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Exploring the (Sub)Cultural Dynamics of Gay, Bisexual

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Exploring the (Sub)Cultural Dynamics of Gay, Bisexual EXPLORING THE (SUB)CULTURAL DYNAMICS OF GAY, BISEXUAL AND QUEER MALE DRUG USE IN CYBERSPACE By Brian Jay Frederick Word Count: 75991 Thesis submitted to the University of Kent and Universität Hamburg in partial fulfilment for requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy after following the Erasmus Mundus Doctoral Programme in Cultural and Global Criminology. EXPLORING THE (SUB)CULTURAL DYNAMICS OF GAY, BISEXUAL AND QUEER MALE DRUG USE IN CYBERSPACE By Brian Jay Frederick Word Count: 75991 Date of Submission: 19 April 2016 Thesis submitted to the University of Kent and Universität Hamburg in partial fulfilment for requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy after following the Erasmus Mundus Doctoral Programme in Cultural and Global Criminology. University of Kent, School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social Research Universität Hamburg, Fakultät für Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften, Institut für Kriminologische Sozialforschung STATEMENT OF SUPERVISION This research project was co-supervised by Prof. Dr. Susanne Krasmann of the Institut für Kriminologische Sozialforschung at Universität Hamburg and Dr. Marian Duggan in the School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social Research at the University of Kent. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I would like to extend my heartfelt appreciation to my supervisors, Marian and Susanne, both of whom continually challenged and encouraged me to engage my critical and analytical sensibilities. I would also like to thank my DCGC program coordinators, Dr. Phil Carney and Dr. Bettina Paul, as well as my university ‘moms’, Kalliope Glezakou and Sarah: thank all for keeping me on track. I will be forever grateful to my ‘cousins’ Paula and Carlos. Your love and support helped to sustain me in a way that only family can. Thank you for taking me in; for looking after me; for staying in touch; and for keeping me sane. This work would not have been possible without the both of you. To the men and women who make up the ‘cultural criminologists’ I so often refer to in my research, especially Jeff Ferrell, Keith Hayward and Jock Young: your work inspired me to adapt cultural criminology for use in an area to which it had not been previously applied (but an area in which it was nonetheless desperately needed). Thank you for rescuing me from my quantitative roots. Many thanks to my dear friends Jonas and Matti for taking care of me while I was in Hamburg, as well as to my friends both here and abroad: Chuck, Aurora, Giulia, Aurelio, Phil, Tyler, Rafa, Eleni, Wim, Jan, Brian, Brian, Lyndall, David, Warren and Kirk. Thank you all for supporting me in person and through text when I needed it the most. Oh yes, and to Croft the dog— bless you for your unconditional love. I would also like to extend my thanks and my praise to my DCGC colleagues—Ben, Camille, Dennis, Julia, Katinka, Kyle, Laura, Roos, Vero, Nilay. Each of you inspire me in unique ways. Each of you have kept me honest and focused. I wish you all the best of success as you finish your research and set out to teach a new generation of cultural criminologists. To my friends at Canterbury Cathedral—Father John, Father Reg, Lady Kate, Dawn, Jill, Richard, Andrew, Andrew, Joe, Simon, Tobin. Thank you all for your prayers and your support over the past year and half. You were for me the extended family I needed most. I am also deeply grateful for the continued love and support of my parents, Marlene and iii Larry, and their partners, Paula and Barbara. It must not have been easy for you to watch (yet again) your oldest child re-experience issues concerning self-esteem and self-worth—especially from such a great distance. Thank you for supporting me in this endeavor, and for forgiving me for being absent while I achieved this last and most important goal for myself. Also, much love and gratitude to my brother Chad for inspiring me to stay focused and for setting an excellent example in how to become (and stay) a good academic. I continue to be grateful for the lessons (in life and in academia) that I learn(ed) from the faculty and staff in the Criminal Justice Departments at my alma maters, California State University Long Beach and California State University Fullerton. Thank you all for getting me to this point and for staying in touch throughout the years, especially Chuck Bozza, Hank Fradella, Stacy Mallicoat, Connie Ireland, Britt Rios-Ellis, Aili Malm, Dina Perrone, Jill Rosenbaum and Durrell Dew. Your support and your words of wisdom and encouragement sustain me more than you will know. Also, many thanks to all who provided me with spaces in which I could get away and reflect—especially the faculty and staff at the International Institute for the Sociology of Law in Oñati, Spain; the sisters at Malling Abbey; and, the brothers and sisters at Mucknell Abbey. As with my Master’s thesis, I dedicate this thesis to my dear friend Jonathan Lochrie, whose penchant for partying inspired me to initially tackle the topic of GBQM drug use, and whose decision to stop partying continues to inspire me and others. I also dedicate this thesis to all gay, bisexual and queer men who use (or who have used) drugs. Look after yourselves and don’t ever let anyone speak on your behalf. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the tremendous support from the EU Erasmus Mundus Joint Doctorate Fellowship scheme inasmuch as it provided me with a unique and most amazing opportunity to further my education in critical and cultural criminology. iv DECLARATION UPON OATH I declare that the research embodied in the thesis is my own work and has not previously been submitted for a degree at any other university. No commercial doctoral advisory services were used in conjunction with this research. Neither have any sources or aids—other than those listed in the thesis—been used. Early theoretical conceptualizations for this thesis were presented at the American Society of Criminology conference in Atlanta, Georgia (November 2013), as well as at the Common Studies Programme in Critical Criminology session at Middlesex University in April 2014. Also, parts of the historical narrative concerning cultural criminology were previously published with co-author Paula Larruskain in Wiley-Blackwell’s The Encyclopedia of Crime & Punishment (2016). Signed:_____________________________________ Brian J. Frederick Date:_____________________________________ v ABSTRACT In 2015, Peccadillo Pictures released the movie ‘Chemsex’, an 80-minute documentary about the experiences of gay, bisexual and queer male (GBQM) drug users in London—men whose lives have been impacted by chemsex, that is, the mixing of illicit drugs such as crystal methamphetamine, gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and mephedrone with ‘risky’ sex. The film has been described by the media as painting a bleak portrait of a ‘subculture on the edge’—one that is fueled by both the heteronormative marginalization of GBQM and the popularity of online and mobile-based GBQM social networks. The release of ‘Chemsex’ was prompted by research that reveals increases in GBQM drug use—not only in London, but among GBQM in many gay ghettos throughout the world. Most of these studies emerge from disciplines outside criminology—for example, behavioral health, epidemiology and public health. These studies also describe GBQM drug users as existing within a subculture. Moreover, these studies also link GBQM drug use to external marginalization and or stigma related to sexual identity or HIV-seropositivity. Yet, rarely are the cultural dynamics of GBQM drug use fully explored. Neither do these studies address the fact that drug use—in most jurisdictions—is a crime. Cultural criminologists argue that crime, deviance and transgression are part of an ongoing process that is interwoven with the dynamics of culture and all of its attendant meanings. This thesis explores the cultural dynamics that may shape the meanings that underlie GBQM drug use— in particular, drug use that is facilitated and or expressed through cyberspace. This thesis conceptualizes the cultural dynamics of GBQM drug using three tenets that are central to cultural criminological inquiries: that crime and deviance and transgression are often related to marginalization and oppression; that these phenomena are often subcultural in nature; and, that subcultures cannot be studied apart from their mediated representations. Complementing this framework is a research design that employs virtual ethnography, instant ethnography, ethnographic content analysis and visual content analysis. Critical discourse analysis is also employed in an effort to analyze the underlying power differentials that are present in the mediated representations of GBQM drug use. Using these methods, I was able to participate in the activities and understandings of GBQM drug users who were situated in cyberspace. Using the theoretical vi framework that was constructed, I was then able to analyze and draw conclusions as to the cultural dynamics that underlie their activities, behaviors, language, norms, rituals and values. One of the key findings of this thesis was in the discovery of shared group drug injecting experiences that are constructed as temporary networks using Skype and other webcam conference call applications. Another finding concerns the sharing by GBQM of drug-themed photo content in mainstream and GBQM social networks. A third finding involves their sharing of drug-themed videos to Internet ‘tube sites’. vii ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 2015 veröffentlichte Peccadillo Pictures den Film ‘Chemsex’, eine 80-minütige Dokumentation über die Erfahrungen von männlichen homesexuellen, bisexuellen und queer (GBQM) Drogenkonsumenten in London – Männer, deren Leben von chemsex geprägt sind, d.h. von der Kombination aus illegalisierten Drogen wie Crystal Methamphetamin, Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid (GHB), Gamma-Butyrolacton, (GBL) and Mephedron und “riskantem” Sex. Der Film wurde von den Medien als ein düsteres Bild einer “Subkultur an der Grenze” beschrieben—eine Subkultur die ebenso von der heteronormativen Marginalisierung der GBQM angetrieben wird, wie von der Popularität der online- und mobiletelefonbasierten sozialen GBQM-Netzwerke.
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