that He estimated that 1.5 pounds of wet weight are equivalent to 1 pound dried, and that 20% of a whole fish is entrails. Schalk estimated that a family needs 250 to 500 20% of a whole fish is entrails. Schalk estimated that a family needs 250 to 500 dried fish per family, or 2000 pounds per family. dried fish per family, or 2000 pounds per family.
Walker also cited Swindell (1942), who interviewed 55 family heads from Yakama, Walker also cited Swindell (1942), who interviewed 55 family heads from Yakama, Umatilla, and Warm Springs (not specifically fishing families) for an average of 322 Umatilla, and Warm Springs (not specifically fishing families) for an average of 322 pounds/yr in 1941 (the time when the canneries were taking a large percentage of pounds/yr in 1941 (the time when the canneries were taking a large percentage of the fish, leaving fewer for the Indians). Hewes estimated that Cayuse ate 365 the fish, leaving fewer for the Indians). Hewes estimated that Cayuse ate 365 pounds per capita, while Umatilla and Walla Walla ate 500 pounds per capita. pounds per capita, while Umatilla and Walla Walla ate 500 pounds per capita.
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Yakama, Klickitat, Wanapum, and Palus were estimated to eat 400 lbs, and Nez Yakama, Klickitat, Wanapum, and Palus were estimated to eat 400 lbs, and Nez Perce were estimated to eat 300 lbs. Perce were estimated to eat 300 lbs.
Hudson Bay records from 1827, 1829, and 1830 indicated that the company Hudson Bay records from 1827, 1829, and 1830 indicated that the company supplemented the regular supplies that were shipped to them by purchasing about supplemented the regular supplies that were shipped to them by purchasing about 535 lbs of fish per person (about 30 people were housed at the Colville Post), as 535 lbs of fish per person (about 30 people were housed at the Colville Post), as well as around 100 lbs dried venison (for the 30 men), 1500 pounds of fresh well as around 100 lbs dried venison (for the 30 men), 1500 pounds of fresh venison, 10 beavers, 275 ducks, 200 geese, 10 cranes, 75 dogs, 50 grouse, and a venison, 10 beavers, 275 ducks, 200 geese, 10 cranes, 75 dogs, 50 grouse, and a few swans, beaver tails, and small fish. few swans, beaver tails, and small fish.
A.5.4 Walker (1992) A.5.4 Walker (1992) Walker, D.E. (1992). “Productivity of Tribal Dipnet Fishermen at Celilo Walker, D.E. (1992). “Productivity of Tribal Dipnet Fishermen at Celilo Falls: Analysis of the Joe Pinkham Fish Buying Records.” Northwest Falls: Analysis of the Joe Pinkham Fish Buying Records.” Northwest Anthropol. Res. Notes 26(2): 123–135. Anthropol. Res. Notes 26(2): 123–135.
Walker reviewed an earlier reference (Anastasio 1972), who reviewed historical Walker reviewed an earlier reference (Anastasio 1972), who reviewed historical accounts of early explorers, as well as thoroughly reviewing ethnographic and accounts of early explorers, as well as thoroughly reviewing ethnographic and ethnohistoric research. Archaeological research indicates that this region has been ethnohistoric research. Archaeological research indicates that this region has been the scene of relatively continuous anadromous fishing activity for at least 10,000 the scene of relatively continuous anadromous fishing activity for at least 10,000 years. Walker reviewed fish buying records in 1945, a time when fish runs were years. Walker reviewed fish buying records in 1945, a time when fish runs were declining rapidly, continuing a trend begun with the canneries. Over the years, declining rapidly, continuing a trend begun with the canneries. Over the years, packing house and cannery records support statements that salmon runs have been packing house and cannery records support statements that salmon runs have been 99% decimated. 99% decimated.
A.5.5 Walker (1999) A.5.5 Walker (1999) Walker, D.E., and Pritchard, L.W. (1999). “Estimated Radiation Doses to Walker, D.E., and Pritchard, L.W. (1999). “Estimated Radiation Doses to Yakama Tribal Fishermen: An Application of the Columbia River Yakama Tribal Fishermen: An Application of the Columbia River Dosimetry Model for the Hanford Environmental Dose Reconstruction Dosimetry Model for the Hanford Environmental Dose Reconstruction Project.” Boulder, CO: Walker Research Group. Project.” Boulder, CO: Walker Research Group.
This study relied on the use of officially recorded fishing sites along the Columbia This study relied on the use of officially recorded fishing sites along the Columbia River mainstem, and interviews with the individuals who actually used those sites River mainstem, and interviews with the individuals who actually used those sites between 1950 and 1971. Fishermen were grouped as maximum, median, or between 1950 and 1971. Fishermen were grouped as maximum, median, or minimum river users according to how many fishing sites they held. Minimum river minimum river users according to how many fishing sites they held. Minimum river users used between 1 and 9 fishing sites, and ate 64 pounds per year (29kg/yr or users used between 1 and 9 fishing sites, and ate 64 pounds per year (29kg/yr or 80gpd). Median river users used between 10 and 19 sites and ate 282 pounds per 80gpd). Median river users used between 10 and 19 sites and ate 282 pounds per year (128kg or 350gpd). Maximum river users “would be considered subsistence year (128kg or 350gpd). Maximum river users “would be considered subsistence fishermen,” and used 20 or more fishing sites. They ate 522 pounds per year (237kg fishermen,” and used 20 or more fishing sites. They ate 522 pounds per year (237kg or 650gpd). 75% of fish were caught between April 1 through October 31; of this or 650gpd). 75% of fish were caught between April 1 through October 31; of this 75%, 90% was anadromous and 10% was resident. Between November 1 and 75%, 90% was anadromous and 10% was resident. Between November 1 and March 31, 25% of the annual catch was caught; of this 75% were resident and 25% March 31, 25% of the annual catch was caught; of this 75% were resident and 25% anadromous. anadromous.
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A.5.6 Hunn (1990) A.5.6 Hunn (1990) Hunn, E.S. (1990). Nch’i-Wana, The Big River: Mid-Columbians and Their Hunn, E.S. (1990). Nch’i-Wana, The Big River: Mid-Columbians and Their Land. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Land. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Hunn estimated that 30–40% of caloric needs supplied by salmon. Table 13 (Hunn Hunn estimated that 30–40% of caloric needs supplied by salmon. Table 13 (Hunn 1990, page 150) provides estimates of salmon consumption per capita from Hewes 1990, page 150) provides estimates of salmon consumption per capita from Hewes (not including resident fish during the winter quarter): Wishram Tribe (400 pounds (not including resident fish during the winter quarter): Wishram Tribe (400 pounds per year), Tenino Tribe (500 pounds), Umatilla Tribe (500 pounds), and Nez Perce per year), Tenino Tribe (500 pounds), Umatilla Tribe (500 pounds), and Nez Perce Tribe (382 pounds from Hewes’s estimate and 582 pounds from Walker’s Tribe (382 pounds from Hewes’s estimate and 582 pounds from Walker’s estimates), including the adjustment for caloric loss as fish move upstream. estimates), including the adjustment for caloric loss as fish move upstream.
A.5.7 Ray (1977) A.5.7 Ray (1977) Ray, V.E. (1977). “Ethnic Impact of the Event Incident to Federal Power Ray, V.E. (1977). “Ethnic Impact of the Event Incident to Federal Power Development on the Colville and Spokane Indian Reservations.” Development on the Colville and Spokane Indian Reservations.” Prepared for the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation and the Prepared for the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation and the Spokane Tribe of Indians, Port Townsend, WA. Available at Eastern Spokane Tribe of Indians, Port Townsend, WA. Available at Eastern Washington State Historical Society, Spokane WA. Washington State Historical Society, Spokane WA.
Ray provided expert testimony of the amount of fish consumption of the upper Ray provided expert testimony of the amount of fish consumption of the upper Columbia River tribes during the discussions of the impact of the Grand Coulee Columbia River tribes during the discussions of the impact of the Grand Coulee Dam. Ray estimates 1.25 pound per person per day based on 50 years of Dam. Ray estimates 1.25 pound per person per day based on 50 years of observation and research, including fish counts, catch rates, early observers. This is observation and research, including fish counts, catch rates, early observers. This is also supported by contemporaneous observations at Celilo during the late 1940s: also supported by contemporaneous observations at Celilo during the late 1940s:
The salmon and other fish taken from the rivers provided around half of the The salmon and other fish taken from the rivers provided around half of the native subsistence, and the lands immediately adjacent to the rivers supplied native subsistence, and the lands immediately adjacent to the rivers supplied a significant part of the game which was taken. a significant part of the game which was taken.
Apart from fish and game, the most important component of the Indian diet Apart from fish and game, the most important component of the Indian diet was roots. was roots.
Salmon was the staple food for both the Colvilles and the Spokanes. The fish Salmon was the staple food for both the Colvilles and the Spokanes. The fish were taken during the long fishing seasons—May to October—but during the were taken during the long fishing seasons—May to October—but during the same period great quantities were dried to serve and the basic item of same period great quantities were dried to serve and the basic item of subsistence during the winter. subsistence during the winter.
A.5.8 Boldt (1994), case law A.5.8 Boldt (1994), case law Judge Boldt stated that “Salmon, however, both fresh and cured, was a staple in the Judge Boldt stated that “Salmon, however, both fresh and cured, was a staple in the food supply of these Indians. It was annually consumed by these Indians in the food supply of these Indians. It was annually consumed by these Indians in the neighborhood of 500 pounds per capita.”9 Boldt was referring to Columbia neighborhood of 500 pounds per capita.”9 Boldt was referring to Columbia mainstem fishers when he wrote this. This does not include resident fish. mainstem fishers when he wrote this. This does not include resident fish.
9 U.S. District Judge George Boldt, U.S. v. Washington, February 12, 1974, note 151. 9 U.S. District Judge George Boldt, U.S. v. Washington, February 12, 1974, note 151.
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A.5.9 Bimodality in Tribal Communities A.5.9 Bimodality in Tribal Communities In the above discussion, we have suggested that the cross-sectional tribal surveys In the above discussion, we have suggested that the cross-sectional tribal surveys summarized in Section A.4 revealed a bimodal distribution, with a cluster of people summarized in Section A.4 revealed a bimodal distribution, with a cluster of people consuming high amounts of fish. We believe that these are accurate reports from consuming high amounts of fish. We believe that these are accurate reports from members of a distinct group of subsistence consumers, and that most of this group members of a distinct group of subsistence consumers, and that most of this group is missed in cross-sectional surveys because they decline to participate in is missed in cross-sectional surveys because they decline to participate in conventional surveys. However, this raises the question of how a tribe or tribal conventional surveys. However, this raises the question of how a tribe or tribal confederation should be stratified, and whether this reflects simply a high end tail of confederation should be stratified, and whether this reflects simply a high end tail of a normal distribution defined by an arbitrary upper percentile or standard deviation, a normal distribution defined by an arbitrary upper percentile or standard deviation, or whether there is a discernible subset of tribal members with a distinct lifestyle or whether there is a discernible subset of tribal members with a distinct lifestyle and/or a statistically detectable consumption rate. and/or a statistically detectable consumption rate.
• In the Sechena study, respondents were divided into low (<75th percentile) or • In the Sechena study, respondents were divided into low (<75th percentile) or higher (>75th percentile) consumers; the basis for this is not given. higher (>75th percentile) consumers; the basis for this is not given. • In the Walker (1999) study, Columbia River mainstem fishers were divided • In the Walker (1999) study, Columbia River mainstem fishers were divided into three groups according to how many fishing sites were used by a into three groups according to how many fishing sites were used by a fisherman; the basis for this was not given. fisherman; the basis for this was not given. • In the three tribal cross-sectional studies, there appear to be clusters of high • In the three tribal cross-sectional studies, there appear to be clusters of high consumers; since no follow-up was done to investigate the characteristics or consumers; since no follow-up was done to investigate the characteristics or accuracy of these individuals, we conclude (as others have concluded) from accuracy of these individuals, we conclude (as others have concluded) from indirect evidence that these people are members of a subsistence subset that indirect evidence that these people are members of a subsistence subset that is otherwise obscured by poor study design, and that their reports were is otherwise obscured by poor study design, and that their reports were indeed accurate. indeed accurate. • In our review of subsistence and cross-sectional studies, we have concluded • In our review of subsistence and cross-sectional studies, we have concluded that a threshold for subsistence consumption rates is roughly 1 pound per that a threshold for subsistence consumption rates is roughly 1 pound per day, without regard to the shape of a distribution curve. day, without regard to the shape of a distribution curve.
The Confederated Umatilla Tribes have distinct subsets of natural resource use The Confederated Umatilla Tribes have distinct subsets of natural resource use according to the original tribe’s homeland; Cayuse emphasized upland hunting more according to the original tribe’s homeland; Cayuse emphasized upland hunting more than fishing, while Walla Walla and Umatilla tribes emphasized fishing more than than fishing, while Walla Walla and Umatilla tribes emphasized fishing more than hunting. During ethnographic interviews, several subsistence consumers confirmed hunting. During ethnographic interviews, several subsistence consumers confirmed our supposition that traditional subsistence fishers generally decline to participate in our supposition that traditional subsistence fishers generally decline to participate in surveys by people they don’t know, or give information that they assume is correct surveys by people they don’t know, or give information that they assume is correct rather than information that is accurate. rather than information that is accurate.
A.6 CONCLUSION A.6 CONCLUSION We conclude that the subsistence consumption rate for the Confederated Tribes is in We conclude that the subsistence consumption rate for the Confederated Tribes is in the range of 540 to 650gpd or more (particularly at permanent fishing villages such the range of 540 to 650gpd or more (particularly at permanent fishing villages such as Celilo). Within this range, we have concluded that the best estimate is 500 as Celilo). Within this range, we have concluded that the best estimate is 500 pounds per year (or 620gpd) as the central tendency of subsistence fish pounds per year (or 620gpd) as the central tendency of subsistence fish consumption, as well as being recognized in a widely cited legal decision. consumption, as well as being recognized in a widely cited legal decision.
• The CRITFC study (1994) is judged to reflect the median river user (350gpd • The CRITFC study (1994) is judged to reflect the median river user (350gpd from Walker) and minimum river users (80gpd from Walker). This is from Walker) and minimum river users (80gpd from Walker). This is comparable to the CRITFC 95th and 99th percentiles (175–182gpd and comparable to the CRITFC 95th and 99th percentiles (175–182gpd and
CTUIR Scenario 214 CTUIR Scenario 214
389gpd) and the CRITFC median (63gpd), further indicating that the CRITFC 389gpd) and the CRITFC median (63gpd), further indicating that the CRITFC study captured data for the minimum and median river users, not the study captured data for the minimum and median river users, not the maximum river users. maximum river users. • The CRITFC “outliers” (reporting a consumption rate of 486–972gpd) are • The CRITFC “outliers” (reporting a consumption rate of 486–972gpd) are comparable to Walker’s maximum river users (650gpd), which reflect comparable to Walker’s maximum river users (650gpd), which reflect subsistence use. subsistence use. • Most per capita estimates of fish consumption rates for subsistence fishers • Most per capita estimates of fish consumption rates for subsistence fishers are approximately 500 pounds per year, or 620gpd as a mean value. These are approximately 500 pounds per year, or 620gpd as a mean value. These results are based on direct observation of early observers, fish buying results are based on direct observation of early observers, fish buying records, interview with current members, caloric and nutritional calculations, records, interview with current members, caloric and nutritional calculations, and ecological and archaeological information. and ecological and archaeological information. • Salmon supplied 30 to 40% of the total calories in the river-based subsistence • Salmon supplied 30 to 40% of the total calories in the river-based subsistence diet. At an average of 175 kcal per 100g of raw fish weight, 620gpd would diet. At an average of 175 kcal per 100g of raw fish weight, 620gpd would provide roughly 1000 kcal daily, which is 40% of a 2500 kcal diet. This provide roughly 1000 kcal daily, which is 40% of a 2500 kcal diet. This conforms with the estimates of Hunn and others that salmon provide 30–40% conforms with the estimates of Hunn and others that salmon provide 30–40% of the subsistence diet. of the subsistence diet. • The number of people in the high consumer or maximum river user group • The number of people in the high consumer or maximum river user group diminished as runs were decimated, dams were constructed, and awareness diminished as runs were decimated, dams were constructed, and awareness of contamination increased. However, the existence of the subsistence or of contamination increased. However, the existence of the subsistence or maximum river user clearly persists to this day, and in fact may be increasing maximum river user clearly persists to this day, and in fact may be increasing recently as runs are restored and health benefits of eating fish are recently as runs are restored and health benefits of eating fish are emphasized. emphasized.
A.7 REFERENCES A.7 REFERENCES Anastasio, A. (1972). “The Southern Plateau: An Ecological Analysis of Inter-group Anastasio, A. (1972). “The Southern Plateau: An Ecological Analysis of Inter-group Relations.” Northwest Anthropological Notes 6:109–229. Relations.” Northwest Anthropological Notes 6:109–229.
CRITFC (1994). “A Fish Consumption Survey of the Umatilla, Nez Perce, Yakama, CRITFC (1994). “A Fish Consumption Survey of the Umatilla, Nez Perce, Yakama, and Warm Springs Tribes of the Columbia River Basin.” CRITFC Technical and Warm Springs Tribes of the Columbia River Basin.” CRITFC Technical Report No. 94-3, Portland, OR. Report No. 94-3, Portland, OR.
Emerso, R.M., Fretz, R.I., and Shaw, L.L. (1995). Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes. Emerso, R.M., Fretz, R.I., and Shaw, L.L. (1995). Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Fetterman, D.M. (1998). Ethnography, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Safe Fetterman, D.M. (1998). Ethnography, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Safe Publications. Publications.
Harris, S.G., and Harper, B.L. (1997). “A Native American Exposure Scenario.” Risk Harris, S.G., and Harper, B.L. (1997). “A Native American Exposure Scenario.” Risk Analysis 17(6): 789–795. Analysis 17(6): 789–795.
Hewes, G.W. (1947). “Aboriginal Use of Fishery Resources in Northwestern North Hewes, G.W. (1947). “Aboriginal Use of Fishery Resources in Northwestern North America.” Doctoral dissertation, University of Californiz at Berkeley. America.” Doctoral dissertation, University of Californiz at Berkeley.
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Hewes, G.W. (1973). “Indian Fisheries Productivity in Pre-Contact Times in the Hewes, G.W. (1973). “Indian Fisheries Productivity in Pre-Contact Times in the Pacific Salmon Area.” Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 7(2): 133– Pacific Salmon Area.” Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 7(2): 133– 155. 155.
Hunn, E.S. (1990). Nch’i-Wana, The Big River: Mid-Columbians and Their Land. Hunn, E.S. (1990). Nch’i-Wana, The Big River: Mid-Columbians and Their Land. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Javitz, H. (1980). “Seafood consumption data analysis.” U.S. EPA Contract 8-01- Javitz, H. (1980). “Seafood consumption data analysis.” U.S. EPA Contract 8-01- 3887. Prepared by SRI International for the Office of Water/Regulations and 3887. Prepared by SRI International for the Office of Water/Regulations and Standards, Washington, D.C. Standards, Washington, D.C.
Mihesuah, D.A. (1998). Natives and Academics: Researching and Writing about Mihesuah, D.A. (1998). Natives and Academics: Researching and Writing about American Indians. Lincoln, NE: The University of Nebraska Press. American Indians. Lincoln, NE: The University of Nebraska Press.
Ray, V.E. (1977). “Ethnic Impact of the Event Incident to Federal Power Ray, V.E. (1977). “Ethnic Impact of the Event Incident to Federal Power Development on the Colville and Spokane Indian Reservations.” Prepared for Development on the Colville and Spokane Indian Reservations.” Prepared for the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation and the Spokane Tribe of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation and the Spokane Tribe of Indians, Port Townsend, WA. Available at Eastern Washington State Indians, Port Townsend, WA. Available at Eastern Washington State Historical Society, Spokane WA. Historical Society, Spokane WA.
Sechena, R., Nakano, C., Liao, S., Polissar, N., Lorenzana, R., Truong, S., and Sechena, R., Nakano, C., Liao, S., Polissar, N., Lorenzana, R., Truong, S., and Fenske, R. (1999). “Asian and Pacific Islander Seafood Consumption Study,” Fenske, R. (1999). “Asian and Pacific Islander Seafood Consumption Study,” (EPA 910/R-99-003). Seattle: EPA Region 10; (EPA 910/R-99-003). Seattle: EPA Region 10; http://www.epa.gov/r10earth/offices/oea/risk/a&pi.pdf. http://www.epa.gov/r10earth/offices/oea/risk/a&pi.pdf.
Sechena, R., Liao, S., Lorenzana, R., Nakano, C., Polissar, N., and Fenske, Sechena, R., Liao, S., Lorenzana, R., Nakano, C., Polissar, N., and Fenske, R. (2003). “Asian American and Pacific Islander seafood consumption—a R. (2003). “Asian American and Pacific Islander seafood consumption—a community-based study in King County, Washington.” J Expo Anal Environ community-based study in King County, Washington.” J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 13(4): 256–66. Epidemiol 13(4): 256–66.
Schensul, J.J., LeCompte, M.D., Nastasi, B.K., and Borgatti, S.P. (1999a). Schensul, J.J., LeCompte, M.D., Nastasi, B.K., and Borgatti, S.P. (1999a). Enhanced Ethnographic Methods 3(Audiovisual Techniques, Focused Group Enhanced Ethnographic Methods 3(Audiovisual Techniques, Focused Group Interviews, and Elicitation Techniques). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press. Interviews, and Elicitation Techniques). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press.
Schensul, S.L., Schensul, J.J., and LeCompte, M.D. (1999b). Essential Schensul, S.L., Schensul, J.J., and LeCompte, M.D. (1999b). Essential Ethnographic Methods 2(Observations, Interviews, and Questionnaires). Ethnographic Methods 2(Observations, Interviews, and Questionnaires). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press. Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press.
Spradley, J.P. (1979). The Ethnographic Interview. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Spradley, J.P. (1979). The Ethnographic Interview. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Jovanovich College Publishers.
Suquamish Tribe (2000). “Fish Consumption Survey of the Suquamish Indian Tribe Suquamish Tribe (2000). “Fish Consumption Survey of the Suquamish Indian Tribe of The Port Madison Indian Reservation, Puget Sound Region.” Suquamish of The Port Madison Indian Reservation, Puget Sound Region.” Suquamish Tribe, Fisheries Department, PO Box 498, Suquamish, WA. Tribe, Fisheries Department, PO Box 498, Suquamish, WA.
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Swindell, E.G. (1942). Report on source, nature and extent of the fishing, hunting Swindell, E.G. (1942). Report on source, nature and extent of the fishing, hunting and miscellaneous related rights of certain Indian tribes in Washington and and miscellaneous related rights of certain Indian tribes in Washington and Oregon together with affidavits showing locations of a number of usual and Oregon together with affidavits showing locations of a number of usual and accustomed fishing grounds and stations. U.S. Department of the Interior, accustomed fishing grounds and stations. U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Indian Affairs, Division of Forestry and Grazing, Los Angeles, Office of Indian Affairs, Division of Forestry and Grazing, Los Angeles, California. California.
Thornton, R. (1998). Studying Native America: Problems and Prospects. Madison: Thornton, R. (1998). Studying Native America: Problems and Prospects. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. The University of Wisconsin Press.
Toy, K.A., Polissar, N.L., Liao, S., and Mittelstaedt, G.D. (1996). “A Fish Toy, K.A., Polissar, N.L., Liao, S., and Mittelstaedt, G.D. (1996). “A Fish Consumption Survey of the Tulalip and Squaxin Island Tribes of the Puget Consumption Survey of the Tulalip and Squaxin Island Tribes of the Puget Sound Region.” Tulalip Tribes, Department of the Environment, 7615 Totem Sound Region.” Tulalip Tribes, Department of the Environment, 7615 Totem Beach Road, Marysville, WA 98721. Beach Road, Marysville, WA 98721.
Walker, D.E. (1967). “Mutual Cross-Utilization of Economic Resources in the Walker, D.E. (1967). “Mutual Cross-Utilization of Economic Resources in the Plateau: from aboriginal Nez Perce Fishing Practices.” Washington State Plateau: from aboriginal Nez Perce Fishing Practices.” Washington State University Laboratory of Anthropology, Report of Investigations, No. 21, University Laboratory of Anthropology, Report of Investigations, No. 21, Pullman, WA. Pullman, WA.
Walker, D.E. (1985), cited in Scholtz, A., et al. “Compilation of information on salmon Walker, D.E. (1985), cited in Scholtz, A., et al. “Compilation of information on salmon and steelhead total run size, catch, and hydropower related losses in the and steelhead total run size, catch, and hydropower related losses in the Upper Columbia River Basin, above Grand Coulee Dam.” Upper Columbia Upper Columbia River Basin, above Grand Coulee Dam.” Upper Columbia United Tribes Fisheries Center, Eastern Washington University, Department United Tribes Fisheries Center, Eastern Washington University, Department of Biology, Cheney, WA 99004. of Biology, Cheney, WA 99004.
Walker, D.E. (1992). “Productivity of Tribal Dipnet Fishermen at Celilo Falls: Analysis Walker, D.E. (1992). “Productivity of Tribal Dipnet Fishermen at Celilo Falls: Analysis of the Joe Pinkham Fish Buying Records.” Northwest Anthropol. Res. Notes of the Joe Pinkham Fish Buying Records.” Northwest Anthropol. Res. Notes 26(2):123–135. 26(2):123–135.
Walker, D.E. (1999). “Estimated Radiation Doses to Yakama Tribal Fishermen.” Walker, D.E. (1999). “Estimated Radiation Doses to Yakama Tribal Fishermen.” Walker Research Group, Boulder, CO. Walker Research Group, Boulder, CO.
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APPENDIX B APPENDIX B
NATIVE AMERICAN SWEAT LODGE EXPOSURE SCENARIO— NATIVE AMERICAN SWEAT LODGE EXPOSURE SCENARIO— EXPOSURE EQUATIONS EXPOSURE EQUATIONS
Rodney S. Skeen, PhD Rodney S. Skeen, PhD CTUIR Department of Science and Engineering CTUIR Department of Science and Engineering
B.1 INHALATION IN SWEAT LODGE B.1 INHALATION IN SWEAT LODGE In this analysis it is assumed that the internal temperature of the sweat lodge is In this analysis it is assumed that the internal temperature of the sweat lodge is maintained at a constant 150 °F (339 °K) (personal communication). It is further maintained at a constant 150 °F (339 °K) (personal communication). It is further assumed that the geometry of the lodge can be estimated as a hemisphere of radius assumed that the geometry of the lodge can be estimated as a hemisphere of radius r so that the internal volume is equal to: r so that the internal volume is equal to:
2 2 V = ⋅π ⋅ r 3 (1) V = ⋅π ⋅ r 3 (1) lodge 3 lodge 3 where: where:
3 3 Vlodge = internal volume of the sweat lodge (m ) Vlodge = internal volume of the sweat lodge (m ) r = radius of sweat lodge (m) r = radius of sweat lodge (m) π = the constant pi (unitless); π ≈ 3.14159 π = the constant pi (unitless); π ≈ 3.14159
Finally, contaminants, termed Compounds of Potential Concern (COPC), are Finally, contaminants, termed Compounds of Potential Concern (COPC), are assumed to be introduced into the sweat lodge predominately through the water assumed to be introduced into the sweat lodge predominately through the water used to create steam. used to create steam.
B.1.1 Volatile and Semi-Volatile Compounds B.1.1 Volatile and Semi-Volatile Compounds For the purpose of the following analysis, volatile and semi-volatile compounds are For the purpose of the following analysis, volatile and semi-volatile compounds are defined as those with a boiling point less than, or equal to, 339 °K. Intake of COPCs defined as those with a boiling point less than, or equal to, 339 °K. Intake of COPCs via inhalation is typically estimated as: via inhalation is typically estimated as:
C ⋅ IR ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED C ⋅ IR ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED I = v (2) I = v (2) inh BW ⋅ AT ⋅CF inh BW ⋅ AT ⋅CF where: where:
Iinh = inhalation exposure to COPCs in the sweat lodge (mg/kg-day) Iinh = inhalation exposure to COPCs in the sweat lodge (mg/kg-day) 3 3 Cv = vapor phase COPC concentration (mg/m ) Cv = vapor phase COPC concentration (mg/m ) IR = inhalation rate (m3/hr) IR = inhalation rate (m3/hr) ET = exposure time (hr/event) ET = exposure time (hr/event) EF = exposure frequency (events/yr) EF = exposure frequency (events/yr)
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ED = exposure duration (yr) ED = exposure duration (yr) BW = body weight (kg) BW = body weight (kg)
AT = averaging time for carcinogens (ATC) or noncarcinogens (ATN) (yr) AT = averaging time for carcinogens (ATC) or noncarcinogens (ATN) (yr) CF = units conversion factor of 365 (day/yr) CF = units conversion factor of 365 (day/yr)
For compounds that preferential partition to the air phase, it is assumed that a For compounds that preferential partition to the air phase, it is assumed that a negligible quantity deposit on surfaces or partition into condensed liquid. Thus, the negligible quantity deposit on surfaces or partition into condensed liquid. Thus, the bulk of contaminants added in the water will remain in the vapor phase throughout bulk of contaminants added in the water will remain in the vapor phase throughout the sweat. The vapor concentration of an individual COPC is given by: the sweat. The vapor concentration of an individual COPC is given by:
⎛V (t) ⎞ ⎛V (t) ⎞ C (t) = C ⎜ w ⎟ (3) C (t) = C ⎜ w ⎟ (3) v dw ⎜ ⎟ v dw ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ Vlodge ⎠ ⎝ Vlodge ⎠
where: where:
Cdw = dissolved surface water concentration of the COPC (mg/L); Cdw = dissolved surface water concentration of the COPC (mg/L); calculated according to EPA 1998a, Appendix B calculated according to EPA 1998a, Appendix B
Cv(t) = time dependent vapor phase concentration of the COPC in the sweat Cv(t) = time dependent vapor phase concentration of the COPC in the sweat lodge (mg/m3) lodge (mg/m3)
VW(t) = cumulative volume of water used in the sweat at time t; see the VW(t) = cumulative volume of water used in the sweat at time t; see the discussion of VW(t) below (L) discussion of VW(t) below (L)
Combining equations 1 through 3 and recognizing that the total inhalation exposure Combining equations 1 through 3 and recognizing that the total inhalation exposure for a single sweat requires integration of the volume function over the duration of the for a single sweat requires integration of the volume function over the duration of the sweat results in the following equation for inhalation exposure: sweat results in the following equation for inhalation exposure:
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ C ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ IR ⋅ EF ⋅ ED C ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ IR ⋅ EF ⋅ ED ET dw 2 ⋅π ⋅ r 3 ET ET dw 2 ⋅π ⋅ r 3 ET I (t) ⋅ dt = I = ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⋅ V (t) ⋅ dt (4) I (t) ⋅ dt = I = ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⋅ V (t) ⋅ dt (4) ∫ inh inh ∫ w ∫ inh inh ∫ w 0 BW ⋅ AT ⋅ CF 0 0 BW ⋅ AT ⋅ CF 0
If it is assumed that water is poured over heated rocks at a constant rate throughout If it is assumed that water is poured over heated rocks at a constant rate throughout the sweat, then the volume function would be described by the following linear the sweat, then the volume function would be described by the following linear equation: equation:
V V V = w,total ⋅ t (5) V = w,total ⋅ t (5) w ET w ET
Where Vw,total is the total amount of water that will be used in the sweat to create Where Vw,total is the total amount of water that will be used in the sweat to create steam in units of liters (L). steam in units of liters (L).
CTUIR Scenario 219 CTUIR Scenario 219
Noting that: Noting that:
ET V ET V ET V ET V V (t) ⋅ dt = w,total ⋅ t ⋅ dt = w,total ⋅ ET (6) V (t) ⋅ dt = w,total ⋅ t ⋅ dt = w,total ⋅ ET (6) ∫ w ∫ ∫ w ∫ 0 ET 0 2 0 ET 0 2
then the intake by inhalation is described by the following equation: then the intake by inhalation is described by the following equation:
⎛V ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ C ⋅ ⎜ w,total ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ IR ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED C ⋅ ⎜ w,total ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ IR ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED dw 2 2 ⋅π ⋅ r 3 dw 2 2 ⋅π ⋅ r 3 I = ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ (7) I = ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ (7) inh BW ⋅ AT ⋅CF inh BW ⋅ AT ⋅CF
If more water is poured over the heated rocks during the first part of the sweat, then If more water is poured over the heated rocks during the first part of the sweat, then the following form would be more appropriate: the following form would be more appropriate:
V ⋅ t V ⋅ t V (t) = w,total (8) V (t) = w,total (8) w k + t w k + t
where Vw,total is the maximum amount of water poured over the heated rocks during a where Vw,total is the maximum amount of water poured over the heated rocks during a sweat and k indicates the time when half of the water has been used. Integration of sweat and k indicates the time when half of the water has been used. Integration of the above equation between the limits of 0 and ET results in the following expression the above equation between the limits of 0 and ET results in the following expression for intake via inhalation: for intake via inhalation:
⎛ Vw,total ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ k ⎞⎞ ⎛ Vw,total ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ k ⎞⎞ C ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ET + k ⋅ ln⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ IR ⋅ EF ⋅ ED C ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ET + k ⋅ ln⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ IR ⋅ EF ⋅ ED dw ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ dw ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ 3 ⋅π ⋅ r ⎝ ET + k ⎠ 3 ⋅π ⋅ r ⎝ ET + k ⎠ I = ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ (9) I = ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ (9) inh BW ⋅ AT ⋅ CF inh BW ⋅ AT ⋅ CF
The assumptions regarding the mathematical representation of water volume in the The assumptions regarding the mathematical representation of water volume in the sweat lodge are an uncertainty in estimating intake via inhalation for the Native sweat lodge are an uncertainty in estimating intake via inhalation for the Native American adult. For simplicity, the linear assumption represented by equations 5 and American adult. For simplicity, the linear assumption represented by equations 5 and 7 is a reasonable approximation for intake via inhalation of volatile and semi-volatile 7 is a reasonable approximation for intake via inhalation of volatile and semi-volatile compounds in the sweat lodge. Table B.1 provides a list of typical values for the compounds in the sweat lodge. Table B.1 provides a list of typical values for the parameters used in Equation 7. parameters used in Equation 7.
CTUIR Scenario 220 CTUIR Scenario 220
Table B.1. Typical parameter values for calculating intake via inhalation (Iinh) Table B.1. Typical parameter values for calculating intake via inhalation (Iinh) for volatile and semi-volatile compounds. for volatile and semi-volatile compounds.
Parameter Typical Value Unit Parameter Typical Value Unit Volume of water used in a sweat (Vw,total) 4 L Volume of water used in a sweat (Vw,total) 4 L Radius of a hemispherical sweat lodge (r) 1 m Radius of a hemispherical sweat lodge (r) 1 m Inhalation rate (IR) 30 m3/day Inhalation rate (IR) 30 m3/day Length of a sweat event (ET) 1 hr/event Length of a sweat event (ET) 1 hr/event Number of sweats per year (EF) 365 events/yr Number of sweats per year (EF) 365 events/yr Number of years a person sweats in a life time (ED) 64 yr Number of years a person sweats in a life time (ED) 64 yr Average body weight (BW) 70 kg Average body weight (BW) 70 kg Averaging time (AT) 70 (carcinogen) yr Averaging time (AT) 70 (carcinogen) yr ED (noncarcinogens) ED (noncarcinogens) Conversion factor (CF) 365 day/yr Conversion factor (CF) 365 day/yr
B.1.2 Nonvolatile Compounds B.1.2 Nonvolatile Compounds For the purpose of the following analysis nonvolatile compounds are defined as For the purpose of the following analysis nonvolatile compounds are defined as those with a boiling point greater than 339 °K. The sweat lodge vapor concentration those with a boiling point greater than 339 °K. The sweat lodge vapor concentration for nonvolatile compounds can be estimated by assuming that: for nonvolatile compounds can be estimated by assuming that:
• Nonvolatile COPC become airborne as an aerosol as the water they were • Nonvolatile COPC become airborne as an aerosol as the water they were carried in vaporizes. carried in vaporizes. • Once airborne, nonvolatile compounds deposit onto solid surfaces with • Once airborne, nonvolatile compounds deposit onto solid surfaces with aqueous condensation. aqueous condensation. • The ideal gas law can be applied to air and water vapor at the temperature • The ideal gas law can be applied to air and water vapor at the temperature and pressure of the sweat lodge. and pressure of the sweat lodge.
With these assumptions the quantity of nonvolatile constituents in the air phase is With these assumptions the quantity of nonvolatile constituents in the air phase is limited to that which is carried into the air phase by the volume of liquid water limited to that which is carried into the air phase by the volume of liquid water needed to create saturated conditions in the lodge. Numerically this can be needed to create saturated conditions in the lodge. Numerically this can be expressed as: expressed as:
⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ C = ⎜ w,sat ⎟ ⋅ C (10) C = ⎜ w,sat ⎟ ⋅ C (10) v ⎜ ⎟ dw v ⎜ ⎟ dw ⎝Vlodge ⎠ ⎝Vlodge ⎠ where Vw,sat represents the volume of liquid water needed to create a saturated vapor where Vw,sat represents the volume of liquid water needed to create a saturated vapor in the sweat lodge in units of liters (L). From the ideal gas law and the properties of in the sweat lodge in units of liters (L). From the ideal gas law and the properties of liquid water, Vw,sat can be determined from: liquid water, Vw,sat can be determined from:
⎛ p ⋅V ⎞⎛ MW ⎞ ⎛ p ⋅V ⎞⎛ MW ⎞ w,air ⎜ w ⎟ w,air ⎜ w ⎟ Vw,sat = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (11) Vw,sat = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (11) ⎝ R ⋅T ⎠⎝ ρ w ⎠ ⎝ R ⋅T ⎠⎝ ρ w ⎠ where: where:
3 3 Vw,air = volume of air space in sweat lodge occupied by water vapor (m ) Vw,air = volume of air space in sweat lodge occupied by water vapor (m )
CTUIR Scenario 221 CTUIR Scenario 221
p = ambient pressure (mmHg) p = ambient pressure (mmHg)
ρw = density of liquid water (g/L) ρw = density of liquid water (g/L) T = temperature of the sweat lodge (K) T = temperature of the sweat lodge (K) R = ideal gas law constant (0.06237 (mmHg·m3)/(gmole·K)) R = ideal gas law constant (0.06237 (mmHg·m3)/(gmole·K))
MWw = molecular weight of water (AMU) MWw = molecular weight of water (AMU)
The volume of water vapor in the sweat lodge air can be estimated from the vapor The volume of water vapor in the sweat lodge air can be estimated from the vapor pressure of water at the temperature of the sweat lodge (assumed constant at pressure of water at the temperature of the sweat lodge (assumed constant at 339 °K), the ambient pressure, and the internal volume of the lodge. 339 °K), the ambient pressure, and the internal volume of the lodge.
⎛ p* ⎞ ⎛ p* ⎞ Vw,air = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅Vlodge (12) Vw,air = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅Vlodge (12) ⎝ p ⎠ ⎝ p ⎠
where p* represents the vapor pressure of water at temperature T (mmHg). The where p* represents the vapor pressure of water at temperature T (mmHg). The vapor pressure of water as a function of temperature is given by the Antoine vapor pressure of water as a function of temperature is given by the Antoine equation as follows (Himmelblau 1982): equation as follows (Himmelblau 1982):
3816.44 3816.44 ln( p* ) = 18.3036 − (13) ln( p* ) = 18.3036 − (13) T − 46.13 T − 46.13
Combining equations 10 through 13 allows the concentration of nonvolatile COPC in Combining equations 10 through 13 allows the concentration of nonvolatile COPC in the air to be determined as follows: the air to be determined as follows:
⎛ MW ⎞ ⎛ 3816.44 ⎞ ⎛ MW ⎞ ⎛ 3816.44 ⎞ ⎜ w ⎟ ⎜ w ⎟ Cv = Cdw ⋅⎜ ⎟ ⋅ EXP⎜18.3036 − ⎟ (14) Cv = Cdw ⋅⎜ ⎟ ⋅ EXP⎜18.3036 − ⎟ (14) ⎝ R ⋅T ⋅ ρ w ⎠ ⎝ T − 46.13⎠ ⎝ R ⋅T ⋅ ρ w ⎠ ⎝ T − 46.13⎠
Application of Equation 14 to the definition of vapor inhalation exposure given in Application of Equation 14 to the definition of vapor inhalation exposure given in Equation 2 yields the following result for nonvolatile compounds: Equation 2 yields the following result for nonvolatile compounds:
⎛ IR ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED ⎞ ⎛ MW ⎞ ⎛ 3816.44 ⎞ ⎛ IR ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED ⎞ ⎛ MW ⎞ ⎛ 3816.44 ⎞ ⎜ w ⎟ ⎜ w ⎟ Iinh = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅Cdw ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ EXP⎜18.3036 − ⎟ (15) Iinh = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅Cdw ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ EXP⎜18.3036 − ⎟ (15) ⎝ BW ⋅ AT ⋅CF ⎠ ⎝ R ⋅T ⋅ ρ w ⎠ ⎝ T − 46.13⎠ ⎝ BW ⋅ AT ⋅CF ⎠ ⎝ R ⋅T ⋅ ρ w ⎠ ⎝ T − 46.13⎠
Table B.2 provides a list of typical values for the parameters used in Equation 15. Table B.2 provides a list of typical values for the parameters used in Equation 15.
CTUIR Scenario 222 CTUIR Scenario 222
Table B.2. Typical parameter values for calculating intake via inhalation (Iinh) Table B.2. Typical parameter values for calculating intake via inhalation (Iinh) for nonvolatile compounds. for nonvolatile compounds.
Parameter Typical Value Unit Parameter Typical Value Unit Temperature of the sweat lodge (T) 339 (150) K (F) Temperature of the sweat lodge (T) 339 (150) K (F) Ideal gas law constant (R) 0.06237 (mmHg·m3)/(gmole·K) Ideal gas law constant (R) 0.06237 (mmHg·m3)/(gmole·K) Inhalation rate (IR) 30 m3/day Inhalation rate (IR) 30 m3/day Length of a sweat event (ET) 1 hr/event Length of a sweat event (ET) 1 hr/event Number of sweats per year (EF) 365 events/yr Number of sweats per year (EF) 365 events/yr Number of years a person sweats in a life time (ED) 64 yr Number of years a person sweats in a life time (ED) 64 yr Average body weight (BW) 70 Kg Average body weight (BW) 70 Kg Averaging time (AT) 70 (carcinogen) yr Averaging time (AT) 70 (carcinogen) yr ED (noncarcinogens) ED (noncarcinogens) Conversion factor (CF) 365 day/yr Conversion factor (CF) 365 day/yr Molecular weight of water (MWw) 18 g/gmole Molecular weight of water (MWw) 18 g/gmole Density of liquid water (ρw) 1000 g/L Density of liquid water (ρw) 1000 g/L
B.2 DERMAL EXPOSURE IN SWEAT LODGE B.2 DERMAL EXPOSURE IN SWEAT LODGE Dermal exposure to COPC in a sweat lodge can come from skin contact with Dermal exposure to COPC in a sweat lodge can come from skin contact with contaminates in both the air and water that condense on the skin. Calculation of contaminates in both the air and water that condense on the skin. Calculation of dermal exposure to COPC from water contacting the skin is typical represented by dermal exposure to COPC from water contacting the skin is typical represented by the following equations: the following equations:
Cdw⋅⋅ SA f SA,3 l ⋅ Kp l ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED ⋅ CF Cdw⋅⋅ SA f SA,3 l ⋅ Kp l ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED ⋅ CF Idl, = (16) Idl, = (16) BW⋅⋅ AT CF2 BW⋅⋅ AT CF2 where: where:
Id,l = intake of COPCs from dermal absorption to liquid within the sweat Id,l = intake of COPCs from dermal absorption to liquid within the sweat lodge (mg/kg-day) lodge (mg/kg-day)
Cdw = dissolved-phase surface water concentration (mg/L); calculated Cdw = dissolved-phase surface water concentration (mg/L); calculated according to EPA 1998a, Appendix B according to EPA 1998a, Appendix B 2 2 SAl = body surface area available for contact (m ) SAl = body surface area available for contact (m )
fSA,l = fraction of skin area (SA) in contract with liquid (unitless) fSA,l = fraction of skin area (SA) in contract with liquid (unitless)
Kpl = COPC-specific water-to-skin permeability constant (cm/hr) Kpl = COPC-specific water-to-skin permeability constant (cm/hr) ET = exposure time (hr/event) ET = exposure time (hr/event) EF = exposure frequency (events/yr) EF = exposure frequency (events/yr) ED = exposure duration (yr) ED = exposure duration (yr)
CF2 = units conversion factor of 365 (day/yr) CF2 = units conversion factor of 365 (day/yr) 2 2 CF3 = units conversion factor of 10 (L/m -cm) CF3 = units conversion factor of 10 (L/m -cm) BW = body weight (kg) BW = body weight (kg)
AT = averaging time for carcinogens (ATC) or noncarcinogens (ATN) (yr) AT = averaging time for carcinogens (ATC) or noncarcinogens (ATN) (yr)
CTUIR Scenario 223 CTUIR Scenario 223
Dermal exposure resulting from skin contact with contaminants in the air is Dermal exposure resulting from skin contact with contaminants in the air is calculated as: calculated as:
CvSAvv⋅⋅ SA f,1 ⋅ Kp ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED ⋅ CF CvSAvv⋅⋅ SA f,1 ⋅ Kp ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED ⋅ CF Idv, = (17) Idv, = (17) BW⋅⋅ AT CF2 BW⋅⋅ AT CF2 where: where:
Id,v = intake of COPCs from dermal absorption to vapor within the sweat Id,v = intake of COPCs from dermal absorption to vapor within the sweat lodge (mg/kg-day) lodge (mg/kg-day) 3 3 Cv = vapor-phase concentration for a COPC (mg/m ) Cv = vapor-phase concentration for a COPC (mg/m )
fSA,v = fraction of skin area (SA) in contract with vapor (unitless) fSA,v = fraction of skin area (SA) in contract with vapor (unitless)
Kpv = COPC-specific vapor to skin permeability constant (cm/hr) Kpv = COPC-specific vapor to skin permeability constant (cm/hr)
CF1 = units conversion factor of 0.01 (m/cm) CF1 = units conversion factor of 0.01 (m/cm)
B.2.1 Volatile and Semi-Volatile Compounds B.2.1 Volatile and Semi-Volatile Compounds Dermal exposure should be calculated using the same assumptions described for Dermal exposure should be calculated using the same assumptions described for inhalation exposure. For volatile and semi-volatile compounds (defined as those with inhalation exposure. For volatile and semi-volatile compounds (defined as those with a boiling point less than or equal to 339 °K), 100% volatilization with a hemispherical a boiling point less than or equal to 339 °K), 100% volatilization with a hemispherical sweat lodge was assumed. Hence, the primary exposure pathway will be from vapor sweat lodge was assumed. Hence, the primary exposure pathway will be from vapor and exposure from condensed water can be neglected. The vapor concentration of and exposure from condensed water can be neglected. The vapor concentration of COPC causing dermal exposure is identical to the inhalation concentration and is COPC causing dermal exposure is identical to the inhalation concentration and is given by equations 3 and 5. Combining equations 3 and 5 with Equation 17 and given by equations 3 and 5. Combining equations 3 and 5 with Equation 17 and integrating between the limits of 0 and ET results in the following prediction from integrating between the limits of 0 and ET results in the following prediction from dermal exposure to volatile and semi-volatile compounds: dermal exposure to volatile and semi-volatile compounds:
⎛⎞V ⎛⎞1 ⎛⎞V ⎛⎞1 C⋅⋅w, total ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ SA f Kp ET EF ED CF C⋅⋅w, total ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ SA f Kp ET EF ED CF dw⎜⎟⎜⎟2 3 SA,1 v v dw⎜⎟⎜⎟2 3 SA,1 v v ⎝⎠2 ⎝⎠3 ⋅⋅π r ⎝⎠2 ⎝⎠3 ⋅⋅π r IId,, total== d v (18) IId,, total== d v (18) BW⋅⋅ AT CF2 BW⋅⋅ AT CF2 where Id,total is the total dermal exposure rate for volatile and semi-volatile where Id,total is the total dermal exposure rate for volatile and semi-volatile compounds. Table B.3 provides a list of typical values for the parameters used in compounds. Table B.3 provides a list of typical values for the parameters used in Equation 18. Equation 18.
CTUIR Scenario 224 CTUIR Scenario 224
Table B.3. Typical parameter values for calculating total dermal exposure rate Table B.3. Typical parameter values for calculating total dermal exposure rate (Id,total) for volatile and semi-volatile compounds. (Id,total) for volatile and semi-volatile compounds.
Parameter Typical Value Unit Parameter Typical Value Unit Volume of water used in a sweat (Vw,total) 4 L Volume of water used in a sweat (Vw,total) 4 L Radius of a hemispherical sweat lodge (r) 1 m Radius of a hemispherical sweat lodge (r) 1 m Body surface area available for contact (SA) 1.8 m2 Body surface area available for contact (SA) 1.8 m2 Fraction of skin area (SA) in contact with vapor (fSA,v) 0.0–1.0 unitless Fraction of skin area (SA) in contact with vapor (fSA,v) 0.0–1.0 unitless COPC-specific permeability constant for vapor exposure (Kpv) 1 to 1E-5 cm/hr COPC-specific permeability constant for vapor exposure (Kpv) 1 to 1E-5 cm/hr Length of a sweat event (ET) 1 hr/event Length of a sweat event (ET) 1 hr/event Number of sweats per year (EF) 365 events/yr Number of sweats per year (EF) 365 events/yr Number of years a person sweats in a life time (ED) 64 yr Number of years a person sweats in a life time (ED) 64 yr Average body weight (BW) 70 kg Average body weight (BW) 70 kg Averaging time (AT) 70 (carcinogen) yr Averaging time (AT) 70 (carcinogen) yr ED (noncarcinogens) ED (noncarcinogens) Conversion factor (CF1) 0.01 m/cm Conversion factor (CF1) 0.01 m/cm Conversion factor (CF2) 365 day/yr Conversion factor (CF2) 365 day/yr
B.2.2 Nonvolatile Compounds B.2.2 Nonvolatile Compounds For non-volatile compounds (defined as those with a boiling point greater than 339 For non-volatile compounds (defined as those with a boiling point greater than 339 °K), the dermal exposure assumptions would result in a concentration in condensed °K), the dermal exposure assumptions would result in a concentration in condensed water equal to that of the water added to the heated rocks and a vapor concentration water equal to that of the water added to the heated rocks and a vapor concentration as described by Equation 14. Thus, exposure through dermal contact resulting from as described by Equation 14. Thus, exposure through dermal contact resulting from water condensing on the skin would be calculated using the following equation: water condensing on the skin would be calculated using the following equation:
Cdw⋅⋅ SA f SA,3 l ⋅ Kp l ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED ⋅ CF Cdw⋅⋅ SA f SA,3 l ⋅ Kp l ⋅ ET ⋅ EF ⋅ ED ⋅ CF Idl, = (19) Idl, = (19) BW⋅⋅ AT CF2 BW⋅⋅ AT CF2
The dermal exposure to COCP in the vapor phase is represented by combining The dermal exposure to COCP in the vapor phase is represented by combining equations 17 and 14 as follows: equations 17 and 14 as follows:
⎛⎞(SA⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ fSA,1 v Kp v ET EF ED CF ⎛⎞MWw ⎛⎞(SA⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ fSA,1 v Kp v ET EF ED CF ⎛⎞MWw ICdv, =⋅⋅⋅⎜⎟ dw ⎜⎟... ICdv, =⋅⋅⋅⎜⎟ dw ⎜⎟... BW⋅⋅ AT CF R ⋅⋅ T ρ BW⋅⋅ AT CF R ⋅⋅ T ρ ⎝⎠2 ⎝⎠w (20) ⎝⎠2 ⎝⎠w (20) ⎛⎞3816.44 ⎛⎞3816.44 ...EXP ⎜⎟ 18.3036 − ...EXP ⎜⎟ 18.3036 − ⎝⎠T − 46.13 ⎝⎠T − 46.13
In this equation fSA,v and Kpv represent the fraction of skin area (SA) in contact with In this equation fSA,v and Kpv represent the fraction of skin area (SA) in contact with vapor and the COPC-specific permeability coefficient for a contaminant from vapor vapor and the COPC-specific permeability coefficient for a contaminant from vapor to the skin. to the skin.
CTUIR Scenario 225 CTUIR Scenario 225
The total dermal exposure for nonvolatile compounds is thus represented by the The total dermal exposure for nonvolatile compounds is thus represented by the sum of Id,v and Id,l. That is: sum of Id,v and Id,l. That is:
I d ,total = I d ,v + I d ,l (21) I d ,total = I d ,v + I d ,l (21)
It should be noted that at the temperature conditions assumed for a sweat lodge it is It should be noted that at the temperature conditions assumed for a sweat lodge it is acceptable to neglect the vapor component of dermal exposure, since it will always acceptable to neglect the vapor component of dermal exposure, since it will always be less than 0.2% of the liquid exposure value. This can be demonstrated by be less than 0.2% of the liquid exposure value. This can be demonstrated by computing the ratio of the vapor to liquid exposure rates. In this calculation it should computing the ratio of the vapor to liquid exposure rates. In this calculation it should be recognized that, in a sweat lodge, more of the body surface area will be covered be recognized that, in a sweat lodge, more of the body surface area will be covered with a layer of liquid water (condensation and perspiration) than would be dry and so with a layer of liquid water (condensation and perspiration) than would be dry and so available for only vapor contact (i.e., fSA,l > fSA,v). In addition the vapor permeability available for only vapor contact (i.e., fSA,l > fSA,v). In addition the vapor permeability coefficient is generally within an order of magnitude of the corresponding liquid coefficient is generally within an order of magnitude of the corresponding liquid coefficient (EPA 1992). With these assumptions the ratio of vapor to liquid dermal coefficient (EPA 1992). With these assumptions the ratio of vapor to liquid dermal exposure is given by: exposure is given by:
Ifdv,,CF1 ⋅ MWwv SAv Kp ⎛⎞3816.44 − 3 Ifdv,,CF1 ⋅ MWwv SAv Kp ⎛⎞3816.44 − 3 =⋅⋅⋅−≤×EXP ⎜⎟18.3036 1.6 10 (22) =⋅⋅⋅−≤×EXP ⎜⎟18.3036 1.6 10 (22) ICFRTfKpdl,3⋅⋅⋅ρ w SAl , l ⎝⎠ T −46.13 ICFRTfKpdl,3⋅⋅⋅ρ w SAl , l ⎝⎠ T −46.13
Hence, for the purposes of this evaluation the dermal exposure to nonvolatile Hence, for the purposes of this evaluation the dermal exposure to nonvolatile compounds can be represented by: compounds can be represented by:
Idtotal,,= I dl (23) Idtotal,,= I dl (23)
CTUIR Scenario 226 CTUIR Scenario 226
Table B.4 provides a list of typical values for the parameters used in Equations 19 Table B.4 provides a list of typical values for the parameters used in Equations 19 through 23. through 23.
Table B.4. Typical parameter values for calculating total dermal exposure for Table B.4. Typical parameter values for calculating total dermal exposure for nonvolatile compounds (Id,total). nonvolatile compounds (Id,total).
Parameter Typical Value Unit Parameter Typical Value Unit Volume of water used in a sweat (Vw,total) 4 L Volume of water used in a sweat (Vw,total) 4 L Radius of a hemispherical sweat lodge (r) 1 m Radius of a hemispherical sweat lodge (r) 1 m Body surface area available for contact (SA) 1.8 m2 Body surface area available for contact (SA) 1.8 m2 Fraction of skin area (SA) in contact with liquid (fSA,l) 0.0–1.0 unitless Fraction of skin area (SA) in contact with liquid (fSA,l) 0.0–1.0 unitless Fraction of skin area (SA) in contact with vapor (fSA,v) 1.0–fSA,l unitless Fraction of skin area (SA) in contact with vapor (fSA,v) 1.0–fSA,l unitless COPC-specific permeability constant from vapor 1 to 1E-5 cm/hr COPC-specific permeability constant from vapor 1 to 1E-5 cm/hr contact with skin (Kpv) contact with skin (Kpv) COPC-specific permeability constant from water 1 to 1E-5 cm/hr COPC-specific permeability constant from water 1 to 1E-5 cm/hr contact with skin (Kpl) contact with skin (Kpl) Length of a sweat event (ET) 1 hr Length of a sweat event (ET) 1 hr Number of sweats per year (EF) 365 events/yr Number of sweats per year (EF) 365 events/yr Number of years a person sweats in a life time (ED) 64 yr Number of years a person sweats in a life time (ED) 64 yr Average body weight (BW) 70 kg Average body weight (BW) 70 kg Averaging time (AT) 70 (carcinogen) yr Averaging time (AT) 70 (carcinogen) yr ED ED (noncarcinogens) (noncarcinogens) Molecular weight of water (MWw) 18 g/gmole Molecular weight of water (MWw) 18 g/gmole Density of liquid water (ρw) 1000 g/L Density of liquid water (ρw) 1000 g/L Temperature of the sweat lodge (T) 389 (150) K (F) Temperature of the sweat lodge (T) 389 (150) K (F) Ideal gas law constant (R) 0.06237 (mmHg·m3)/(gmole·K) Ideal gas law constant (R) 0.06237 (mmHg·m3)/(gmole·K) Conversion factor (CF1) 0.01 m/cm Conversion factor (CF1) 0.01 m/cm Conversion factor (CF2) 365 day/yr Conversion factor (CF2) 365 day/yr 2 2 Conversion factor (CF3) 10 L/m -cm Conversion factor (CF3) 10 L/m -cm
B.3 REFERENCES B.3 REFERENCES Himmelblau, D.M. (1982). Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Himmelblau, D.M. (1982). Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering: 591. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Engineering: 591. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
U.S. EPA (1998a). “Human Health Risk Assessment Protocol for Hazardous Waste U.S. EPA (1998a). “Human Health Risk Assessment Protocol for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response,” July Combustion Facilities. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response,” July 1998. EPA530-D-98-001A 1998. EPA530-D-98-001A
U.S. EPA (1992). “Dermal Exposure Assessment: Principles and Applications.” U.S. EPA (1992). “Dermal Exposure Assessment: Principles and Applications.” Office of Health and Environmental Assessment. January 1992. EPA/6008- Office of Health and Environmental Assessment. January 1992. EPA/6008- 91/011B. 91/011B.
Spokane Tribe Scenario 227 Spokane Tribe Scenario 227
The Spokane Tribe’s Multipathway Subsistence The Spokane Tribe’s Multipathway Subsistence Exposure Scenario and Screening Level RME Exposure Scenario and Screening Level RME
by by
Barbara L. Harper,1∗ Bryan Flett,2 Stuart Harris,3 Barbara L. Harper,1∗ Bryan Flett,2 Stuart Harris,3 Corn Abeyta,1 and Fred Kirschner1 Corn Abeyta,1 and Fred Kirschner1
reprinted with permission of the publisher, reprinted with permission of the publisher,
Risk Analysis (Vol. 22, No. 3, 2002) Risk Analysis (Vol. 22, No. 3, 2002)
1 AESE, Inc.,Valleyford, WA. 1 AESE, Inc.,Valleyford, WA. ∗ Address correspondence to Dr. Barbara L. Harper, AESE, Inc., 44803 E. Alderbrook Ct., West ∗ Address correspondence to Dr. Barbara L. Harper, AESE, Inc., 44803 E. Alderbrook Ct., West Richland, WA 99353; [email protected]. Richland, WA 99353; [email protected]. 2 Spokane Tribe of Indians, Wellpinit, WA. 2 Spokane Tribe of Indians, Wellpinit, WA. 3 Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, Pendleton, OR. 3 Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, Pendleton, OR.
Spokane Tribe Scenario 228 Spokane Tribe Scenario 228
ABSTRACT ABSTRACT
Exposure scenarios are a critical part of risk assessment; however, representative Exposure scenarios are a critical part of risk assessment; however, representative scenarios are not generally available for tribal communities where a traditional scenarios are not generally available for tribal communities where a traditional subsistence lifestyle and diet are relevant and actively encouraged. This article subsistence lifestyle and diet are relevant and actively encouraged. This article presents portions of a multipathway exposure scenario developed by AESE, Inc. in presents portions of a multipathway exposure scenario developed by AESE, Inc. in conjunction with the Spokane Tribal Cultural Resources Program. The scenario conjunction with the Spokane Tribal Cultural Resources Program. The scenario serves as the basis for a screening-level reasonable maximum exposure (RME) serves as the basis for a screening-level reasonable maximum exposure (RME) developed for the Midnite Uranium Mine Superfund site. The process used in developed for the Midnite Uranium Mine Superfund site. The process used in developing this scenario balances the need to characterize exposures without developing this scenario balances the need to characterize exposures without revealing proprietary information. The scenario and resulting RME reflect the revealing proprietary information. The scenario and resulting RME reflect the subsistence use of original and existing natural resources by a hypothetical but subsistence use of original and existing natural resources by a hypothetical but representative family living on the reservation at or near the mine site. The representative family living on the reservation at or near the mine site. The representative family lives in a house in a sparsely populated conifer forest, tends a representative family lives in a house in a sparsely populated conifer forest, tends a home garden, partakes in a high rate of subsistence activities (hunting, gathering, home garden, partakes in a high rate of subsistence activities (hunting, gathering, fishing), uses a sweat lodge daily, has a regular schedule of other cultural activities, fishing), uses a sweat lodge daily, has a regular schedule of other cultural activities, and has members employed in outdoor monitoring of natural and cultural resources. and has members employed in outdoor monitoring of natural and cultural resources. The scenario includes two largely subsistence diets based on fish or game, both of The scenario includes two largely subsistence diets based on fish or game, both of which include native plants and home-grown produce. Data gaps and sources of which include native plants and home-grown produce. Data gaps and sources of uncertainty are identified. Additional information that risk assessors and agencies uncertainty are identified. Additional information that risk assessors and agencies need to understand before doing any kind of risk assessment or public health need to understand before doing any kind of risk assessment or public health assessment in tribal situations is presented. assessment in tribal situations is presented.
Key Words: Native American; subsistence diet; multipathway; exposure scenario Key Words: Native American; subsistence diet; multipathway; exposure scenario
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1 INTRODUCTION 1 INTRODUCTION
Exposure assessment has been termed the “wasteland of risk assessment”4 Exposure assessment has been termed the “wasteland of risk assessment”4 because so much information is lacking with regard to exposure patterns and rates, because so much information is lacking with regard to exposure patterns and rates, and this is especially true for specific populations such as Native American and this is especially true for specific populations such as Native American communities. The need to address a tribe’s subsistence exposure is based on communities. The need to address a tribe’s subsistence exposure is based on fundamental considerations of the tribe, as a people, and the role the reservation fundamental considerations of the tribe, as a people, and the role the reservation and its natural resources play in supporting them. The United States recognizes that and its natural resources play in supporting them. The United States recognizes that Indian reservations were, and are, intended to provide permanent homelands for Indian reservations were, and are, intended to provide permanent homelands for members of the particular tribes. As such, those members possess the inherent right members of the particular tribes. As such, those members possess the inherent right to use reservation natural resources for subsistence, religious, and other cultural to use reservation natural resources for subsistence, religious, and other cultural purposes. The Spokane Tribe’s effort to preserve its culture and environmental purposes. The Spokane Tribe’s effort to preserve its culture and environmental quality has, on numerous occasions, been formally memorialized by quality has, on numerous occasions, been formally memorialized by pronouncements of the Tribe’s official governing body. The immediate impetus for pronouncements of the Tribe’s official governing body. The immediate impetus for developing this tribal scenario is the Midnite Uranium Mine Superfund Site, an developing this tribal scenario is the Midnite Uranium Mine Superfund Site, an inactive open-pit uranium mine located on the Spokane Reservation, that has inactive open-pit uranium mine located on the Spokane Reservation, that has contaminated various media with radionuclides and heavy metals. The exposure contaminated various media with radionuclides and heavy metals. The exposure scenario described herein is an effort to ensure the proper evaluation of risk to scenario described herein is an effort to ensure the proper evaluation of risk to Spokane Tribal members who engage in traditional practices in areas affected by Spokane Tribal members who engage in traditional practices in areas affected by the mine. While this scenario attempts to include as many activities related to the mine. While this scenario attempts to include as many activities related to Spokane cultural practices as possible, there undoubtedly exist unintended Spokane cultural practices as possible, there undoubtedly exist unintended omissions and instances of understated exposure. It is important for readers to omissions and instances of understated exposure. It is important for readers to understand that this scenario is designed to reflect traditional lifestyles whose understand that this scenario is designed to reflect traditional lifestyles whose practice has been and remain the long-term intent of the tribal council, rather than a practice has been and remain the long-term intent of the tribal council, rather than a current snapshot of statistical cross-sectional surveys. While the latter may be more current snapshot of statistical cross-sectional surveys. While the latter may be more “quantitative,” they would not provide the level of protection needed for safe practice “quantitative,” they would not provide the level of protection needed for safe practice of traditional ways. of traditional ways.
The scenario relies on existing ethnographic information about traditional Spokane The scenario relies on existing ethnographic information about traditional Spokane lifestyles identified by the Tribe as accurate(1-3) as well as confirmatory interviews lifestyles identified by the Tribe as accurate(1-3) as well as confirmatory interviews with elders. The Spokane Tribe has determined that information regarding cultural with elders. The Spokane Tribe has determined that information regarding cultural activities, gathering areas, and resources is a cultural resource, and restricts access activities, gathering areas, and resources is a cultural resource, and restricts access to that information (Spokane Tribal Resolution 1996-0018); therefore, details to that information (Spokane Tribal Resolution 1996-0018); therefore, details regarding specific species, locations, uses, or activities that are deemed proprietary regarding specific species, locations, uses, or activities that are deemed proprietary have been omitted. have been omitted.
The scenario also serves as the basis for a screening-level reasonable maximum The scenario also serves as the basis for a screening-level reasonable maximum exposure (RME) developed for the Midnite Uranium Mine Superfund site. This paper exposure (RME) developed for the Midnite Uranium Mine Superfund site. This paper presents portions of a multipathway exposure scenario developed by AESE, Inc.(4) in presents portions of a multipathway exposure scenario developed by AESE, Inc.(4) in conjunction with the Spokane Tribal Cultural Resources Program. It includes dietary conjunction with the Spokane Tribal Cultural Resources Program. It includes dietary factors specific to the Spokane Tribe and builds on previous work(5), refines some of factors specific to the Spokane Tribe and builds on previous work(5), refines some of the exposure factors used in earlier work, and demonstrates how a complex the exposure factors used in earlier work, and demonstrates how a complex scenario can be used to develop a screening-level RME under CERCLA. It should scenario can be used to develop a screening-level RME under CERCLA. It should be noted that the term “subsistence” has been used in this article as a short-hand be noted that the term “subsistence” has been used in this article as a short-hand
4 Carol Henry, American Chemistry Council, quoted in Wakeland, 2001 EHP 108(12): A559. 4 Carol Henry, American Chemistry Council, quoted in Wakeland, 2001 EHP 108(12): A559.
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term which encompasses a broader range of activities than those necessary to term which encompasses a broader range of activities than those necessary to sustaining human life such as eating and drinking. It includes other cultural and sustaining human life such as eating and drinking. It includes other cultural and religious practices as well, such as medicinal and ceremonial uses of natural religious practices as well, such as medicinal and ceremonial uses of natural resources. resources.
Our experience in developing tribal subsistence-based exposure scenarios has led Our experience in developing tribal subsistence-based exposure scenarios has led to a set of technical, ethical, and procedural rules: to a set of technical, ethical, and procedural rules:
• To be most useful to regulators and others seeking to protect the health of • To be most useful to regulators and others seeking to protect the health of subsistence users, the information should be developed with an eye toward subsistence users, the information should be developed with an eye toward satisfying appropriate court rules for admissibility of expert testimony. While both satisfying appropriate court rules for admissibility of expert testimony. While both state and federal courts have such rules, Federal Rule of Evidence 702, on which state and federal courts have such rules, Federal Rule of Evidence 702, on which many state court rules are modeled, is the most widely applied and interpreted. many state court rules are modeled, is the most widely applied and interpreted. Rule 702 permits “a witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, Rule 702 permits “a witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education” to testify when his or her “scientific, technical, experience, training, or education” to testify when his or her “scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to understand the or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue.” In response to two U.S. Supreme Court evidence or to determine a fact in issue.” In response to two U.S. Supreme Court cases holding trial judges responsible for excluding unreliable expert testimony, cases holding trial judges responsible for excluding unreliable expert testimony, Rule 702 recently was qualified by amendment. To be admissible, the rule now Rule 702 recently was qualified by amendment. To be admissible, the rule now requires federal courts to find: “(1) the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or requires federal courts to find: “(1) the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data, (2) the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) data, (2) the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case.” The subsistence scenario incorporates information from a variety of case.” The subsistence scenario incorporates information from a variety of disciplines, including cultural and traditional environmental knowledge. To disciplines, including cultural and traditional environmental knowledge. To prevent a challenge to the admissibility of the subsistence scenario as being prevent a challenge to the admissibility of the subsistence scenario as being unreliable, we wish to ensure that the subsistence scenario has been developed unreliable, we wish to ensure that the subsistence scenario has been developed as much as possible using general scientific criteria adopted from the Daubert as much as possible using general scientific criteria adopted from the Daubert case:5 case:5
5 See Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993) (holding trial courts 5 See Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993) (holding trial courts responsible for excluding unreliable scientific expert testimony); Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael, 526 responsible for excluding unreliable scientific expert testimony); Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael, 526 U.S. 137 (1999) (holding trial courts responsible for excluding unreliable nonscientific expert U.S. 137 (1999) (holding trial courts responsible for excluding unreliable nonscientific expert testimony). An authoritative discussion of Daubert and the reliability tests for expert testimony is testimony). An authoritative discussion of Daubert and the reliability tests for expert testimony is contained in the Federal Rules of Evidence Advisory Committee Notes, which accompany Rule 702. contained in the Federal Rules of Evidence Advisory Committee Notes, which accompany Rule 702. They include a “nonexclusive” list of considerations for reliability of scientific expert testimony under They include a “nonexclusive” list of considerations for reliability of scientific expert testimony under Daubert: Daubert:
(1) whether the expert’s technique or theory can be or has been tested—that is, whether the (1) whether the expert’s technique or theory can be or has been tested—that is, whether the expert’s theory can be challenged in some objective sense, or whether it is instead simply a expert’s theory can be challenged in some objective sense, or whether it is instead simply a subjective, conclusory approach that cannot reasonably be assessed for reliability; subjective, conclusory approach that cannot reasonably be assessed for reliability; (2) whether the technique or theory has been subject to peer review and publication; (2) whether the technique or theory has been subject to peer review and publication; (3) the known or potential rate of error of the technique or theory when applied; (3) the known or potential rate of error of the technique or theory when applied; (4) the existence and maintenance of standards and controls; and (4) the existence and maintenance of standards and controls; and (5) whether the technique or theory has been generally accepted in the scientific community. (5) whether the technique or theory has been generally accepted in the scientific community.
Kumho found that depending on the particular circumstances of the case, these factors may also Kumho found that depending on the particular circumstances of the case, these factors may also apply to nonscientific testimony. Other factors considered by post-Daubert courts include: whether the apply to nonscientific testimony. Other factors considered by post-Daubert courts include: whether the expert’s opinions were developed independent of litigation or for the purpose of testifying; whether expert’s opinions were developed independent of litigation or for the purpose of testifying; whether there exists too great an analytical gap between data and opinion; whether obvious alternative there exists too great an analytical gap between data and opinion; whether obvious alternative explanations have been accounted for; and whether the same level of intellectual rigor is applied in explanations have been accounted for; and whether the same level of intellectual rigor is applied in
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• That each parameter can be tested or verified (documented, modeled, • That each parameter can be tested or verified (documented, modeled, measured, or elicited from acknowledged experts), and that each assumption measured, or elicited from acknowledged experts), and that each assumption has been systematically validated. Risk assessors can rely on ethnographic has been systematically validated. Risk assessors can rely on ethnographic data, verbal representations from subsistence practitioners, and so on. We data, verbal representations from subsistence practitioners, and so on. We relied on (1) open peer-reviewed literature on exposures through different but relied on (1) open peer-reviewed literature on exposures through different but analogous pathways and caloric content of foods, (2) ethnographic analogous pathways and caloric content of foods, (2) ethnographic documents and reports concerning traditional lifestyles and practices, and (3) documents and reports concerning traditional lifestyles and practices, and (3) statements from tribally recognized cultural experts. This latter expertise statements from tribally recognized cultural experts. This latter expertise derives from their traditional environmental knowledge, and is based on derives from their traditional environmental knowledge, and is based on confidential information, so we cannot verify it in the sense of reanalyzing raw confidential information, so we cannot verify it in the sense of reanalyzing raw numerical data, but we can verify the expertise of the cultural experts who numerical data, but we can verify the expertise of the cultural experts who summarized their knowledge of resources and activity patterns for us. summarized their knowledge of resources and activity patterns for us. • That another risk assessor could repeat the same steps and would construct • That another risk assessor could repeat the same steps and would construct essentially the same scenario, because the approach for developing an essentially the same scenario, because the approach for developing an exposure scenario is fairly standardized. exposure scenario is fairly standardized. • That the scenario is accepted by colleagues as reasonable and factual rather • That the scenario is accepted by colleagues as reasonable and factual rather than eccentric, unreliable, or mere opinion, or that it meets the “general than eccentric, unreliable, or mere opinion, or that it meets the “general acceptance” test set forth in Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (App. D.C. acceptance” test set forth in Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (App. D.C. 1923), the predecessor case to Daubert. We satisfy this criteria by obtaining 1923), the predecessor case to Daubert. We satisfy this criteria by obtaining peer review from qualified colleagues (“the relevant scientific community”) peer review from qualified colleagues (“the relevant scientific community”) even beyond the editorial peer-review process. Does this mean that exposure even beyond the editorial peer-review process. Does this mean that exposure scenarios for over 500 tribes must be peer reviewed and published in Risk scenarios for over 500 tribes must be peer reviewed and published in Risk Analysis in order to be admissible in court should they be challenged during a Analysis in order to be admissible in court should they be challenged during a CERCLA or NEPA process? We believe that if a standardized process is CERCLA or NEPA process? We believe that if a standardized process is followed and the scenario is reviewed by an advisory board of qualified peers followed and the scenario is reviewed by an advisory board of qualified peers that actual publication is not necessary, even though publication in a peer- that actual publication is not necessary, even though publication in a peer- reviewed journal is a commonly accepted standard for peer review. reviewed journal is a commonly accepted standard for peer review.
• The scenario must be both scientifically relevant and reliable, and culturally • The scenario must be both scientifically relevant and reliable, and culturally relevant and reliable. The process must be culturally sensitive, respectful, draw relevant and reliable. The process must be culturally sensitive, respectful, draw on traditional environmental knowledge (such as the observational expertise of on traditional environmental knowledge (such as the observational expertise of elders), and must be developed from within the tribe by a toxicologist/risk elders), and must be developed from within the tribe by a toxicologist/risk assessor in partnership with tribal cultural and technical experts. Collaboration assessor in partnership with tribal cultural and technical experts. Collaboration with the Cultural Resources Program provided the cultural assurance. with the Cultural Resources Program provided the cultural assurance. • Policy-level approval must be obtained. The process must meet Institutional • Policy-level approval must be obtained. The process must meet Institutional Review Board rules or their equivalent for conducting human research (which we Review Board rules or their equivalent for conducting human research (which we believe includes cultural or anthropological research) such as informed consent, believe includes cultural or anthropological research) such as informed consent, benefit to the tribal community, disclosure of the risk of adverse consequences, benefit to the tribal community, disclosure of the risk of adverse consequences, and confidentiality. Repeated conversations with tribal program managers and/or and confidentiality. Repeated conversations with tribal program managers and/or policy makers ensured that there was an understanding of the way that the risk policy makers ensured that there was an understanding of the way that the risk information was to be used, the potential adverse consequences of developing a information was to be used, the potential adverse consequences of developing a scenario from a risk acceptance perspective or precedent, and related concerns. scenario from a risk acceptance perspective or precedent, and related concerns. the testimony as would be required in field practice. In addition to reliability, courts will require a the testimony as would be required in field practice. In addition to reliability, courts will require a testifying expert to be “qualified,” and the testimony must be relevant and helpful to the trier of fact. testifying expert to be “qualified,” and the testimony must be relevant and helpful to the trier of fact. Thus, the emphasis is on testimony being relevant and reliable more than on whether there is a strict Thus, the emphasis is on testimony being relevant and reliable more than on whether there is a strict litmus test of generating a theory and statistically testing a null hypothesis. litmus test of generating a theory and statistically testing a null hypothesis.
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• Identifying resources and activities on a base map overlain by ecological • Identifying resources and activities on a base map overlain by ecological habitats, and constructing a dependency web (culturally relevant natural history habitats, and constructing a dependency web (culturally relevant natural history diagrams)(6) as a pictorial representation of the ethnohabitat proved helpful. A diagrams)(6) as a pictorial representation of the ethnohabitat proved helpful. A subsistence food pyramid is another useful tool. subsistence food pyramid is another useful tool.
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2 THE SPOKANE TRIBE AND ITS ECOCULTURAL LANDSCAPE 2 THE SPOKANE TRIBE AND ITS ECOCULTURAL LANDSCAPE
The Spokane Indians are part of the Interior Salish group, which has inhabited The Spokane Indians are part of the Interior Salish group, which has inhabited northeastern Washington and northern Idaho since time immemorial.(1) The Spokane northeastern Washington and northern Idaho since time immemorial.(1) The Spokane Reservation lies at the confluence of the Spokane and Columbia Rivers in Reservation lies at the confluence of the Spokane and Columbia Rivers in northeastern Washington. Salmon was the most important commodity in the early northeastern Washington. Salmon was the most important commodity in the early economy of the Tribe. Since the construction of Columbia River dams the economy of the Tribe. Since the construction of Columbia River dams the anadromous salmon are no longer available. Instead, Kokanee (landlocked sockeye anadromous salmon are no longer available. Instead, Kokanee (landlocked sockeye salmon) and resident trout and other species have been substituted. Abundant game salmon) and resident trout and other species have been substituted. Abundant game also supports an alternative game diet, along with a wide variety of roots, berries, also supports an alternative game diet, along with a wide variety of roots, berries, and other plants. Because the reservation is still fairly pristine and undeveloped, it and other plants. Because the reservation is still fairly pristine and undeveloped, it provides enough resources for some members to continue a traditional subsistence provides enough resources for some members to continue a traditional subsistence dietary lifestyle, and for all members to obtain traditional foods. dietary lifestyle, and for all members to obtain traditional foods.
The ecology of the reservation area is characteristic of the arid montane areas of the The ecology of the reservation area is characteristic of the arid montane areas of the northern Columbia Basin transitioning into the Okanagon highlands to the north. northern Columbia Basin transitioning into the Okanagon highlands to the north. Annual precipitation is approximately 16 inches. The Spokane lands include the two Annual precipitation is approximately 16 inches. The Spokane lands include the two major rivers (the Columbia River and one of its tributaries, the Spokane River) major rivers (the Columbia River and one of its tributaries, the Spokane River) including the waters to their far banks, and various other large and small tributaries, including the waters to their far banks, and various other large and small tributaries, springs, ponds, and wetlands. Mount Spokane is a central feature of the reservation springs, ponds, and wetlands. Mount Spokane is a central feature of the reservation landscape. A Douglas fir zone exists at the highest elevations, with Ponderosa pine landscape. A Douglas fir zone exists at the highest elevations, with Ponderosa pine and Western juniper zones with a variety of understories at lower elevations, and and Western juniper zones with a variety of understories at lower elevations, and grassland-sagebrush shrub steppe and riparian areas along the waterways.(7-9) grassland-sagebrush shrub steppe and riparian areas along the waterways.(7-9) Areas affected by activities at the Midnite Mine include the mined area on Mount Areas affected by activities at the Midnite Mine include the mined area on Mount Spokane and adjacent upland habitats, several seeps and springs with riparian Spokane and adjacent upland habitats, several seeps and springs with riparian habitats, and a major creek (Blue Creek) which empties into the Spokane River arm habitats, and a major creek (Blue Creek) which empties into the Spokane River arm of Lake Roosevelt, the reservoir created in the Columbia River by the Grand Coulee of Lake Roosevelt, the reservoir created in the Columbia River by the Grand Coulee Dam.(10) Dam.(10)
The Spokane traditional lifestyle is governed by ecological seasons and the activities The Spokane traditional lifestyle is governed by ecological seasons and the activities that people undertake in response. A significant portion of the population follows this that people undertake in response. A significant portion of the population follows this lifestyle in full or in part. Hunting, fishing, and gathering are essential to support lifestyle in full or in part. Hunting, fishing, and gathering are essential to support nutritional, cultural, spiritual, and medicinal needs of tribal members. Hunting and nutritional, cultural, spiritual, and medicinal needs of tribal members. Hunting and gathering on the reservation is allowed based on the needs of the family. Typically, gathering on the reservation is allowed based on the needs of the family. Typically, all family members work in the field on a regular basis to keep the extended family all family members work in the field on a regular basis to keep the extended family unit stocked with a wide variety of plants and wildlife. While in the field, tribal unit stocked with a wide variety of plants and wildlife. While in the field, tribal members live off the land by consuming surface and spring water, wild plants, and members live off the land by consuming surface and spring water, wild plants, and wildlife. In addition to the time spent in hunting, fishing, or gathering, time is also wildlife. In addition to the time spent in hunting, fishing, or gathering, time is also spent cleaning, processing, and preserving hides, drying vegetal food or medicines, spent cleaning, processing, and preserving hides, drying vegetal food or medicines, and making a wide variety of items. The Spokane people use over 200 varieties of and making a wide variety of items. The Spokane people use over 200 varieties of plants.(11) Huckleberries are gathered, as are a wide variety of roots, shoots, moss, plants.(11) Huckleberries are gathered, as are a wide variety of roots, shoots, moss, leaves, stems, cambium, seeds, and flowers. Most natural resources have several leaves, stems, cambium, seeds, and flowers. Most natural resources have several human uses(12,13) as well as providing multiple ecological functions and services. A human uses(12,13) as well as providing multiple ecological functions and services. A more complete description of edible plants, ethnographic information, plant more complete description of edible plants, ethnographic information, plant technology, ethnobotany, and ethnopharmacology is found in AESE.(4) technology, ethnobotany, and ethnopharmacology is found in AESE.(4)
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The location of the Spokane Reservation is shown in Figure 1. The location of the Spokane Reservation is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Continental U.S. with Spokane Reservation Location Figure 1. Continental U.S. with Spokane Reservation Location
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3 GENERALIZED LIFESTYLE OF A REPRESENTATIVE COMPOSITE 3 GENERALIZED LIFESTYLE OF A REPRESENTATIVE COMPOSITE SPOKANE TRIBAL FAMILY SPOKANE TRIBAL FAMILY
This section describes a family-based exposure scenario founded on traditional This section describes a family-based exposure scenario founded on traditional Spokane lifestyles and diets (one fish-based diet and one game-based diet). This Spokane lifestyles and diets (one fish-based diet and one game-based diet). This hypothetical but representative family lives in a house in a sparsely populated hypothetical but representative family lives in a house in a sparsely populated conifer forest, tends a home garden, pursues a high rate of subsistence activities conifer forest, tends a home garden, pursues a high rate of subsistence activities and a regular schedule of other cultural activities. The lifestyle is moderately active, and a regular schedule of other cultural activities. The lifestyle is moderately active, with daily sweat lodge use and outdoor employment. The family composition was with daily sweat lodge use and outdoor employment. The family composition was determined with the guidance of the Spokane Tribal Culture Program and current determined with the guidance of the Spokane Tribal Culture Program and current tribal demographics. Each family includes an infant/child (age 0–2 years) who tribal demographics. Each family includes an infant/child (age 0–2 years) who breastfeeds for two years and crawls and plays; a child (age 2–6), a youth (age 7– breastfeeds for two years and crawls and plays; a child (age 2–6), a youth (age 7– 16) who attends school, plays outdoors near his/her residence, and is learning 16) who attends school, plays outdoors near his/her residence, and is learning traditional practices; two adult workers (one male, one female, age 17–55; the traditional practices; two adult workers (one male, one female, age 17–55; the female breastfeeds the infant) who work outdoors on reclamation and environmental female breastfeeds the infant) who work outdoors on reclamation and environmental and cultural activities and who also engage in subsistence activities, and an elder and cultural activities and who also engage in subsistence activities, and an elder (age 56–75) who is partly at home and partly outdoors teaching and demonstrating (age 56–75) who is partly at home and partly outdoors teaching and demonstrating traditional cultural practices. All members (except the infant) partake in family sweat traditional cultural practices. All members (except the infant) partake in family sweat lodge use and in cultural activities throughout the year. In actuality, a family typically lodge use and in cultural activities throughout the year. In actuality, a family typically includes members who are employed conventionally and members who are full-time includes members who are employed conventionally and members who are full-time subsistence providers. subsistence providers.
3.1 RESIDENCE 3.1 RESIDENCE A conventional suburban scenario would identify a person living at home and A conventional suburban scenario would identify a person living at home and growing a garden. The subsistence family is superficially similar to this, but they live growing a garden. The subsistence family is superficially similar to this, but they live in a more open house, spend more time outdoors in cultural and subsistence in a more open house, spend more time outdoors in cultural and subsistence activities, eat both garden and native foods, and are fully interactive with the activities, eat both garden and native foods, and are fully interactive with the environment. The family spends its entire lifetime on the reservation, rather than the environment. The family spends its entire lifetime on the reservation, rather than the suburban default assumption of 30 years. The house has no landscaping other than suburban default assumption of 30 years. The house has no landscaping other than the natural Ponderosa and understory, some naturally bare soil, a gravel driveway, the natural Ponderosa and understory, some naturally bare soil, a gravel driveway, no air conditioning, and a wood-burning stove in the winter for heat. Each house no air conditioning, and a wood-burning stove in the winter for heat. Each house has its own well for domestic use and a garden irrigated with groundwater and/or has its own well for domestic use and a garden irrigated with groundwater and/or surface water. Each house has a nearby sweat lodge. The amount of indoor dust is surface water. Each house has a nearby sweat lodge. The amount of indoor dust is not known, but is likely to be higher than in suburban communities with manicured not known, but is likely to be higher than in suburban communities with manicured lawns, air conditioning, and paved streets. lawns, air conditioning, and paved streets.
3.2 GENERALIZED DAILY ACTIVITY PATTERNS OF EACH FAMILY MEMBER 3.2 GENERALIZED DAILY ACTIVITY PATTERNS OF EACH FAMILY MEMBER Due to space limitations, the average daily activity pattern is not described for each Due to space limitations, the average daily activity pattern is not described for each age range and each gender, but in the full scenario, such information would be age range and each gender, but in the full scenario, such information would be included in this section.(6) While activities of Spokane males and females are included in this section.(6) While activities of Spokane males and females are different, they likely result in a similar frequency and duration of environmental different, they likely result in a similar frequency and duration of environmental contact, so the genders may be separated or combined. The daily activity patterns contact, so the genders may be separated or combined. The daily activity patterns can also be combined into entire lifetimes for the evaluation of cumulative risk. can also be combined into entire lifetimes for the evaluation of cumulative risk.
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3.3 SWEAT LODGE USE (AGES 2–75) 3.3 SWEAT LODGE USE (AGES 2–75) The daily use of the sweat lodge is an integral part of the lifestyle that starts at age The daily use of the sweat lodge is an integral part of the lifestyle that starts at age two. Sweat lodge construction has been described in the open literature.(14,15) two. Sweat lodge construction has been described in the open literature.(14,15) Although the details vary among tribes and among individual families, sweat lodges Although the details vary among tribes and among individual families, sweat lodges are generally round structures (6 feet in diameter for single-family use). A nearby fire are generally round structures (6 feet in diameter for single-family use). A nearby fire is used to heat rocks that are brought into the sweat lodge. Water (4L) is poured is used to heat rocks that are brought into the sweat lodge. Water (4L) is poured over the rocks to form steam (a confined hemispheric space with complete over the rocks to form steam (a confined hemispheric space with complete evaporation of the water, which is available for inhalation and dermal exposure over evaporation of the water, which is available for inhalation and dermal exposure over the entire skin area). Water is ingested (1L is included in the total drinking water the entire skin area). Water is ingested (1L is included in the total drinking water ingestion rate) and medicinal plants are used (not specifically included). ingestion rate) and medicinal plants are used (not specifically included).
3.4 CULTURAL ACTIVITIES 3.4 CULTURAL ACTIVITIES All persons participate in day-long outdoor group cultural activities once a month, All persons participate in day-long outdoor group cultural activities once a month, such as pow-wows, horse races, and seasonal ceremonial as well as private family such as pow-wows, horse races, and seasonal ceremonial as well as private family cultural activities. These activities tend to be large gatherings with a greater rate of cultural activities. These activities tend to be large gatherings with a greater rate of dust resuspension and particulate inhalation. Individuals also tend to be more active dust resuspension and particulate inhalation. Individuals also tend to be more active during the ceremonies, resulting in greater inhalation and water ingestion rates. during the ceremonies, resulting in greater inhalation and water ingestion rates. These activities are folded into the higher soil ingestion, water ingestion, and These activities are folded into the higher soil ingestion, water ingestion, and inhalation rates rather than being estimated on a single-event basis. inhalation rates rather than being estimated on a single-event basis.
3.5 DIET 3.5 DIET The Spokane food pyramid looks markedly different from the USDA food pyramid. The Spokane food pyramid looks markedly different from the USDA food pyramid. Caloric needs are generally cited in the range of 2,000 to 4,000 kcal per day for adult Caloric needs are generally cited in the range of 2,000 to 4,000 kcal per day for adult males, depending on the level of activity. We use 2,500 kcal/day for the Spokane males, depending on the level of activity. We use 2,500 kcal/day for the Spokane Tribe, based on a moderately active outdoor lifestyle and renowned athletic prowess Tribe, based on a moderately active outdoor lifestyle and renowned athletic prowess (as did Scholz(3)). The original diet of the Spokane Indians was based on salmon (as did Scholz(3)). The original diet of the Spokane Indians was based on salmon and included large and small game, roots, berries, and many other plants.(2, 3,11) and included large and small game, roots, berries, and many other plants.(2, 3,11) Hunn(16) estimated that 45% of the native Columbia Plateau dietary calories came Hunn(16) estimated that 45% of the native Columbia Plateau dietary calories came from protein (fish and game), with higher estimates for upriver tribes such as the from protein (fish and game), with higher estimates for upriver tribes such as the Spokane.(3) Historically, the Spokane Tribe consumed roughly 1,000 to 1,500 grams Spokane.(3) Historically, the Spokane Tribe consumed roughly 1,000 to 1,500 grams of salmon and other fish per day.(2,3) The most robust upper bound estimate of of salmon and other fish per day.(2,3) The most robust upper bound estimate of original (predam) salmon intake by the Spokane Tribe is the Walker estimate (cited original (predam) salmon intake by the Spokane Tribe is the Walker estimate (cited in Reference 3) of 1,200 pounds per year of salmon per adult, or 1,426 gpd (about 3 in Reference 3) of 1,200 pounds per year of salmon per adult, or 1,426 gpd (about 3 pounds/day), yielding 2,566 kcal/day before migration (i.e., if caught in the estuary) pounds/day), yielding 2,566 kcal/day before migration (i.e., if caught in the estuary) and 2566 x 0.64 = 1643 kcal/day after migration from the ocean to the Spokane and 2566 x 0.64 = 1643 kcal/day after migration from the ocean to the Spokane area. With the construction of the Grand Coulee Dam, the anadromous salmon runs area. With the construction of the Grand Coulee Dam, the anadromous salmon runs were destroyed, so there was a shift to big game and to Kokanee and resident trout. were destroyed, so there was a shift to big game and to Kokanee and resident trout. Because the intent of this scenario is to evaluate exposures that traditional members Because the intent of this scenario is to evaluate exposures that traditional members currently receive and that more members will receive as they regain a traditional currently receive and that more members will receive as they regain a traditional diet, two diets were evaluated: a high fish diet and a high game diet. Eighty percent diet, two diets were evaluated: a high fish diet and a high game diet. Eighty percent of each diet is native, augmented with vegetables grown in a household garden. The of each diet is native, augmented with vegetables grown in a household garden. The current realistic high fish diet based on availability, percentage of the diet, and current realistic high fish diet based on availability, percentage of the diet, and caloric content consists primarily of fish (885 g/d, somewhat lower than historical caloric content consists primarily of fish (885 g/d, somewhat lower than historical levels), supplemented by big game, aquatic amphibian/crustacean/mollusks, small levels), supplemented by big game, aquatic amphibian/crustacean/mollusks, small
Spokane Tribe Scenario 237 Spokane Tribe Scenario 237
mammals, and upland game birds. The high game diet reverses the fish-game mammals, and upland game birds. The high game diet reverses the fish-game quantities, and both diets include identical amounts of native and domestic plants. quantities, and both diets include identical amounts of native and domestic plants. Both forms of the diet are approximately 40% protein, 25% fat, and 35% Both forms of the diet are approximately 40% protein, 25% fat, and 35% carbohydrate (given the limited data available for native foods), which is comparable carbohydrate (given the limited data available for native foods), which is comparable to other hunter-gatherer diets.(17) Until recently, this diet was even higher in fish- to other hunter-gatherer diets.(17) Until recently, this diet was even higher in fish- derived protein, and was stable for at least 5,000 years (based on archaeological derived protein, and was stable for at least 5,000 years (based on archaeological evidence of salmon runs). The carbohydrates are largely unprocessed and include evidence of salmon runs). The carbohydrates are largely unprocessed and include many roots but little grain. The fats are from fish, game, nuts, and seeds. many roots but little grain. The fats are from fish, game, nuts, and seeds.
3.6 DRINKING WATER 3.6 DRINKING WATER Daily replacement water needs are approximately 2L/100 pounds body weight (more Daily replacement water needs are approximately 2L/100 pounds body weight (more during exercise or pregnancy).6 Athletic activity can result in a loss of 1.5 L/hour; during exercise or pregnancy).6 Athletic activity can result in a loss of 1.5 L/hour; replacement volumes are recommended as 1 to 1.5 ml/kcal of energy expended.(18) replacement volumes are recommended as 1 to 1.5 ml/kcal of energy expended.(18) Harris and Harper(5) estimated an average water ingestion rate of 3 L/day for adults, Harris and Harper(5) estimated an average water ingestion rate of 3 L/day for adults, based on total fluid intake for the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian based on total fluid intake for the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation. However, that number did not account for all uses. This scenario Reservation. However, that number did not account for all uses. This scenario includes adult water ingestion of 1L while at home (from the household water includes adult water ingestion of 1L while at home (from the household water supply), 1L taken from home to the worksite, 1L consumed from worksite sources, supply), 1L taken from home to the worksite, 1L consumed from worksite sources, and 1L from the household or spring to rehydrate during use of the sweat lodge, for and 1L from the household or spring to rehydrate during use of the sweat lodge, for a total of 4 L/d. a total of 4 L/d.
3.7 SOIL INGESTION 3.7 SOIL INGESTION Soil ingestion by young children (0–6 years) is assumed to be 400 mg/day for 365 Soil ingestion by young children (0–6 years) is assumed to be 400 mg/day for 365 days/year. This is higher than the prior EPA default value of 200 mg/day.(19) It days/year. This is higher than the prior EPA default value of 200 mg/day.(19) It reflects both indoor dust and continuous outdoor activities analogous to gardening or reflects both indoor dust and continuous outdoor activities analogous to gardening or camping,(20) but is less than a single-incident sports or construction ingestion camping,(20) but is less than a single-incident sports or construction ingestion rate.(21,22,23) For adults, the soil ingestion value is also 400 mg/day, reflecting an rate.(21,22,23) For adults, the soil ingestion value is also 400 mg/day, reflecting an unspecified upper percentile.(21) This value also better reflects the environmental unspecified upper percentile.(21) This value also better reflects the environmental setting, the typical residential situation, gardening and gathering activities, the setting, the typical residential situation, gardening and gathering activities, the preparation and consumption of native and garden plants, the consumption of other preparation and consumption of native and garden plants, the consumption of other natural foods, and a variety of additional outdoor activities (work, play, cultural natural foods, and a variety of additional outdoor activities (work, play, cultural activities). However, it may still substantially underestimate the amount of soil and activities). However, it may still substantially underestimate the amount of soil and sediment on garden produce and gathered plant foods. In particular, episodic events sediment on garden produce and gathered plant foods. In particular, episodic events such as gathering in wetlands or road work could result in 1 gram of soil ingested such as gathering in wetlands or road work could result in 1 gram of soil ingested per event,(21,22,23) which may be over and above the 400 mg ingested daily. If there is per event,(21,22,23) which may be over and above the 400 mg ingested daily. If there is geophagy (eating dirt for micronutrients or salt), the ingestion would be higher yet. In geophagy (eating dirt for micronutrients or salt), the ingestion would be higher yet. In fact, the intentional presence of some Mother Earth in food may be beneficial fact, the intentional presence of some Mother Earth in food may be beneficial medically(23) and spiritually. medically(23) and spiritually.
6 U.S. Air Force at http://www.capnhq.gov/nhq/cp/ encampments/AETC.htm#AETC.; Coyle at 6 U.S. Air Force at http://www.capnhq.gov/nhq/cp/ encampments/AETC.htm#AETC.; Coyle at http://www.veggie.org/veggie/fluid.exercise.shtml. http://www.veggie.org/veggie/fluid.exercise.shtml.
Spokane Tribe Scenario 238 Spokane Tribe Scenario 238
3.8 INHALATION RATE 3.8 INHALATION RATE We believe that an inhalation rate of 30 m3/d is more accurate for the Spokanes’ We believe that an inhalation rate of 30 m3/d is more accurate for the Spokanes’ active, outdoor lifestyle than the EPA default rate of 20 m3/d.(21) EPA(21) reviewed active, outdoor lifestyle than the EPA default rate of 20 m3/d.(21) EPA(21) reviewed several extensive studies that examined ventilation rates based on direct several extensive studies that examined ventilation rates based on direct measurement and activity diaries in developing the default rate of 20 m3/day. EPA measurement and activity diaries in developing the default rate of 20 m3/day. EPA recognizes that special populations, such as athletes or outdoor workers, have recognizes that special populations, such as athletes or outdoor workers, have higher average rates and recommends calculating their inhalation rates using the higher average rates and recommends calculating their inhalation rates using the following median hourly intakes for various activity levels (in m3/hr): resting = 0.4, following median hourly intakes for various activity levels (in m3/hr): resting = 0.4, sedentary = 0.5, light activity = 1, moderate activity = 1.6, heavy activity = 3.2. For sedentary = 0.5, light activity = 1, moderate activity = 1.6, heavy activity = 3.2. For outdoor workers, a median rate is 1.3, with an upper percentile of 3.3, depending on outdoor workers, a median rate is 1.3, with an upper percentile of 3.3, depending on the ratio of light, moderate, and heavy activities during the observation time. the ratio of light, moderate, and heavy activities during the observation time. “Inhalation rates may be higher among outdoor workers/athletes because levels of “Inhalation rates may be higher among outdoor workers/athletes because levels of activity outdoors may be higher, therefore, this subpopulation group may be more activity outdoors may be higher, therefore, this subpopulation group may be more susceptible to air pollutants and are considered a ‘high risk’ subgroup.”(21) Using this susceptible to air pollutants and are considered a ‘high risk’ subgroup.”(21) Using this EPA guidance, a median rate of 26.2 m3/d is obtained from eight hours sleeping, two EPA guidance, a median rate of 26.2 m3/d is obtained from eight hours sleeping, two hours sedentary, six hours light activity, six hours moderate activity, and two hours hours sedentary, six hours light activity, six hours moderate activity, and two hours heavy activity. This represents minimal heavy activity (construction, climbing hills, heavy activity. This represents minimal heavy activity (construction, climbing hills, etc.), and is a median rather than a reasonable maximum. The California Air etc.), and is a median rather than a reasonable maximum. The California Air Resources Board(25) also reviewed daily breathing rates based on activity levels and Resources Board(25) also reviewed daily breathing rates based on activity levels and concluded that 20 m3/d represents an 85th percentile of typical American adult concluded that 20 m3/d represents an 85th percentile of typical American adult lifestyle (eight hours sleeping and 16 hours of light to moderate activity), a lifestyle lifestyle (eight hours sleeping and 16 hours of light to moderate activity), a lifestyle that is less active than an outdoor lifestyle in a topography that includes steep that is less active than an outdoor lifestyle in a topography that includes steep slopes, as on the Spokane Reservation. slopes, as on the Spokane Reservation.
Spokane Tribe Scenario 239 Spokane Tribe Scenario 239
4 A SCREENING-LEVEL COMPOSITE RME 4 A SCREENING-LEVEL COMPOSITE RME
Due to the number of age groups, daily activities, and limited EPA funds for Due to the number of age groups, daily activities, and limited EPA funds for determining both media-specific exposure point concentrations as well as determining both media-specific exposure point concentrations as well as developing and subsequently running the risk model, EPA requested that the Tribe developing and subsequently running the risk model, EPA requested that the Tribe condense the scenario into a screening-level composite RME application for use in condense the scenario into a screening-level composite RME application for use in the Midnite Mine risk assessment (Table 1). The principle of developing a screening the Midnite Mine risk assessment (Table 1). The principle of developing a screening scenario is to reduce the number of calculations by combining (not eliminating) scenario is to reduce the number of calculations by combining (not eliminating) pathways and age groups, and maximizing exposure factors to a reasonable degree. pathways and age groups, and maximizing exposure factors to a reasonable degree. The screening-level risk assessment then generally employs the composite RME The screening-level risk assessment then generally employs the composite RME and the upper 95th percentile exposure point concentrations in each medium, and the upper 95th percentile exposure point concentrations in each medium, wherever they occur throughout the site, so that any location, activity, diet, or water wherever they occur throughout the site, so that any location, activity, diet, or water source has the chance to drive risk. This means that the result of the screening level source has the chance to drive risk. This means that the result of the screening level risk assessment is not strictly location, pathway, age, or activity specific. It only risk assessment is not strictly location, pathway, age, or activity specific. It only indicates whether unacceptable site-wide risk is possible and shows the spatial indicates whether unacceptable site-wide risk is possible and shows the spatial aspects of the risk profile if plotted on a base map. In the future, EPA or the Tribe aspects of the risk profile if plotted on a base map. In the future, EPA or the Tribe will need to use the full scenario and location-specific exposure point concentrations will need to use the full scenario and location-specific exposure point concentrations to assess risk attributable to location, pathway, age, or activity. Such information will to assess risk attributable to location, pathway, age, or activity. Such information will be required to evaluate the remedial alternative during the feasibility study and to be required to evaluate the remedial alternative during the feasibility study and to quantify residual risk once remediation has been completed. quantify residual risk once remediation has been completed.
The full scenario was condensed as follows. The daily time allocation is 12 hrs/d The full scenario was condensed as follows. The daily time allocation is 12 hrs/d indoors, 2 hours in the sweat lodge, 7 hours outdoors working, playing, and other indoors, 2 hours in the sweat lodge, 7 hours outdoors working, playing, and other non-subsistence activities, and 3 hours of subsistence activities in each non-subsistence activities, and 3 hours of subsistence activities in each contaminated area where these activities might occur. This will result in more than a contaminated area where these activities might occur. This will result in more than a 24-hour day, but is necessary to reduce the number of calculations. Alternately, the 24-hour day, but is necessary to reduce the number of calculations. Alternately, the person can live and subsist at the single most contaminated location. Soil ingestion person can live and subsist at the single most contaminated location. Soil ingestion remains at 400 mg/d for 365 days/year (100 mg from indoor sources and 300 from remains at 400 mg/d for 365 days/year (100 mg from indoor sources and 300 from outdoor sources; for multiple contaminated sub-sites, each contributes 300 mg, outdoor sources; for multiple contaminated sub-sites, each contributes 300 mg, which could result in more than 400 mg/d; alternately, the single most contaminated which could result in more than 400 mg/d; alternately, the single most contaminated soil location can serve as the sole source of soil-based exposure). For application to soil location can serve as the sole source of soil-based exposure). For application to other areas, such as wetlands, 1 gram per visit may be used.(21,22) Drinking water other areas, such as wetlands, 1 gram per visit may be used.(21,22) Drinking water remains at 4 L/d, which is derived from the most contaminated source (this is remains at 4 L/d, which is derived from the most contaminated source (this is duplicated for surface and groundwater if both are contaminated). This results in an duplicated for surface and groundwater if both are contaminated). This results in an upper bound sitewide risk estimate. Risks for an actual individual who specializes in upper bound sitewide risk estimate. Risks for an actual individual who specializes in certain activities (i.e., the hunter or the fisher), spends more time in fewer locations certain activities (i.e., the hunter or the fisher), spends more time in fewer locations or a single location, or fully utilizes a contaminated medium such as groundwater, or a single location, or fully utilizes a contaminated medium such as groundwater, could be as high as but no higher than this upper bound estimate. Subsequent could be as high as but no higher than this upper bound estimate. Subsequent analyses using either the complete scenario or the composite RME can examine analyses using either the complete scenario or the composite RME can examine particular pathways and locations, or can be used to support risk management particular pathways and locations, or can be used to support risk management decision such as remedial goals, subsistence soil and water remedial screening decision such as remedial goals, subsistence soil and water remedial screening levels, or tribal regulatory standards. levels, or tribal regulatory standards.
Spokane Tribe Scenario 240 Spokane Tribe Scenario 240
Table 1. The Spokane subsistence composite RME scenario. Table 1. The Spokane subsistence composite RME scenario.
Medium Description (Not All Routes of Exposure are Listed) Medium Description (Not All Routes of Exposure are Listed) Groundwater Each family has their own well for drinking/household, watering the garden, sweat Groundwater Each family has their own well for drinking/household, watering the garden, sweat lodge lodge Surface water Each family uses surface water (seep and creek) for domestic and garden use, Surface water Each family uses surface water (seep and creek) for domestic and garden use, washing locally gathered materials, and the worker uses surface water during washing locally gathered materials, and the worker uses surface water during fieldwork and sweat lodge fieldwork and sweat lodge Air Indoor radon, sweat lodge radon, outdoor radon daughters, inhalation of resuspended Air Indoor radon, sweat lodge radon, outdoor radon daughters, inhalation of resuspended dust, inhalation of aerosols dust, inhalation of aerosols Soil Direct ingestion, deposition on plants, as-gathered conditions, and indirect (uptake Soil Direct ingestion, deposition on plants, as-gathered conditions, and indirect (uptake from soil to plant) from soil to plant) Sediment Duplicates the soil; gathering may include high rates of sediment exposure that may Sediment Duplicates the soil; gathering may include high rates of sediment exposure that may be underestimated be underestimated Sweat lodge Daily for 2 hours, using groundwater (springs) or surface water Sweat lodge Daily for 2 hours, using groundwater (springs) or surface water Pathway Description (Not All Routes of Exposure are Listed) Pathway Description (Not All Routes of Exposure are Listed) Inhalation 30m3/d to accommodate indoor and outdoor activities; the inhalation rate for strenuous Inhalation 30m3/d to accommodate indoor and outdoor activities; the inhalation rate for strenuous outdoor activities may actually be underestimated (can be discussed as a source of outdoor activities may actually be underestimated (can be discussed as a source of uncertainty) uncertainty) Drinking water 4 L/d; this is duplicated for surface and groundwater if both are contaminated; fluid Drinking water 4 L/d; this is duplicated for surface and groundwater if both are contaminated; fluid replacement needs for strenuous activity may be underestimated replacement needs for strenuous activity may be underestimated Other water uses Garden irrigation, dermal and inhalation while showering, other standard routes of Other water uses Garden irrigation, dermal and inhalation while showering, other standard routes of exposure exposure Sweat lodge Steam, inhalation, immersion Sweat lodge Steam, inhalation, immersion Soil ingestion 400 mg/d (100 mg/d from indoor sources and 300 mg/d from outside sources); outdoor Soil ingestion 400 mg/d (100 mg/d from indoor sources and 300 mg/d from outside sources); outdoor sources may vary in concentration; indoor dust is equal to local outside soil; this is sources may vary in concentration; indoor dust is equal to local outside soil; this is duplicated if sediment is included; episodic events 1 gram each duplicated if sediment is included; episodic events 1 gram each Other Other factors are as reported previously (dermal, etc.; Harris and Harper, 1997) Other Other factors are as reported previously (dermal, etc.; Harris and Harper, 1997) High Fish Diet—About 2500–3000 High Game Diet—About 2500–3000 High Fish Diet—About 2500–3000 High Game Diet—About 2500–3000 kcal/d (Moderate Adult Level) kcal/d (Moderate Adult Level) kcal/d (Moderate Adult Level) kcal/d (Moderate Adult Level) Fish (10% of which is organ 885 g/d = 1300 Big game (10% of which is organ 885 g/d = 1000 Fish (10% of which is organ 885 g/d = 1300 Big game (10% of which is organ 885 g/d = 1000 meat with 10x concentrations; kcal meat with 10x concentrations; kcal meat with 10x concentrations; kcal meat with 10x concentrations; kcal sockeye and mixed trout are deer and elk are used for calorie sockeye and mixed trout are deer and elk are used for calorie used for calorie estimates) estimates, not beef) used for calorie estimates) estimates, not beef) Big game 100 g/d = 110 Fish 75 g/d = 180 Big game 100 g/d = 110 Fish 75 g/d = 180 kcal kcal kcal kcal Local small game, fowl 50g/d = 75 kcal Local small game, fowl 50g/d = 75 kcal Local small game, fowl 50g/d = 75 kcal Local small game, fowl 50g/d = 75 kcal (or 25g birds, (or 25g birds, (or 25g birds, (or 25g birds, 25g rabbits) 25g rabbits) 25g rabbits) 25g rabbits) Aquatic foods (mussels and 175 g/d = 120 Aquatic foods 175 g/d = 120 Aquatic foods (mussels and 175 g/d = 120 Aquatic foods 175 g/d = 120 crayfish are nutritionally kcal kcal crayfish are nutritionally kcal kcal similar) similar) Vegetal calories 1600 gpd = Vegetal calories 1600 gpd = Vegetal calories 1600 gpd = Vegetal calories 1600 gpd = 10% garden (above ground); about 1000 kcal 10% garden (above ground); about 1000 kcal 10% garden (above ground); about 1000 kcal 10% garden (above ground); about 1000 kcal 10% garden (below ground); (mixed species) 10% garden (below ground); (mixed species) 10% garden (below ground); (mixed species) 10% garden (below ground); (mixed species) 40% gathered terrestrial below 40% gathered terrestrial below 40% gathered terrestrial below 40% gathered terrestrial below ground; ground; ground; ground; 20% gathered terrestrial above 20% gathered terrestrial above 20% gathered terrestrial above 20% gathered terrestrial above ground; ground; ground; ground; 20% aquatic 20% aquatic 20% aquatic 20% aquatic Other calories (medicines, Not determined Other calories (medicines, etc.) Not determined Other calories (medicines, Not determined Other calories (medicines, etc.) Not determined etc.) etc.) Dairy (children only) 0.5 L/d milk Dairy (children only) 0.5 L/d milk Dairy (children only) 0.5 L/d milk Dairy (children only) 0.5 L/d milk
Spokane Tribe Scenario 241 Spokane Tribe Scenario 241
Notes Notes • The best estimate of original (predam) salmon intake by the Spokane Tribe is the Walker estimate (cited • The best estimate of original (predam) salmon intake by the Spokane Tribe is the Walker estimate (cited in Scholz et al., 1985) of 1,200 pounds per year of salmon per adult, or 1,426 gpd (about 3 pounds), in Scholz et al., 1985) of 1,200 pounds per year of salmon per adult, or 1,426 gpd (about 3 pounds), yielding 2,566 kcal before migration and 2566 x 0.64 = 1643 kcal after migration from the ocean to the yielding 2,566 kcal before migration and 2566 x 0.64 = 1643 kcal after migration from the ocean to the Spokane area. The current 885 gpd is based on a combination of calories estimates, availability, Spokane area. The current 885 gpd is based on a combination of calories estimates, availability, interviews, and dietary balance. The current Spokane diet relies on Kokanee (landlocked sockeye) and interviews, and dietary balance. The current Spokane diet relies on Kokanee (landlocked sockeye) and trout (bull or Dolly Varden, rainbow), suckers, whitefish, other species. Salmon and steelhead are trout (bull or Dolly Varden, rainbow), suckers, whitefish, other species. Salmon and steelhead are obtained whenever possible. Mussels and crayfish were also eaten regularly. obtained whenever possible. Mussels and crayfish were also eaten regularly. • Both fish and game are eaten fresh, smoked, or dried, but there are no data on calories or contaminant • Both fish and game are eaten fresh, smoked, or dried, but there are no data on calories or contaminant concentrations according to method of preparation. No contaminant loss during preparation is assumed, concentrations according to method of preparation. No contaminant loss during preparation is assumed, since contaminants could become more concentrated as well as being lost with fat loss. since contaminants could become more concentrated as well as being lost with fat loss. • The dietary data are not adequate to distinguish fruit, berries, greens, roots, bulbs, fungi/moss, • The dietary data are not adequate to distinguish fruit, berries, greens, roots, bulbs, fungi/moss, seeds/nuts, medicines, or sweeteners on a caloric basis, nor domesticated from wild plants. If data for seeds/nuts, medicines, or sweeteners on a caloric basis, nor domesticated from wild plants. If data for uptake from soil/sediment or dust/sediment load for a native species becomes available, the intake of that uptake from soil/sediment or dust/sediment load for a native species becomes available, the intake of that species will be estimated. The proportion of above and below ground plants is based on reliance on species will be estimated. The proportion of above and below ground plants is based on reliance on tubers and bulbs, using USDA caloric information on domesticated plants from the same plant families. tubers and bulbs, using USDA caloric information on domesticated plants from the same plant families. Intake of other plants (medicines, rose hips, etc.) occurs but was not determined. Intake of other plants (medicines, rose hips, etc.) occurs but was not determined. • Dairy may be underestimated (cheese, milk), and eggs are not specifically included, but should be • Dairy may be underestimated (cheese, milk), and eggs are not specifically included, but should be included depending on the information supplied by tribal members. included depending on the information supplied by tribal members. • While many animal species are similar with respect to how much nutrition they provide to people, their • While many animal species are similar with respect to how much nutrition they provide to people, their contaminant concentration will vary according to their habitat and ecological niche, as well as their contaminant concentration will vary according to their habitat and ecological niche, as well as their location and size of home range. This is estimated through the ecological food web or actual sampling location and size of home range. This is estimated through the ecological food web or actual sampling data. data. • All of the exposure factors are constant through the year (i.e., they apply 365 days/year). • All of the exposure factors are constant through the year (i.e., they apply 365 days/year).
Table 2 shows some of the major differences between EPA default exposure factors Table 2 shows some of the major differences between EPA default exposure factors and our subsistence scenario. We are not presenting a sensitivity analysis in this and our subsistence scenario. We are not presenting a sensitivity analysis in this article because the relative contribution of various exposure factors will depend on article because the relative contribution of various exposure factors will depend on the concentration of contaminants in various media and their physical parameters, the concentration of contaminants in various media and their physical parameters, and specific human activity patterns at the contaminated site. This will be the subject and specific human activity patterns at the contaminated site. This will be the subject of another article. However, we expect that the major factors for subsistence of another article. However, we expect that the major factors for subsistence lifestyles or lifestyles with high environmental contact rates will be soil ingestion, lifestyles or lifestyles with high environmental contact rates will be soil ingestion, drinking water, exposure duration, and diet. We should note that the dietary factors drinking water, exposure duration, and diet. We should note that the dietary factors in the Exposure Factors Handbook reflect major categories of the diet rather than a in the Exposure Factors Handbook reflect major categories of the diet rather than a necessarily complete diet—adding average caloric content for the categories necessarily complete diet—adding average caloric content for the categories identified in the Handbook totals about 2000 kcal/d for the general population, which identified in the Handbook totals about 2000 kcal/d for the general population, which is lower than actual national average caloric intakes by up to one-third. That other is lower than actual national average caloric intakes by up to one-third. That other third of the diet is not likely to come from the contaminated site, so from an exposure third of the diet is not likely to come from the contaminated site, so from an exposure perspective this does not detract from suburban dietary exposure estimates. The perspective this does not detract from suburban dietary exposure estimates. The subsistence diet in this paper, however, yields a full day’s calories (~2500 kcal). If subsistence diet in this paper, however, yields a full day’s calories (~2500 kcal). If one tried to construct a subsistence diet solely from the Handbook, the caloric intake one tried to construct a subsistence diet solely from the Handbook, the caloric intake would fall short of an adequate amount even if the intake factors for Native would fall short of an adequate amount even if the intake factors for Native Americans were used. One could erroneously equate “subsistence” with a modern Americans were used. One could erroneously equate “subsistence” with a modern diet supplemented with fish, game, and wild plants using intake rates that are given diet supplemented with fish, game, and wild plants using intake rates that are given in the Handbook. This could be due to several factors: whether reservation dwellers in the Handbook. This could be due to several factors: whether reservation dwellers were specifically sampled during the three-day recall surveys (versus urban or were specifically sampled during the three-day recall surveys (versus urban or suburban dwellers who happened to be Native American), the difference between suburban dwellers who happened to be Native American), the difference between current reservation conditions (with USDA commodity foods) and a truly subsistence current reservation conditions (with USDA commodity foods) and a truly subsistence lifestyle, socioeconomic factors, and so on. Thus, developing a subsistence lifestyle, socioeconomic factors, and so on. Thus, developing a subsistence exposure scenario with a traditional diet and cultural practices specific to reservation exposure scenario with a traditional diet and cultural practices specific to reservation living needs to rely primarily on ethnographic data and cultural information, and only living needs to rely primarily on ethnographic data and cultural information, and only secondarily on national dietary survey data. secondarily on national dietary survey data.
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Table 2. Examples of differences in exposure factors for a 70 kg adult. Table 2. Examples of differences in exposure factors for a 70 kg adult.
Parameter Default Value1 Subsistence Value2 Parameter Default Value1 Subsistence Value2 Drinking water 2 L/day 4 L/d (includes 1L during sweat lodge use) Drinking water 2 L/day 4 L/d (includes 1L during sweat lodge use) ingestion ingestion Soil ingestion 200 mg/d (children) 400 mg/d for all ages Soil ingestion 200 mg/d (children) 400 mg/d for all ages 50 mg/d (adult) 50 mg/d (adult) Inhalation tate 20 m3/d Varies by average activity level; 30 m3/d Inhalation tate 20 m3/d Varies by average activity level; 30 m3/d Meat & fish 21.1 g/d (general 885–1000 g/d fish and 100 g/d meat (high fish Meat & fish 21.1 g/d (general 885–1000 g/d fish and 100 g/d meat (high fish ingestion3 population) and diet), or 885 g/d meat and 75 g/d fish (high ingestion3 population) and diet), or 885 g/d meat and 75 g/d fish (high 70–170 (subsistence); game diet); 50 g/d small game for each, 175 70–170 (subsistence); game diet); 50 g/d small game for each, 175 17.5 g/d (general g/d shellfish for each; no dairy for adults is 17.5 g/d (general g/d shellfish for each; no dairy for adults is population) and 142.4 included in this total population) and 142.4 included in this total g/d (subsistence) g/d (subsistence) Vegetable Fruit and vegetable 1600 g/d; fraction obtained locally = 1, both Vegetable Fruit and vegetable 1600 g/d; fraction obtained locally = 1, both ingestion totals: 539 g/d; grain: gathered and home-grown ingestion totals: 539 g/d; grain: gathered and home-grown 287 g/d4 287 g/d4 Exposure Varies according to 365 d/yr unless documented otherwise Exposure Varies according to 365 d/yr unless documented otherwise frequency climate and activity frequency climate and activity Exposure duration 30 yrs (assumes 70 yrs (a full lifetime) Exposure duration 30 yrs (assumes 70 yrs (a full lifetime) retirement elsewhere) or retirement elsewhere) or less (average time spent less (average time spent in a home) in a home) 1 EPA Exposure Factors Handbook, in totals per day assuming 70 kg body weight. 1 EPA Exposure Factors Handbook, in totals per day assuming 70 kg body weight. 2 These values apply only to the Spokane Tribe unless verified specifically for other tribes. Dietary 2 These values apply only to the Spokane Tribe unless verified specifically for other tribes. Dietary factors are specific to the Spokane Tribe. Total caloric intake is assumed to be the same for both factors are specific to the Spokane Tribe. Total caloric intake is assumed to be the same for both scenarios but in fact may be higher for the more athletic outdoor lifestyle. scenarios but in fact may be higher for the more athletic outdoor lifestyle. 3 Exposure Factors Handbook, Volume II, Section 10.10 recommends using 21.1 g/d total fish 3 Exposure Factors Handbook, Volume II, Section 10.10 recommends using 21.1 g/d total fish and shellfish as the mean value for the general population and 70 g/d for Native American and shellfish as the mean value for the general population and 70 g/d for Native American subsistence populations (mean value) or 170 g/d (95th percentile). EPA Office of Water subsistence populations (mean value) or 170 g/d (95th percentile). EPA Office of Water (Methodology for Deriving Ambient Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Human Health (Methodology for Deriving Ambient Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Human Health 2000, EPA-822-B-00-004 and Water Quality Standards for Indian Country at 2000, EPA-822-B-00-004 and Water Quality Standards for Indian Country at www.epa.gov/ost/standards/tribal/tribalfact.html) uses 17.5 g/d as the 90th percentile for the www.epa.gov/ost/standards/tribal/tribalfact.html) uses 17.5 g/d as the 90th percentile for the general population and 142.4 g/d for subsistence populations as the 99th percentile, all in general population and 142.4 g/d for subsistence populations as the 99th percentile, all in uncooked weight. These values are all for adults and are all based on current cross-sectional uncooked weight. These values are all for adults and are all based on current cross-sectional surveys that likely omit traditional tribal members. The Spokane value reflects existing surveys that likely omit traditional tribal members. The Spokane value reflects existing documentation on historical subsistence consumption rates with caloric evaluation, confirmatory documentation on historical subsistence consumption rates with caloric evaluation, confirmatory interviews with the tribal cultural staff, and tribal policy goals for regaining traditional healthy interviews with the tribal cultural staff, and tribal policy goals for regaining traditional healthy cultural lifestyles, not on dietary surveys. cultural lifestyles, not on dietary surveys. 4 Exposure Factors Handbook, Volume II (mean values). 4 Exposure Factors Handbook, Volume II (mean values).
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5 DATA GAPS AND SOURCES OF UNCERTAINTY ASSOCIATED WITH 5 DATA GAPS AND SOURCES OF UNCERTAINTY ASSOCIATED WITH THE SCREENING-LEVEL RME THE SCREENING-LEVEL RME
An incomplete list of data gaps and uncertainties are briefly discussed below. The An incomplete list of data gaps and uncertainties are briefly discussed below. The relative error caused by each uncertainty cannot be ascertained at this time. We relative error caused by each uncertainty cannot be ascertained at this time. We believe that the overall uncertainty and variability are greater in tribal communities believe that the overall uncertainty and variability are greater in tribal communities than in suburban communities due to the greater number of risk factors and the than in suburban communities due to the greater number of risk factors and the potential for several risk factors to cluster in particular communities and individuals. potential for several risk factors to cluster in particular communities and individuals. Because tribal members could be at greater risk due to both greater exposure and Because tribal members could be at greater risk due to both greater exposure and greater sensitivity, an additional safety factor or precautionary approach may be greater sensitivity, an additional safety factor or precautionary approach may be warranted in these types of situations. warranted in these types of situations.
5.1 MOBILE VERSUS STATIONARY RME 5.1 MOBILE VERSUS STATIONARY RME The typical suburban RME for members of the general population is a house-bound The typical suburban RME for members of the general population is a house-bound individual with a local garden, or a residential farmer who is largely self-sufficient. In individual with a local garden, or a residential farmer who is largely self-sufficient. In these cases, the house and garden are assumed to be located at the contaminated these cases, the house and garden are assumed to be located at the contaminated site and available for unrestricted use. The subsistence family also lives where the site and available for unrestricted use. The subsistence family also lives where the contamination occurs if this is physically possible, but may spend more time away contamination occurs if this is physically possible, but may spend more time away from the immediate residence during subsistence activities. However, a subsistence from the immediate residence during subsistence activities. However, a subsistence RME should not assume that exposure is diluted by spending significant amounts of RME should not assume that exposure is diluted by spending significant amounts of time in uncontaminated areas. For large sites with variable contaminant time in uncontaminated areas. For large sites with variable contaminant concentrations, problems arise when trying to perform a single risk assessment to concentrations, problems arise when trying to perform a single risk assessment to evaluate multiple hot spots (as not-to-exceed concentrations), even if the risk evaluate multiple hot spots (as not-to-exceed concentrations), even if the risk assessment assumes that the person moves around from hot spot to hot spot or if all assessment assumes that the person moves around from hot spot to hot spot or if all subsistence activities are assumed to occur where the upper 95th concentration limit subsistence activities are assumed to occur where the upper 95th concentration limit occurs. Additionally, the problem of spatially integrating widespread contamination occurs. Additionally, the problem of spatially integrating widespread contamination still remains because, conceptually, 10 acres of contamination poses a greater risk still remains because, conceptually, 10 acres of contamination poses a greater risk than 1 acre with the same contaminant concentration. Temporally, persistent than 1 acre with the same contaminant concentration. Temporally, persistent contaminants pose a longer risk, and therefore a greater total risk, than degradable contaminants pose a longer risk, and therefore a greater total risk, than degradable contaminants. Unfortunately, the present regulatory framework does not use spatial contaminants. Unfortunately, the present regulatory framework does not use spatial or temporal risk metrics (such as risk acre-years, or dose per community gene pool or temporal risk metrics (such as risk acre-years, or dose per community gene pool across several generations) to account for this cumulative exposure over time and across several generations) to account for this cumulative exposure over time and space and people. space and people.
5.2 SPECIAL ACTIVITIES 5.2 SPECIAL ACTIVITIES There are special circumstances when some people may be highly exposed that There are special circumstances when some people may be highly exposed that have not included in the complete scenario or the screening-level RME. For have not included in the complete scenario or the screening-level RME. For instance, some men hunt or fish for the general community, and many people instance, some men hunt or fish for the general community, and many people provide roots and fish and game to elders in addition to their own families. Gathering provide roots and fish and game to elders in addition to their own families. Gathering of some plants (e.g., cattails, water potatoes, reeds and rushes) is a very muddy of some plants (e.g., cattails, water potatoes, reeds and rushes) is a very muddy activity, and rivershore or lakeshore activities may underestimate sediment exposure activity, and rivershore or lakeshore activities may underestimate sediment exposure (soil ingestion can be 1 gram per event(21,22,23)). Washing, peeling, weaving rushes, (soil ingestion can be 1 gram per event(21,22,23)). Washing, peeling, weaving rushes, and other activities results in additional exposure. For example, basketmakers clean and other activities results in additional exposure. For example, basketmakers clean and wash their materials, incur cuts on their hands, and hold materials in their and wash their materials, incur cuts on their hands, and hold materials in their
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mouth. Flintknappers may receive additional exposure through obtaining and mouth. Flintknappers may receive additional exposure through obtaining and working with their materials. In addition, there are potential pathways that are not working with their materials. In addition, there are potential pathways that are not specifically identified but which might contribute additional exposure, such as specifically identified but which might contribute additional exposure, such as contaminated firewood used for smoking food, plants used for teas, flavoring, contaminated firewood used for smoking food, plants used for teas, flavoring, smudging, or medicine, contact with contaminated animal parts (paints, bone smudging, or medicine, contact with contaminated animal parts (paints, bone ornaments, clothing), sitting on the ground for long periods of time while processing ornaments, clothing), sitting on the ground for long periods of time while processing or during ceremonial activities, and so on. Even though the composite activity or during ceremonial activities, and so on. Even though the composite activity patterns are intended to reflect reasonable maximum exposures, there is a potential patterns are intended to reflect reasonable maximum exposures, there is a potential for underestimating some pathways (i.e., this is not a worst-case scenario). for underestimating some pathways (i.e., this is not a worst-case scenario).
5.3 COMMUNITY EXPOSURE BURDENS 5.3 COMMUNITY EXPOSURE BURDENS An entire community exposure burden estimate or population dose estimate may be An entire community exposure burden estimate or population dose estimate may be needed that includes people who do not reside in but occasionally visit the needed that includes people who do not reside in but occasionally visit the contaminated area (this includes inadvertent intruders onto the site). If a resource is contaminated area (this includes inadvertent intruders onto the site). If a resource is contaminated, the entire community is exposed. The assumption that protecting the contaminated, the entire community is exposed. The assumption that protecting the RME adequately protects everyone else may result in a failure to provide all the RME adequately protects everyone else may result in a failure to provide all the information that the tribe’s governing body needs for informing its members. There information that the tribe’s governing body needs for informing its members. There may be sensitive individuals (children, elders, the sick, the occupationally exposed) may be sensitive individuals (children, elders, the sick, the occupationally exposed) who, arguably, may or may not be protected by using standard reference doses and who, arguably, may or may not be protected by using standard reference doses and other factors. Also, tribal leaders often make decisions at the community rather than other factors. Also, tribal leaders often make decisions at the community rather than the individual level (i.e., the survival of the individual may not be as important as the the individual level (i.e., the survival of the individual may not be as important as the survival of the family or community, so the community is also an appropriate unit of survival of the family or community, so the community is also an appropriate unit of analysis). Therefore, decisions where everyone is exposed to a low level of analysis). Therefore, decisions where everyone is exposed to a low level of contamination may be different from and more stringent than decisions where a few contamination may be different from and more stringent than decisions where a few individuals are at high risk or decisions where risks are distributed over time, space, individuals are at high risk or decisions where risks are distributed over time, space, and populations rather than localized. We believe this to be an important but and populations rather than localized. We believe this to be an important but understated element of real risk and risk-based decision making (not to be understated element of real risk and risk-based decision making (not to be dismissed as perceived risk, or cultural amplification of real risk, or a risk dismissed as perceived risk, or cultural amplification of real risk, or a risk management determination). The nature and extent of community exposure can be management determination). The nature and extent of community exposure can be estimated over time and space by estimating the number of people and the number estimated over time and space by estimating the number of people and the number of generations that could live in each area or concentration isopleth and be exposed of generations that could live in each area or concentration isopleth and be exposed (a community chemical effective dose equivalent). The total number of generations (a community chemical effective dose equivalent). The total number of generations and the number of people per generation need to be described in terms of the total and the number of people per generation need to be described in terms of the total number of people exposed, total dose for the community (or the gene pool), number of people exposed, total dose for the community (or the gene pool), proportion of each generation exposed, and so on. Even more broadly, the total proportion of each generation exposed, and so on. Even more broadly, the total dose for a small community’s combined gene pool or neuronal pool could be dose for a small community’s combined gene pool or neuronal pool could be estimated. Finally, the proportion of each generation that is affected, rather than estimated. Finally, the proportion of each generation that is affected, rather than simply the number of people (in a small population), can be determined. simply the number of people (in a small population), can be determined.
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5.4 BACKGROUND EXPOSURE AND COMMUNITY-WIDE EXPOSURE FROM 5.4 BACKGROUND EXPOSURE AND COMMUNITY-WIDE EXPOSURE FROM OTHER SOURCES OTHER SOURCES Under the National Contingency Plan and subsequent EPA guidance, EPA is Under the National Contingency Plan and subsequent EPA guidance, EPA is charged with evaluating incremental risk to humans caused by a release from the charged with evaluating incremental risk to humans caused by a release from the subject site. This means that when evaluating a Superfund site, EPA is not charged subject site. This means that when evaluating a Superfund site, EPA is not charged with evaluating risk associated with high concentrations of naturally occurring with evaluating risk associated with high concentrations of naturally occurring substances, such as arsenic measured in background soil, water, or food, if the substances, such as arsenic measured in background soil, water, or food, if the concentrations were not increased by on-site activity, nor risk associated with concentrations were not increased by on-site activity, nor risk associated with releases of contaminants from another site. When there is background releases of contaminants from another site. When there is background contamination (however that is defined), or widespread low-level contamination, this contamination (however that is defined), or widespread low-level contamination, this contamination contributes to cumulative exposure to many or all people in the contamination contributes to cumulative exposure to many or all people in the community. From a human health standpoint, the origin of the contaminant is community. From a human health standpoint, the origin of the contaminant is irrelevant. However, from a liability-based regulatory standpoint such as CERCLA, irrelevant. However, from a liability-based regulatory standpoint such as CERCLA, the origin is paramount. In the case of the Spokane scenario, it is known that the origin is paramount. In the case of the Spokane scenario, it is known that Columbia River fish are contaminated with PCBs and metals (there are existing fish Columbia River fish are contaminated with PCBs and metals (there are existing fish advisories for Lake Roosevelt and for an upriver portion of the Spokane River), but advisories for Lake Roosevelt and for an upriver portion of the Spokane River), but cleanup at the mine site is proceeding as if this contamination is not present or that cleanup at the mine site is proceeding as if this contamination is not present or that people are not exposed to it. When an entire community is exposed to non-site people are not exposed to it. When an entire community is exposed to non-site contaminants, we believe that this should be included as part of the total risk burden, contaminants, we believe that this should be included as part of the total risk burden, and that the clean-up goals for the incremental risk posed by the site itself may need and that the clean-up goals for the incremental risk posed by the site itself may need to be modified (see, for instance, OSWER Environmental Justice Action Agenda, to be modified (see, for instance, OSWER Environmental Justice Action Agenda, EPA 540/R-95/023, which states that “OSWER supports Agency-wide efforts to EPA 540/R-95/023, which states that “OSWER supports Agency-wide efforts to develop scientifically valid standards to measure cumulative risk.”). Other EPA develop scientifically valid standards to measure cumulative risk.”). Other EPA approaches are more cumulative in nature, such as the Guidance on Cumulative approaches are more cumulative in nature, such as the Guidance on Cumulative Risk Assessment (http://www.epa.gov/ORD/spc/cumrisk2.htm); Toward Integrated Risk Assessment (http://www.epa.gov/ORD/spc/cumrisk2.htm); Toward Integrated Environmental Decision Making (EPA-SAB-EC-00-011; Environmental Decision Making (EPA-SAB-EC-00-011; http://www.epa.gov/science1/ecirp011.pdf); and various permitting programs based http://www.epa.gov/science1/ecirp011.pdf); and various permitting programs based on total toxicant burdens in a watershed or airshed. As another example, the EPA on total toxicant burdens in a watershed or airshed. As another example, the EPA approach to arsenic or other substances in drinking water is to require treatment to approach to arsenic or other substances in drinking water is to require treatment to safe levels even if these are lower than natural background levels. safe levels even if these are lower than natural background levels.
5.5 INDIVIDUAL EXPOSURE FACTORS 5.5 INDIVIDUAL EXPOSURE FACTORS The exposure assessment literature is lacking relevant information for subsistence The exposure assessment literature is lacking relevant information for subsistence activities. For instance, gardening or camping are typically used by risk assessors as activities. For instance, gardening or camping are typically used by risk assessors as an analogue for hunting and gathering activities, athletic physiological factors are an analogue for hunting and gathering activities, athletic physiological factors are used as an analogue for the more vigorous outdoor activities, sports nutrition used as an analogue for the more vigorous outdoor activities, sports nutrition information is used in checking diet, and so on. Several pathways are simply information is used in checking diet, and so on. Several pathways are simply unknown, such as the use of medicinal plants (further, certain of these pathways unknown, such as the use of medicinal plants (further, certain of these pathways need to be included in a way that does not violate confidentiality). We believe that need to be included in a way that does not violate confidentiality). We believe that some factors, particularly soil ingestion, are still underestimated. The amount of some factors, particularly soil ingestion, are still underestimated. The amount of exposure obtained as a person consumes wild foods (often without being able to exposure obtained as a person consumes wild foods (often without being able to wash them first as is assumed in a typical suburban scenario) is unknown, as is the wash them first as is assumed in a typical suburban scenario) is unknown, as is the amount of soil remaining on gathered vegetation even if it is washed, because amount of soil remaining on gathered vegetation even if it is washed, because environmental samples are generally not analyzed in an as-gathered or as- environmental samples are generally not analyzed in an as-gathered or as- consumed condition. consumed condition.
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5.6 ECOLOGICAL FOOD WEB AS AN INPUT TO HUMAN EXPOSURE 5.6 ECOLOGICAL FOOD WEB AS AN INPUT TO HUMAN EXPOSURE At present, the Tribe does not know if the ecological risk assessments being At present, the Tribe does not know if the ecological risk assessments being prepared by EPA for the Midnite Mine will provide the appropriate information for prepared by EPA for the Midnite Mine will provide the appropriate information for estimating human subsistence dietary information. Existing ecological and human estimating human subsistence dietary information. Existing ecological and human health risk models are generally incompatible. Ecological models typically have more health risk models are generally incompatible. Ecological models typically have more species but fewer pathways, while human health models have many more pathways species but fewer pathways, while human health models have many more pathways but generally less trophic-level capability. The lack of transfer factors (soil to plant, but generally less trophic-level capability. The lack of transfer factors (soil to plant, and dispersion through the food web) may also pose a problem. EPA is attempting and dispersion through the food web) may also pose a problem. EPA is attempting to address this nationally; it is especially important to include tribal considerations to address this nationally; it is especially important to include tribal considerations during these discussions. during these discussions.
5.7 SEASONALITY AND ACUTE EXPOSURES 5.7 SEASONALITY AND ACUTE EXPOSURES Some of the original activity patterns over the annual seasonal cycle have been Some of the original activity patterns over the annual seasonal cycle have been modified in modern times, but the ecological cycles have not. Therefore, people modified in modern times, but the ecological cycles have not. Therefore, people must still gather plants according to when they are ripe, hunt according to game and must still gather plants according to when they are ripe, hunt according to game and fowl patterns, and fish when the spawning runs occur. The Spokane Tribe Cultural fowl patterns, and fish when the spawning runs occur. The Spokane Tribe Cultural Resources Program confirmed that although specific activities change from one Resources Program confirmed that although specific activities change from one season to the next throughout the year, these activites are replaced by other season to the next throughout the year, these activites are replaced by other activities with a similar environmental contact rate. This scenario assumes that activities with a similar environmental contact rate. This scenario assumes that exposure is fairly homogeneous because even in winter months materials are exposure is fairly homogeneous because even in winter months materials are gathered, cleaned, and used, and native foods are eaten (i.e., all factors are applied gathered, cleaned, and used, and native foods are eaten (i.e., all factors are applied 365 days per year). However, it is possible that excessive acute exposures occur, 365 days per year). However, it is possible that excessive acute exposures occur, over and above the annually averaged exposure rates included in this scenario. over and above the annually averaged exposure rates included in this scenario.
5.8 CO-RISK FACTORS 5.8 CO-RISK FACTORS Many co-risk factors cluster in tribal communities, including poverty, higher rates of Many co-risk factors cluster in tribal communities, including poverty, higher rates of existing health conditions (such as diabetes), poorer access to health care, existing health conditions (such as diabetes), poorer access to health care, inadequate infrastructure, 500 years of cumulative psychological stress, employment inadequate infrastructure, 500 years of cumulative psychological stress, employment in occupations with more chemical exposures, and so on. Data on other factors such in occupations with more chemical exposures, and so on. Data on other factors such as enzyme polymorphisms related to detoxification or disease susceptibility are as enzyme polymorphisms related to detoxification or disease susceptibility are simply absent. Each of these factors is known to influence the health response to simply absent. Each of these factors is known to influence the health response to chemicals, although data are lacking about their combined effect as well as their chemicals, although data are lacking about their combined effect as well as their prevalence in any particular tribal community. prevalence in any particular tribal community.
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6 CONCLUSION 6 CONCLUSION
Although the scenario discussed in this article greatly improves the accuracy of risk- Although the scenario discussed in this article greatly improves the accuracy of risk- based decision making in Indian Country, much still remains to be done in order for based decision making in Indian Country, much still remains to be done in order for tribes to achieve the same proportional degree of risk reduction that suburban tribes to achieve the same proportional degree of risk reduction that suburban communities have enjoyed for many decades. Existing human-health-based communities have enjoyed for many decades. Existing human-health-based regulatory standards were not developed with subsistence in mind, so tribes are regulatory standards were not developed with subsistence in mind, so tribes are always less protected because they are always more exposed. This is not meant to always less protected because they are always more exposed. This is not meant to indict standards as intentionally ignoring certain populations, simply that there are indict standards as intentionally ignoring certain populations, simply that there are situations and populations that did not receive attention when the regulations were situations and populations that did not receive attention when the regulations were written many years ago. The inequity of this situation has not been fully explored, but written many years ago. The inequity of this situation has not been fully explored, but is the topic of current research. Additionally, this scenario is not generalizable to is the topic of current research. Additionally, this scenario is not generalizable to other tribes, particularly the diet section, although the soil and drinking water other tribes, particularly the diet section, although the soil and drinking water exposure factors may prove to be fairly similar for many tribal settings. exposure factors may prove to be fairly similar for many tribal settings.
The true worth of any risk assessment is measured by whether its results are used, The true worth of any risk assessment is measured by whether its results are used, even if the ultimate decision is based more on other factors such as economics, even if the ultimate decision is based more on other factors such as economics, technical feasibility, or precaution. One of the goals of a project manager is to technical feasibility, or precaution. One of the goals of a project manager is to achieve a stable decision, or one that is durable over time, even if this is not achieve a stable decision, or one that is durable over time, even if this is not explicitly stated. Decision stability is not merely due to compromise or consensus, explicitly stated. Decision stability is not merely due to compromise or consensus, but also to whether a community’s expectations are met regarding the specific but also to whether a community’s expectations are met regarding the specific metrics and impacts to be assessed. Decisionmakers or community leaders have metrics and impacts to be assessed. Decisionmakers or community leaders have certain information needs that can help design a truly useful risk assessment, even if certain information needs that can help design a truly useful risk assessment, even if the assessment takes form somewhat differently from the norm. We believe that the assessment takes form somewhat differently from the norm. We believe that deliberately incorporating community concerns into both the risk assessment and the deliberately incorporating community concerns into both the risk assessment and the risk management decision makes decisions more stable and robust, not less risk management decision makes decisions more stable and robust, not less scientific. It is a matter of opinion whether responding to community issues within the scientific. It is a matter of opinion whether responding to community issues within the risk assessment itself, rather than deferring these items until a later risk risk assessment itself, rather than deferring these items until a later risk management phase, improves the assessment and makes it more useful by tailoring management phase, improves the assessment and makes it more useful by tailoring it to the specific situation, or merely results in inconsistency by making results less it to the specific situation, or merely results in inconsistency by making results less useful for comparing risks between sites. useful for comparing risks between sites.
We would also like to raise the bar for risk ethics. The traumatic history of federal We would also like to raise the bar for risk ethics. The traumatic history of federal actions against tribes is still recent history for many tribal nations and tribal members actions against tribes is still recent history for many tribal nations and tribal members experience remnants of federal extermination and assimilation policies literally every experience remnants of federal extermination and assimilation policies literally every day. This is a strong and discomforting statement, but it is a reality that risk day. This is a strong and discomforting statement, but it is a reality that risk assessors and project managers must recognize if they work on tribal risk issues. It assessors and project managers must recognize if they work on tribal risk issues. It might even be said that tribes are still at war, a war that is being fought in the courts might even be said that tribes are still at war, a war that is being fought in the courts on a daily basis to preserve their rights, jurisdiction, resources, religion, homeland, on a daily basis to preserve their rights, jurisdiction, resources, religion, homeland, and way of life. We do not want risk assessors to underestimate how serious this is and way of life. We do not want risk assessors to underestimate how serious this is to tribal members and tribal staff. Many or most tribal members can name ancestors to tribal members and tribal staff. Many or most tribal members can name ancestors who died defending their rights and homelands, and the current generation of tribal who died defending their rights and homelands, and the current generation of tribal scientists honors this by vigilantly protecting the rights and resources on which their scientists honors this by vigilantly protecting the rights and resources on which their culture and identity and existence depend. Mistrust of the federal government and its culture and identity and existence depend. Mistrust of the federal government and its risk assessment tools can be extremely high and pervasive. Particularly in tribal risk assessment tools can be extremely high and pervasive. Particularly in tribal communities, risk assessors or public health assessors typically run afoul of tribal communities, risk assessors or public health assessors typically run afoul of tribal
Spokane Tribe Scenario 248 Spokane Tribe Scenario 248 perspectives because they do not understand the community and its history. There perspectives because they do not understand the community and its history. There is a tendency to want to get the details right first, then step back and look at the is a tendency to want to get the details right first, then step back and look at the implementation or consequences (i.e., to keep risk assessment separate from risk implementation or consequences (i.e., to keep risk assessment separate from risk management). We do not intend to introduce bias into the risk assessment that management). We do not intend to introduce bias into the risk assessment that might come from knowing so much about the community that unconscious might come from knowing so much about the community that unconscious judgments are made about how to tailor the assessment (for instance, making a judgments are made about how to tailor the assessment (for instance, making a subconscious determination that remediation might take dollars away from other subconscious determination that remediation might take dollars away from other visibly urgent needs). We simply want the assessor to be more aware of the subjects visibly urgent needs). We simply want the assessor to be more aware of the subjects of his or her assessment from the start so as to avoid pitfalls, missteps, and negative of his or her assessment from the start so as to avoid pitfalls, missteps, and negative community reactions. Currently, tribes and regulators still operate from two different community reactions. Currently, tribes and regulators still operate from two different decision paradigms. We wish to recognize the tremendous progress made in recent decision paradigms. We wish to recognize the tremendous progress made in recent years by various federal agencies in increasing the attention paid to these issues, years by various federal agencies in increasing the attention paid to these issues, but we recognize how much remains to be done. but we recognize how much remains to be done.
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DISCLAIMER DISCLAIMER
This exposure scenario has been approved for publication by the Spokane Tribal This exposure scenario has been approved for publication by the Spokane Tribal Council and for use in the Midnite Mine risk assessments. It should not be viewed as Council and for use in the Midnite Mine risk assessments. It should not be viewed as a release or waiver of any claims or rights concerning the protection of human health a release or waiver of any claims or rights concerning the protection of human health and the environment, the injury of natural resources, or any other claim or right. and the environment, the injury of natural resources, or any other claim or right.
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REFERENCES REFERENCES
1. Wynecoop, D.C. (1969). Children of the Sun—A History of the Spokane 1. Wynecoop, D.C. (1969). Children of the Sun—A History of the Spokane Indians. Spokane, Washington: Comet and Cole. Indians. Spokane, Washington: Comet and Cole. 2. Ray, V. (1977). “Ethnic Impact of the Events Incident to Federal Power 2. Ray, V. (1977). “Ethnic Impact of the Events Incident to Federal Power Development on the Colville and Spokane Indian Reservation[s],” cited in Development on the Colville and Spokane Indian Reservation[s],” cited in Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation v. United States, 43 Ind. Cl. Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation v. United States, 43 Ind. Cl. Comm. 505: 592–605 (1978). Comm. 505: 592–605 (1978). 3. Scholz, A., O’Laughlin, K., Geist, D., Peone, D., Uehara, J., Fields, L., Kleist, 3. Scholz, A., O’Laughlin, K., Geist, D., Peone, D., Uehara, J., Fields, L., Kleist, T., Zozaya, I., Peone, T., and Teesatuskie, K. (1985). “Compilation of T., Zozaya, I., Peone, T., and Teesatuskie, K. (1985). “Compilation of Information on Salmon and Steelhead Total Run Size, Catch, and Information on Salmon and Steelhead Total Run Size, Catch, and Hydropower Related Losses in the Upper Columbia River Basin, Above Hydropower Related Losses in the Upper Columbia River Basin, Above Grand Coulee Dam.” Fisheries Technical Report No. 2., Upper Columbia Grand Coulee Dam.” Fisheries Technical Report No. 2., Upper Columbia United Tribes Fisheries Center. Cheney, WA: Eastern Washington University United Tribes Fisheries Center. Cheney, WA: Eastern Washington University Department of Biology. Department of Biology. 4. AESE, Inc. (2001). Spokane Tribe Subsistence Exposure Scenario. Prepared 4. AESE, Inc. (2001). Spokane Tribe Subsistence Exposure Scenario. Prepared for the Spokane Tribe of Indians for use by EPA in the Midnite Mine RI/FS. for the Spokane Tribe of Indians for use by EPA in the Midnite Mine RI/FS. (Contact: F Kirschner; www.aeseinc.com; (509) 924-0184.) (Contact: F Kirschner; www.aeseinc.com; (509) 924-0184.) 5. Harris, S.G., and Harper, B.L. (1997). “A Native American Exposure 5. Harris, S.G., and Harper, B.L. (1997). “A Native American Exposure Scenario.” Risk Analysis 17: 789–795. Scenario.” Risk Analysis 17: 789–795. 6. Harris, S.G., and Harper, B.L. (2000). “Using Eco-Cultural Dependency Webs 6. Harris, S.G., and Harper, B.L. (2000). “Using Eco-Cultural Dependency Webs in Risk Assessment and Characterization.” Environmental Science & in Risk Assessment and Characterization.” Environmental Science & Pollution Research 7(Special Issue 2): 91–100. Pollution Research 7(Special Issue 2): 91–100. 7. Yocum, C., and Brown, V. (1971). Wildlife and Plants of the Cascades. 7. Yocum, C., and Brown, V. (1971). Wildlife and Plants of the Cascades. Healdsburg CA: Naturgraph Publishers. Healdsburg CA: Naturgraph Publishers. 8. Taylor, R.J. & Douglas, G.W. (1995). Mountain Plants of the Pacific 8. Taylor, R.J. & Douglas, G.W. (1995). Mountain Plants of the Pacific Northwest. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing. Northwest. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing. 9. Little Spokane Watershed Council (1996). Critters of the Little Spokane 9. Little Spokane Watershed Council (1996). Critters of the Little Spokane Watershed. Spokane: Adventure Trail. Watershed. Spokane: Adventure Trail. 10. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998). Midnite Mine. Expanded Site 10. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998). Midnite Mine. Expanded Site Inspection Report. Region 10 START (Superfund Technical Assessment and Inspection Report. Region 10 START (Superfund Technical Assessment and Response Team). Seattle, WA: U.S. EPA Region 10. Response Team). Seattle, WA: U.S. EPA Region 10. 11. Nugent, D. (1997). Research Notes: Traditional Coeur d’Alene Subsistence. 11. Nugent, D. (1997). Research Notes: Traditional Coeur d’Alene Subsistence. Waterville, Maine: Department of Anthropology, Colby College. Waterville, Maine: Department of Anthropology, Colby College. 12. Turner, N.J. (1997). Food Plants of Interior First Peoples. Vancouver, BC: 12. Turner, N.J. (1997). Food Plants of Interior First Peoples. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press. University of British Columbia Press.
Spokane Tribe Scenario 251 Spokane Tribe Scenario 251
13. Turner, N.J. (1998). Plant Technology of First Peoples in British Columbia. 13. Turner, N.J. (1998). Plant Technology of First Peoples in British Columbia. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press. 14. Bruhac, J. (1997). The Native American Sweat Lodge: History and Legends. 14. Bruhac, J. (1997). The Native American Sweat Lodge: History and Legends. Freedom, CA: Crossing Press. Freedom, CA: Crossing Press. 15. Bucko, R.A. (1998). The Lakota Ritual of the Sweat Lodge: History and 15. Bucko, R.A. (1998). The Lakota Ritual of the Sweat Lodge: History and Contemporary Practice. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Contemporary Practice. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. 16. Hunn, E.S. (1990). Nch’i-Wana, The Big River: Mid-Columbia Indians and 16. Hunn, E.S. (1990). Nch’i-Wana, The Big River: Mid-Columbia Indians and Their Land. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. Their Land. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 17. Cordain, L., Miller, J.B., Eaton, S.B., Mann, N., Hold, S.H.A., and Speth, J.D. 17. Cordain, L., Miller, J.B., Eaton, S.B., Mann, N., Hold, S.H.A., and Speth, J.D. (2000). “Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy (2000). “Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide hinter-gatherer diets.” Am. J. Clin. Nut. 71: 682–692. estimations in worldwide hinter-gatherer diets.” Am. J. Clin. Nut. 71: 682–692. 18. Whitney, E.N., and Rolfes, S.R. (1999). Understanding Nutrition (8th ed.). 18. Whitney, E.N., and Rolfes, S.R. (1999). Understanding Nutrition (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. 19. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1989). “Exposure Factors Handbook.” 19. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1989). “Exposure Factors Handbook.” Office of Research and Development, EPA/600/18-89/043. Washington, D.C. Office of Research and Development, EPA/600/18-89/043. Washington, D.C. 20. van Wijnen, J.H., Clausing, P., and Brunekreef, B. (1990). “Estimated soil 20. van Wijnen, J.H., Clausing, P., and Brunekreef, B. (1990). “Estimated soil ingestion by children.” Environ Res. 51(2): 147–62. ingestion by children.” Environ Res. 51(2): 147–62. 21. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997). “Exposure Factors Handbook.” 21. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997). “Exposure Factors Handbook.” Office of Research and Development, EPA/600/P-95/002Fa-c. Washington, Office of Research and Development, EPA/600/P-95/002Fa-c. Washington, D.C. D.C. 22. Boyd, H.B., Pedersen, F., Cohr, K.-H., Damborg, A., Jakobsen, B.M., 22. Boyd, H.B., Pedersen, F., Cohr, K.-H., Damborg, A., Jakobsen, B.M., Kristensen, P., and Samsoe-Petersen, L. (1999). “Exposure scenarios and Kristensen, P., and Samsoe-Petersen, L. (1999). “Exposure scenarios and guidance values for urban soil pollutants.” Reg. Toxicol. Phar. 30: 197–208. guidance values for urban soil pollutants.” Reg. Toxicol. Phar. 30: 197–208. 23. Simon, S.L. (1997). “Soil Ingestion by Humans: A Review of History, Data, 23. Simon, S.L. (1997). “Soil Ingestion by Humans: A Review of History, Data, and Etiology with Application to Risk Assessment of Radioactive and Etiology with Application to Risk Assessment of Radioactive Contaminated Soil.” Health Physics 74: 647–672. Contaminated Soil.” Health Physics 74: 647–672. 24. Gereda, J.E., Leung, D.Y., Thatayatikom, A., Streib, J.E., Price, M.R., 24. Gereda, J.E., Leung, D.Y., Thatayatikom, A., Streib, J.E., Price, M.R., Klinnert, M.D., and Liu, A.H. (2000). “Relation between house-dust endotoxin Klinnert, M.D., and Liu, A.H. (2000). “Relation between house-dust endotoxin exposure, type 1 T-cell development and allergen sensitisation in infants at exposure, type 1 T-cell development and allergen sensitisation in infants at high risk of asthma.” Lancet 355: 1680–1683. high risk of asthma.” Lancet 355: 1680–1683. 25. California Air Resources Board (2000). “Technical Support Document for 25. California Air Resources Board (2000). “Technical Support Document for Exposure Assessment and Stochastic Analysis.” Exposure Assessment and Stochastic Analysis.” http://www.oehha.ca.gov/air/hot_spots/pdf/contents.pdf. http://www.oehha.ca.gov/air/hot_spots/pdf/contents.pdf.
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APPENDIX A APPENDIX A
INHALATION RATE INHALATION RATE
Inhalation Rate = 25m3/d (adult) Inhalation Rate = 25m3/d (adult)
A.1 SUMMARY A.1 SUMMARY The inhalation rate in the indigenous scenarios reflects the active, outdoor lifestyle of The inhalation rate in the indigenous scenarios reflects the active, outdoor lifestyle of traditional tribal members, including youth who are learning traditional subsistence traditional tribal members, including youth who are learning traditional subsistence skills, adult outdoor workers who also hunt, gather, and fish, and elders who gather skills, adult outdoor workers who also hunt, gather, and fish, and elders who gather plants and medicines, and prepare and use them (e.g., making medicines or plants and medicines, and prepare and use them (e.g., making medicines or baskets, etc.) and who teach a variety of indoor and outdoor traditional activities. baskets, etc.) and who teach a variety of indoor and outdoor traditional activities. Traditional tribal communities have no sedentary members except the frail elderly, Traditional tribal communities have no sedentary members except the frail elderly, whereas one-quarter of modern American adults of all ages report no leisure time whereas one-quarter of modern American adults of all ages report no leisure time physical activity at all.1 We have estimated the activity levels associated with this physical activity at all.1 We have estimated the activity levels associated with this lifestyle and diet using published anthropological studies, ethnographic literature on lifestyle and diet using published anthropological studies, ethnographic literature on foraging theory, hunting-gathering lifestyles, and interviews with tribal members. foraging theory, hunting-gathering lifestyles, and interviews with tribal members. Using EPA guidance on hourly inhalation rates for different activity levels, a Using EPA guidance on hourly inhalation rates for different activity levels, a reasonable inhalation rate for an average tribal member’s active lifestyle is an reasonable inhalation rate for an average tribal member’s active lifestyle is an average rate of 26.2m3/d, based on 8 hours sleeping at 0.4m3/hr, 2 hours sedentary average rate of 26.2m3/d, based on 8 hours sleeping at 0.4m3/hr, 2 hours sedentary at 0.5m3/hr, 6 hours light activity at 1m3/hr, 6 hours moderate activity at 1.6m3/hr, at 0.5m3/hr, 6 hours light activity at 1m3/hr, 6 hours moderate activity at 1.6m3/hr, and 2 hours heavy activity at 3.2m3/hr. Unlike most other exposure factors, which and 2 hours heavy activity at 3.2m3/hr. Unlike most other exposure factors, which are upper bounds, the inhalation rate is an average rate. This could result in under- are upper bounds, the inhalation rate is an average rate. This could result in under- protection of children, the elderly, athletes, asthmatics, and the half of the population protection of children, the elderly, athletes, asthmatics, and the half of the population with above-average inhalation rates. However, to be consistent with national with above-average inhalation rates. However, to be consistent with national methodology, we have rounded the rate to 25m3/day. methodology, we have rounded the rate to 25m3/day.
A.2 POPULATION-SPECIFIC PHYSIOLOGY A.2 POPULATION-SPECIFIC PHYSIOLOGY Perhaps the most relevant factors associated with ethnic specificity of metabolic and Perhaps the most relevant factors associated with ethnic specificity of metabolic and inhalation rates are the thrifty genotype(s), insulin use, and oxidation and adiposity inhalation rates are the thrifty genotype(s), insulin use, and oxidation and adiposity patterns (Goran 2000, Fox et al. 1998, Muzzin et al. 1999, Rush et al. 1997, Saad et patterns (Goran 2000, Fox et al. 1998, Muzzin et al. 1999, Rush et al. 1997, Saad et al. 1991, Kue Young et al. 2002), as well as ethnic differences in spirometry (Crapo al. 1991, Kue Young et al. 2002), as well as ethnic differences in spirometry (Crapo et al. 1988, Lanese et al. 1978, Mapel et al. 1997, Aidaraliyev et al. 1993, Berman et et al. 1988, Lanese et al. 1978, Mapel et al. 1997, Aidaraliyev et al. 1993, Berman et al. 1994). Research on the thrifty genotype suggests that there may be several al. 1994). Research on the thrifty genotype suggests that there may be several stress response genes that enable indigenous populations to respond to stress response genes that enable indigenous populations to respond to environmental stresses and to the rapid transition between extremes, including feast environmental stresses and to the rapid transition between extremes, including feast and famine, heat and cold, disruption in circadian rhythms, dehydration, seasonality, and famine, heat and cold, disruption in circadian rhythms, dehydration, seasonality, and explosive energy output or rapid transitions between minimum and maximum and explosive energy output or rapid transitions between minimum and maximum exercise and VO2max (Kimm et al. 2002, Snitker et al. 1998). These genes exercise and VO2max (Kimm et al. 2002, Snitker et al. 1998). These genes “uncouple” several energy expenditure parameters (Kimm et al. 2002) and generally “uncouple” several energy expenditure parameters (Kimm et al. 2002) and generally
1 http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pdf/ 2001prvrpt.pdf and http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pubrfdat.htm. 1 http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pdf/ 2001prvrpt.pdf and http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/pubrfdat.htm.
Appendix A 253 Appendix A 253
support the logic of using a higher inhalation rate for active outdoor lifestyles, support the logic of using a higher inhalation rate for active outdoor lifestyles, especially in Native American populations. especially in Native American populations.
A.3 SHORT-TERM VERSUS LONG-TERM INHALATION RATES A.3 SHORT-TERM VERSUS LONG-TERM INHALATION RATES Most federal and state agencies either use the EPA default value of 20m3/d or use Most federal and state agencies either use the EPA default value of 20m3/d or use activity levels to estimate short-term and long-term inhalation rates. For these activity levels to estimate short-term and long-term inhalation rates. For these exposure scenarios, activity levels were evaluated through anthropological data exposure scenarios, activity levels were evaluated through anthropological data (foraging theory and activity descriptions in the anthropological literature) and (foraging theory and activity descriptions in the anthropological literature) and confirmatory interviews with tribal elders, and used the CHAD-based EPA confirmatory interviews with tribal elders, and used the CHAD-based EPA recommendations for ventilation rates for the different activity levels. Several recommendations for ventilation rates for the different activity levels. Several examples of similar approaches are: examples of similar approaches are:
• EPA’s National Air Toxics Assessment (homepage: • EPA’s National Air Toxics Assessment (homepage: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/nata/ natsa3.html) uses the CHAD database in its http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/nata/ natsa3.html) uses the CHAD database in its HAPEM4 model to estimate national average air toxics exposures, even HAPEM4 model to estimate national average air toxics exposures, even though “the lack of activity pattern data that extend over longer periods of though “the lack of activity pattern data that extend over longer periods of times presents a challenge for HAPEM4 to predict the long-term (yearly) times presents a challenge for HAPEM4 to predict the long-term (yearly) activity patterns that are required to determine chronic exposures.” activity patterns that are required to determine chronic exposures.” Therefore, “an approach of selection of a series of single day’s patterns (from Therefore, “an approach of selection of a series of single day’s patterns (from CHAD) to represent an individual’s activity pattern for a year was developed.” CHAD) to represent an individual’s activity pattern for a year was developed.” • The California Air Resources Board (CARB 2000) reviewed daily breathing • The California Air Resources Board (CARB 2000) reviewed daily breathing rates based on activity levels and measured ventilation rates for many rates based on activity levels and measured ventilation rates for many activities in the CHAD database. The average hourly rate for sleeping was activities in the CHAD database. The average hourly rate for sleeping was 0.5m3/hr, light activities at 0.55m3/hr, moderate activities at 1.4m3/hr, and 0.5m3/hr, light activities at 0.55m3/hr, moderate activities at 1.4m3/hr, and heavy rates of activity levels at 3.4m3/hr. The CARB concluded that 20m3/d heavy rates of activity levels at 3.4m3/hr. The CARB concluded that 20m3/d represents an 85th percentile of typical adult sedentary/light activity lifestyles. represents an 85th percentile of typical adult sedentary/light activity lifestyles. This is based on 8 hours sleeping and 16 hours of light activity with no This is based on 8 hours sleeping and 16 hours of light activity with no moderate or heavy activity, or 1 hour per day of moderate and heavy activity moderate or heavy activity, or 1 hour per day of moderate and heavy activity each. each. • In their technical guidance document, “Long-term Chemical Exposure • In their technical guidance document, “Long-term Chemical Exposure Guidelines for Deployed Military Personnel,” the U.S. Army Center for Health Guidelines for Deployed Military Personnel,” the U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM) recommended an Promotion and Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM) recommended an inhalation rate of 29.2m3/d for U.S. service members. Deployed personnel inhalation rate of 29.2m3/d for U.S. service members. Deployed personnel were assumed to spend 6 hours sleeping at an inhalation rate of 0.4m3/hr, 4 were assumed to spend 6 hours sleeping at an inhalation rate of 0.4m3/hr, 4 hours in sedentary activities (at 0.5m3/hr), 6 hours in light duties (at 1.2m3/hr), hours in sedentary activities (at 0.5m3/hr), 6 hours in light duties (at 1.2m3/hr), and 8 hours in moderate duties (at 2.2m3/hr).2 and 8 hours in moderate duties (at 2.2m3/hr).2 • EPA used 30m3/day for a year-long exposure estimate for the general public • EPA used 30m3/day for a year-long exposure estimate for the general public at the Hanford Superfund site in Washington state, based on a person doing at the Hanford Superfund site in Washington state, based on a person doing 4 hours of heavy work, 8 hours of light activity, and 12 hours resting.3 4 hours of heavy work, 8 hours of light activity, and 12 hours resting.3
2 http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/particulate_final/ particulate_final_s06.htm and 2 http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/particulate_final/ particulate_final_s06.htm and http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/pm/pm_en.htm. http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/pm/pm_en.htm. 3 “Report of Radiochemical Analyses for Air Filters from Hanford Area”; Memorandum from Edwin L. 3 “Report of Radiochemical Analyses for Air Filters from Hanford Area”; Memorandum from Edwin L. Sensintaffar, Director of the National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory, to Jerrold Leitch, Sensintaffar, Director of the National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory, to Jerrold Leitch, Region 10 Radiation Program Manager Region 10 Radiation Program Manager (http://yosemite.epa.gov/R10/AIRPAGE.NSF/webpage/Hanford+Environmental+Perspective) (http://yosemite.epa.gov/R10/AIRPAGE.NSF/webpage/Hanford+Environmental+Perspective)
Appendix A 254 Appendix A 254
• The DOE’s Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory also used 30m3/d: “the working • The DOE’s Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory also used 30m3/d: “the working breathing rate is for 8 hours of work and, when combined with 8 hours of breathing rate is for 8 hours of work and, when combined with 8 hours of breathing at the active rate and 8 hours at the resting rate, gives a daily breathing at the active rate and 8 hours at the resting rate, gives a daily equivalent intake of 30m3 for an adult.”4 equivalent intake of 30m3 for an adult.”4 • The Rocky Flats Oversight Panel recommended using 30m3/d.5 • The Rocky Flats Oversight Panel recommended using 30m3/d.5
A.4 THE USE OF POPULATION-SPECIFIC INFORMATION RATHER THAN A.4 THE USE OF POPULATION-SPECIFIC INFORMATION RATHER THAN NATIONAL AVERAGES NATIONAL AVERAGES EPA instructs risk assessors to identify the receptor population and their activities or EPA instructs risk assessors to identify the receptor population and their activities or land use.6 “Assessors are encouraged to use values which most accurately reflect land use.6 “Assessors are encouraged to use values which most accurately reflect the exposed population.”7 The OSWER Land Use Directive8 requires the the exposed population.”7 The OSWER Land Use Directive8 requires the identification of land uses for the baseline risk assessment; when the affected identification of land uses for the baseline risk assessment; when the affected resources are on reservations or areas where tribes retain usory rights, a resources are on reservations or areas where tribes retain usory rights, a subsistence/residential land use must be assumed if the tribe so indicates. Executive subsistence/residential land use must be assumed if the tribe so indicates. Executive Order 128989 requires the identification of subsistence consumption of natural Order 128989 requires the identification of subsistence consumption of natural resources, and for Indian tribes this includes the activities required to obtain those resources, and for Indian tribes this includes the activities required to obtain those resources. resources.
EPA recognizes that inhalation rates may be higher in certain populations, such as EPA recognizes that inhalation rates may be higher in certain populations, such as athletes or outdoor workers, because levels of activity outdoors may be higher over athletes or outdoor workers, because levels of activity outdoors may be higher over long time periods. “If site-specific data are available to show that subsistence long time periods. “If site-specific data are available to show that subsistence farmers and fishers have higher respiration rates due to rigorous physical activities farmers and fishers have higher respiration rates due to rigorous physical activities than other receptors, that data may be appropriate.”10 Such subpopulation groups than other receptors, that data may be appropriate.”10 Such subpopulation groups are considered high risk subgroups.11 EPA (1997) recommends calculating their are considered high risk subgroups.11 EPA (1997) recommends calculating their inhalation rates using the following average hourly intakes for various activity levels inhalation rates using the following average hourly intakes for various activity levels (in m3/hr): resting = 0.4, sedentary = 0.5, light activity = 1, moderate activity = 1.6, (in m3/hr): resting = 0.4, sedentary = 0.5, light activity = 1, moderate activity = 1.6, heavy activity = 3.2. EPA’s average rate for outdoor workers is 1.3m3/hr, with an heavy activity = 3.2. EPA’s average rate for outdoor workers is 1.3m3/hr, with an upper percentile of 3.3m3/hr, depending on the ratio of light, moderate, and heavy upper percentile of 3.3m3/hr, depending on the ratio of light, moderate, and heavy activities during the observation time. Other EPA risk assessments typically use activities during the observation time. Other EPA risk assessments typically use 2.5m3/hr for groundskeepers.12 2.5m3/hr for groundskeepers.12
4 www.lbl.gov/ehs/epg/tritium/TritAppB.html 4 www.lbl.gov/ehs/epg/tritium/TritAppB.html 5 RAC (Risk Assessment Corporation). 1999. Task 1: Cleanup Levels at Other Sites. Rocky Flats 5 RAC (Risk Assessment Corporation). 1999. Task 1: Cleanup Levels at Other Sites. Rocky Flats Citizens Advisory Board, Rocky Flats Soil Action Level Oversight Panel. RAC Report No. Citizens Advisory Board, Rocky Flats Soil Action Level Oversight Panel. RAC Report No. 3-RFCAB-RFSAL-1999’ http://www.itrcweb.org/Documents/RAD-2.pdf 3-RFCAB-RFSAL-1999’ http://www.itrcweb.org/Documents/RAD-2.pdf 6 http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragsd/table4instructions.pdf. 6 http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragsd/table4instructions.pdf. 7 “Exposure Factor Handbook,” Volume 1, page 5-23 7 “Exposure Factor Handbook,” Volume 1, page 5-23 8 OSWER Directive 9355.7-04, “Land Use in the CERCLA Remedy Selection Process” 8 OSWER Directive 9355.7-04, “Land Use in the CERCLA Remedy Selection Process” (May 25, 1995) (May 25, 1995) 9 White House, 1994. Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and 9 White House, 1994. Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations: Feb. 11, 1994; 59 FR 7629, Feb. 16, 1994. Low-Income Populations: Feb. 11, 1994; 59 FR 7629, Feb. 16, 1994. 10 EPA (OSWER) “Human Health Risk Assessment Protocol for Hazardous Waste Combustion 10 EPA (OSWER) “Human Health Risk Assessment Protocol for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities, Support Materials Volume 1: Human Health Risk Assessment Protocol for Hazardous Facilities, Support Materials Volume 1: Human Health Risk Assessment Protocol for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities,” page 6-4, at http://www.epa.gov/earth1r6/6pd/rcra_c/protocol/ Waste Combustion Facilities,” page 6-4, at http://www.epa.gov/earth1r6/6pd/rcra_c/protocol/ volume_1/chpt6-hh.pdf volume_1/chpt6-hh.pdf 11 “Exposure Factors Handbook,” 1997, Volume 1. page 5-24 11 “Exposure Factors Handbook,” 1997, Volume 1. page 5-24 12 For outdoor workers, see U.S. EPA 1991a. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). 12 For outdoor workers, see U.S. EPA 1991a. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). Human health evaluation manual, supplemental guidance: “Standard default exposure factors.” Human health evaluation manual, supplemental guidance: “Standard default exposure factors.”
Appendix A 255 Appendix A 255
Using EPA guidance on hourly inhalation rates for different activity levels, a Using EPA guidance on hourly inhalation rates for different activity levels, a reasonable inhalation rate for an average tribal member’s active lifestyle is an reasonable inhalation rate for an average tribal member’s active lifestyle is an average rate of 26.2m3/d, based on 8 hours sleeping at 0.4m3/hr, 2 hours sedentary average rate of 26.2m3/d, based on 8 hours sleeping at 0.4m3/hr, 2 hours sedentary at 0.5m3/hr, 6 hours light activity at 1m3/hr, 6 hours moderate activity at 1.6m3/hr, at 0.5m3/hr, 6 hours light activity at 1m3/hr, 6 hours moderate activity at 1.6m3/hr, and 2 hours heavy activity at 3.2m3/hr. The resultant 26.2m3/d is rounded to 25 and 2 hours heavy activity at 3.2m3/hr. The resultant 26.2m3/d is rounded to 25 m3/day. m3/day.
A.5 REFERENCES A.5 REFERENCES Aidaraliyev, A.A., Maximov, A.L., and Mala, T. (1993). “Physiologic adaptation Aidaraliyev, A.A., Maximov, A.L., and Mala, T. (1993). “Physiologic adaptation changes of the ‘Bering Bridge’ expedition participants.” Arctic Med. Res. changes of the ‘Bering Bridge’ expedition participants.” Arctic Med. Res. 52(2): 55–62. 52(2): 55–62.
Berman, S.M., Arnall, D.A., and Cornwall, M.W. (1994). “Pulmonary function test Berman, S.M., Arnall, D.A., and Cornwall, M.W. (1994). “Pulmonary function test outcomes in healthy Navajo Native American adolescents.” Am. J. Respir. outcomes in healthy Navajo Native American adolescents.” Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 150(4): 1150–3. Crit. Care Med. 150(4): 1150–3.
CARB, 2000. Technical Support Document for Exposure Assessment and CARB, 2000. Technical Support Document for Exposure Assessment and Stochastic Analysis. California Air Resources Board, September 2000. Stochastic Analysis. California Air Resources Board, September 2000. http://www.oehha.ca.gov/air/hot_spots/pdf/contents.pdf (see chapter 3 for http://www.oehha.ca.gov/air/hot_spots/pdf/contents.pdf (see chapter 3 for daily breathing rates). daily breathing rates).
Crapo, R.O., Lockey, J., Aldrich, V., Jensen, R.L., and Elliott, C.G. (1998). “Normal Crapo, R.O., Lockey, J., Aldrich, V., Jensen, R.L., and Elliott, C.G. (1998). “Normal spirometric values in healthy American Indians.” J. Occup. Med. 30(7): 556– spirometric values in healthy American Indians.” J. Occup. Med. 30(7): 556– 60. 60.
EPA (1997). “Exposure Factors Handbook.” Office of Research and Development, EPA (1997). “Exposure Factors Handbook.” Office of Research and Development, EPA/600/P-95/002Fa-c. Washington, D.C. EPA/600/P-95/002Fa-c. Washington, D.C. http://www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/efh/sect5.pdf http://www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/efh/sect5.pdf
EPA (1999). “Cancer Risk Coefficients for Environmental Exposure to EPA (1999). “Cancer Risk Coefficients for Environmental Exposure to Radionuclides.” Federal Guidance Report No. 13 (EPA/402-R-99-001). Radionuclides.” Federal Guidance Report No. 13 (EPA/402-R-99-001).
EPA (2000) “CHAD User’s Guide.” EPA National Exposure Research Laboratory, EPA (2000) “CHAD User’s Guide.” EPA National Exposure Research Laboratory, and associated web pages, factsheets, and summaries. Homepage: and associated web pages, factsheets, and summaries. Homepage: http://www.epa.gov/chadnet1/. http://www.epa.gov/chadnet1/.
Fox, C.S., Esparza, J., Nicolson, M., Bennett, P.H., Schulz, L.O., Valencia, M.E., Fox, C.S., Esparza, J., Nicolson, M., Bennett, P.H., Schulz, L.O., Valencia, M.E., and Ravussin, E. (1998). “Is a low leptin concentration, a low resting and Ravussin, E. (1998). “Is a low leptin concentration, a low resting
OSWER Directive 9285.6-03. An example of use is http://epa- OSWER Directive 9285.6-03. An example of use is http://epa- dccs.ornl.gov/radionuclides/equations/outdoor_guide.shtml. Oregon uses 3.66 m3/hr for penitentiary dccs.ornl.gov/radionuclides/equations/outdoor_guide.shtml. Oregon uses 3.66 m3/hr for penitentiary workers; http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:uQII54d5ioYJ:www.doc.state.or.us/fiscalservices/ workers; http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:uQII54d5ioYJ:www.doc.state.or.us/fiscalservices/ facilities/existing/osp_groundwater/tables/2000/table_5_4.pdf+%22construction+worker%22+%22in facilities/existing/osp_groundwater/tables/2000/table_5_4.pdf+%22construction+worker%22+%22in halation+rate%22+epa&hl=en. halation+rate%22+epa&hl=en.
Appendix A 256 Appendix A 256
metabolic rate, or both the expression of the ‘thrifty genotype’? Results from metabolic rate, or both the expression of the ‘thrifty genotype’? Results from Mexican Pima Indians.” Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 68(5): 1053–7. Mexican Pima Indians.” Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 68(5): 1053–7.
Funk, L.M., Sedman, R., Beals, J.A., and Fountain, R. (1998). “Quantifying the Funk, L.M., Sedman, R., Beals, J.A., and Fountain, R. (1998). “Quantifying the distribution of inhalation exposure in human populations: 2. Distributions of distribution of inhalation exposure in human populations: 2. Distributions of time spent by adults, adolescents, and children at home, at work, and at time spent by adults, adolescents, and children at home, at work, and at school.” Risk Anal. 18(1): 47–56. school.” Risk Anal. 18(1): 47–56.
Goran, M.I. (2000). “Energy metabolism and obesity.” Med Clin North Am 84(2): Goran, M.I. (2000). “Energy metabolism and obesity.” Med Clin North Am 84(2): 347–62. 347–62.
Hartmann HM. (2002). “Evaluation of risk assessment guideline levels for the Hartmann HM. (2002). “Evaluation of risk assessment guideline levels for the chemical warfare agents mustard, GB, and VX.” Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. chemical warfare agents mustard, GB, and VX.” Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 35(3): 347–56. 35(3): 347–56.
Kimm, S.Y., Glynn, N.W., Aston, C.E., Damcott, C.M., Poehlman, E.T., Daniels, Kimm, S.Y., Glynn, N.W., Aston, C.E., Damcott, C.M., Poehlman, E.T., Daniels, S.R., and Ferrell, R.E. (2002). “Racial differences in the relation between S.R., and Ferrell, R.E. (2002). “Racial differences in the relation between uncoupling protein genes and resting energy expenditure.” Am. J. Clin. Nutr. uncoupling protein genes and resting energy expenditure.” Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 75(4): 714–9. 75(4): 714–9.
Kue Young, T., Chateau, D., and Zhang, M. (2002). “Factor analysis of ethnic Kue Young, T., Chateau, D., and Zhang, M. (2002). “Factor analysis of ethnic variation in the multiple metabolic (insulin resistance) syndrome in three variation in the multiple metabolic (insulin resistance) syndrome in three Canadian populations.” Am. J. Human Biol. 14(5): 649–58. Canadian populations.” Am. J. Human Biol. 14(5): 649–58.
Lanese, R.R., Keller, M.D., Foley, M.F., and Underwood, E.H. (1978). “Differences in Lanese, R.R., Keller, M.D., Foley, M.F., and Underwood, E.H. (1978). “Differences in pulmonary function tests among whites, blacks, and American Indians in a pulmonary function tests among whites, blacks, and American Indians in a textile company.” J. Occup. Med. 20(1): 39–44. textile company.” J. Occup. Med. 20(1): 39–44.
Mapel, D.W., Coultas, D.B., James, D.S., Hunt, W.C., Stidley, C.A., and Gilliland, Mapel, D.W., Coultas, D.B., James, D.S., Hunt, W.C., Stidley, C.A., and Gilliland, F.D. (1997). “Ethnic differences in the prevalence of nonmalignant respiratory F.D. (1997). “Ethnic differences in the prevalence of nonmalignant respiratory disease among uranium miners.” Am. J. Public Health 87(5): 833–8. disease among uranium miners.” Am. J. Public Health 87(5): 833–8.
Muzzin, P., Boss, O., and Giacobino, J.P. (1999). “Uncoupling protein 3: its possible Muzzin, P., Boss, O., and Giacobino, J.P. (1999). “Uncoupling protein 3: its possible biological role and mode of regulation in rodents and humans.” J. Bioenerg. biological role and mode of regulation in rodents and humans.” J. Bioenerg. Biomembr. 31(5): 467–73. Biomembr. 31(5): 467–73.
Rush, E.C., Plank, L.D., and Robinson, S.M. (1997). “Resting metabolic rate in Rush, E.C., Plank, L.D., and Robinson, S.M. (1997). “Resting metabolic rate in young Polynesian and Caucasian women.” Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. young Polynesian and Caucasian women.” Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 21(11): 1071–5. 21(11): 1071–5.
Saad, M.F., Alger, S.A., Zurlo, F., Young, J.B., Bogardus, C., and Ravussin, E. Saad, M.F., Alger, S.A., Zurlo, F., Young, J.B., Bogardus, C., and Ravussin, E. (1991). “Ethnic differences in sympathetic nervous system-mediated energy (1991). “Ethnic differences in sympathetic nervous system-mediated energy expenditure.” Am. J. Physiol. 261(6 Pt 1): E789–94. expenditure.” Am. J. Physiol. 261(6 Pt 1): E789–94.
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Snitker, S., Tataranni, P.A., and Ravussin, E. (1998). “Respiratory quotient is Snitker, S., Tataranni, P.A., and Ravussin, E. (1998). “Respiratory quotient is inversely associated with muscle sympathetic nerve activity.” J. Clin. inversely associated with muscle sympathetic nerve activity.” J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 83(11): 3977–9. Endocrinol. Metab. 83(11): 3977–9.
Steegmann, A.T., Jr, Cerny, F.J., and Holliday, T.W. (2002). “Neandertal cold Steegmann, A.T., Jr, Cerny, F.J., and Holliday, T.W. (2002). “Neandertal cold adaptation: physiological and energetic factors.” Am. J. Human Biol. 14(5): adaptation: physiological and energetic factors.” Am. J. Human Biol. 14(5): 566–83. 566–83.
Appendix B 258 Appendix B 258
APPENDIX B APPENDIX B
SOIL INGESTION RATE SOIL INGESTION RATE
Indigenous Soil Ingestion Rate = 400mg/d (all ages) Indigenous Soil Ingestion Rate = 400mg/d (all ages)
B.1 SUMMARY B.1 SUMMARY Soil ingestion includes consideration of direct ingestion of dirt, mud, or dust, Soil ingestion includes consideration of direct ingestion of dirt, mud, or dust, swallowing inhaled dust, mouthing of objects, ingestion of dirt or dust on food, and swallowing inhaled dust, mouthing of objects, ingestion of dirt or dust on food, and hand-to-mouth contact. The indigenous soil ingestion rate is based on a review of hand-to-mouth contact. The indigenous soil ingestion rate is based on a review of EPA guidance, soil ingestion studies in suburban and indigenous settings, pica and EPA guidance, soil ingestion studies in suburban and indigenous settings, pica and geophagia, and dermal adherence studies. It is also based on Columbia Plateau geophagia, and dermal adherence studies. It is also based on Columbia Plateau subsistence lifestyles with their higher environmental contact rates, and local climatic subsistence lifestyles with their higher environmental contact rates, and local climatic and geologic conditions. and geologic conditions.
The soil ingestion rate of 400mg/d for all ages is the upper bound for suburban The soil ingestion rate of 400mg/d for all ages is the upper bound for suburban children (EPA 1997) and within the range of outdoor activity rates for adults. children (EPA 1997) and within the range of outdoor activity rates for adults. Subsistence lifestyles were not considered by the EPA guidance, but are generally Subsistence lifestyles were not considered by the EPA guidance, but are generally considered to be similar in soil contact rates to construction, utility worker, or military considered to be similar in soil contact rates to construction, utility worker, or military soil contact levels. However, it is lower than 480mg/d to allow for some low-contact soil contact levels. However, it is lower than 480mg/d to allow for some low-contact days and balanced with many 1-gram days and events, such as root gathering days, days and balanced with many 1-gram days and events, such as root gathering days, tule and wapato gathering days, powwows, rodeos, horse training and riding days, tule and wapato gathering days, powwows, rodeos, horse training and riding days, sweat lodge building or repair days, grave digging, and similar activities. There are sweat lodge building or repair days, grave digging, and similar activities. There are also likely to be many high or intermediate-contact days, depending on the also likely to be many high or intermediate-contact days, depending on the occupation (e.g., wildlife field work, construction or road work, cultural resource field occupation (e.g., wildlife field work, construction or road work, cultural resource field work). work).
B.2 EPA GUIDANCE B.2 EPA GUIDANCE EPA has reviewed the studies relevant to suburban populations and has published EPA has reviewed the studies relevant to suburban populations and has published summaries in its “Exposure Factors Handbook” (1989, 1991, and 1997). In the summaries in its “Exposure Factors Handbook” (1989, 1991, and 1997). In the current iteration of the “Exposure Factors Handbook”1, EPA reviewed the available current iteration of the “Exposure Factors Handbook”1, EPA reviewed the available scientific literature for children and identified seven key studies that were used to scientific literature for children and identified seven key studies that were used to prepare recommended guidelines for evaluating the amount of soil exposure. The prepare recommended guidelines for evaluating the amount of soil exposure. The mean daily values in these studies ranged from 39mg/day to 271mg/day with an mean daily values in these studies ranged from 39mg/day to 271mg/day with an average of 146mg/day for soil ingestion and 191mg/day for soil and dust ingestion. average of 146mg/day for soil ingestion and 191mg/day for soil and dust ingestion. Based on these studies, EPA originally recommended a value of 200mg/day. EPA Based on these studies, EPA originally recommended a value of 200mg/day. EPA now recommends 100mg/d as a mean value for children in suburban settings, now recommends 100mg/d as a mean value for children in suburban settings, 200mg/day as a conservative estimate of the mean, and a value of 400mg/day as an 200mg/day as a conservative estimate of the mean, and a value of 400mg/day as an
1 Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. Exposure Factors Handbook. Volumes I, II, III. U.S. 1 Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. Exposure Factors Handbook. Volumes I, II, III. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. EPA/600/P-95/002Fa. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. EPA/600/P-95/002Fa.
Appendix B 259 Appendix B 259
upper bound value (exact percentile not specified). Most state and federal guidance upper bound value (exact percentile not specified). Most state and federal guidance uses 200mg/d for children. uses 200mg/d for children.
For adults, the USEPA now suggests a mean soil ingestion rate in suburban settings For adults, the USEPA now suggests a mean soil ingestion rate in suburban settings of 50mg/day for adults (USEPA 1997), which has been decreased from 100mg/d as of 50mg/day for adults (USEPA 1997), which has been decreased from 100mg/d as recommended in earlier guidance. However, EPA says that this rate is still highly recommended in earlier guidance. However, EPA says that this rate is still highly uncertain and has a low confidence rating due to lack of data. An adult soil ingestion uncertain and has a low confidence rating due to lack of data. An adult soil ingestion rate of 100mg/day is most commonly used for residential or agricultural settings. rate of 100mg/day is most commonly used for residential or agricultural settings.
Other EPA guidance such as the Soil Screening Level Guidance2 recommends Other EPA guidance such as the Soil Screening Level Guidance2 recommends using 200mg/d for children and 100mg/d for adults, based on RAGS HHEM, Part B using 200mg/d for children and 100mg/d for adults, based on RAGS HHEM, Part B (EPA 1991), or an age-adjusted rate of 114mg-y/kg-d. (EPA 1991), or an age-adjusted rate of 114mg-y/kg-d.
A value for an ingestion rate for adult outdoor activities is no longer given in the 1997 A value for an ingestion rate for adult outdoor activities is no longer given in the 1997 “Exposure Factors Handbook” for adults as it is “too speculative.” However, the soil “Exposure Factors Handbook” for adults as it is “too speculative.” However, the soil screening guidance still recommends 330mg/d for a construction worker or other screening guidance still recommends 330mg/d for a construction worker or other outdoor worker, and risk assessments for construction workers typically use a rate of outdoor worker, and risk assessments for construction workers typically use a rate of 480mg/d (EPA 1997, Hawley 1985). 480mg/d (EPA 1997, Hawley 1985).
Other soil ingestion rates are also used by risk assessors. For example, some states Other soil ingestion rates are also used by risk assessors. For example, some states recommend the use of 1 gram per acute soil ingestion event3 to approximate a non- recommend the use of 1 gram per acute soil ingestion event3 to approximate a non- average day for children, such as an outdoor day. average day for children, such as an outdoor day.
B.3 MILITARY GUIDANCE B.3 MILITARY GUIDANCE The US military assumes 480mg per exposure event4 or per field day. For military The US military assumes 480mg per exposure event4 or per field day. For military risk assessment, the US Army uses the Technical Guide 230 (TG) as the tool to risk assessment, the US Army uses the Technical Guide 230 (TG) as the tool to assist deployed military personnel when assessing the potential health risks assist deployed military personnel when assessing the potential health risks associated with chemical exposures.5 No database is available to estimate incidental associated with chemical exposures.5 No database is available to estimate incidental soil ingestion for adults in general or for military populations either during training at soil ingestion for adults in general or for military populations either during training at continental US facilities or during deployment. Department Of Defense (2002)6 continental US facilities or during deployment. Department Of Defense (2002)6 recommendations for certain activities, such as construction or landscaping which recommendations for certain activities, such as construction or landscaping which
2 EPA (1996) Soil Screening Guidance: Technical Background Document, EPA/540/R-95/128, July 2 EPA (1996) Soil Screening Guidance: Technical Background Document, EPA/540/R-95/128, July 1996 (http://www.epa.gov/superfund/resources/soil/toc.htm#p2), and EPA (2002) Supplemental 1996 (http://www.epa.gov/superfund/resources/soil/toc.htm#p2), and EPA (2002) Supplemental Guidance For Developing Soil Screening Levels For Superfund Sites. OSWER 9355.4-24 Guidance For Developing Soil Screening Levels For Superfund Sites. OSWER 9355.4-24 (http://www.epa.gov/superfund/resources/soil/ssg_main.pdf). (http://www.epa.gov/superfund/resources/soil/ssg_main.pdf). 3 MADEP (1992). Background Documentation For The Development Of An “Available Cyanide” 3 MADEP (1992). Background Documentation For The Development Of An “Available Cyanide” Benchmark Concentration. http://www.mass.gov/dep/ors/files/cn_soil.htm Benchmark Concentration. http://www.mass.gov/dep/ors/files/cn_soil.htm 4 http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/pesto/pest_s22.htm, citing US Environmental Protection Agency, Office 4 http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/pesto/pest_s22.htm, citing US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, “Exposure Factors Handbook,” Volume I, EPA/600/P-95/002a, August of Research and Development, “Exposure Factors Handbook,” Volume I, EPA/600/P-95/002a, August 1997 as the basis for the 480mg/d. 1997 as the basis for the 480mg/d. 5 USACPPM TG 230A (1999). Short-Term Chemical Exposure Guidelines for Deployed Military 5 USACPPM TG 230A (1999). Short-Term Chemical Exposure Guidelines for Deployed Military Personnel. U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine. Personnel. U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine. Website: http://www.grid.unep.ch/btf/missions/september/dufinal.pdf Website: http://www.grid.unep.ch/btf/missions/september/dufinal.pdf 6 Reference Document (RD) 230, “Exposure Guidelines for Deployed Military.” A Companion 6 Reference Document (RD) 230, “Exposure Guidelines for Deployed Military.” A Companion Document to USACHPPM Technical Guide (TG) 230, “Chemical Exposure Guidelines for Document to USACHPPM Technical Guide (TG) 230, “Chemical Exposure Guidelines for Deployed Military Personnel,” January 2002. Website: http://chppm-www.apgea.army.mil/desp/; and Deployed Military Personnel,” January 2002. Website: http://chppm-www.apgea.army.mil/desp/; and http://books.nap.edu/books/0309092213/html/83.html#pagetop. http://books.nap.edu/books/0309092213/html/83.html#pagetop.
Appendix B 260 Appendix B 260
involve a greater soil contact rate, is a soil ingestion rate of 480mg/day. This value is involve a greater soil contact rate, is a soil ingestion rate of 480mg/day. This value is based on the assumption that the ingested soil comes from a 50µm layer of soil based on the assumption that the ingested soil comes from a 50µm layer of soil adhered to the insides of the thumb and the fingers of one hand. DOD assumed that adhered to the insides of the thumb and the fingers of one hand. DOD assumed that the deployed military personnel would be exposed at both the high ingestion rate the deployed military personnel would be exposed at both the high ingestion rate and a mean ingestion rate throughout the year. The two ingestion rates were and a mean ingestion rate throughout the year. The two ingestion rates were averaged (half the days were spent at 480 and half at 50mg/d) for a chronic average averaged (half the days were spent at 480 and half at 50mg/d) for a chronic average rate of 265mg/d. rate of 265mg/d.
The UN Balkans Task Force assumes that 1 gram of soil can be ingested per The UN Balkans Task Force assumes that 1 gram of soil can be ingested per military field day.7 military field day.7
B.4 STUDIES IN SUBURBAN OR URBAN POPULATIONS B.4 STUDIES IN SUBURBAN OR URBAN POPULATIONS Written knowledge that humans often ingest soil dates back to the classical Greek Written knowledge that humans often ingest soil dates back to the classical Greek era. Soil ingestion has been widely studied from a perspective of exposure to soil era. Soil ingestion has been widely studied from a perspective of exposure to soil parasite eggs and other infections. More recently, soil ingestion was recognized to parasite eggs and other infections. More recently, soil ingestion was recognized to be a potentially significant pathway of exposure to contaminants, and risk be a potentially significant pathway of exposure to contaminants, and risk assessments initially used a high inadvertent, based on studies of pica children (e.g., assessments initially used a high inadvertent, based on studies of pica children (e.g., Kimbrough 1984). This triggered a great deal of research with industry (e.g., the Kimbrough 1984). This triggered a great deal of research with industry (e.g., the Calabrese series) or federal funding (e.g., the DOE-funded studies of fallout and Calabrese series) or federal funding (e.g., the DOE-funded studies of fallout and bomb test contamination). bomb test contamination).
Some of the key studies are summarized here. Other agencies (including the EPA8 Some of the key studies are summarized here. Other agencies (including the EPA8 and California OEHHA) have reviewed more studies and provide more detail. To and California OEHHA) have reviewed more studies and provide more detail. To quote form OEHHA: quote form OEHHA:
There is a general consensus that hand-to-mouth activity results in incidental There is a general consensus that hand-to-mouth activity results in incidental soil ingestion, and that children ingest more soil than adults. Soil ingestion soil ingestion, and that children ingest more soil than adults. Soil ingestion rates vary depending on the age of the individual, frequency of hand-to-mouth rates vary depending on the age of the individual, frequency of hand-to-mouth contact, seasonal climate, amount and type of outdoor activity, the surface on contact, seasonal climate, amount and type of outdoor activity, the surface on which that activity occurs, and personal hygiene practices. Some children which that activity occurs, and personal hygiene practices. Some children exhibit pica behavior which can result in intentional ingestion of relatively exhibit pica behavior which can result in intentional ingestion of relatively large amounts of soil.9 large amounts of soil.9
In general, two approaches to estimating soil ingestion rates have been taken. The In general, two approaches to estimating soil ingestion rates have been taken. The first method involves measuring the presence of (mostly) non-metabolized tracer first method involves measuring the presence of (mostly) non-metabolized tracer elements in the feces of an individual and in the soil with which an individual is in elements in the feces of an individual and in the soil with which an individual is in contact, generally in controlled (largely indoor) situations. The other method involves contact, generally in controlled (largely indoor) situations. The other method involves measuring the dirt adhered to an individual’s hand and observing hand-to-mouth measuring the dirt adhered to an individual’s hand and observing hand-to-mouth activity. Results of these studies are associated with large uncertainty due to their activity. Results of these studies are associated with large uncertainty due to their
7 UNEP/UNCHS Balkans Task Force (BTF) (1999). The potential effects on human health and the 7 UNEP/UNCHS Balkans Task Force (BTF) (1999). The potential effects on human health and the environment arising from possible use of depleted uranium during the 1999 Kosovo conflict. environment arising from possible use of depleted uranium during the 1999 Kosovo conflict. www.grid.unep.ch/btf/missions/september/dufinal.pdf www.grid.unep.ch/btf/missions/september/dufinal.pdf 8 http://www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/efh/sect4.pdf. 8 http://www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/efh/sect4.pdf. 9 California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, Technical Support Document for 9 California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, Technical Support Document for Exposure Assessment and Stochastic Analysis, Section 4: Soil Ingestion. Exposure Assessment and Stochastic Analysis, Section 4: Soil Ingestion. http://www.oehha.ca.gov/air/hot_spots/pdf/chap4.pdf http://www.oehha.ca.gov/air/hot_spots/pdf/chap4.pdf
Appendix B 261 Appendix B 261 somewhat qualitative nature, but some studies include specific activities relevant to somewhat qualitative nature, but some studies include specific activities relevant to outdoor lifestyles. outdoor lifestyles.
B.4.1 Studies in Children B.4.1 Studies in Children Early studies in children focused on pica (see below) and unique food-related Early studies in children focused on pica (see below) and unique food-related events. In particular, one study of soil ingestion from “sticky sweets” was estimated events. In particular, one study of soil ingestion from “sticky sweets” was estimated at 10mg to 1g/d (Day et al. 1975). at 10mg to 1g/d (Day et al. 1975).
Hawley (1985) estimated that the amount ingested by young children during outdoor Hawley (1985) estimated that the amount ingested by young children during outdoor activity between May and October is 250mg/d. For outdoor activities from May activity between May and October is 250mg/d. For outdoor activities from May through October, Hawley estimated the ingestion amount as 480mg per active day, through October, Hawley estimated the ingestion amount as 480mg per active day, assuming that 8 hours is spent outdoors per day, 2 d/week. assuming that 8 hours is spent outdoors per day, 2 d/week.
Other early tracer studies in American children (Binder et al. 1986) resulted in large Other early tracer studies in American children (Binder et al. 1986) resulted in large ranges of estimates of soil ingestion for several reasons. In the Binder study (as in ranges of estimates of soil ingestion for several reasons. In the Binder study (as in all subsequent studies), the particular tracer element makes a large difference in soil all subsequent studies), the particular tracer element makes a large difference in soil ingestion estimates. Clausing et al. (1987) followed basically the same approach for ingestion estimates. Clausing et al. (1987) followed basically the same approach for Dutch rather than American children. Neither study included the trace minerals from Dutch rather than American children. Neither study included the trace minerals from food or medicine. A third study (van Wijnen et al. 1990) used the same approach, food or medicine. A third study (van Wijnen et al. 1990) used the same approach, and was the first to include a consideration of camping and the presence or absence and was the first to include a consideration of camping and the presence or absence of gardens. of gardens.
Thompson and Burmaster (1991) reanalyzed the original data on children from Thompson and Burmaster (1991) reanalyzed the original data on children from Binder et al. (1986) to characterize the distribution of soil ingestion by children. In Binder et al. (1986) to characterize the distribution of soil ingestion by children. In studies with large numbers of children, pica children may be present, but most studies with large numbers of children, pica children may be present, but most studies did not try to diagnose pica. On the other hand, not all children with high studies did not try to diagnose pica. On the other hand, not all children with high ingestion rates are pica children, so caution must be exercised when identifying pica ingestion rates are pica children, so caution must be exercised when identifying pica children merely on the basis of high soil ingestion. The reanalysis indicates a mean children merely on the basis of high soil ingestion. The reanalysis indicates a mean soil ingestion rate of 91mg/d, and a 90th percentile of 143mg/d. soil ingestion rate of 91mg/d, and a 90th percentile of 143mg/d.
Davis et al. (1990), in Calabrese’s laboratory, included an evaluation of food, Davis et al. (1990), in Calabrese’s laboratory, included an evaluation of food, medicine, and house dust as a better approximation of a total mass balance. As with medicine, and house dust as a better approximation of a total mass balance. As with the earlier studies, using titanium as the tracer results in estimates of large soil the earlier studies, using titanium as the tracer results in estimates of large soil ingestion rates, while Al and Si tracers resulted in a narrower range of soil ingestion ingestion rates, while Al and Si tracers resulted in a narrower range of soil ingestion rates. However, Ti is problematic because of its variability in food, Al is difficult to rates. However, Ti is problematic because of its variability in food, Al is difficult to control since it is the third most abundant soil mineral and present in many control since it is the third most abundant soil mineral and present in many household products, and Si is widespread and an essential trace element for plants household products, and Si is widespread and an essential trace element for plants and animals (although apparently not for humans). This illustrates the difficulty of and animals (although apparently not for humans). This illustrates the difficulty of using mineral tracers to calculate mass balance and soil ingestion, but trace studies using mineral tracers to calculate mass balance and soil ingestion, but trace studies provide the most quantitative estimates. provide the most quantitative estimates.
Calabrese et al. (1989) based estimates of soil ingestion rate in children in a home Calabrese et al. (1989) based estimates of soil ingestion rate in children in a home and university daycare setting on measurements of eight tracer elements (aluminum, and university daycare setting on measurements of eight tracer elements (aluminum, barium, manganese, silicon, titanium, vanadium, yttrium, and zirconium). The study barium, manganese, silicon, titanium, vanadium, yttrium, and zirconium). The study population consisted of 64 children between one and four years old in Amherst, population consisted of 64 children between one and four years old in Amherst, Massachusetts. They used a method similar to Binder et al. (1986) but included an Massachusetts. They used a method similar to Binder et al. (1986) but included an
Appendix B 262 Appendix B 262
improved mass balance approach. They evaluated soil ingestion over eight days improved mass balance approach. They evaluated soil ingestion over eight days rather than three days, and collected duplicate samples of food, medicine, and rather than three days, and collected duplicate samples of food, medicine, and house dust. In addition, the children used tracer-free toothpaste and ointment. The house dust. In addition, the children used tracer-free toothpaste and ointment. The adult (n = 6) validation portion of the study indicated that study methodology could adult (n = 6) validation portion of the study indicated that study methodology could adequately detect soil ingestion at rates expected by children. Recovery data from adequately detect soil ingestion at rates expected by children. Recovery data from the adult study indicated that Al, Si, Y, and Zr had the best recoveries (closest to the adult study indicated that Al, Si, Y, and Zr had the best recoveries (closest to 100%). Zirconium as a tracer was highly variable, and Ti was not reliable in the adult 100%). Zirconium as a tracer was highly variable, and Ti was not reliable in the adult studies. The investigators conclude that Al, Si, and Y are the most reliable tracers for studies. The investigators conclude that Al, Si, and Y are the most reliable tracers for soil ingestion. This was also the first study to evaluate whether pica children were soil ingestion. This was also the first study to evaluate whether pica children were present in the sampled population; one diagnosed pica child was found. present in the sampled population; one diagnosed pica child was found.
Stanek and Calabrese (1995a) adjusted their 1989 data for the 64 children. The Stanek and Calabrese (1995a) adjusted their 1989 data for the 64 children. The primary adjustment was related to intestinal transit time, which allowed an primary adjustment was related to intestinal transit time, which allowed an adjustment for clearance of minerals on days when fecal samples were not adjustment for clearance of minerals on days when fecal samples were not collected. They concluded that daily intake based on the “overall” multi-tracer collected. They concluded that daily intake based on the “overall” multi-tracer estimates is 45mg/day or less for 50% of the children and 208mg/day or less for estimates is 45mg/day or less for 50% of the children and 208mg/day or less for 95% of the children. When extended to an annual estimate, the range of average 95% of the children. When extended to an annual estimate, the range of average daily soil ingestion in the 64 children was 1–2268mg/d; the median (lognormal) was daily soil ingestion in the 64 children was 1–2268mg/d; the median (lognormal) was 75mg/d, the 90th percentile was 1190mg/d, and the 95th percentile was 1751mg/d. 75mg/d, the 90th percentile was 1190mg/d, and the 95th percentile was 1751mg/d. The known pica child was not included, and individual “outlier” results for individual The known pica child was not included, and individual “outlier” results for individual tracers were also omitted. Even so, the range of rates is so large that it is evident tracers were also omitted. Even so, the range of rates is so large that it is evident that there are still methodological difficulties. that there are still methodological difficulties.
Stanek and Calabrese (1995a) also evaluated the number of days a child might Stanek and Calabrese (1995a) also evaluated the number of days a child might have excessive soil ingestion events. An estimated 16% of children are predicted to have excessive soil ingestion events. An estimated 16% of children are predicted to ingest more than 1 gram of soil per day on 35–40 days of the year. In addition, 1.6% ingest more than 1 gram of soil per day on 35–40 days of the year. In addition, 1.6% would be expected to ingest more than 10 grams per day for 35–40 days per year. would be expected to ingest more than 10 grams per day for 35–40 days per year.
Stanek and Calabrese (1995b) published a separate reanalysis combining the data Stanek and Calabrese (1995b) published a separate reanalysis combining the data from their 1989 study with data from Davis et al. (1990) and using a different from their 1989 study with data from Davis et al. (1990) and using a different methodology. This methodology, the Best Tracer Method (BTM), is designed to methodology. This methodology, the Best Tracer Method (BTM), is designed to overcome intertracer inconsistencies in the estimation of soil ingestion rates. The overcome intertracer inconsistencies in the estimation of soil ingestion rates. The two data sets were combined, with estimates as follows: 50th percentile = 37mg/d, two data sets were combined, with estimates as follows: 50th percentile = 37mg/d, 90th = 156mg/d, 95th = 217mg/d, 99th = 535mg/d, mean = 104mg/d 758. Even with 90th = 156mg/d, 95th = 217mg/d, 99th = 535mg/d, mean = 104mg/d 758. Even with this method, they conclude that the large standard deviation indicates that there are this method, they conclude that the large standard deviation indicates that there are still large problems with “input-output misalignment.” They also write that soil still large problems with “input-output misalignment.” They also write that soil ingestion cannot even be detected, in comparison to food, unless more than ingestion cannot even be detected, in comparison to food, unless more than 200mg/d is ingested, rather than at the lower rates they indicated in 1989. 200mg/d is ingested, rather than at the lower rates they indicated in 1989.
Stanek et al. (2000) conducted a second study of 64 children aged 1–4 at a Stanek et al. (2000) conducted a second study of 64 children aged 1–4 at a Superfund site in Montana, using the same methods from their earlier study, with Superfund site in Montana, using the same methods from their earlier study, with three additional tracers. Soil, food, and fecal samples were collected for a total mass three additional tracers. Soil, food, and fecal samples were collected for a total mass balance estimate. The home or daycare settings were not described, nor were the balance estimate. The home or daycare settings were not described, nor were the community conditions or the typical daily activities of the children, and 32% of the community conditions or the typical daily activities of the children, and 32% of the soil ingestion estimates were excluded as outliers. In addition, only soil with a grain soil ingestion estimates were excluded as outliers. In addition, only soil with a grain size of 250µm or less was used; no explanation of concentration differences size of 250µm or less was used; no explanation of concentration differences
Appendix B 263 Appendix B 263 between large and small grain sizes were given (see discussion on dermal between large and small grain sizes were given (see discussion on dermal adherence), and no concentration data were included. adherence), and no concentration data were included.
B.4.2 Studies in Adults B.4.2 Studies in Adults Only a few soil ingestion studies in adults have been done because the attention has Only a few soil ingestion studies in adults have been done because the attention has been focused on children, who are known to ingest more soil and are more been focused on children, who are known to ingest more soil and are more vulnerable to toxicity of contaminants. Stanek, Calabrese, and co-authors (1997) vulnerable to toxicity of contaminants. Stanek, Calabrese, and co-authors (1997) conducted a second adult pilot study (n = 10) to compare tracers. This study was conducted a second adult pilot study (n = 10) to compare tracers. This study was done as a method validation, and was “not designed to estimate the amount of soil done as a method validation, and was “not designed to estimate the amount of soil normally ingested by adults.” Each adult was followed for 4 weeks. The median, 75th normally ingested by adults.” Each adult was followed for 4 weeks. The median, 75th percentile, and 95th percentile soil ingestion estimates were 1, 49, and 331mg/day, percentile, and 95th percentile soil ingestion estimates were 1, 49, and 331mg/day, with estimates calculated as the median of the three trace elements Al, Si, and Y. with estimates calculated as the median of the three trace elements Al, Si, and Y.
B.5 STUDIES IN INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS B.5 STUDIES IN INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS Studies of soil ingestion in indigenous populations have largely centered on Studies of soil ingestion in indigenous populations have largely centered on estimates of past exposure (or dose reconstruction) of populations affected by estimates of past exposure (or dose reconstruction) of populations affected by atomic bomb tests, such as the Marshall Islands (tropical island) and Maralinga atomic bomb tests, such as the Marshall Islands (tropical island) and Maralinga (Australian desert) evaluations. (Australian desert) evaluations.
Haywood and Smith (1992) evaluated potential doses to aboriginal inhabitants of the Haywood and Smith (1992) evaluated potential doses to aboriginal inhabitants of the Maralinga and Emu areas of South Australia, where nuclear weapons tests in the Maralinga and Emu areas of South Australia, where nuclear weapons tests in the 1950s and 1960s resulted in widespread residual radioactive contamination. Annual 1950s and 1960s resulted in widespread residual radioactive contamination. Annual doses to individuals following an aboriginal lifestyle could result in annual effective doses to individuals following an aboriginal lifestyle could result in annual effective dose equivalents of several mSv within contours enclosing areas of several hundred dose equivalents of several mSv within contours enclosing areas of several hundred square kilometers. The most significant dose pathways are inhalation of square kilometers. The most significant dose pathways are inhalation of resuspended dust and ingestion of soil by infants. Haywood and Smith constructed a resuspended dust and ingestion of soil by infants. Haywood and Smith constructed a table showing hours per week spent sleeping, sitting, hunting or driving, cooking or table showing hours per week spent sleeping, sitting, hunting or driving, cooking or butchering, and other activities. The authors state that in this climate butchering, and other activities. The authors state that in this climate
virtually all food, whether of local origin or purchased, has some dust content virtually all food, whether of local origin or purchased, has some dust content by the time of consumption due to methods of preparation and the nature of by the time of consumption due to methods of preparation and the nature of the environment. A total soil intake in the region of 1gpd was estimated based the environment. A total soil intake in the region of 1gpd was estimated based on fecal samples of nonaboriginals during field trips. This must be regarded on fecal samples of nonaboriginals during field trips. This must be regarded as a low estimate of soil ingestion by aboriginals under camp conditions. In as a low estimate of soil ingestion by aboriginals under camp conditions. In the absence of better information, a soil intake of 10gpd has been assumed in the absence of better information, a soil intake of 10gpd has been assumed in the assessment for all age groups. the assessment for all age groups.
They noted a “very high occurrence of cuts and scratches with a high percentage They noted a “very high occurrence of cuts and scratches with a high percentage being classified as dirty...puncture wounds on the feet were frequent.” being classified as dirty...puncture wounds on the feet were frequent.”
The Marshall Island indigenous peoples have also been studied. In a study of the The Marshall Island indigenous peoples have also been studied. In a study of the gastrointestinal absorption of plutonium, Sun and Meinhold (1997) assumed a soil gastrointestinal absorption of plutonium, Sun and Meinhold (1997) assumed a soil ingestion rate of 500mg/d. This was based on the primary work of Haywood and ingestion rate of 500mg/d. This was based on the primary work of Haywood and Smith who “reported an average soil intake of 10,000mg/d in dose assessments for Smith who “reported an average soil intake of 10,000mg/d in dose assessments for
Appendix B 264 Appendix B 264 the Emu and Maralinga nuclear weapons testing sites in Australia.” The authors the Emu and Maralinga nuclear weapons testing sites in Australia.” The authors state that: state that:
Haywood and Smith specifically discussed the effects of lifestyle on plutonium Haywood and Smith specifically discussed the effects of lifestyle on plutonium ingestion for the Australian aboriginal people: an average soil intake of ingestion for the Australian aboriginal people: an average soil intake of 1,000mg/d was established from the fecal samples of the investigators who 1,000mg/d was established from the fecal samples of the investigators who made field trips to the affected areas. made field trips to the affected areas.
It is difficult to quantitatively compare the amount of soil ingested by the It is difficult to quantitatively compare the amount of soil ingested by the Marshall Islanders and the Aboriginal people because of their different Marshall Islanders and the Aboriginal people because of their different lifestyles. However, both societies live in close contact with their natural lifestyles. However, both societies live in close contact with their natural environment, although the Australian aboriginal people are nomadic, while the environment, although the Australian aboriginal people are nomadic, while the Marshallese have a lifestyle nearly like to that of industrial nations. LaGoy Marshallese have a lifestyle nearly like to that of industrial nations. LaGoy (1987) reported a maximum intake of 500mg/d for adults in developed nations (1987) reported a maximum intake of 500mg/d for adults in developed nations who do not exhibit habitual pica. This value, then, was taken to be a who do not exhibit habitual pica. This value, then, was taken to be a reasonably conservative average for the Marshallese people. Therefore, this reasonably conservative average for the Marshallese people. Therefore, this work adopts 500mg/d as the average life-time intake of soil by the work adopts 500mg/d as the average life-time intake of soil by the Marshallese. Marshallese.
Simon (1998) reviewed soil ingestion studies from a perspective of risk and dose Simon (1998) reviewed soil ingestion studies from a perspective of risk and dose assessment. Certain lifestyles, occupations, and living conditions will likely put assessment. Certain lifestyles, occupations, and living conditions will likely put different individuals or different groups at risk to inadvertent soil ingestion. Because different individuals or different groups at risk to inadvertent soil ingestion. Because of their high dependence on the land, indigenous peoples are at highest risk for of their high dependence on the land, indigenous peoples are at highest risk for inadvertent ingestion, along with professions that may bring workers into close and inadvertent ingestion, along with professions that may bring workers into close and continual contact with the soil. Most of the studies that Simon reviewed were related continual contact with the soil. Most of the studies that Simon reviewed were related to geophagia (intentional soil ingestion; see below), which is relatively common to geophagia (intentional soil ingestion; see below), which is relatively common worldwide. Simon recommends using a soil ingestion rate for indigenous people in worldwide. Simon recommends using a soil ingestion rate for indigenous people in hunting/food gathering/nomadic societies of 1g/d in wet climates and 2g/d in dry hunting/food gathering/nomadic societies of 1g/d in wet climates and 2g/d in dry climates. He recommends using 3g/d for all indigenous children. Geophagia is climates. He recommends using 3g/d for all indigenous children. Geophagia is assumed not to occur; if geophagia is common, Simon recommends using 5g/d. assumed not to occur; if geophagia is common, Simon recommends using 5g/d. These are all geometric means (lognormal) or modes (triangular distribution), not These are all geometric means (lognormal) or modes (triangular distribution), not maxima. maxima.
These estimates are supported by studies of human coprolites from archaeological These estimates are supported by studies of human coprolites from archaeological sites. For instance, Nelson (1999) noted that human coprolites from a desert spring- sites. For instance, Nelson (1999) noted that human coprolites from a desert spring- fed aquatic system included obsidian chips (possibly from sharpening points with the fed aquatic system included obsidian chips (possibly from sharpening points with the teeth), grit (pumice and quartzite grains from grinding seeds and roots), and sand teeth), grit (pumice and quartzite grains from grinding seeds and roots), and sand (from mussel and roots consumption). Her conclusions are based on finding grit in (from mussel and roots consumption). Her conclusions are based on finding grit in the same coprolites as seeds, and sand in the same coprolites as mussels and the same coprolites as seeds, and sand in the same coprolites as mussels and roots. She concludes that “the presence of sand in coprolites containing aquatic root roots. She concludes that “the presence of sand in coprolites containing aquatic root fibers suggests that the roots were not well-cleaned prior to consumption. Charcoal fibers suggests that the roots were not well-cleaned prior to consumption. Charcoal was present in every coprolite examined.” was present in every coprolite examined.”
B.6 GEOPHAGIA B.6 GEOPHAGIA Despite the limited awareness of geophagia in western countries, the deliberate Despite the limited awareness of geophagia in western countries, the deliberate consumption of dirt, usually clay, has been recorded in every region of the world consumption of dirt, usually clay, has been recorded in every region of the world
Appendix B 265 Appendix B 265
both as idiosyncratic behavior of isolated individuals and as culturally prescribed both as idiosyncratic behavior of isolated individuals and as culturally prescribed behavior (Abrahams 1997, Callahan 2003, Johns and Duquette 1991, Reid 1992). It behavior (Abrahams 1997, Callahan 2003, Johns and Duquette 1991, Reid 1992). It also routinely occurs in primates (Krishnamani and Mahaney 2000). Indigenous also routinely occurs in primates (Krishnamani and Mahaney 2000). Indigenous peoples have routinely used montmorillonite clays in food preparation to remove peoples have routinely used montmorillonite clays in food preparation to remove toxins (e.g., in acorn breads) and as condiments or spices (in the Philippines, New toxins (e.g., in acorn breads) and as condiments or spices (in the Philippines, New Guinea, Costa Rica, Guatemala, the Amazon and Orinoco basins of South America). Guinea, Costa Rica, Guatemala, the Amazon and Orinoco basins of South America). Clays are also often used in medications (e.g., kaolin clay in Kaopectate). But the Clays are also often used in medications (e.g., kaolin clay in Kaopectate). But the most common occasion for eating dirt in many societies, especially kaolin and most common occasion for eating dirt in many societies, especially kaolin and montmorillonite clays in amounts of 30g to 50g a day, is pregnancy. In some montmorillonite clays in amounts of 30g to 50g a day, is pregnancy. In some cultures, well-established trade routes and clay traders make rural clays available for cultures, well-established trade routes and clay traders make rural clays available for geophagy even in urban settings. Clays from termite mounds are especially popular geophagy even in urban settings. Clays from termite mounds are especially popular among traded clays, perhaps because they are rich in calcium (Callahan 2003, among traded clays, perhaps because they are rich in calcium (Callahan 2003, Johns and Duquette 1991). Johns and Duquette 1991).
There are two types of edible clays, sodium and calcium montmorillonite10. There are two types of edible clays, sodium and calcium montmorillonite10. Sodium montmorillonite is commonly known as bentonite; the name is derived Sodium montmorillonite is commonly known as bentonite; the name is derived from the location of the first commercial deposit mined at Fort Benton, from the location of the first commercial deposit mined at Fort Benton, Wyoming, USA. Bentonite principally consists of sodium montmorillonite in Wyoming, USA. Bentonite principally consists of sodium montmorillonite in combination with 10 to 20% of various mineral impurities such as feldspars, combination with 10 to 20% of various mineral impurities such as feldspars, calcite, silica, gypsum, and others. Calcium montmorillonite, the second type calcite, silica, gypsum, and others. Calcium montmorillonite, the second type of montmorillonite, is also known as “living clay” for it principally consists of of montmorillonite, is also known as “living clay” for it principally consists of nutritionally essential minerals. nutritionally essential minerals.
Geophagia has long been viewed as pathological by the Western medical Geophagia has long been viewed as pathological by the Western medical profession. However, this practice is so widespread and physiologically significant profession. However, this practice is so widespread and physiologically significant that is presumed to be important in the evolution of human dietary behavior due to that is presumed to be important in the evolution of human dietary behavior due to its antidiarrheal, detoxification, and mineral supplementation potentials (Reid 1992, its antidiarrheal, detoxification, and mineral supplementation potentials (Reid 1992, Krishnamani and Mahaney 2000). Krishnamani and Mahaney 2000).
Krishnamani and Mahaney (2000) propose several hypotheses that may contribute Krishnamani and Mahaney (2000) propose several hypotheses that may contribute to the prevalence of geophagy: to the prevalence of geophagy:
1. Soils adsorb toxins. 1. Soils adsorb toxins. 2. Soil ingestion has an antacid action. 2. Soil ingestion has an antacid action. 3. Soils act as an antidiarrheal agent. 3. Soils act as an antidiarrheal agent. 4. Soils counteract the effects of endoparasites. 4. Soils counteract the effects of endoparasites. 5. Geophagy may satiate olfactory senses. 5. Geophagy may satiate olfactory senses. 6. Soils supplement nutrient-poor diets. Some clays release calcium, copper, 6. Soils supplement nutrient-poor diets. Some clays release calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, or zinc in amounts of nutritional significance iron, magnesium, manganese, or zinc in amounts of nutritional significance (Johns and Duquette 1991). This is especially important in pregnancy and at (Johns and Duquette 1991). This is especially important in pregnancy and at high altitudes. high altitudes.
Several studies of geophagia in pregnancy have been done. In countries such as Several studies of geophagia in pregnancy have been done. In countries such as Uganda, where modern pharmaceuticals are either unobtainable or prohibitively Uganda, where modern pharmaceuticals are either unobtainable or prohibitively expensive, ingested soils may be very important as a mineral supplement, expensive, ingested soils may be very important as a mineral supplement,
10 http://www.the-vu.com/edible_clay.htm 10 http://www.the-vu.com/edible_clay.htm
Appendix B 266 Appendix B 266 particularly iron and calcium during pregnancy (Abrahams 1997). One widely held particularly iron and calcium during pregnancy (Abrahams 1997). One widely held theory suggests that iron deficiency is a major cause of geophagia11. Several reports theory suggests that iron deficiency is a major cause of geophagia11. Several reports have described an extreme form of geophagy (pica) in individuals with documented have described an extreme form of geophagy (pica) in individuals with documented iron deficiency, although there has been uncertainty as to whether the iron iron deficiency, although there has been uncertainty as to whether the iron deficiency was a cause of pica or a result of it. Because some substances, such as deficiency was a cause of pica or a result of it. Because some substances, such as clay, are believed to block the absorption of iron into the bloodstream, it was thought clay, are believed to block the absorption of iron into the bloodstream, it was thought that low blood levels of iron could be the direct result of pica. Some studies have that low blood levels of iron could be the direct result of pica. Some studies have shown that pica cravings in individuals with iron deficiency stop once iron shown that pica cravings in individuals with iron deficiency stop once iron supplements are given to correct the deficiency, suggesting that iron deficiency supplements are given to correct the deficiency, suggesting that iron deficiency induces pica (and other) cravings during pregnancy. In addition, low blood levels of induces pica (and other) cravings during pregnancy. In addition, low blood levels of iron commonly occur in pregnant women and those with poor nutrition, two iron commonly occur in pregnant women and those with poor nutrition, two populations at higher risk for pica. populations at higher risk for pica.
Edwards et al. (1994) studied 553 African American women who were admitted to Edwards et al. (1994) studied 553 African American women who were admitted to prenatal clinics in Washington, D.C. Serum ferritin concentrations of pica women prenatal clinics in Washington, D.C. Serum ferritin concentrations of pica women were significantly lower during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy; the were significantly lower during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy; the average values for three trimesters of pregnancy for both ferritin and mean average values for three trimesters of pregnancy for both ferritin and mean corpuscular hemoglobin were significantly lower in pica women than their nonpica corpuscular hemoglobin were significantly lower in pica women than their nonpica counterparts. Although not significantly different, the iron (66 vs. 84% RDA) and counterparts. Although not significantly different, the iron (66 vs. 84% RDA) and calcium (60 vs. 75% RDA) contents of the diets of pica women were less than those calcium (60 vs. 75% RDA) contents of the diets of pica women were less than those of nonpica women. Again, low ferritin and hemoglobin are hypothesized to result in of nonpica women. Again, low ferritin and hemoglobin are hypothesized to result in pica. pica.
A further hypothesis is presented by Callahan (2003). Regular consumption of soil A further hypothesis is presented by Callahan (2003). Regular consumption of soil might boost the mother’s secretory immune system. Monkeys that regularly eat dirt might boost the mother’s secretory immune system. Monkeys that regularly eat dirt have lower parasite loads. In some cultures, clays are baked before they are eaten, have lower parasite loads. In some cultures, clays are baked before they are eaten, which could boost immunity from previous exposures. For decades aluminum salts, which could boost immunity from previous exposures. For decades aluminum salts, like those found in clays, have been used as adjuvants in human and animal like those found in clays, have been used as adjuvants in human and animal vaccines. Adjuvants are compounds that nonspecifically amplify immune response. vaccines. Adjuvants are compounds that nonspecifically amplify immune response. Aluminum compounds make effective adjuvants because they are relatively Aluminum compounds make effective adjuvants because they are relatively nontoxic; the charged surfaces of aluminum salts absorb large numbers of organic nontoxic; the charged surfaces of aluminum salts absorb large numbers of organic molecules. Note that Al was one of Calabrese’s preferred tracers due to the molecules. Note that Al was one of Calabrese’s preferred tracers due to the assumption that it is inert at trace levels and not adsorbed (it is quite toxic at high assumption that it is inert at trace levels and not adsorbed (it is quite toxic at high levels). levels).
B.7 ACUTE SOIL INGESTION AND PICA B.7 ACUTE SOIL INGESTION AND PICA There is a gradient between geophagy and pica, and there is not a clear distinction There is a gradient between geophagy and pica, and there is not a clear distinction between the conditions. Pica is an obsessive-compulsive eating disorder typically between the conditions. Pica is an obsessive-compulsive eating disorder typically defined as the persistent eating of nonnutritive substances for a period of at least 1 defined as the persistent eating of nonnutritive substances for a period of at least 1 month at an age in which this behavior is developmentally inappropriate. The month at an age in which this behavior is developmentally inappropriate. The definition also includes the mouthing of nonnutritive substances. Individuals definition also includes the mouthing of nonnutritive substances. Individuals presenting with pica have been reported to mouth and/or ingest a wide variety of presenting with pica have been reported to mouth and/or ingest a wide variety of nonfood substances, including, but not limited to, clay, dirt, sand, stones, pebbles, nonfood substances, including, but not limited to, clay, dirt, sand, stones, pebbles, hair, feces, lead, laundry starch, vinyl gloves, plastic, pencil erasers, ice, fingernails, hair, feces, lead, laundry starch, vinyl gloves, plastic, pencil erasers, ice, fingernails,
11 http://www.ehendrick.org/healthy/001609.htm 11 http://www.ehendrick.org/healthy/001609.htm
Appendix B 267 Appendix B 267
paper, paint chips, coal, chalk, wood, plaster, light bulbs, needles, string, and burnt paper, paint chips, coal, chalk, wood, plaster, light bulbs, needles, string, and burnt matches. matches.
Pica is generally thought of as a pediatric condition, but pica diagnoses include Pica is generally thought of as a pediatric condition, but pica diagnoses include psychiatric conditions like schizophrenia, developmental disorders including autism, psychiatric conditions like schizophrenia, developmental disorders including autism, and conditions with mental retardation. These conditions are not characterized by and conditions with mental retardation. These conditions are not characterized by iron deficiency, which supports a psychological component in the cause of pica. iron deficiency, which supports a psychological component in the cause of pica.
Pica is seen more in young children than adults; 10–32% of children aged 1 to 6 Pica is seen more in young children than adults; 10–32% of children aged 1 to 6 may exhibit pica behavior at some point12. LaGoy (1987) estimated that a value of may exhibit pica behavior at some point12. LaGoy (1987) estimated that a value of 5gpd is a reasonable maximum single-day exposure for a child with habitual pica. In 5gpd is a reasonable maximum single-day exposure for a child with habitual pica. In June 2000, the U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry appointed a June 2000, the U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry appointed a committee to review soil pica. The committee settled on a threshold of pathological committee to review soil pica. The committee settled on a threshold of pathological levels as consumption of more than 5000mg of soil per day but cautioned that the levels as consumption of more than 5000mg of soil per day but cautioned that the amount selected was arbitrary13. With this criterion, studies in the literature estimate amount selected was arbitrary13. With this criterion, studies in the literature estimate that between 10 and 50% of children may exhibit pica behavior at some point. While that between 10 and 50% of children may exhibit pica behavior at some point. While this threshold may be appropriate in relatively clean suburban settings, it may not be this threshold may be appropriate in relatively clean suburban settings, it may not be appropriate for defining the pica threshold in rural settings where average soil appropriate for defining the pica threshold in rural settings where average soil ingestion is likely to be higher. ingestion is likely to be higher.
The occurrence of pica has been discussed with respect to risk assessment, The occurrence of pica has been discussed with respect to risk assessment, especially for acute exposures. Calabrese et al. (1997) recognized that some especially for acute exposures. Calabrese et al. (1997) recognized that some children have been observed to ingest up to 25–60g soil during a single day. When a children have been observed to ingest up to 25–60g soil during a single day. When a set of 13 chemicals were evaluated for acute exposures with a pica exposure rate, set of 13 chemicals were evaluated for acute exposures with a pica exposure rate, four of these chemicals would have caused a dose approximating or exceeding the four of these chemicals would have caused a dose approximating or exceeding the acute human lethal dose. acute human lethal dose.
Regulatory guidance recommends 5 or 10g/d for pica children. Some examples are: Regulatory guidance recommends 5 or 10g/d for pica children. Some examples are:
1. EPA (1997) recommends a value of 10g/d for a pica child. 1. EPA (1997) recommends a value of 10g/d for a pica child. 2. Florida recommends 10g per event for acute toxicity evaluation14. 2. Florida recommends 10g per event for acute toxicity evaluation14. 3. ATSDR uses 5g/day for a pica child15. 3. ATSDR uses 5g/day for a pica child15.
B.8 DATA FROM DERMAL ADHERENCE B.8 DATA FROM DERMAL ADHERENCE Dermal adherence of soil is generally studied in relation to dermal absorption of Dermal adherence of soil is generally studied in relation to dermal absorption of contaminants, but soil on the hands and face can be ingested, as well. Although this contaminants, but soil on the hands and face can be ingested, as well. Although this
12 12 http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001538.htm#Causes,%20incidence,%20and%20risk http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001538.htm#Causes,%20incidence,%20and%20risk %20factors %20factors 13 Summary report for the ATSDR Soil-Pica Workshop, Atlanta, Georgia, 2000. Available from: URL: 13 Summary report for the ATSDR Soil-Pica Workshop, Atlanta, Georgia, 2000. Available from: URL: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/NEWS/soilpica.html http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/NEWS/soilpica.html 14 Proposed Modifications To Identified Acute Toxicity-Based Soil Cleanup Target Level, December 14 Proposed Modifications To Identified Acute Toxicity-Based Soil Cleanup Target Level, December 1999, www.dep.state.fl.us/waste/quick_topics/ publications/wc/csf/focus/csf.pdf. 1999, www.dep.state.fl.us/waste/quick_topics/ publications/wc/csf/focus/csf.pdf. 15 For Example: El Paso Metals Survey, Appendix B, 15 For Example: El Paso Metals Survey, Appendix B, www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/PHA/elpaso/epc_toc.html. www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/PHA/elpaso/epc_toc.html.
Appendix B 268 Appendix B 268
body of literature is not typically used to estimate a quantitative contribution to soil body of literature is not typically used to estimate a quantitative contribution to soil ingestion, it can give relative estimates of soil contact rates between activities. ingestion, it can give relative estimates of soil contact rates between activities.
Two relevant papers from Kissel’s laboratory are summarized here. Kissel et al. Two relevant papers from Kissel’s laboratory are summarized here. Kissel et al. (1996) included reed gatherers in tide flats. The category of “kids in mud” at a (1996) included reed gatherers in tide flats. The category of “kids in mud” at a lakeshore had by far the highest skin loadings, with an average of 35mg/cm2 for 6 lakeshore had by far the highest skin loadings, with an average of 35mg/cm2 for 6 children and an average of 58mg/cm2 for another 6 children. Reed gatherers were children and an average of 58mg/cm2 for another 6 children. Reed gatherers were next highest at 0.66mg/cm2 with an upper bound of >1mg/cm2. This was followed by next highest at 0.66mg/cm2 with an upper bound of >1mg/cm2. This was followed by farmers and rugby players (approximately 0.4mg/cm2) and irrigation installers farmers and rugby players (approximately 0.4mg/cm2) and irrigation installers (0.2mg/cm2). Holmes et al. (1999) studied 99 individuals in a variety of occupations. (0.2mg/cm2). Holmes et al. (1999) studied 99 individuals in a variety of occupations. Farmers, reed gatherers, and kids in mud had the highest overall skin loadings, up Farmers, reed gatherers, and kids in mud had the highest overall skin loadings, up to 27mg/cm2. The next highest skin loadings on the hands were for equipment to 27mg/cm2. The next highest skin loadings on the hands were for equipment operators, gardeners, construction, and utility workers (0.3mg/cm2), followed by operators, gardeners, construction, and utility workers (0.3mg/cm2), followed by archaeologists, and several other occupations (0.15–0.1mg/cm2). The higher skin archaeologists, and several other occupations (0.15–0.1mg/cm2). The higher skin loadings of reed gatherers, farmers, and gardeners are supporting evidence that loadings of reed gatherers, farmers, and gardeners are supporting evidence that these activities also have higher than average soil ingestion rates. these activities also have higher than average soil ingestion rates.
One factor that has not received enough attention is the grain size of adhering and One factor that has not received enough attention is the grain size of adhering and ingested soil. Stanek and Calabrese (2000) said that variability in estimating soil ingested soil. Stanek and Calabrese (2000) said that variability in estimating soil ingestion rates using tracer elements was reduced when grain sizes of less than ingestion rates using tracer elements was reduced when grain sizes of less than 250µm were excluded in order to reduce variability. Driver et al. (1989) found 250µm were excluded in order to reduce variability. Driver et al. (1989) found statistically significant increases in skin adherence with decreasing particle size, with statistically significant increases in skin adherence with decreasing particle size, with particles above the sand-silt size division (0.075mm) adhering less than smaller particles above the sand-silt size division (0.075mm) adhering less than smaller sizes. Average adherences of 1.40mg/cm2 for particle sizes less than 150µm, sizes. Average adherences of 1.40mg/cm2 for particle sizes less than 150µm, 0.95mg/cm2 for particle sizes less than 250µm, and 0.58mg/cm2 for unsieved soils 0.95mg/cm2 for particle sizes less than 250µm, and 0.58mg/cm2 for unsieved soils were measured (see EPA 199216 for more details). Soil samples should be sieved were measured (see EPA 199216 for more details). Soil samples should be sieved and concentrations should be evaluated for sizes below 0.075mm. and concentrations should be evaluated for sizes below 0.075mm.
A consideration of grain size could affect the estimation of soil ingestion rates A consideration of grain size could affect the estimation of soil ingestion rates because the mineral and organic composition within a particular soil sample can because the mineral and organic composition within a particular soil sample can vary with particle size and pore size. If soil adherence studies are conducted in a vary with particle size and pore size. If soil adherence studies are conducted in a manner wherein sand is brushed off the hands while smaller grain sizes remain manner wherein sand is brushed off the hands while smaller grain sizes remain adhered, then tracer ratios could be altered, and would be different from the original adhered, then tracer ratios could be altered, and would be different from the original unsieved soil. Soil loading on various parts of the body is collected with wipes, tape, unsieved soil. Soil loading on various parts of the body is collected with wipes, tape, or rinsing in dilute solvents, which would generally collect the smaller particle or rinsing in dilute solvents, which would generally collect the smaller particle sizes17. Soil adherence rate is correlated to grain size; soil samples must be sieved, sizes17. Soil adherence rate is correlated to grain size; soil samples must be sieved, and data for particle size <0.044cm (RAGSe, App. C, Table C-4) should be used for and data for particle size <0.044cm (RAGSe, App. C, Table C-4) should be used for dose estimation. Inhalation is also related to particle size, so the dust resuspension dose estimation. Inhalation is also related to particle size, so the dust resuspension estimate must also include particle size. estimate must also include particle size.
16 EPA (1992). Interim Report: Dermal Exposure Assessment: Principles And Applications. 16 EPA (1992). Interim Report: Dermal Exposure Assessment: Principles And Applications. Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Exposure Assessment Group. /600/8-91/011B Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Exposure Assessment Group. /600/8-91/011B 17 Soils are classified according to grain size (1mm = Very coarse sand; 0.5mm = Coarse sand; 17 Soils are classified according to grain size (1mm = Very coarse sand; 0.5mm = Coarse sand; 0.25mm = Medium sand; 0.10mm = Fine sand; 0.05mm = Very fine sand; 0.002mm = Silt; <0.002mm 0.25mm = Medium sand; 0.10mm = Fine sand; 0.05mm = Very fine sand; 0.002mm = Silt; <0.002mm = Clay). The Wentworth scale classifies particle sizes as ranges: sand = 1/16 to 2mm; silt = 1/256 to = Clay). The Wentworth scale classifies particle sizes as ranges: sand = 1/16 to 2mm; silt = 1/256 to 1/16 mm; clay = <1/256mm. 1/16 mm; clay = <1/256mm.
Appendix B 269 Appendix B 269
B.9 DATA FROM WASHED OR UNWASHED VEGETABLES B.9 DATA FROM WASHED OR UNWASHED VEGETABLES Direct soil ingestion also occurs via food, for example from dust blowing onto food Direct soil ingestion also occurs via food, for example from dust blowing onto food (Hinton 1992), residual soil on garden produce or gathered native plants, particles (Hinton 1992), residual soil on garden produce or gathered native plants, particles on cooking utensils, and so on. However, there is very little quantitative data about on cooking utensils, and so on. However, there is very little quantitative data about soil on vegetation as-gathered, as-prepared, or as-eaten, which is a separate issue soil on vegetation as-gathered, as-prepared, or as-eaten, which is a separate issue from root uptake of soil contaminants into edible materials. However, there is from root uptake of soil contaminants into edible materials. However, there is information on interception rate of dust particles deposited onto leafy surfaces, and information on interception rate of dust particles deposited onto leafy surfaces, and information on soil ingestion by pasture animals. For example, Beresford and information on soil ingestion by pasture animals. For example, Beresford and Howard (1991) found that soil adhesion to vegetation was highly seasonal, being Howard (1991) found that soil adhesion to vegetation was highly seasonal, being highest in autumn and winter, and is an important source of radionuclides for grazing highest in autumn and winter, and is an important source of radionuclides for grazing animals. Palacios et al. (2002) evaluated lead levels in the aerial part of herbage animals. Palacios et al. (2002) evaluated lead levels in the aerial part of herbage near a Superfund site. A water washing pre-treatment of the vegetal samples near a Superfund site. A water washing pre-treatment of the vegetal samples considerably diminished the concentration of lead. considerably diminished the concentration of lead.
Kissel et al. (2003) evaluated concentrations of arsenic and lead in rinsed, washed, Kissel et al. (2003) evaluated concentrations of arsenic and lead in rinsed, washed, or peeled garden vegetables. He found that concentrations of lead and arsenic in or peeled garden vegetables. He found that concentrations of lead and arsenic in washed or peeled potatoes or lettuce were generally lower, as expected, although washed or peeled potatoes or lettuce were generally lower, as expected, although the concentration of lead in peeled potatoes was higher than in rinsed or washed the concentration of lead in peeled potatoes was higher than in rinsed or washed potatoes. potatoes.
B.10 SUBSISTENCE LIFESTYLES AND RATIONALE FOR SOIL INGESTION B.10 SUBSISTENCE LIFESTYLES AND RATIONALE FOR SOIL INGESTION RATE RATE The derivation of the soil ingestion rate is based on the following points: The derivation of the soil ingestion rate is based on the following points:
• The foraging-subsistence lifestyle is lived in close contact with the • The foraging-subsistence lifestyle is lived in close contact with the environment. environment. • Columbia Plateau winds and dust storms are fairly frequent, and incorporated • Columbia Plateau winds and dust storms are fairly frequent, and incorporated into overall rate, rather than trying to segregate ingestion rates according to into overall rate, rather than trying to segregate ingestion rates according to number of high-wind days per year, because low-wind days are also spent in number of high-wind days per year, because low-wind days are also spent in foraging activities. foraging activities. • The original Columbia Plateau lifestyle—pit houses, caches, gathering tules • The original Columbia Plateau lifestyle—pit houses, caches, gathering tules and roots—includes processing and using foods, medicines, and materials. and roots—includes processing and using foods, medicines, and materials. This is considered but not as part of today’s living conditions. This is considered but not as part of today’s living conditions. • An average house is assumed to have little landscaping other than the natural • An average house is assumed to have little landscaping other than the natural conditions or xeriscaping, some naturally bare soil, a gravel driveway, no air conditions or xeriscaping, some naturally bare soil, a gravel driveway, no air conditioning (more open windows), and a wood burning stove in the winter for conditioning (more open windows), and a wood burning stove in the winter for heat. heat. • All persons participate in day-long outdoor group cultural activities at least • All persons participate in day-long outdoor group cultural activities at least once a month, such as powwows, horse races, and seasonal ceremonial, as once a month, such as powwows, horse races, and seasonal ceremonial, as well as private family, cultural activities. These activities tend to be large well as private family, cultural activities. These activities tend to be large gatherings with a greater rate of dust resuspension and particulate inhalation. gatherings with a greater rate of dust resuspension and particulate inhalation. These are considered to be 1-gram events or greater. These are considered to be 1-gram events or greater.
Appendix B 270 Appendix B 270
• 400mg/d is based on the following: • 400mg/d is based on the following:
1. 400mg/d is the upper bound for suburban children (EPA); traditional or 1. 400mg/d is the upper bound for suburban children (EPA); traditional or subsistence activities are not suburban in environs or activities. subsistence activities are not suburban in environs or activities. 2. This rate is within the range of outdoor activity rates for adults (between 2. This rate is within the range of outdoor activity rates for adults (between 330 and 480); the soil contact levels of subsistence activities are more like 330 and 480); the soil contact levels of subsistence activities are more like those of construction, utility work, or military activity. However, the rate is those of construction, utility work, or military activity. However, the rate is lower than 480 to allow for some low-contact days. The consideration of lower than 480 to allow for some low-contact days. The consideration of the number of windy-dusty days does not further quantify air particulates. the number of windy-dusty days does not further quantify air particulates. 3. The low soil-contact days are balanced with many 1-gram days and 3. The low soil-contact days are balanced with many 1-gram days and events (as suggested by Boyd et al. 1999), such as root gathering days, events (as suggested by Boyd et al. 1999), such as root gathering days, tule and wapato gathering days, powwows, rodeos, horse training and tule and wapato gathering days, powwows, rodeos, horse training and riding days, sweat-lodge building or repair days, grave digging, and similar riding days, sweat-lodge building or repair days, grave digging, and similar activities. There are also likely to be many high or intermediate-contact activities. There are also likely to be many high or intermediate-contact days, depending on the occupation (e.g., wildlife field work, construction or days, depending on the occupation (e.g., wildlife field work, construction or road work, cultural resource field work). road work, cultural resource field work). 4. This rate is lower than Simon’s (1998) estimate of 500mg/d and lower than 4. This rate is lower than Simon’s (1998) estimate of 500mg/d and lower than the recommendations of 3g/d for indigenous children and 2g/d for the recommendations of 3g/d for indigenous children and 2g/d for indigenous adults in arid environments. It is also lower than the 5 or 10 indigenous adults in arid environments. It is also lower than the 5 or 10 grams he estimated for purely aboriginal lifestyles. For original housing grams he estimated for purely aboriginal lifestyles. For original housing conditions, a higher rate would be clearly justified; for today’s housing conditions, a higher rate would be clearly justified; for today’s housing conditions, a lower rate is adequate. conditions, a lower rate is adequate. 5. This rate does not account for pica or geophagy 5. This rate does not account for pica or geophagy 6. Primary data is supported by dermal adherence data in gatherers and kids 6. Primary data is supported by dermal adherence data in gatherers and kids in mud. Tule and wapato gathering are kid-in-mud activities in mud. Tule and wapato gathering are kid-in-mud activities 7. This rate includes a consideration of residual soil on roots (a major food 7. This rate includes a consideration of residual soil on roots (a major food category) through observation and anecdote, but there is no quantitative category) through observation and anecdote, but there is no quantitative data. data.
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