The Journal of The Dyslexia Guild Spring 2010 Volume 21 Number 2
In this issue Shared Reading, Guided Reading and the Specialist Dyslexia Lesson
From the Archives: How Words Work
Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Dyslexia Review The Journal of the Dyslexia Guild
Editorial Contents
I have recently been privileged to be able to work in secondary schools on a Dyslexia Action literacy project. I met some very page hard working staff and terrific children which will probably form the basis of an article next year. I was impressed with the 4 Shared Reading, Guided Reading and varied use of IT resources whilst at the same time exasperated by it. How do you cope with these laptops? You set one up and the Specialist Dyslexia Lesson then the battery dies. You find a lead but there isn’t a power by Anne McLoughlin socket anywhere nearby and so a further hunt for an adaptor ensues. Then you try the headphones. Then the microphone! 6Wendy Fisher – obituary Getting through these barriers requires the patience of a saint and I applaud you all for persevering. 7 The Illusion of Learning I have included three archive articles for this edition which I by Steve Chinn hope will be revisited with interest as I look back over my time as editor. Symptom Validity Testing in Dyslexia Assessment 11 From the Archives: Symptom Validity by Elaine Chamberlain was first published in the Spring 2006 Testing in Dyslexia Assessment edition. At the CPD conference we held last year it became by Elaine Chamberlain apparent that this topic was an important issue for assessors and so here is a second chance to access it. 16 Personalised Strategies for Effective The second article is The Elegant Mark by Fiona Hover. I Study have included this again as it is just so good and one of my all by Ginny Stacey time favourites.
The third article, How Words Work by Wendy Goldup, needs 19 Dyslexia Action Literacy Models – no recommendation from me. The current Dyslexia Guild Embedding Good Practice members will love it just as much as we did in 2003. by Margaret Rooms
Lesley Freedman and I would like to thank all members for 22 From the Archives: The Elegant Mark their support and loyalty over the years. We have greatly by Fiona Hover enjoyed working with you.
Margaret Rooms 24 GL Assessment Launches Research into Post-16 Dyslexia by Sue Thompson Editor: Margaret Rooms 25 From the Archives: How Words Work Editorial by Wendy Goldup Committee: Steve Chinn Estelle Doctor Anne Sheddick 32 Is the Writ a Safe Test? Margaret Snowling by Barry Johnson
Executive 33 Psych’s Corner Editor: John Rack 34 Book Reviews Dyslexia Review is published three times a year by
Dyslexia Action Cover: Misty – because she makes you feel Park House, Wick Road, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0HH better T 01784 222 300 www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk
©Dyslexia Action 3 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Shared Reading, Guided Reading and the Specialist Dyslexia Lesson
Anne McLoughlin
Shared and Guided Reading are part of the rich reading meanings and response. Through sharing texts the child curriculum in primary classrooms which also includes learns to participate in reading; both through individual reading aloud to children and independent reading. Each responses and by sharing in a collective response to the has a specific role within the overall picture but all should text. Secondly, shared reading provides multiple contribute to children developing as independent readers. opportunities for teaching early reading behaviours eg The specialist dyslexia lesson should also be seen as part concepts of print, which are important for children with of the reading curriculum and not separate from it. The English as an additional language and for children whose pedagogical practices of guided and shared reading have experience of books is limited. Thirdly, shared reading, been drawn up by researchers based on the concept of on carefully selected occasions, provides opportunities Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky to focus on the application of decoding skills as defined (1978) maintained the child follows the adult’s example and in the Simple View of Reading (Rose 2006). And fourthly gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without shared reading can be a vehicle for understanding of help or assistance. He called the difference between what what is being read. a child can do with help and what he or she can do without guidance the zone of proximal development. Clay’s (1993) Shared reading may focus on needs indicated in principles that reading can be frustrational, instructional or assessment. With this instructional technique students independent are also fundamental to the practices of have an opportunity to gradually assume more shared and guided reading. This can be indicated responsibility in reading the text as their skill level and according to the following criteria. If a child is reading with confidence increases. Shared reading provides a safe accuracy below 90% it is frustrational, if they are reading environment for students to practice reading behaviours with accuracy between 90-94% it is instructional and of proficient readers. Dyslexic readers could have between 95-100% it is independent. additional support for the shared reading session, for example they could have the book in advance of the Shared Reading group to become familiar with it. Shared Reading is an instructional approach to reading where the teacher explicitly models the skills and Guided Reading strategies of proficient readers. It is based on research Guided reading is taught to children in small groups of by Holdaway (1979) and is a collaborative learning between two and six children. When the teacher leads activity that emulates and builds from the child’s on this session, the other children in the class work experience with bedtime stories (Parkes 2000). In independently. Children are grouped on the basis of their classrooms, Shared Reading sessions typically involve a reading ability and each child has their own text based teacher and the whole class or sometimes a group sitting on the group’s reading level (90-94% accuracy). This together to read carefully selected enlarged texts either means that the children should have difficulty with no as a Big Book or on the interactive whiteboard. The text more than one word in 10, so that the comprehension is is enlarged to enable children to see as well as hear the maintained and reading does not become a struggle. text. Books used for shared reading can be fiction, Prior to the session the teacher will have selected poetry and nonfiction. The teacher models fluent text, specific reading strategies on which to focus, determined expressive reading, and the use of effective strategies by the needs of the children. Schools may use the PM and encourages a response to text. Shared reading Benchmarking Kit to carry out running records and enables children to access and enjoy texts that are provide a starting point for instruction but assessment is slightly beyond their independent reading level. Sessions ongoing and the teacher decides on the movement of are generally planned into a sequence and involve children between groups. The teacher selects from the reading and re-reading for different purposes. Shared school’s resource of books organised into ‘book bands’. reading can also be done in small groups. The purpose of shared reading is to provide children with an enjoyable The teacher leads the session, preparing the children for experience, introduce them to a variety of authors, reading, reinforcing reading strategies and giving illustrators and types of text to entice them to become a focused attention to individuals so they can read reader (Parkes 2000). independently. The aim of the guided reading session is to encourage and extend independent reading skills. The DCSF (2007) outlines the functions of shared reading as being firstly to induct the child into story 4 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Sequence for Guided Reading way words and letters sound when spoken.
Introduction to the text This ongoing assessment allows the teacher to set specific targets to move children to the next level of Teaching Strategies books. Independent Reading Return to the text Both Shared Reading and Guided Reading have some Response advantages for the dyslexic reader. In Shared Reading their reading is scaffolded and supported by teachers and peers, the environment is safe allowing the pupil to In the book introduction, the adult works with the group gradually assume responsibility as their skill increases. to prepare the children about the type of book they are There can be opportunities to use enlarged texts to going to read. The teacher will provide support by demonstrate the skill of applying phonic knowledge and reading the title, talking about the type of book and blending of phonemes to read words as long as they looking at pictures and if necessary highlighting difficult match the children’s current state of phonic knowledge. If new words or unfamiliar concepts. a child is having a specialist dyslexia lesson, the class teacher could use the shared reading session to In the Teaching Strategy Check, the adult works with encourage the child to use the phonic knowledge that the group to review specific reading strategies that the they are confident with in the structured lesson. It does children have been taught and remind them to use them of course require that there is communication between when reading. all those involved in the child’s reading experiences. In the Shared Reading session the dyslexic reader may be In Independent Reading, children read the book at their able to demonstrate that they have strengths using other own pace. The teacher monitors individuals and uses reading strategies apart from phonics. appropriate prompts to encourage problem solving. In Guided Reading the pupil should always be reading at In Returning to the Text the adult works with the group instructional level, and this should also be the case for to briefly talk about what has been read to check the the dyslexic learner. The challenge is to find suitable children’s understanding. texts but there are now a number of good quality texts on the market which are suitable for struggling readers In Response to the Text the adult works with the group which can be used in Guided Reading. Both of these to encourage children to respond to the book either curriculum practices hold the potential for more effective through a short discussion where they express opinions teaching and learning and for the inclusion of all learners or through providing follow up activities. in the mainstream literacy and learning practices of our own schools. In addition Re-reading Guided Text is used. Teachers provide a box of familiar books for each group containing There is much research evidence (Hatcher et al (2006) texts already used in guided reading. Children are Hatcher, Hulme and Ellis (1994) ) that literacy encouraged to revisit these texts as familiar books. programmes which are based on book reading skills as well as letter sound knowledge and phonological In Guided Reading there is ongoing assessment and awareness are very successful in raising literacy observation of children’s reading behaviours and standards in dyslexic readers. The shared and guided sometimes running records will be used. This qualitative reading that is going on in classrooms could provide this analysis involves looking at behavioural evidence of instruction in book reading skills to support the work that cues. Each error and self correction is examined and goes on in the specialist dyslexia lesson. This, of course, determines the cues or information sources the child demands good communication between all practitioners. may have been using. Clay (1993) categorizes errors and self corrections into three categories. Anne McLoughlin
Meaning - The teacher thinks about whether the child’s Anne McLoughlin has worked as an SEN and Inclusion attempts make sense up to the point of error. consultant within The Primary Strategy Team for a LA and is now an associate tutor with Edge Hill University Structure - Refers to the way language works. Using and a member of The Dyslexia Guild implicit knowledge of grammatical structures, the reader checks to see whether the sentence ‘sounds right.’ REFERENCES Bicker S Bakes S (2007) 4th Revised edition Visual - Readers use their knowledge of visual features Book Bands for Guided Reading: A Handbook to support Foundation and Key Stage 1 Teachers of words and letters and connect these features to the London Institute of Education 5 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Clay M M (1993) Hatcher PJ Hulme C Miles J N V Carroll J M Hatcher J Gibbs S An Observation survey of Early Literacy Achievement Smith G Bower-Crane C and Snowling M J (2006) Portsmouth NH Efficacy of small group reading intervention for Heinemann beginning readers with reading delay. A randomised control trial. Crane B-C Snowling M J Duff F J Fieldsend E Carroll J M Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 47 820-827 Miles J Gotz K and Hulme C (2009) Improving early language and literacy skills: differential Holdaway D (1979) effects of an oral language versus a phonology with The Foundations of Literacy reading intervention Sydney Ashton Scholastic The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 49. 4 Nelley E Smith A (2000) 422-432 PM Benchmark Kit http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi- Nelson Thomas Ltd bin/fulltext/119392243/HTMLSTAR accessed 22.2.2001 Parkes B (2000) DCSF (2007) Read it Again. Revisiting Shared Reading Reading Improvement Using the Primary Framework Portland ME Stenhouse Nottingham DCSF Publications Rose (2006) Hatcher PJ Hulme C and Ellis A W (1994) The Independent Review of the Teaching of Early Ameliorating early reading failure by Integrating the Reading. teaching of reading and phonological skills: The Nottingham DFES Publications phonological Linkage hypothesis. Child Development, 65, 41-57
Obituary Wendy Fisher 1925-2010
Wendy Fisher was the founder of Dyslexia Action mainstream education and society generally. (formerly the Dyslexia Institute) and its first Executive Director. She was at the forefront of To increase awareness Wendy enlisted the support bringing evidence-based teaching to children of members of the Houses of Commons and Lords, struggling with dyslexia and specific learning most notably the late Earl of Radnor, and difficulties and pioneered the campaign to have celebrities such as Susan Hampshire, who had teachers trained to support these children. personal experiences of dyslexia. Wendy was Christened Vera Wendy, she was born into an always concerned with the individual child and in Army family in India in 1925 and after serving as a 1982 she set up a Bursary Fund to ensure children WREN in the Second World War qualified as an from disadvantaged backgrounds also received architect. She first developed an interest in expert teaching and support. dyslexia in the 1960s when her daughter Sophy struggled with literacy. Consequently Wendy In 2002 Wendy received a special award at the became a founder member of the North Surrey inaugural Dyslexia Action Awards Dinner, marking Dyslexia Society (1966) and Editor of the Dyslexia her key role in the development of educational Review, which was first published in April 1969. services for dyslexics in the UK and beyond.
In 1972 Wendy founded the charity, the Dyslexia It is a testament to her determination and drive that Institute to provide educational services for children her dyslexic daughter, Sophy, graduated from with dyslexia, and became the driving force behind Cambridge University in English and went on to a its national expansion. She spearheaded the career with the BBC and the United Nations, and development of its now well-known and effective that Dyslexia Action is now the UK’s leading structured, multi-sensory teaching methods and independent provider of educational services for their dissemination through training and resource children and adults with specific learning development. For many individuals and their difficulties. families the work the Dyslexia Institute provided was a lifeline and marked the beginning of the Dyslexia Action recognition and acceptance of the issue in
6 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
The Illusion of Learning
Steve Chinn
Introduction • Know your students learning characteristics. For For over twenty years I have taught, researched, read example, not all children can rote-learn all the basic and thought about how maths can be taught to students number facts. (I don’t know why. I thought I had found who have learning deficits. My beginnings were the solution with the very powerful self-voice echo ignominious. I faced a group of twelve dyslexic technique, but, not surprisingly, it doesn’t work for teenagers and started, with no knowledge of my everyone.) The same is true for rote-learning the students’ learning profiles and tried to teach them maths. procedures in maths such as long division. I made many mistakes. • Nothing works for everyone whether they are magic Luckily they were able to teach me about learning, not cures, special techniques or particular always overtly, but the lessons were there if I listened materials/manipulatives. Teaching has to be carefully enough. responsive to the diversity of learners.
My first book, ‘Mathematics for Dyslexics: A Teaching • Whenever we learn something for the first time, what Handbook’ was written with Richard Ashcroft in 1992 and we learn will be a dominant entry to our brain. If what first published in 1993. It is now in third edition and I am we learn is correct, that’s OK, if not, it will be very still learning new ideas about how to teach mathematics difficult to subsequently correct that incorrect learning. and about what influences the learning of mathematics. This article is about my ongoing reflections on the • Failure almost always de-motivates learners. lessons I have learned and continue to learn and their influence on my thoughts on the structure of early • Even the earliest maths that students learn leads to mathematics future maths concepts. If it is incorrectly learned or not understood and secure, then that future learning will I used the word ‘deficits’ in the opening sentence of this be less efficient at best and significantly handicapped article. I am not trying to open up yet another debate on at worst. nomenclature. Rather I am suggesting that difficulties and disabilities are part of a spectrum that may be • The maths that is taught has to be developmental for generated by a specific deficit or deficits. A deficit may the learner. be obvious, like an inability to rote learn procedures or facts (what makes a fact a ‘fact’?) for any sort of • Brains remember and brains forget. Which one prolonged period of time, or less overt, but even more happens depends on many things, including frequency pervasive, a weak working memory. Although these of access to the (correct) information and whether or deficits are very common in students with dyslexia, they not the information is understood. are not exclusive to those students. What so often happens is that those who are considered to have more •Teaching is a diagnostic activity. Teachers need to severe learning difficulties have more of the deficits and listen to the student just as doctors need to listen to those deficits have more impact on their success in the patient. learning. Developmental mathematics We teachers could teach maths as though those deficits At any particular time and with any particular maths were irrelevant or that they can somehow be magically topic, we need to know where the maths is going and we overcome by lots of practising of the things that the need to know where it has come from. That way we can student can’t do. Or we can look at the deficits and try to sow the seeds for future ideas and concepts as well as understand their impact on learning maths, then look at recognising and diagnosing where a misunderstanding is how the presentation of the curriculum can be adjusted rooted. to make success a more frequent experience for more learners. Misunderstandings can arise for a whole range of reasons, for example confusion over mathematical Some Key Ideas language or poor mathematical memory. However, it is There are a number of key ideas that underlie the way worth noting that a child with a good memory may simply maths teaching can be made more learner friendly. use that memory to give the illusion of learning. Since children with dyslexia often have poor mathematical
7 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
memories, they rarely give the illusion of learning and example, children may be able to count up to a hundred, thus tend to be labelled as ‘low achievers’. Expectations but have no understanding of the significance of the based on this label may then influence their future. symbols used or the concept of place value. The concepts of ‘carrying’ and ‘renaming’ are rooted in the The ideas behind making mathematics truly early experiences of counting up and counting back and developmental are based on what dyslexic children crossing the tens. If children have not fully understood typically can and cannot do. Fundamentally, it supports the sophistication of counting in the decimal system, then memory by emphasising understanding, primarily by they will have problems with all subsequent maths. linking concepts and facts and by using patterns. These early experiences and mis-learning may last Secondly, it recognises the need for consistency in through to adulthood. learning and the need to explain any unavoidable inconsistencies. Thus it acknowledges that not all Even if there is useful practising of maths in everyday children can rote-learn facts and procedures for even life, it is likely to be uneven. For example, counting up to short lengths of time and that linking and patterns can a hundred may be practised, but counting back from a address that problem (Chinn 1994). If the culture of the hundred is rarely practised. lessons that the student experiences is a culture of learning formulas then a poor long term mathematical The basics of early mathematics memory will be a major handicap. The basics of early maths are:
The research into maths learning difficulties highlights • counting, forwards and backwards, two key cognitive factors that influence learning, working • place value, memory and retrieval of basic facts (Geary 2004).These • renaming for crossing the tens, hundreds, etc, factors have to be acknowledged and addressed in any • grouping and the four operations (add, subtract, pedagogy. At the same time, the impact of factors from multiply and divide), the affective domain such as anxiety (Chinn, 2009) • estimation and sense of number. cannot be ignored. One of the key affective factors is motivation. A great deal of maths leads on from these basics if they are taught properly. ‘Properly’ depends on the age of the My own surveys into pupils’ motivation, one from learner in the respect of how much is extrapolated from informal oral evidence, one from more formal written the basics. For a young learner the maths ahead is evidence suggest that a noticeable number of children hinted at and will be referred back to as the base for new are giving up on maths at ages 6 and 7 years old. The and related topics. For the older learner that future informal evidence, gathered from hundreds of teachers, maths can be taught by using the quantities and I collect when I lecture around the world by asking concepts that are rooted in the early maths that they may teachers the age when enough children in a class are have never understood. giving up on maths for the teacher to notice. The formal evidence, from over a hundred teachers, has been An example of this development is the link between collected in the UK. topics in arithmetic:
Early mathematics as an example of developmental Counting on is adding in ones. Addition is adding mathematics numbers in groups. Adding is adding one group. I want to use the early activities around counting to Multiplication is adding a number of groups (each the illustrate how future concepts are introduced. Also I want same value) at one time. to illustrate where some of the potential misunderstandings can arise. It’s not just what you teach Counting back is subtracting in ones. Subtraction is that matters, but what you don’t teach. For an example subtracting numbers in groups. of what not to teach, it is tempting to introduce Subtraction is subtracting one group. Division is subtraction as ‘You take the little from the big’ which subtracting a number of groups (each the same value) at soon fails as a consistent rule as in subtractions such as one time. 72 – 36 = 44. It should be noted that some learners find counting The maths that children meet first is the maths we use in backwards a very difficult task. They are far slower and everyday life. This creates several problems for children far less accurate in performing this task than when and thus for teachers. One consequence of everyday life counting forwards. When we plan development in maths familiarity is that some topics may well be encountered we must be aware of all the pre-requisite skills needed and practised frequently so that children give the illusion for the new learning to succeed and that very minor of learning the maths when all they are doing is the adjustment to a task is not minor for every learner. mathematical equivalent of ‘barking at print’. For 8 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
The communication of the knowledge of maths involves language and symbols. It is possible to add in visual images and kinaesthetic experiences, but the cognitive level educators are aiming for is the symbolic. ‘9 as one less than 10’ Unfortunately the language of maths, in English, particularly in the early experiences, is neither (Subitising is the skill of seeing a random cluster of transparent nor consistent. For example, the first two objects briefly and knowing how many are there without digit numbers that we use do not have a helpful having to count. Adults can usually manage about 7.) vocabulary, particularly in terms of introducing place value. We cannot change ‘thirteen’ into ‘ten-three’ or Many dyslexic learners are more comfortable with certain ‘eleven’ into ‘ten-one’, but we can point out these numbers, usually 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and so on. There are anomalies and try to pre-empt some of the confusion. implications in this for learning and teaching maths. If The use of appropriate materials and visual images are numbers, not unreasonably, are used to introduce and so very important here. Abandoning the visual/concrete illustrate a procedure, the student will be dual tasking. too soon may be disastrous for some learners. The learner has to deal with the number facts and with learning the procedure. If the numbers act as a barrier in Teaching to develop maths concepts: Counting that the learner does not have quick retrieval of number When we teach counting beyond nine we are introducing facts, then their learning of the procedure may well be place value. When children learn to count they may well handicapped. This problem can be addressed by the use not realise the role of place value in our number system. of calculators or by use of a number square. For Counting out loud is an example of the language being developmental maths, it can also be dealt with by less transparent than the symbols and the maths teaching number-linking strategies. concept behind the task. Moving a student on from the base skill of counting When we teach counting beyond nine we are also means understanding adding and subtracting numbers introducing the concept of trading (1 ten for 10 ones). beyond 1. It is worth noting that being able to retrieve This concept applies for counting up (addition) and for number facts from memory does not guarantee counting back (subtraction). The concept of trading is a understanding, but number-relating strategies can set the vital consequence of place value. The two concepts are groundwork for many maths tasks. However, all numbers inseparable. can be related to the key numbers of 1, 2, 5, 10. For example adding on 3 could be taught and practised as Using only language will not develop the concept of add 1 then add 2 or add 2 then add 1. Multiplying by 3 place value. As already explained, the language of the could be taught and practised as x2, then add x1 or as first two digit numbers is confusing and does not help the x1, then add x2. learner who tries to find a pattern and/or make sense of the information. Visual images and materials will help, if A consequence of using the key numbers is that the the learners connect them to the symbols and the domino pattern for 6 is not part of the pattern. The language. Different materials have different teaching domino pattern is 3 rows of 2 (or 2 rows of 3). In the five characteristics and need to be chosen carefully. Even pattern, 6 is 5 + 1. then, they may not work for every learner. John Hattie (2009) rates feedback from students as having a highly From a cognitive perspective, counting in ones is not effective influence on successful learning. Discussion efficient in terms of either accuracy or speed. Counting in around students’ work and their understanding of the ones is where arithmetic starts, but it should not stay there materials used to illustrate work is important in many and remain as the only strategy for all four operations. ways. For example, it allows the learner to articulate their thoughts. It allows learners (and teachers) to know if Progression on from counting their thoughts are the correct ones! Many concepts can be developed from counting. Other arithmetic procedures can be introduced, albeit subtly Other ‘lessons’ can be built into counting, for example, and without over-emphasis depending on what is the inter-relationship of numbers. This could be appropriate for the learner. straightforward, as in ‘Which is bigger in value, 12 or 15?’ or introduced in the operations, ‘Five is half of ten’ Once the implications of place value are understood and or ‘15 is 12 + 3’. Estimation, and the importance of 10 the procedure of crossing the tens is mastered then can be introduced by using patterns of coins, counters or addition and subtraction take the learner on from bead strings. Patterns address the issue of subitising counting/adding in ones and counting back/subtracting in and help develop sense of number (Chinn, 2004). ones to adding and subtracting in chunks. This progression can start with the basic facts for addition and subtraction. 9 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
The most useful basic facts are the ‘doubles’ and the experience where + meant ‘add’, now only applies to the number bonds for ten. A consistent model for the top numbers of these fractions. This is an example that doubles would be counters or coins in the five pattern. could be caused by the student over-generalising (even Suitable materials for the number bonds for ten could be if the basis of the generalisation seems reasonable to a ten bead string (with 5 beads of one colour and 5 of the student). another colour) or counters/coins in the five pattern. Finally Other learning can be built into these sessions as Teaching maths developmentally is about structure. It is appropriate to the student. For example, faced with 2 + about how basic maths facts and concepts link together, 6, it would be hoped that the learner would read the each fact and process strengthening the understanding whole number sentence and appreciate that the same of other facts and processes. It is not about a answer will be obtained for the commutative fact 6 + 2. prescriptive scheme or a programme. It allows teachers Over-viewing any question is good practice. Basic facts to respond to children’s learning needs and to be can be presented as pre-algebra, that is 7 + ___ = 10 creative in how they explain maths. That individual and 10 - ___ = 7. creativity should lie within an awareness of how children learn and fail to learn and how maths ideas relate and Multiplying and dividing are about adding and subtracting are inter-dependent. Being aware of these links and ‘lots of’ the same number. inter-dependencies can make the teaching of maths Adding 6 took the learner from adding 1 six times to more diagnostic and, hopefully, successful for the adding 6 in one step (or adding 1 adding 5). Multiplying learner. 4 x 6 takes the learner from adding together six fours to either knowing the ‘fact’ in one step or using 5 x 4 plus ‘Mathematics has an interrelating/sequential/reflective 1 x 4, using the key numbers once again. structure. It is a subject in which one learns the parts; the parts then build on each other to make a whole; Teaching to avoid misconceptions at the first knowing the whole enables one to reflect with more experience of new work: Pre-empting future errors understanding on the parts, which in turn strengthens the It would be very difficult to find out where misconceptions whole.’ (Chinn and Ashcroft, 2007) and confusions about maths begin. The data on de- motivation, a problem that will usually be as a Steve Chinn consequence of failure and misunderstanding key concepts suggest this is occurring whilst maths is still at Steve Chinn was the founder of Mark College in the early stages. There is more chance of Somerset and is an internationally known expert on misconceptions in this early maths because there are Maths in Dyslexia. He is the author of many publications more inconsistencies. It makes sense to be aware of the on the subject. All royalties of his latest book (Addressing inconsistencies and other potential sources of confusion the Unproductive Classroom Behaviour of Students with and to try and pre-empt them at the first learning Special needs (2009) – Jessica Kingsley) will be donated experience. to the Majika School Project, Mpumalanga, South Africa.
An example from early maths of (unintentionally) References teaching a misconception is from subtraction and ‘take Chinn S J (1994) the little from the big’ which is an appealing way of first A study of the basic number fact skills of children from specialist dyslexic and mainstream schools teaching subtraction. It’s OK to use these words if you Dyslexia Review 2: 4-6 flag up the future limitation of the procedure. Chinn S J (2004) Demonstrating an example such as 25 – 18 brings in The Trouble with Maths ‘trading’, subtraction, number facts, counting back and London. Routledge counting on. Chinn S J and Ashcroft J R (2007) Mathematics for Dyslexics including Dyscalculia p 14 An example from later on in maths is the addition of Chichester Wiley fractions. A child may logically answer ‘Two fifths’ when Chinn S J (2009) asked what one fifth plus one fifth equals. The language Mathematics anxiety in secondary students in England is transparent. Unfortunately moving to the symbolic DYSLEXIA 15: 61-68 introduces inconsistencies. If the learner applies previous Geary D C (2004) experience to the symbols 1/5 + 1/5 this will lead to an Mathematics and learning disabilities answer of 2/10. The symbols demand a different logic to Journal of Learning Disabilities 37 (1): 4-15 the language. Sadly the child’s logic, based on previous Hattie J (2009) Visible Learning London Routledge
10 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Symptom Validity Testing in Dyslexia Assessment
Elaine Chamberlain
Malingering has been of increasing concern in personal able to judge objectively whether poor performance is injury litigation and much work has been done on deliberate or motivated by external incentives. We are detecting it in assessments. This work has concentrated not even able to judge whether external incentives do or mainly on the malingering of symptoms of brain injury. do not exist (just because we do not know about them However, the issues raised are applicable to any other does not mean that they are not there). I therefore situation in which there exists an incentive to appear consider that these two criteria are met if there are no more impaired than is the case. This includes dyslexia other factors that can reasonably and fully account for assessment where rewards such as exam concessions unexpectedly poor performance in assessment. or accommodations in employment selection tests are appealing. Issues Research shows that we as practitioners tend to The aims of this article are therefore to outline the underestimate the extent of malingering, both in terms of current state of the art in symptom validity testing and to the prevalence of poor effort and the impact that it has argue for its application to dyslexia assessment. on test performance.
Definitions Prevalence Symptom validity testing is the systematic analysis of On the basis of clinical judgment, a British author assessment findings to ensure they accurately represent estimated that poor effort occurs in about 4% of cases. the abilities of the test-taker. However, a large-scale American study found that over a third of individuals attending personal injury assessments The particular risk is that assessment results represent and disability work evaluations deliberately an underestimate of the test-taker’s ability, making him or misrepresented their symptoms. Even 8% of purely her appear more impaired than he or she actually is. An clinical cases were judged to have been malingering. underestimate might occur if the test-taker did not try as The figure is lower for children, but is still significant at 8- hard as he or she might have done. He or she might 12%. also fabricate symptoms or exaggerate their severity in interviews or in responses to questionnaires. Therefore, it is far more common than we think and we are far worse at detecting it than we would like to Exaggeration and poor effort can occur for a number of believe. reasons. These include the test-taker being reluctant to attend the assessment, being too disturbed to undergo Impact testing or arise from other physical or psychological One study analysed the performance of people with issues such as pain, fatigue or a psychiatric disorder, acquired brain injury on a test of word learning. The such as somatoform disorder. The test-taker also might researchers found that 4% of the variance in test scores not fully understand the need for honesty and good could be accounted for by the severity of the brain injury effort. These are not malingering. (whether it was mild or severe). This is a very small percentage, given the substantially greater impact of a The definition provided by the Diagnostic and Statistical severe brain injury on everyday functioning. However, a Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV –TR) states that massive 50% of the variance could safely be attributed performance should only be considered to be to degree of effort. malingering if it is Therefore, if the person you are assessing is not exerting • intentional and appropriate effort, the test results you produce in your assessment will be irretrievably invalidated. • motivated by external incentives (such as avoiding work or military duty, obtaining financial compensation The result of this unawareness is that too few or evading criminal prosecution). practitioners undertake symptom validity testing. Those that do use quick, shoddy measures or test reactively (only when they become suspicious of the test-taker’s This definition presents practical problems. We are not honesty or motivation). Poor effort and exaggeration
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therefore goes undetected and flawed opinions are made A more sensitive measure is to use a normed test. in legal cases, educational recommendations and in These tend to be in the same format as probabilistic treatment. tests but have been normed on groups of people with various impairments. They have a cut-off point, below Recommendations which hardly anyone scores. To score below this is an The National Academy of Neuropsychology (NAN) in the indicator that the test-taker was using less than optimal USA has drawn up guidelines for the practice of effort. However, there may be other, valid reasons for a symptom validity testing. The fundamental message is low score on a normed test and so a fail is not definitive that symptom validity testing should be used routinely in proof of malingering. both legal and clinical settings. If you did not, you would need to have a very good reason. Some examples of useful test are:
Practice Word Memory Test (WMT) (Green 2003). This is a The recommendations from NAN are that the assessor sensitive and specific test with a great deal of research should use a variety of methods to assess validity and behind it. The format is forced-choice free recall and triangulate the results to reach a decision regarding the recognition of words and the test takes between 15-20 probability of malingering. minutes to administer. It has been normed on children (from age seven years) to adults with a range of Symptom validity tests disabilities (including specific learning difficulties). It One of the methods by which the validity of test results comes in computerized and oral formats. This test is can be assessed is by the use of formal symptom validity available only to registered psychologists. tests (SVTs). These are often tests of memory and the rationale behind them is that memory impairment is the Medical Symptoms Validity Test (MSVT) (Green et al most common complaint of people with cognitive 2005). This is a similar test to the WMT. It is shorter difficulties. The tests therefore appear to tap an area in and takes only five minutes to administer. It has been which a malingerer would hope to show a deficit. normed on adults and on children (from eight years), However, these tests are so easy that even those with including those with specific learning difficulties. It is severe cognitive impairments can perform well on them. available in computerised format only and is accessible Malingerers are thought to misjudge the difficulty of the to non-psychologists. tests and so perform more poorly than the most impaired individuals. Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) (Tombaugh 1996). This is a moderately sensitive and specific test. In order to be useful in identifying malingering or poor The format is forced-choice free recall and recognition of effort, an SVT must be pictures and the test takes between 15-20 minutes to administer. It is for use with people aged 16-84 years • Sensitive: It must be capable of detecting malingering and has not been normed on a dyslexic population. It is or poor effort when present and therefore present a available in computerised and oral formats and is low risk of false negatives. accessible to people with a higher degree and to people who have completed certified training in the use of • Specific: It must also be resistant to other causes of psychological tests. poor test performance, such as genuine memory impairments, depression or pain. It should therefore Computerised Assessment of Response Bias (CARB) carry a low risk of false positives. (Allen et al 1997). This is a sensitive test that involves forced-choice recognition of strings of numbers. It has been used successfully with children, including those SVTs use two different methods for detecting malingering with specific learning difficulties. It takes 12 minutes to or poor effort. The most simple tests are forced-choice administer and is available to non-psychologists. recognition tests in which the test-taker is shown a set of target stimuli (words, numbers or shapes) and is then Other tests (such as the Rey 15 Item test and Iverson’s asked to identify which of two choices presented is the 21 item test) are quick, cheap and popular. They are target. Due to the forced-choice format, even a person also open to all practitioners. However, they lack who took the test wearing a blindfold has a 50:50 chance specificity and sensitivity and should only be used as an of guessing the right answer. A score significantly below initial screen or as one of many pieces of evidence used chance is therefore irrefutable evidence that the test- to formulate an opinion. More information on these, and taker was making a deliberate effort not to give the other methods of symptom validity testing, can be found correct answer. However, these tests are not responsive in Spreen and Strauss (1998). to more subtle underperformance.
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Other methods of assessing symptom validity field to the assessment of children and adults with In addition to formal validity testing, other methods can alleged developmental dyslexia, the following be used to identify signs of insufficient effort. These suggestions can improve the integrity of assessments. include examining the results of a psychometric test for improbable patterns, such as on the Digit Span subtest • Undertake symptom validity testing routinely in your of the Weschler Adult Assessment Scale (see Iverson et assessments. Ideally, use a well validated SVT that is al (2003) for a recent study) or for glaring discrepancies suitable for the age and client group you are working between test performance and documented behaviour, with. At the very least, use a quick effort screen and such as a student who has achieved As and A*s at examine self-reports and test results thoroughly for GCSEs but who presents with an IQ in the below signs of inconsistencies. Seek independent, average range. corroborative evidence of academic or work performance whenever you can. Slick et al have drawn up a protocol for how to use the various methods to reach a decision on malingering (see • Chose SVTs that are relevant to the test-taker. For Table 1). example, if the test-taker is complaining of poor verbal memory, use a test that appears to measure verbal Pointers for practice memory. Much of the work on symptom validity testing has been carried out by neuropsychologists assessing adults with • Before you start the assessment, explain clearly to the brain injury. Although it is difficult to apply practice in this test-taker the purpose of the assessment and what
Table 1: Summary of Criteria for Malingered Neurocognitive Dysfunction (Slick at al 1999)
A. Presence of substantial external incentive B. Evidence from neuropsychological testing 1. Definite evidence of malingering (ie below chance performance on a forced-choice test) 2. Probable evidence of malingering (ie poor performance on a normed test) 3. Discrepancy between test data and known patterns of brain functioning. 4. Discrepancy between test data and observed behavior. 5. Discrepancy between test data and reliable collateral reports. 6. Discrepancy between test data and documented background history. C. Evidence from self-report 1. Self-reported history is discrepant with documented history. 2. Self-reported symptoms are discrepant with known patterns of brain functioning. 3. Self-reported symptoms are discrepant with behavioral observations. 4. Self-reported symptoms are discrepant with information obtained from collateral informants. 5. Evidence of exaggerated or fabricated dysfunction (ie a high score on the “lie” scale of a symptom report questionnaire). D. Behaviors meeting necessary criteria from groups B and C are not fully accounted for by psychiatric, neurological or developmental factors.
Levels of MND Diagnosis
Definite Meets Criterion A AND Criterion B1 AND Criterion D. Probable Meets Criterion A AND Criterion D AND two or more B Criteria (excluding B1); or, Meets Criterion A AND Criterion D AND meets one B Criterion (excluding B1) AND one or more C Criteria. Possible Meets Criterion A AND one or more C Criteria but NOT Criterion D; or, meets all criteria for Definite or Probable but DOES NOT meet Criterion D. 13 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
would be the negative consequences if he or she were about and talking about symptoms. Bear this in mind not honest or did not give his or her best effort. For when you think you detect exaggeration in a self- example, it would mean that the test results are report. Be particularly sensitive of cultural differences unusable, you and he or she have wasted an in under- and over-reporting. afternoon and the poor performance on the tests might throw his or her integrity on other issues into • If you detect unexpectedly poor performance, state doubt. this clearly in the assessment report. Choose the most economical explanation for it. Routinely and • At the start of the testing, administer a brief, simple systematically explore all other potential causes of effort ‘screen’ (such as the 21 Item Test or Rey’s 15 underperformance before drawing a conclusion about Item test). Ideally, the test should have relatively high deliberate malingering. Asking about mood, current sensitivity (so, you could chose a high cut-off point if medication or intake of alcohol or recreational drugs using the Rey) but needs no more than fair specificity. should always form part of a formal assessment. If If you are using a poorly validated test in this way, be any of these potential causes are present and could aware of the high risk of false positives; a test-taker reasonably account for all of the unexpected who fails did not necessarily exert poor effort or difficulties, opt for this as a probable explanation. malinger but is only showing some signs that that might be the case. • If you detect poor effort or exaggeration, it does not mean that the test-taker has no cognitive impairments, • If the test-taker fails the effort screen, you could just that it was not possible to assess them validly in consider giving him a pep talk. This should be enough the current assessment. Make this clear in the report. to let him know that you are aware that he may not have given his best effort, but not so harsh as to lose • Describe in your report any SVTs or other effort rapport (for example, ‘I don’t think this represents your assessments you have used to support any claims true abilities. Is there any reason you might not have you make. However, do not describe them in such done as well as you could have?’). Check for anxiety, detail that unscrupulous solicitors would be able to fatigue, confusion and so on and take action coach their clients on how to spot one and respond to accordingly. Remind the test-taker that he or she it. needs to give his best effort and that there are negative consequences if this is not so. Confirm • Finally, do not feel that you are being callous or understanding and proceed with the assessment. distrustful by undertaking symptom validity testing. The quality of the opinions you reach regarding your • Before administering any memory tests, administer a client and the recommendations you make depend on well-validated symptom validity test (ideally one with a the validity of your assessment results. definitive and sensitive malingering measure that uses probabilistic analysis). Elaine Chamberlain
If the test-taker fails the second test (particularly if this is Elaine Chamberlain is a Chartered Occupational a definite fail on a probabilistic test), the test results are Psychologist and Neuropsychologist. Her interest is in invalid. However, if in any doubt, continue with the the impact of brain injury and dyslexia on employment. assessment and look out for any further evidence to She can be contacted at support your case. [email protected]
• If the test-taker fails one SVT, all other test results are References invalid. Do not try to guess which ones might be Allen L Conder RL Green P & Cox DR (1997) representative. Manual for the Computerised Assessment of Response Bias CogniSyst Inc Durham NC • Using Slick et al’s criteria to identify whether the test- Bush S Ruff R Troster A Barth J Koffler S Pliskin N Reynolds taker was definitely, probably or possibly malingering C Silver C (2005) or showing no signs of poor effort. NAN position paper: Symptom validity assessment: Practice issues and medical necessity • When examining test patterns for signs of Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 419–426 http://nanonline.org/downloads/paio/Position/NANsvt.pdf inconsistency, bear in mind that normal people show fluctuations in performance. The more tests you Courtney J Dinkins J Allen L Kuroski K (2003) Age Related Effects in Children Taking the administer, the more likely you are to get a blip. So, Computerized Assessment of Response Bias and Word interpret inconsistencies with caution. Memory Test Child Neuropsychology (Neuropsychology, Development • Different people have different approaches to thinking and Cognition) 9 (2) p 109-11 14 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Green P (2003) Slick D Hopp G & Strauss E (1998) Word Memory Test – User’s Manual Victoria Symptom Validity Test Green’s Publishing Edmonton Canada Odessa Fl; Psychological Assessment Resources Green P (2005) Spreen O and Strauss E (1998) Medical Symptom Validity Test (MSVT) for Microsoft A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests; Windows – User’s Manual Administration, Norms and Commentary (2nd Edition) Green’s Publishing Edmonton Canada Oxford; Oxford University Press Iverson GL Tulsky DS (2003) Tombaugh T (1996) Detecting malingering on the WAIS-III. Unusual Digit Test of Memory Malingering Manual Span performance patterns in the normal population and New York: MultiHealth Systems in clinical groups Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 18(1) p 1-9 Slick DJ Sherman EMS & Iverson GL (1999) This article was first published in Dyslexia Review in Diagnostic criteria for malingering neurocognitive Spring 2006. dysfunction: Proposed standards for clinical practice and research The Clinical Neuropsychologist 13 545-561
CReSTeD
Council for the Registration of Schools Teaching Dyslexic Pupils CReSTeD provides a Register of schools approved for their dyslexia/SpLD provision.
For your free Register or information about how your school may be included, contact:
Tel/Fax: 01242 604852 Email: [email protected] www.crested.org.uk
Registered Charity No. 1052103
15 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Personalised Strategies for Effective Study
Ginny Stacey
Introduction Vignette 1: Brigid, dyslexic undergraduate Over the years I have been supporting dyslexic students, I Brigid had support for most of her undergraduate course. have run many awareness workshops. Almost always I Her deep seated worry was that she could not recall include an exercise that allows people to observe how information. She was doing a course that was mainly they think while doing a particular task (Stacey 2005). In practical, but which included literacy based work. She had the discussions after the exercise it is obvious that people been identified as dyslexic as a child. When she started expect others to think the same way as they do and that it her degree course, she had already discovered that mind- is unusual for people to compare the ways they have maps work well for her. internalised information. If your mind is enabling you to solve the tasks you have to do, there is perhaps no At the end of her course, her thinking preferences profile incentive for most people to find out how it is working, you was: just use it. • she is self-referenced • she needs a framework, schema, or structure for a topic In my experience, people with specific learning difficulties • she can use the 3 senses (visual, oral/aural, (SpLD) need to be very aware of how their minds work. kinaesthetic) equally Each of the categories of SpLD, dyslexia, dyspraxia, • she likes practical work dyscalculia, ADHD to name the most familiar, affects • she can use linear formats for material she is learning in different ways. Even within one category there understanding (ie not rote learning, then she needs to is a wide range of problems and solutions. It is no good work spatially) saying to a dyslexic person: ‘Dyslexia - you must like mind-maps.’ We (I am dyslexic myself) cannot expect Being ‘self-referenced’ indicates that Brigid had to realise those around us to know all the accommodations that her own perspective on a topic in order to understand might be necessary for us to function well. We need to someone else’s (eg, the tutor’s). Without knowing her know what they are and be able to negotiate their own perspective, she couldn’t listen to lectures or retain implementation without undue burden being placed on information that she read. She used frameworks to others. actively think about the material she was reading; she had a definite plan for assessing what each paper was about, We need to have full recognition of how the SpLD we and each paragraph in the papers. She wrote more have affects our thinking and our interaction with people fluently when allowing her own perspective to be and the situation around us. We need to know how to get important, instead of trying to rephrase the ideas of others. our minds to think well. We need to know what triggers the SpLD getting worse and what to do about it (even if Most importantly, Brigid found that recalling information that’s accepting that ‘you’ve hit a day when you will was not a problem when she understood it and stopped reverse everything you say’ and simply letting people trying to learn it by rote. For instance, she found she know that’s how it is today). People around us need to could take part in discussions at the end of lectures, recognise that we genuinely experience life differently, that (without having to go away and work on the subject) and we process information differently. Flexible she knew that she was making significant contributions. accommodation across the differences would do much to reduce the effects of these learning disabilities. Vignette 2: Katherine, dyslexic undergraduate Katherine’s parents suspected that she was dyslexic when The following vignettes illustrate work with different she was a child, but they did not want her labelled, so she students; none of the names are the real ones. Some was not assessed. They helped her with proof reading information about the students is given. I have listed the and she had speech therapy when she was young. thinking preferences that emerged during the support; During her first year at university, she fell behind with her they are in the order of importance, with the most work and her tutor put her in touch with an educational important first. Finally, I have commented on the psychologist. She was finally assessed as dyslexic in the implications of the thinking preferences. The students May of her first year. The support from her parents had often become more confident as a result of knowing how given her a good level of confidence, albeit that she did their minds work, and then are able to do justice to not feel able to follow her instinct about working in themselves at university and later in the work place. different ways. She was reading psychology and physiology.
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At the end of her course, her thinking preferences profile The dominant features of her thinking preferences profile was: are: • she likes to categorise information (after the style of the Naturalist Intelligence of Multiple Intelligence theory • she needs to do in order to learn, ie she is a (Gardner 1999)) kinaesthetic learner • she needs a framework to hold information together • it helps her to understand the material she is working • she uses the visual sense well, but not oral/aural or with when she can set the ideas out on paper and use kinaesthetic the relative positions to indicate relationships • she thinks logically, and likes to be systematic and efficient (Myers-Briggs, mental function ‘thinking’ The kinaesthetic aspect of her learning is very strong. For (Lawrence 1993)) instance, she can readily see that she goes into far too • she needs to be very well organised much detail when she is reading and that quite often the • she is self-referenced information she is struggling to read has very little to do • she can use linear thinking with her research. We have to work repeatedly on the way she reads papers in order for her to pay attention to Katherine benefited from a mixture of exploring thinking only the information she needs and not everything else in preferences and systematic study skills work. She was the paper. We both read her papers and we compare able to apply skills learnt on one topic to the next. She how we are processing the content. It is only by working was able to find the patterns inherent in her subjects and side by side, by discussing how we are assessing the create systematic frameworks for herself. At the information that Pat is able gradually to acquire the skills beginning of her third year we thought she probably didn’t she needs. She is having to undo some well established need any more support, and then she came across a bad habits. Her ADD makes matters worse because her major problem. mind uses the oldest most durable memory traces fast (see Jost’s law in Baddeley, 1983); it is hard to slow down One of her third year options was still very experimental, and let new processes be used. with no widely recognised theory or model to explain the observed phenomena. Katherine could not ‘get her head Vignette 4: Keith, dyspraxic undergraduate round it’. She tried for several weeks without mentioning Keith was identified as dyspraxic at the age of 10. He had her difficulties to her tutor or myself. She thought it was exam provisions at secondary school. His university tutor her fault that she was finding the subject difficult and that became worried about his ability to write essays and to she was being slower than her peers to understand it. solve problems in the time constraint of exams. His She was struggling to read and to write answers for dyspraxia has minimal overlap with dyslexia. tutorials; in effect her dyslexia had become bad again. She never questioned that something was missing in the The dominant features of his thinking preferences profile subject that would help her to understand it. Once we are: looked at the subject and how she was approaching it, we could see that, as it was in an early stage of research, it • he needs a structure for his subjects and work lacked a systematic framework for the information. We • he can use visual aids well had to generate a framework from the research • work he has done himself in practicals is easier to processes, such as asking questions, doing experiments, understand and remember finding some answers and then posing the next set of questions. When she applied this framework to the Keith’s major need is to sort out the framework of his information, she could understand what was happening subjects or any tasks that he has to do. Once he has a and she could learn it effectively. Her experience is typical pattern to work with, he can make progress. He finds it of the way one can think one has the disability quite difficult to appreciate parallels between one task and management under control and then in a new situation the the next, so building skills in an abstract way doesn’t old solutions don’t work, the dyslexia gets worse until a happen: he doesn’t see how to develop a framework for a different way of processing the information is found. new subject having just used one successfully for the last. When he deliberately spends a few minutes before, say, a Vignette 3: Pat, ADD, dyslexic postgraduate lecture thinking over the subject, and almost switching his Pat is American. She was diagnosed as having ADD thinking on to that subject, he is able to understand more when in her mid twenties. She was prescribed Aderall, easily and to take useful lecture notes. Support work with which worked well for her. However, the drug is not him is a continual process of establishing the hierarchical available in the UK and the nearest equivalent did not structure that underpins his subjects and the processes of work so well for her. She has been re-assessed in the UK study. and the ADD diagnosis was confirmed. She struggles particularly with reading, with using her memory and Vignette 5: Matt, SpLD undergraduate maintaining her concentration. Matt decided to be assessed because he was having 17 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
difficulties during the first term at university. He was reached the most advanced stage of compensation can identified as having specific learning difficulties on account find themselves operating back at level 2 when dealing of an uneven WAIS profile in which processing speed was with something that is new. Providing you recognise what significantly low. It took some while for his support and is happening, and have the confidence to re-assess the provisions to be sorted out and it was not until the situation and to develop other strategies to deal with it, beginning of his second year that he had any help. you can then move back to the higher levels of compensation fairly quickly. His thinking preference profile was: • he uses linear notes Conclusion • being motivated about people helps his learning These vignettes show the importance of recognising that (Myers-Briggs ‘feeling’ mental function (Lawrence, individual dyslexic /SpLD people think in different ways. 1993)) They don’t represent a final picture. The process • he is self-referenced continues as new situations require new solutions and • he uses frameworks for information and organisation, then thinking preferences can become more clearly but doesn’t generate them for himself understood. Some students have been aware that they • he learns by doing think in different ways: Katherine told me ‘I wanted to do it • he understands the theory and models of his subject in like that, but I didn’t dare’. Many of the disabling effects preference to the practical applications (Myers-Briggs of specific learning difficulties and dyslexia can be ‘intuiting’ rather than ‘sensing’ (Lawrence, 1993)) neutralised when one:
Matt worked best when his various tasks were broken into • understands how one’s mind works well subsections with linear notes for the different subsections; • knows how to get it to think that way the tasks included organising his every day life as well as • knows how to keep it doing so tutorial work. His preference for linear thinking was strong despite the evidence from the psychologist’s assessment Ginny Stacey that he had good visual abilities which lead to recommendations to use spatial devices like mind-maps. Learning to play the classical guitar as an adult taught me He found reading and revision easier when he was how to use my dyslexic brain more effectively, which lead actively searching for ideas that would interest a particular to being interested in how others think and resulted in other person; during his exams, he recalled information setting up the dyslexia support at Oxford Brookes because he remembered telling the other person. If he University over 13 years to 2004. was not interested in a subject, he found it much harder to work on it and the problems of his disability increased. At Ginny Stacey is a freelance Dyslexia Consultant, Oxford the end of his course, he requested a memo outlining his and Research Associate, Department for Physiology, progress and his thinking preferences so that future Anatomy and Genetics, The University of Oxford. supervisors or employers could build on the insights from his support. References Baddeley A (1983) Study and everyday life Your Memory: A User’s Guide London: Penguin Books These vignettes have portrayed five students at university whose style of thinking needed to be taken into account in Gardner H (1999) Intelligence Reframed order to help them make progress with their studies. They New York: Basic Books would not have benefited from a common style of working Lawrence G (1993) and thinking. The approach of paying attention to the way People Types and Tiger Stripes (3rd ed.) individuals internalise information has been central to the Gainsville, Florida: Center for Applications of support work I have done with students. Sometimes the Psychological Type, Inc. lack of confidence and the emotional burden are so deep McLouglin D, Fitzgibbon G, Young V (1994) seated that much more than finding one’s best way of Adult Dyslexia: Assessment, Counselling and Training thinking is needed to overcome the effects of the disability, London: Whurr Publishers. but even in these cases recognising the ways you think Stacey G (2005) best can help significantly. ATaste of Dyslexia DVD (2nd ed.) Oxfordshire Dyslexia Association With an SpLD, the way one thinks doesn’t only affect study, it can affect many of the tasks of everyday living. Any new situation, new job, new house, new banking system, means information has to be learnt again. McLoughlin et al (1994) describe four levels of compensation for dyslexic people. People who have 18 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Dyslexia Action Literacy Models – Embedding Good Practice
Margaret Rooms
Dyslexia Action has been working in primary schools in a large box and looks like a lot when it is spread out, it using our own literacy materials and has recently is important to remember that it only covers the skills embarked on complementary projects in secondary from no letter-sound correspondence through to reading schools. This article is based on a document produced and spelling cvc words – cat, fat, mat. These are vital for the P4L schools to help them to organise this skills and we all know of 15 year olds (and even 50 year provision once the project has finished. We hope that it olds) who have not mastered them. However, children will also be informative for other schools and staff who should be working through this quickly. wish to organise intervention using these materials. UofS is computer based and as such is ideal to be used Introduction in groups and/or independently. Once a child knows how Partner schools in Dyslexia Action’s Partnership for to use the programme it is only necessary for staff to Literacy project (Piggott J 2009) have had experience of monitor its use and do a weekly ‘check-reading’ exercise; using our literacy development materials first-hand. Many everything else is independent work. staff in these schools are feeling confident in using the materials and will have seen the progress children can ‘Agh but’, I hear you say, ‘how can we be sure they are make and the difference in their work and confidence. doing it properly if we aren’t sitting with them one-to- From talking to teachers and pupils in the various P4L one?’ partner schools around the country, I thought it might be useful to document different models for using the There are checks and balances built into the programme literacy materials and to answer some of your questions, which enable you to make sure the child is on track with so that you can see that they do not have to be their work and that you are alerted if you need to expensive in terms of staff to implement, and might even intervene (Rooms M 2009). Trust the programme and it free up some staff time! will do its job and save your staff time. We have also produced some new Good Practice Check-lists, which The Current Model establish when a child is ready to work independently. The model used in P4L was dictated by three main factors: How much time should a child spend on the programmes a week? 1. The Dyslexia Action teacher would only be in the It is true that if you only spend 30 minutes a week on a partner school one day a week literacy development programme then this equates to roughly 16 hours a year (allowing for beginning and end 2. Training for the teachers and TAs was paramount of term delays). If a child has a 2 or 3 year deficit in literacy you will need more input than this to close that 3. The project was being evaluated by the University of gap quickly. An hour a week is more realistic – even Durham. more is better. The recently published report by Sir Jim Rose ( Identifying and Teaching Children with Dyslexia This meant that the teaching model looked and Literacy Difficulties, DCSF 2009, p12, p57, p92) ‘concentrated’ and heavily staffed with significant recommends ‘little and often’ for structured intervention. disruption to the timetable. The good news however is that once you take these three factors out of the How should this time be organised? equation you are left with a great deal of flexibility in how The current P4L model is normally one hour once a you utilize the skills and materials provided through P4L. week with the Dyslexia Action teacher present with a further session of 30 minutes on another day The Literacy Materials recommended. The advantage of this is that it will be The two literacy programmes are The Active Literacy Kit timetabled and so the time should be ring-fenced. If the (ALK) and Units of Sound (UofS). child is absent on that day or the TA is absent or needed elsewhere then the lesson is cancelled and the input The ALK is very hands-on kinaesthetic material lost. However, for some schools this is a perfectly good consisting of 30 short exercises which are repeated until model to follow. accuracy and a target time are met. Although this comes
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The time can also be organised on a ‘little and often’ Possible Models: B basis with sessions lasting just 15-20 minutes several ALK & UofS group of 6-8 pupils x 1 hour + 2 times a week. The advantage here is that if a session is TAs/teachers lost, the child doesn’t lose the whole week’s input. It also This is a team teaching situation where the 6 pupils are means that the child is out of the classroom for shorter taught by 2 members of staff. You could organise it by periods at a time. having one teacher working with ALK and the other UofS – as in model A. So if you decide on a weekly total amount of time that you want to spend on the programmes, it doesn’t really Possible Models: C matter how you split up that time. UofS in the classroom – the integrated model This model builds on the independent learning aspect of Does the teaching need to be one-to-one? the programme. Each pupil works on 1 page of reading No, no, no, no, no. I am repeating myself because and 1 of spelling a day, 4 times a week independently. saying it once never seems to be enough! On the 5th day the TA in the classrooms conducts the check-reading exercise and has a look at the scores. Both of the materials were designed originally to be used The time for this independent work is not specifically in small groups: children ‘take turns’ in ALK and work timetabled and no additional staff time is needed. Once independently on PCs with UofS. the pupil has been shown how to use the program as checked by the Good Practice Check-lists he/she should I know that there are added benefits (sometimes) of no longer need someone micro-managing the work. working 1:1 where the child gets a lot of attention. I Because the pupil doesn’t leave the classroom this work would say however, that even if a child starts off like this, should become seamless with other activities and can be working independently or in a small group should be the fitted in at any suitable 15 minutes. This model aim as quickly as possible. maximises the ‘little and often’ concept and reinforces the idea that the TA/teacher ‘oversees’ the bulk of the The optimum size of a group depends on a number of work rather than being directly involved in the teaching. factors, including: Secondary School considerations • Size of the available space In secondary schools organisation of interventions is a major task and needs to be planned carefully. Because • Individual needs of the children the timetable is based around the curriculum rather than the class, model C above would not be appropriate. • Skills of the teacher / TA Because of the age of the children however the decision to miss a lesson cannot be taken lightly and alternatives •Availability of equipment / computers need to be considered. As always, there is no ‘one size fits all’ solution. In our secondary projects we have been • UofS licence held by the school. trialling using UofS on a USB so that it can be used at home as well thus minimising the amount of time needed Licence out of the classroom. Group lessons of 6 students to 2 The standard licence issued for UofS to P4L schools is TAs were standard. the 6 concurrent user licence. This means that you are limited to groups of 6 pupils using the program at the One secondary school struggled to get UofS established same time. You can of course upgrade this licence until it acquired a permanent space for teaching. should you require wider access in your school. ‘Booking’ a room for each lesson and then arranging for laptops and carrying books and files created artificial Possible Models: A barriers to the teaching. Since having their own room UofS Group of 3 or 4 pupils x 1 hour + 1 teacher or where the computers are fixed in booths they regularly TA see 100 students a week for their UofS lessons. This allows the teacher to spend up to 15 minutes with each pupil: check-reading and looking at scores for Further Developments and Technical Support Spelling. The UofS Stage 1 Exercises (paper-based) can A reminder that UofS has its own website be used in this lesson as well. www.unitsofsound.net where you can access all the latest information about the program and its sister Each pupil should cover: 2 pages for reading; 2 pages program Units of Sound: Literacy that fits, which is used for spelling; 1 x UofS Exercises; 1 x check-reading with in the home. This is also where you can access technical the teacher; 1 x either Memory or Dictation (providing support and minor upgrades. The Good Practice check- they have reached this level). sheets are available as a free download.
20 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Please note that the UofS on USB is not yet a References commercial product – but if anyone is interested in using Piggott J (2009) it please contact me. Partnership for Literacy Dyslexia Review Vol 20 No3 pp16-20
Margaret Rooms Rooms M (2009) Units of Soundv5: What’s New? Dyslexia Review Vol 21 No 1 pp10-13 Margaret Rooms is Head of Educational Development at Dyslexia Action. The Active Literacy Kit and Units of Sound are available [email protected] from the Dyslexia Action Shop. Dyslexia Guild members get a 10% discount on all purchases from the shop.
Dyslexia Guild coming to Training Department
Ann Sheddick
Dear Guild member, We are also busy preparing for our November Guild Symposium and would like your opinion on what would As you may have heard, the Dyslexia Guild is make it a successful event. We are particularly keen to undergoing a transition and will in the future be run parallel sessions or workshops on various themes administered by Dyslexia Action’s Training Department. with presentations from members on examples of best As part of that change, we will be introducing a number practice. Please, indicate your preliminary interest on the of new benefits for Guild members, most notably access inserted form. to an online platform where the Guild community can regularly meet and allow each individual member to truly As part of the Guild transition, we will also be taking over benefit from the collective expertise of our highly the administration of the Practising Certificate. One of qualified member body. In the near future, you will also the changes we are planning is to make it possible for now be able to manage your membership online, sign up you manage your status and to submit your supporting for events and organise online interest groups. documents online. If your APC is due for renewal soon we shall be writing to you shortly. Please email In order to facilitate access to these new resources, we [email protected] if you have any immediate need your email address. This will allow us to provide questions. access to our online community platform and keep in touch with you in a more flexible and timely manner Thank you for your assistance with the transition. We will about events and promotions. give you the names of the people to contact regarding various parts of the Guild’s work in due course. It is vitally important that you provide us with this Meanwhile if you have any queries please email information as soon as possible. Unfortunately, we will [email protected]. not be able to maintain your subscription without an up- to-date email address beginning July 2010. The Training Team are very much looking forward to working with you and look forward to meeting you in person To provide this information, please visit this webpage or online as part of one of the upcoming Guild activities. http://training.dyslexiaaction.org.uk/guildmembership. Alternatively, you can email, fax or post your details Anne Sheddick using the form enclosed here. Head of Training 21 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
From the Archives:The Elegant Mark
Fiona Hover
‘I was away the day they taught handwriting, miss,’ Many years ago Donald Jackson, still one of the most grumbled Julie, whose ill formed letters were pushed sought after calligraphers in this country, attempted together in an attempt to be ‘joined up writing’. She had unsuccessfully to teach me calligraphy. He had a also been absent the day they taught reading and spelling ‘correct way’ of holding a pen and believed strongly in but had fortunately managed to attended every charm and the old adage ‘a bad workman blames his tools’. He not fashion class. At eighteen her handwriting meant that any only introduced me to the exquisite feel of a quill on job requiring a ‘handwritten letter of application’ was vellum but to the concept of ‘the elegant mark’. He closed to her. Teaching handwriting is often thought of in believed that the pen should be cradled in the hand. The the same way as the teaching of reading: If you can do it, thumb and middle finger should lightly touch, making a you can teach it. If only it were that simple! rest for the pen, which is carefully balanced across the hand. To stop it rolling the thumb moves up to support it Handwriting developed as a system of recording speech. and the first finger moves to stop it falling as the hand is Our present system derives originally from a form of rested on the paper. The length of the pen is then recording business transactions by the Phoenicians 1500 adjusted with the other hand to reach the paper. Most years BC. It developed through the ages via Greek and people hold the pen too low for an elegant flow of Roman alphabets and came to these shores with the movement. ‘Point don’t pinch’ was the cry of frustration Roman conquest. The original symbols were a kind of as he inspected our work. pictogram and had a connection with sound and meaning, alpha meant ox and was drawn as an ox’s Writing style has always reflected the materials used. head with horns which over time turned [literally 180 Stone carving is different from copper engraving. Rice degrees] into A. This has all long since been lost but the paper, bark and papyrus support different types of marks concept of symbols representing sounds persists. made with different writing tools. Writing with ink used to be the rite of passage to grown-up, joined writing. Not For the majority of literate adults handwriting occurs without logic as anyone who remembers those old when thoughts go through their mind whilst they are scratchy dip pens can testify; an incorrectly formed letter holding a pen or pencil. It is an automatic and resulted in a splatter of ink, a crossed nib and even unconscious action in the process of transferring crosser teacher. Donald Jackson had the solution of information to paper. Not so for the dyslexic person who course, pull don’t push. The elegant mark can only be struggles to maintain a regularity of style, slope, size and made by gliding ink from the nib onto the paper. Pushing formation at the same time as remembering phoneme to digs holes into the surface and stalls the flow of ink. grapheme correspondence, spelling rules, tips and tricks Few people still write with a nibbed pen any more, for difficult words and the sentence he first thought of. If rollerballs, ballpoints and Berol handwriting pens have indeed it was a sentence at all. It may have been a gem replaced fountain pens even for exams and formal letters of an idea which refuses to come together in a cohesive are produced on a computer now. These writing sticks manner simply because there are too many ‘ifs and buts’ do not protest at incorrectly formed letters, nor do in the process. The totally joined up variety of cursive drywipe pens on a white board, so should we still retain handwriting, which some view as the hallmark of methods of writing which were designed for materials no dyslexia, seems to be filtering into schools as teachers longer in common use? discover that all the reasons for teaching it to dyslexic pupils are also advantageous for all their pupils. Fortunately, anyone, even Julie, can improve their handwriting if they want to. Unfortunately very few are Contrary to the belief of many, the National Curriculum inclined to put in the practice and perseverance strategy does not stipulate a style of writing, only that it necessary. It is comparable to learning to touch type should be legible and cursive, which simply means when you already have a speed of 20 words a minute ‘joined up’! The NC talks about ‘how to hold a with 2 fingers while looking at the keyboard. The pen/pencil’ but does not describe how this should be retraining process seems slow and boring and gives no done. What exactly is the correct way? Having closely immediate benefit. Unlike typing it cannot be done on a observed many literate adults’ holding techniques there computer. seem to be many ways which successfully produce handwriting. Is this a case of simply ‘do as I do’ or do Handwriting, like reading, has underlying skills which you hold your pen one way and teach children a different have to be in place before successful progress can be hold – ‘do as I say’? made. Recent news has reported fears that children are
22 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
starting school with insufficient speech and language together as a tool for life. It is not an academic subject skills. There is, however, a real danger that they are but a necessary skill without which all academic study is also starting with a lack of pre-writing skills. The modern made so much more difficult. Handwriting, like reading, child is expected, by KS2, to acquire the skills of ‘fluent is an assumed skill which children are expected to legible handwriting’ so prized by previous generations, acquire from teachers who have had little or no training without the practice or incentives of those times. Good in its teaching. In an era where it is fashionable to focus computer skills are essential for higher academic on ‘free expression’ the teaching of a specific style of education. The written word is no longer penned by handwriting has been characterised as stifling craftsmen but tapped out on a keyboard at varying individuality. But personal style comes from knowledge speeds but with uniform results. Gone are the days when and practice of the basic skills – not ignorance. the less academic pupils left school with neat handwriting, good manners and a willingness to serve. The computer-produced text indicates that we know how to press buttons in the right order. It conveys what we In many of our schools ‘handwriting’ is the forgotten want to say but our handwriting conveys so much more. lesson. It is used as occupation time. ‘When you have It is part of our personality; like the tone of our voice, the finished your work practise your handwriting’. The most inflection of our speech, the expression of our features, a needy never finish their work so miss out on this clue to who we really are. It is our elegant mark. Our valuable practice time. The initial instruction on letter children deserve to be taught this thoroughly and not to shapes is often at a time when the necessary sub-skills have to discover it for themselves. are not in place. Once that time has passed incorrect formation is sometimes corrected but bad habits are Fiona Hover difficult to break. All too soon the content of the writing assumes more importance than the formation. Fiona Hover was a teacher at the London DI and is now Development Manager in Educational Development. Handwriting, like reading, may appear to some to happen through exposure and osmosis but for the most Previously published in Dyslexia Review Volume 14 part it needs to be taught. Handwriting, like reading is a Number 3 July 2003 complex combination of skills and sub-skills brought
Would YOU like to teach for Dyslexia Action? Northern Region: J Keogan If you have trained with us or on a similar • recognised course and would like to teach within T 01423 705605 our organisation, we would be happy to discuss E [email protected] this with you. Central Region: Helen Boyce Our improved salary structure and excellent T 02476 224082 • Inservice training will make teaching with Dyslexia E [email protected] Action a wise choice. Southern Region: J Keogan If you would like to discuss this further, please T 01423 705605 • contact: E [email protected]
23 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
GL Assessment launches research into post-16 dyslexia
Speaking to many specialist teachers at Dyslexia Guild Dyslexia Portfolio – Post-16 Project events recently, I have been struck by the real need that Published in 2008, the Dyslexia Portfolio is a collection of exists for diagnostic assessments and attainment tests for short tests that helps identify dyslexia in individual students dyslexia that can be used with sixth form and college and quantifies the extent to which dyslexia may affect students. learning. Currently data is available for ages 5:06 to 15:11.
In response to this, GL Assessment, publishers of the During the autumn term 2010, GL Assessment would like Dyslexia Portfolio, would like to invite members of the to work with Dyslexia Guild members to collect data on Dyslexia Guild to take part in a research project we will be post-16 students using the Dyslexia Portfolio and the conducting during the autumn term 2010. The purpose of Cognitive Abilities Test Level H, Non-verbal reasoning the project is to collect additional data using the Portfolio battery. This will provide data to support the use of the so that it can be used to assess these older students. Portfolio with sixth form and FE students.
Participants will be required to assess up to ten students If you are interested in taking part in this project and using the Dyslexia Portfolio, which is authored by have access to students of a suitable age please independent educational psychologist Martin Turner. complete the form below as an indication of your interest. You will be supplied with all test material and The Portfolio offers nine individual paper-based tests that feedback from results and in return we ask that you take about 45 minutes to administer. Results of the undertake the testing of 10 students selected against assessments provide information on areas vital to a young criteria we will provide also during autumn term 2010. person’s achievement, such as reading, writing and Full details will be sent on receipt of this form. spelling, phonological skills, and processing. Name of Dyslexia Guild member: ...... Because the Portfolio identifies dyslexia and the extent to which it is present by including an ability score, teachers Specialist qualification:...... will also need to assess their students using GL Assessment’s Cognitive Abilities Test non-verbal School/College: ...... reasoning Level H. All test materials will be provided to participating members and guidance will be given on Address: ...... selecting students randomly to take part. In addition to this, feedback will be provided to teachers on each ...... individual’s performance. Telephone:...... The combined results from the assessments will provide data for the post-16 sample. These data will also be useful Email (this will be the main means of communication): for supporting applications for access arrangements as ...... well as assessing need for additional support in literacy. I am interested in receiving further details of the Dyslexia If the project is successful, the online report generation Portfolio post-16 project. tool that accompanies the Portfolio will be updated. This will enable teachers using the resources to produce Signed:...... Date: ...... reports quickly for use with colleagues and for parents. Please return to: If you are interested in taking part in the research project, Sue Thompson please fill in the accompanying form. Freepost LON16517 Swindon SN2 8DR
Many thanks Alternatively, please go to www.dyslexiaportfolio.co.uk and complete the form online. Full details of the Portfolio Sue Thompson are available on this site also. Publisher GL Assessment Thank you
24 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
How Words Work: Morphological Strategies
Wendy Goldup
Understanding the morphological nature of words and how the meaning changes depending on who is doing using morphological strategies for reading and spelling is the action, at what time etc., by asking some leading a very efficient way of building excellent literacy skills. questions eg ‘I might help you with your work now, what Dyslexic students and literacy strugglers often don’t get would we say if it happened yesterday?’ (answer to look at, or understand, words in this way because they ‘helped’) and so on, writing the words one at a time in a are too busy struggling with basic skills. list on the board.
Working on the morphological structure of words is Fig.1 useful in many ways: List of words provided by students and written on • It gives insight into word meanings and history which board by teacher, one by one, in response to leading some students find helpful and interesting. questions • It improves vocabulary knowledge. help • It often grabs the attention of the struggler who has helps given up on ever becoming a better speller. • It is a fresh and different approach for students for helping whom the phonological route has been unsuccessful; helped an antidote to ‘phonics fatigue’. helpful
I have used the approach outlined here with individual unhelpful students aged 9 years and over, with adults in groups of helpless ten, and most successfully with two groups of six boys helper aged between 10 and 15 at a specialist EBD unit.
I devised the programme myself and named it ‘How It is important that students watch the word string Words Work’. It incorporates all the principles of develop in this way rather than be presented with the specialist literacy teaching that work so well for dyslexic finished list – the latter would hold far less meaning. students and others who struggle with literacy. The principles are: I ask what is the commonality in all the words (help) and • It is structured building hierarchically from common, whether it is always spelled in the same way (yes). well-known and easily grasped information to more difficult concepts. Together we then examine ‘bits that fix on to the front of • It is cumulative in that what has been learnt re- the base word’ eg un- and see how many words we can appears and is used in many different ways; think of that begin with un-. We can then attempt to previously learnt information is kept under continuous discover how un- changes the meaning of words. review. • It is multisensory using movement and manipulation, We carry on examining other ‘bits’ in the same way, e.g. cursive writing, verbalisation, reading and spelling in a -ing, -ful etc. At this early stage I deliberately use the linked way. terminology ‘bits that fix on to the front of the base word’ • The teaching is by directed discovery. Students are and ‘bits that fix on to the back of the base word’ as I led to the information they need by carefully structured don’t want to scare them away with terms that sound stimuli; they discover and so own the new knowledge. difficult to remember and understand. Correct • It offers back-up memory support using concrete terminology will come later. reminders of concepts learnt. At the end of the session I draw attention back to the I describe here some starter sessions for group work and help list and ask the students how many ‘bits’ were used then show some examples of materials from later to form all the words in the list. It is a revelation to many sessions. that the answer is just 8 ‘bits’.
Early Stages of the Programme In the next teaching session I give students a little bag In the very first session I have found it useful to take a containing those 8 bits on small cards and ask them to simple, easily understood base word and show students spread them out on the table. 25 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Fig.2 In following sessions other base words and affixes are examined in a similar way. Sometimes the student sees Part-word tiles for word building the new base word and affixes in individual units as described above and is asked to construct words. ful un s Fig.5
help ing Part-word tiles for word building
under un s
ed less er cover ing
ed y re I say words and they make them by pushing cards together. less dis
Fig.3
Word building Sometimes the complete words are presented and the un help ful student is asked to deconstruct them by cutting, drawing lines in the correct places, or using a simple coding system: underline the base word, ring the prefix and box the suffix. The students are pleased to be making words that they might not recognise in print and cannot spell – yet. Fig.6
To add to the multisensory nature of this work students Underline the base word, ring the prefix, box the suffix. are now asked to write the list of words in a supported joy way – the essential ‘bits’ are provided, they have to enjoy identify and write. enjoys enjoyed Fig.4 enjoyable Word building in cursive writing enjoyment un help s joyful ed joyous er less overjoyed ing ful ly When the time seems right I start to substitute the word ‘bit’ for the correct terms ‘prefix’ and ‘suffix’. I don’t expect the students to remember the terms but with frequent usage they tend to begin to appear in the students’ spoken responses. Thus we have assimilated some difficult labels quite effortlessly.
Base words and affixes that have been studied in these sessions can be used for comprehension and cloze work similar to the example shown.
Note that the sentences can be read to the student by a teacher, assistant or peer. The student is not at any time expected to spell these words unaided. They can feel secure that all that they need is provided. 26 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Fig.7 Examples of useful materials for the early stages of the programme Example of cloze sheet Fig.9 cover re s Words printed on small cards for students to cut un ed dis ing hope less un like ly under able DOMINOES y The detective works ...... at a nightclub in Dover. press ing dress es cross
Scientists are always trying to ...... new ways to PAIRS cure diseases. thank wish Insurance will not be paid if the jewels are ...... The table ...... is waterproof. ful ing Food left ...... attracts flies. The heart attack victim made a good ...... We are ...... lots of things about Mars from More advanced work the probe. Once the students are confident working with base The Russian submarine is not ...... from the words and affixes we move on to some less transparent sea bed. base units or ‘word roots’. The same procedure is used An amazing ...... led to the cure for cancer. as in the initial session: I write a word root on the board and invite the students to suggest other words containing that word root and watch the word string develop. Over time we make a collection of base words and affixes studied so that they are not lost from the I explain the change in terminology – parts of words students’ minds. Three wall charts for the classroom which appear in many longer words and carry meaning, might be made adding new base words and affixes as but are not always words when they stand alone are we study them (Fig. 8,) or individual note books are referred to as word roots, rather than base words which made. are meaningful by themselves.
In this way it becomes apparent to students that the Fig.10 same affixes are used over and over again in many long, multi-syllable words. They are also led to recognise that Word root and affixes interrupt the spelling of most affixes is stable; one piece of interruption information can help with many, many other words. disrupt Slowly the world of words which has given them so much trouble becomes more orderly and less chaotic. disruptive corrupt Examples of useful materials for the early stages corruptible (Figs 8 & 9). erupt Fig.8 erupted Charts of word families studied for classroom wall erupting
rupture
PREFIXES BASEWORDS SUFFIXES abrupt un help s abruptly in cover ➡ ed en press ing re ➡ light ful When a few word roots have been studied it is useful to pre joy less link in with history work in school and add an dis ment etymological perspective to some of our most difficult y and seemingly obscure words.
Over the next five or six sessions we look at a map of the British Isles and talk about the original inhabitants and the various invading groups who settled and contributed to our language mix. For simplicity’s sake I 27 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
tend to stick to Celts, Romans (Latin and Greek), Anglo Fig.13 Saxons, Vikings and Normans but mention other influences if and when they occur. tractor retract The students are given a chart to fill in as the weeks distract pass; a similar master chart is placed on the classroom contract wall. extract subtract Fig.11 subtraction distraction Why is English a difficult language to learn? attract attractive traction tractable tract draw or pull
tractor that which draws or pulls
Fig.13a
Memory aid: Word group and pictorial reminder ➡ ➡ Tribes/Invaders Languages pend hang
suspended hanging under
Fig.13b For each group of invaders we look at typical words and Memory aid: Clue words and pictures learn how to find origins of words in a dictionary. fac make or do Fig.12
window factory place where things are made
The closer the words are to the students’ everyday life, the more meaningful they will be (Fig. 14). (ME f ON vindauga (vin WIND + auga EYE) i.e. window is a middle English word from Old Norse Fig.14 vindauga meaning wind eye Concise English Dictionary: 6th Edition vis see Subsequently when we study word families we make an aide-memoir, either a complete word list and pictorial television far off seeing reminder, or just a clue word and picture, to remind us of the origin and meaning of the word group (Figs. 13, 13a, 13b). mob move
mobile phone moving sound
28 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Examples of games and activities used to extend this explicit. With dyslexic students, as with everything else, work (Figs. 15, 16, 17). we need to help them to analyse and understand the morphological nature of words scientifically and explicitly As before, a wall chart or individual student note book will because like many other things they do not pick them up be used to collect word roots and affixes learnt (Fig. 15). from experience; when in doubt they will often revert to less mature and less helpful phonic strategies. Fig.15 Fig.17
Word chain/dominoes prefixes and suffixes * in tend con tract de port re mind de tect in
fect re fresh mis spell *
* sort ing port able stretch suffixes ed thick est light en fresh
er hope less fall en quiet ness match es *
Fig.18
Write the morphemes in the correct place on the table
re ing e ive ject ile in ed ion sub or pro con s prefix root suffix Fig.16
Cut up words and stick in correct place on the table
prefix root suffix Now write 15 words
Imagine trying to use a phonic strategy to read or spell ‘interrupted’: ‘i..n..t..e..r………’ The sound:symbol code will not prove useful and the memory load is great even for those without dyslexic or literacy problems. For Morphological strategies for reading and spelling are spelling, perpetual worries like, ‘Do I need one r or two?’ mature strategies used by the truly and fully literate are answered by knowing that the prefix ends with r and adult. Most adults know these things implicitly and are the word root begins with r. This knowledge nullifies the rarely called upon to make their implicit knowledge question and brings some confidence and certainty to 29 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
the hitherto slippery world of words. Wendy Goldup
Don’t be put off from using this approach by feeling that Wendy Goldup was a Senior Training Principal with you do not know or understand enough about Dyslexia Action and now teaches in the school featured morphology or etymology yourself. View it and explain it in this article. as a voyage of discovery which you and your students make together. Begin to keep a set of index cards or computer files yourself and you will be surprised at how engrossing and addictive it becomes.
Fig.19
Split the words re fresh un born spending lightest depressing hopeless unhappy refillable Write the word sums
friendly = ...... + ......
misspelling = ...... +...... +......
quietly = ...... +......
reminded = ...... +......
loveable = ...... + ......
freshness = ...... +......
30 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Dyslexia Action/Real Training: Certificate of Competence in Educational Testing CCET (Level A) ‘An excellent course which allowed me to learn a great deal’ ‘Tutorial support great!’
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NB if you hold Approved Teacher Status (ATS) with the BDA and you successfully complete the CCET Level A you are then eligible for an Assessment Practising Certificate: http://www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk
Also! If in addition to CCET you complete a brief specialist Access Arrangements Course (AAC), converting CCET to CPT3A, you then meet JCQ published criteria to assess for Access Arrangements in GCSE, AS, A2 exams.
Course Features The CCET (Level A) is accredited and verified by the British Psychological Society and is internationally recognised. Those who hold the qualification can apply to be included on the National Register of Competence in Psychological Testing.
The Certificate of Competence in Educational Testing (Level A) is a course open to those who hold a degree or equivalent.
Online Course £1300
The Online Course uses a combination of Real Training’s Campus Online™ learning platform and Dyslexia Action’s psychology department. It is made up of 7 units designed to work sequentially to build up your knowledge and understanding gradually. When you book a place on the course, you are allocated a tutor who is an experienced Dyslexia Action specialist.
4-day Intensive Course (New!) £1690 (day rate) £1895 (residential)
For those who would prefer face to face learning, we offer 4-day intensive contact courses which are held in a comfortable hotel. The tutors are Dyslexia Action psychologists.
Course dates: Sheffield (book now!) 25th – 28th May 2010 27th – 30th July 2010 19th – 22nd October 2010
For further information and/or to make a booking contact Gaynor Marshall at: [email protected]
31 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Is the WRIT a Safe Test?
Barry Johnson
In a recent article, David Grant (2009) argues that the Some assessors store their clients’ test scores in the WRIT (Wide Range Intelligence Test) is an unsafe test form of a data file for report-merging purposes. Such a for the purpose of assessing clients who may have process is also a useful strategy to help obtain overview dyslexia. He reports findings and opinions that suggest data on the particular client group being investigated. that dyslexic clients significantly under-perform on the Low group scores for any subtest can be visually WRIT Verbal IQ scale, particularly on the Verbal inspected and if necessary, statistically interrogated to Analogies sub- test. In so doing, he argues that there is help shape opinion about the profiles of groups of a risk of under-estimating their verbal reasoning skills clients. This may be particularly helpful in those cases and the degree of their literacy difficulties. where contract work is being performed.
Assessors who regularly use the test and who may have David Grant has provided a useful reminder that the received CCET Level A training, are probably already WRIT, like all other tests, is sensitive to weaknesses aware that the WRIT manual itself advises the test user within certain special groups and that its model of of the observed discrepancy between WRIT and the cognitive ability is perhaps not as contemporaneous as WAIS III tests. The area is covered in the WRIT’s other tests such as the WAIS IV UK. However, Chapter 8, Section III: External Validity. Also, they assessors are advised that if they continue to adopt safe already know that ‘special groups’ with a range of practices of test administration and score interpretation, neurological and other types of conditions are likely to the WRIT is still a useful test. It should always be give different normative results on tests that are remembered that correlations between major IQ tests invariably standardised on homogenous populations. usually range from the .60s to .80s, with the highest correlations typically found in the .70 to .80 range. When Chapter 6, Section III gives specific guidance on how to one calculates the degree of determination (r2) which is compare and interpret WRIT subtest scores’ scatter. This calculated by squaring the correlation between the 2 section will enable assessors to make judgements about tests and multiplying by 100, then even with these latter the clinical nature and significance of apparent irregular high correlations, the amount of shared test score sub-test score profiles. variance between any 2 IQ tests is often only 50 to 60%. Different IQs are to be expected with regularity across There is a concern that the WRIT does not adopt a tests. model of intelligence that incorporates speed of information processing and working memory. Assessors Barry Johnson therefore need to continue to be aware of the need to assess these areas as a matter of routine, using tests Dr Barry Johnson PEP is Head of Assessment Services that are readily commercially available. at Dyslexia Action.
Although it is a reasonable hypothesis that dyslexic clients’ relatively low scores on the WRIT Verbal References Analogies sub-test are causally related to their working Grant D (2009) memory relative weaknesses, assessors should continue A comparison of the WRIT Verbal Analogies test and the WAIS-III (UK edition) Similarities subtest: Implication for to administer this scale according to the standardised diagnostic assessment. operational instructions. Pages 16-17 of the manual Assessment & Development Matters 1, 4, BPS instruct that no additional help is permitted and that item repetition is only allowed in certain circumstances.
32 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Psych’s Corner
Discrepancy disturbing your dreams? the WRAT3/WRIT significance table in relation to the Means making you moody? WRAT4. While the WRAT3 and WRAT4 share many Ranks rather rankling? common items, there are differences in both the Skew scrambling your results? normative sample and test items. The WRAT4, for example, has an entirely new subtest: Sentence Send your questions to Mrs Jax de Action, your Comprehension. Additionally, there is no sample of Assessment Agony Aunt, who will solve all your individuals who took both the WRAT4 and the WRIT, so problems. it would be difficult to accurately determine what score differences are uncommon or significant.” Dear Mrs de Action, I’m really worried now. I’ve used the WRIT and the Hmm! Well, they also suggest we buy a different test WRAT4 for a while. I used to use the WRIT and the called the RIAS and I have asked for a sample , BUT, for WRAT3 to see if there was a significant discrepancy the moment, it leaves us all a bit up in the air. I do have between the scores to find out if a child was under a glimmer of hope… as I write, Prof. De Action is busily attaining in literacy because there were look up tables in beavering away at some formulae that will enable us to the WRIT manual. At first the suppliers of WRIT and make sense of comparing ability and attainment on all WRAT4 said you could use the same tables for WRAT4 sorts of tests. The BEST news is he is generating a – but I’ve heard now that you can’t. Help!! WRIT WRAT4 table first and we will be able to let you have it very very soon. He says that In the mean time Ms Houston those of you who have done CCET should be so familiar with confidence ranges that you can at the very least Houston, we have a problem!! You are not alone with state whether two scores ‘overlap’ at the 95% range – or your concern and so I got in touch with PAR who publish not. WRIT and WRAT and this is what they said…….. Keep up the good work!
“Thank you for your email and for your interest in our Mrs DeAction products. Unfortunately, I would not recommend using WRAT-4
The fourth edition of the world’s most widely-used short test now includes a new Sentence Reading sub-test to measure reading comprehension along with the original sub-tests.
Norms extend from 5 years to 75 years, solving assessment problems with older individuals.
Two parallel forms and a third combined form allow re-testing after a period of teaching.
DYSLEXIA ACTION is a major UK distributor.
Available from the Dyslexia Action Shop Ltd Dyslexia Action Park House, Wick Road, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0HH T 01784 222300 F 01784 222333
33 Dyslexia Review Spring 2010, Volume 21 Number 2
Book Review
Meaning, Morphemes and Literacy: Essays in the *c.1600, from M.Fr. enthousiasme, from Gk. Morphology of Language and its Application to enthousiasmos, from enthousiazein ‘be inspired,’ Literacy from entheos ‘inspired, possessed by a god,’ from By E Neville Brown and Daryl J Brown en- ‘in’ + theos ‘god’ (see Thea). Acquired a derogatory sense of ‘excessive religious emotion’ Publisher: Book Guild Ltd (1650s) under the Puritans; generalized sense of ISBN: 978-1-84624-337-0 ‘fervor, zeal’ (the main modern sense) is first Price: £17.99 Hardback recorded 1716. Etymonline.com Any weekday morning, I might be found helping a student with dyslexia to decode the word ‘con/duc/tion’. Chris Young On the same morning, a student at Maple Hayes School in Staffordshire might be decoding the word Chris Young was a teacher at the London Centre for ‘con/duct/ion’. many years and is currently working as a tutor on the PGCert course. The apparently subtle difference between the different ways of dividing the word exemplifies the difference between my multi-sensory, phonic-based teaching and Brown and Brown’s morphological, uni-sensory approach. Their assertion is that meaningful Dyslexia Review Advertising rates segmentation ie by morpheme (the smallest meaningful linguistic unit) rather than by syllable is more helpful in FULL PAGE MONO (18 cms x 25.7 cms) £220 learning to read. HALF PAGE MONO Horizontal or vertical £135 (18 cms x 12.5 cms or 8.6 cms x 25.7 cms) QUARTER PAGE MONO (8.6 cms x 12.5 cms) £95 Dr E Neville Brown, originally a teacher, has published CLASSIFIED ADVERTISING (single insert, max. 30 words) £15 numerous papers on literacy and founded Maple Hayes A4 INSERT £250 Dyslexia School and Research Centre. Dr Daryl Brown also has a background in children’s literacy and is Prices quoted are based on camera ready artwork. headteacher at Maple Hayes. Design facility available at extra charge. 10% discount for a series of 3 advertisements. ‘Meaning, Morphemes and Literacy’ is a scholarly, yet oddly compelling, account of this technique and the All advertisers will be sent a complimentary copy. theory behind it, spanning:
the evolution of the English language; Copy deadline for Summer issue June 28th 2010 the teaching of reading with icons and morphemes and comparison with Kanji; case studies relating to the development of writing; morphemes and the brain (in which it is asserted that morphemic teaching can shift the processing of words from left to both hemispheres). PERMISSION TO COPY FROM Dyslexia Review My personal response to this book is somewhat confused. Any interested person may copy or reprint articles appearing in Dyslexia Review, provided that credit is given in the following manner: As a practitioner, I am frustrated to be fed such meagre ‘Reprinted with permission from Dyslexia Review, the titbits relating to the ‘how’ of the method, particularly in Journal of the Dyslexia Action Guild, volume number, issue the early stages. I emerge with many more questions number, date and author.’ than answers. As someone with an interest in the THE DYSLEXIA GUILD structure of language, I approach English with new Dyslexia Action enthusiasm*, marvelling once again at the complexity of how our language has developed. Park House, Wick Rd, Egham TW20 0HH
34
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