FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL ANE 1979 75 CENTS

larke The American Foreign Service Protective Association

ANNUAL REPORT FOR THE INSURANCE YEAR ENDED FEBRUARY 28, 1979

OPERATIONS As of March 1 1979 1978 Members carrying Group Life 2693 2751 Group Life in Force $50,527,800 $50,861,950 Enrolled in Foreign Service Benefit Plan 11,054 11,226 Claims paid during year: Group Life, Number 28 29 Amount $ 347,500 $ 295,000 Family Coverage, Number 13 14 Amount $ 35,500 $ 39,000 Accidental Death, Number 0 0 Amount 0 0 Foreign Service Benefit Plan $ 6,791,708 $ 5,200,000

Changes in Foreign Service Benefit Plan

The Plan now pays for any covered services performed by a licensed podiatrist. Formerly the Plan covered only specified podiatrists’ ser¬ vices. Under Special Benefits, the Plan now pays 100% of reasonable and customary charges for general anesthesia and its administration in or out of hospital. Formerly these services were paid at 80%; out-of¬ hospital anesthesia charges were also subject to the deductible. *********

THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS; Karl D. Ackerman, Esq., President William J. Galloway, Esq., Vice President The Honorable Joseph F. Donelan, Secretary-Treasurer The Honorable Alfred Puhan The Honorable Findley Burns, Jr.

Address applications and inquiries to: The American Foreign Service Protective Association c/o Department of State, Washington, D.C. 20520 or 1750 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Suite 1305, Washington, D.C. 20006 Telephone: 298-7570

2 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL American Foreign Service Association JUNE 1979: Volume 56, No. 6 Officers and Members of the Governing Board ISSN 0015-7279 LARS HYDLE, President KENNETH N. ROGERS, Vice President THOMAS O'CONNOR, Second Vice President FRANK CUMMINS, Secretary M. JAMES WILKINSON, Treasurer End of the Picnic Era RONALD L. NICHOLSON, AID Representative CHARLES SCHWARCK 6 PETER WOLCOTT, ICA Representative JOSEPH N, McBRIDE, BARBARA K. BODINE, ROBERT H. STERN, State Representatives Outer Space and Foreign Affairs EUGENE M. BRADERMAN & ROBERT G. CLEVELAND, MICHAEL A. G. MICHAUD 10 Retired Representatives Old Hand EDWARD DEVOL 14 Journal Editorial Board JOEL M. WOLDMAN, Chairman Pacific Overtures JAMES F. O'CONNOR NEIL A. BOYER HARRIET P. CULLEY MICHAEL A. G. MICHAUD with Marshall Green WESLEY N. PEDERSEN ARNOLD P. SCHIFFERDECKER PETER A. POOLE 16 Who Trusts the Russians? Staff The Political Issue of ROBERT M. BEERS, Executive Director WILBUR P. CHASE, Counselor Arms Control Verification CATHERINE WAELDER, Counselor DUNCAN L. CLARKE AND CECIL B. SANNER, Membership and Circulation CHRISTINA MARY LANTZ, Executive Secretary ROBERT H. GROMOLL CIA in Embryo: Our Spies in North Africa AFSA Scholarship Programs HENRY SERRANO VILLARD LEE MIDTHUN

Journal AFSA Editorial 4 SHIRLEY R. NEWHALL, Editor The Bookshelf 29 MARCI NADLER, Editorial Assistant Letters to the Editor 40 MclVER ART & PUBLICATIONS, INC., Art Direction AFSA News 41 Advertising Representatives JAMES C. SASMOR ASSOCIATES, 521 Fifth Ave., Suite 1700, , N Y. 10017(212) 683-3421 ALBERT D. SHONK CO., 681 Market St„ San Francisco, Calif. 94105 (415) 392-7144 Cover: Family Butcher, by Hazel S. Whipple, from the JOSHUA B. POWERS, LTD., 46 Keyes House, Dolphin Sq., collection of Mr. & Mrs. Robert Jenks London SW1 01-834-8023/9. International Representatives.

The FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL is the journal of professionals in annually. Retired Active Members—Dues are $35 annually for members foreign affairs, published twelve times a year by the American Foreign with incomes over $15,000: $20 annually for less than $15,000 Associate Service Association, a non-profit organization. Members—Dues are $20 annually. All dues payments include $6.50 allo¬ cation for the Journal and AFSA News, per AFSA Bylaws. Material appearing herein represents the opinions of the wr iters and is not intended to indicate the offical views of the Department of State, the For subscription to the JOURNAL, one year (12 issues); $7.50; two years, International Communication Agency, the Agency for International De¬ $12.00. For subscriptions going abroad, except , add $1.00 annu¬ velopment or the United States Government as a whole. ally for overseas postage.

While the Editorial Board of the JOURNAL is responsible for its general Microfilm copies of current as well as of back issues of the FOREIGN content, statements concerning the policy and administration of AFSA as SERVICE JOURNAL are available through the University Microfilm Library employee representative under Executive Order 11636 on the editorial Services, Ann Arbor, 48106 under a contract signed October 30, page and in the AFSA News, and all communications relating to these, are 1967. the responsibility of the AFSA Governing Board. American Foreign Service Association, 1979. The Foreign Service Jour¬ Membership in the American Foreign Service Association is open to the nal is published twelve times a year by the American Foreign Service professionals in foreign affairs overseas or in Washington, as well as to Association, 2101 E Street, N.W., Washington D.C. 20037. Telephone (202) persons having an active interest in, or close association with foreign 338-4045 affairs. Second-class postage paid at Washington, D C. and at additional post Membership dues are: Active Members—Dues range from $39 to $65 office. the AID civil servants, in a March 9 letter to the then Adminis¬ AP^A EDITORIAL trator of AID. What we are concerned about is that AID may not apply these criteria diligently and objectively. The Diplomacy of Foreign Assistance • We understand that AID management has provided infor¬ mation on its “rough cut" at designating Washington positions The American Foreign Service Association is the exclusive and that they have identified some 700 positions which in the representative of Foreign Service people in the Department of course of the next five years would be filled by foreign service State and the Agency for International Development, as well as personnel. AFSA believes that this is a low estimate. the professional organization for active duty and retired mem¬ Moreover, the bureau-by-bureau, office-by-office designations bers of the career Foreign Service. that we have seen perhaps illustrate better than any other data In both these roles, we have struggled over the years to over¬ the strong non-foreign service bias of management toward those come what we believe to be one of the principal obstacles to the now holding top and middle management positions in AID effective administration of foreign assistance—the lack of a Washington. For example, the Offices of Legislative Affairs coherent and permanent AID personnel system which reflects and Public Affairs will continue to have no foreign service- the agency’s overseas mission. designated positions. This would be a serious mistake. These Today, of A ID’s 3,642 full time US personnel, 1,642 or 45 offices would have little credibility with the Congress and the percent are non-foreign service employees here in Washington. public if none of their officials had overseas experience. In Moreover, of the approximately 350 senior policy and executive addition. Foreign Service officers would be unable to gain the positions in Washington, 65 percent are filled by individuals understanding of public and Congressional views on foreign with no obligation to serve overseas. In fact, all Washington assistance which are increasingly vital to their performance positions presently are classified as GS. When they become throughout their careers. Another example is the Bureau of vacant, they are normally initially offered to GS employees. Program and Policy Coordination, in which only 27 percent of Only if a qualified civil servant does not apply is a Foreign its mid- to senior-level positions are to be designated Foreign Service Reserve officer sought. Service. That bureau, with its key role in planning and giving As a result, a very high percentage of the more important advice to policy-level officials, needs more of a worldwide substantive and policy-making positions are filled by GS per¬ perspective. It is true that A ID's proposal permits the assign¬ sonnel who lack first-hand experience with the problems of less ment of a Foreign Service employee to a position classified GS, developed countries, the diplomacy of foreign assistance, and but we believe that if the required employee qualifications in¬ the conditions of service—in short, with the circumstances in clude overseas experience, the position must be classified which AID’s mission is actually carried out overseas. These Foreign Service. officials tend not to leave these positions unless an even more • We are also concerned about the escape clause in Section attractive position becomes available. Meanwhile, Foreign 220.4 (c) of the new AID proposal which permits non-foreign Service personnel stationed in Washington are routinely service employees to fill up to 10 percent of the Foreign Service under-utilized, with resultant damage to AID’s effectiveness vacancies in Washington. We believe that if the position is and to their own morale. This Washington-orientation of AID’s properly classified Foreign Service, only a Foreign Service personnel system stands in contrast to the personnel systems of employee should be assigned to it, unless no qualified Foreign the other two foreign affairs agencies, the Department of State Service employee is available. Unless and until AID manage¬ and the International Communication Agency, which are. quite ment demonstrates the need for this provision, we urge that the correctly, oriented toward the overseas missions of those or¬ Congress indicate its disapproval and willingness to repeal it ganizations. through legislation. These were some of the reasons which prompted the Con¬ • We are concerned that the AID proposal does nothing to gress to include Section 401—the Obey Amendment—in the allay the severe problem presently faced by Foreign Service International Development and Food Assistance Act of 1978. Staff personnel in obtaining assignments to rotation positions in The Obey Amendment called fora unified personnel system for Washington which are commensurate with their ability and AID. For various reasons, the proposal just submitted to the rank. Under current practices, they get the leftovers after civil Congress by the Administration falls far short of a complete servants have had their pick. Foreign Service Staff people need blueprint fora “unified” personnel system—however unified is an occasional break in Washington from a succession of tours in defined. Nevertheless, if the proposal is carried out diligently the Third World posts where AID people serve overseas. A and in good faith, it does at least constitute a major step in the related problem is the lack of recognition of skills acquired right direction toward increasing the Agency’s consciousness of overseas; the agency’s current upward mobility programs have its overseas mission and therefore its effectiveness in perform¬ yet to make a significant impact. We urge that a reasonable ing that mission. number of program support positions in Washington be re¬ Section 220.04 (b) of the proposed new AID personnel regu¬ served for Foreign Service Staff on rotation. lations provides that “a position shall be designated as a Gen¬ • Finally, we would like to reiterate our long-held belief that eral Schedule position rather than a Foreign Service position generalists in the AID Foreign Service, like their counterparts only if the position is in the United States, and if it is deter¬ in the Department of State and the International Communica¬ mined: tion Agency, be appointed by the President with the advice and “(1) that the functions of such position are primarily of a consent of the Senate, and be designated Foreign Service De¬ clerical, administrative or program support character and can velopment Officers, a much more accurate title than their pres¬ be performed without overseas experience or understanding of ent one of Foreign Service Reserve Officers, which is normally the overseas development process; or applied to temporary appointees and technical specialists. “(2) that such position requires continuity of incumbency and In conclusion, we want to make clear that, despite what the specialized knowledge and skill to the extent that it is not prac¬ AID proposal lacks, and some things it includes, we support ticable for incumbents of such position to be assigned abroad." the proposal because it represents a step toward improving AFSA has no problems with these criteria. They also appear AI D’s ability to perform its mission overseas. We urge that the consistent with those proposed by the president of the Ameri¬ Congress not veto the proposal, while indicating its willingness can Federation of Government Employees, which represents to nullify the escape clauses we have cited. If the proposal survives Congressional scrutiny, we shall be watching vigilantly Statement by Lars H. Hydle, president, before the Subcommittee on to ensure that AID carries out the position designation criteria Employee Ethics and Utilization of the House Post Office Civil Service diligently and objectively. We urge that the Congress also keep Committee on Section 401 of the International Development and Food watch, and we will call on you for help if we think it is war¬ Assistance Act of 1978 iP.L. 95-424), on Tuesday, May 2, 1979. ranted.

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COUNTRY. -ZIP. “Serbia . . . that little land of ferocious heroes.”— George Macaulay Trevelyan

End of the Picnic Era CHARLES SCHWARCK

Sixty-five years ago, on Sunday, June 28, 1914, the heir pie’s attention from the late June heat, summer clearance to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand, sales, and the approaching Fourth of July holiday. But and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo, the capital of only the most clairvoyant American could have guessed the Austro-Hungarian province of Bosnia. then that the murder of a Hapsburg archduke and his wife News of the deaths earned a rare four-column headline would spark a war that would eventually take the lives of in Monday’s New York Times: HEIR TO AUSTRIA’S over 100,000 American men and help transform the THRONE IS SLAIN WITH HIS WIFE BY A BOSNIAN YOUTH United States into a major world power. On June 29, TO AVENGE SEIZURE OF HIS COUNTRY. The tragic event 1914, Sarajevo was just another name in the news. was important enough to momentarily draw most peo- Sarajevo, the ancient capital of Bosnia, is situated in the fertile valley of the Dinaric Alps in what is today Yugoslavia. The city had been under the rule of the Ot¬ toman Empire until 1908 when Bosnia became a province Charles Schwarck is an I S0-6 at the American Embassy in Santiago. of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and its hundred His previous assignment was at the Consulate General in Frankfurt. Mr. Sc hwarck has a B.A. in English from Penn State and a masters in mosques and Turkish bazaar still lent an oriental charm International Management from Thunderbird in Arizona. to this “Damascus of the North,” as Sarajevo had often Picasso Stayed Here* If we wanted to name drop, | our insurance department we could boggle your mind. through its Annual Govern¬ Because for decades, Security ment Service Floater. Storage has been Washington’s H| Decades of this kind of favorite place to store valu¬ efficient, personal service, and ables. And when it comes to a dedication to quality, have FSO valuables, the Govern¬ made Security an FSO moving ment will cover all expenses, and storage expert. And that’s providing special arrangements | why anytime you need depend¬ are made in advance with your able service, it’s good to know transportation officer. Security is there. Silver, jewels, stamp and coin collections, and rare books are protected in Security’s vault. Temperature controlled areas are available for $Uvm (lompang maximum protection and preservation of furs and off-season wardrobes. And paintings in our Art Room of Washington MAIN OFFICE: receive the same storage treatment as paintings in 1701 Florida Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 (202) 234-5600 MARYLAND: one of Washington’s largest museums. Bethesda-Chevy Chase, Marlow Heights, White Oak In addition, hundreds of your colleagues use VIRGINIA: Alexandria, McLean

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 been called. The population in 1914 was over 78,000. the 22,000 troops stationed outside the city in fear of Sunday, June 28, was hot and sunny. The royal train, angering the city’s nationalistic population. carrying Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, arrived in A friendly crowd awaited the archduke and Sophie. the capital at 9:15 a.m. from the nearby bathing resort Franz Ferdinand, a big, burly man with broad shoulders where the couple had been staying. Franz Ferdinand and and a high forehead, was dressed in the uniform of an Sophie had made an unscheduled visit to the city the Austrian general. A row of medals hung prominently evening before, shopping for rugs and antiques in the from his massive chest, and on his head he wore a tall bazaar, and today they were in Sarajevo for an official military helmet adorned with bright green feathers. visit that would take them in an open car for a drive Sophie looked equally regal in a sweeping white dress through the city and to a reception at the city hall. and oversized plumed hat. A single strand of pearls com¬ The archduke, as head of the Imperial Austrian plimented her pretty face, and in her small hands she Army, was in Bosnia to attend the grand maneuvers of carried a parasol to protect her from the sun. the crack 15th and 16th Army Corps. Franz Ferdinand The six-car motorcade departed for the city hall at 10 had been reluctant to come to Bosnia, fearing anti- a.m. The cars traveled a short distance before halting for Austrian demonstrations and even the possibility of as¬ several minutes while several young girls, dressed in na¬ sassination. But throughout their short visit both Franz tive costumes, presented flowers to the archduke and his Ferdinand and Sophie were surprised and delighted by wife. They exchanged a few cordial words and the cars the friendliness and warmth of the people. moved on. Nevertheless, Franz Ferdinand was fiercely hated by Cheering crowds had assembled along the narrow, those wishing to see Bosnia united with the neighboring winding streets in the old section of town to watch the Kingdom of Serbia, and authorities in Sarajevo were royal couple pass by. Sophie smiled and bowed gra¬ concerned about the couple’s safety. As heir to the ciously as they drove by, and the archduke raised his throne, Franz Ferdinand had intentions of granting more hand to his military cap to acknowledge the cheers. autonomy to the Empire's southern Slav population, a The car was in front of the Girls’ High School when concession which might have thwarted, for good, any the archduke’s sharp eye caught sight of an object flying chance of a union between Serbia and Bosnia. at him through the air. A young printer named Gab- Active bands of Serbian nationalists had prepared to rinovics had leaped from the shelter of the building and greet the royal couple with Serbian flags, but these flags had thrown a bomb at the royal car. But the bomb missed were removed prior to their arrival in the city. There its mark and fell to the street where it exploded under the were also rumors being circulated about a plot on the car carrying Count von Boos-Waldeck and the arch¬ archduke’s life, but the governor refused to call in any of duke’s aide-de-camp, Colonel Morizzi.

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 7 The explosion engulfed the entire area in a cloud of smoke, and several spectators, some of them women and children, were injured by flying fragments of steel. The archduke’s car ground to a halt and Franz Ferdinand leaped out and ran to the aid of the count and Colonel Morizzi, both of whom were bleeding from their hands and faces. Moving to the The scene of the explosion was chaotic. Gabrinovics tried to escape, but he was surrounded by an angry mob and finally taken into custody by the police. Boos- Washington,D.C Waldeck and Morizzi were rushed to the Garrison Hos¬ pital and Sophie personally sent members of her staff to Area? attend to the wounded spectators. Our Relocation Services Franz Ferdinand was furious. He attempted to per¬ Are Just For You! suade his wife to return to the governor’s palace, but she refused. So the royal party proceeded, hurriedly, to the Whether you're buying or renting, TOWN AND reception at the city hall. COUNTRY REALTORS has the most up to date An enthusiastic crowd, led by the town councilors and information on all desirable areas, prices, taxes, the mayor, were waiting for the couple. News of the financing, local schools and recreational facilities in bomb had not yet reached the city hall and the mayor, northern Virginia, Maryland, and D.C, unaware that anything was wrong, began to read his pre¬ Town and Country is one of the largest general brokerage real pared welcoming address. Franz Ferdinand’s anger had estate firms in the area and has complete rental and sales listings. For immediate assistance call collect or write: not subsided and he interrupted: “Herr Burgermeister, it P.O. Box 567 is perfectly outrageous. We have come to Sarajevo on a Merrifield, Va. 22116 visit and have had a bomb thrown at us.” After a pause, the archduke regained his composure and gave the- Call Fran Hudson or Betty Olen stunned mayor permission to continue. VA. Relocation Div. 703-573-9370 Following the address and a short tour of the city hall, REALTORS^ or Call Pat Baughman the archduke decided to abandon the tour through the tit MD & D.C. Relocation 301-468-2112 city and to drive directly to the hospital to check on the condition of the count and colonel. Riding opposite the archduke and his wife in the car was the governor of Bosnia, Field Marshal Oskar Potiorek, and standing on the running board of the car was a young count, Francis AIGLON COLLEGE von Harroch, who had appointed himself bodyguard after the bombing incident. Switzerland Earlier in the day the archduke had sent a telegram to his three young children relating the events of the previ¬ ous day, and now as the royal party proceeded through the town, their car stopped briefly at the post office in order that they might receive a return telegram from the children. By this time the archduke's spirits had been revived. He was joking good-naturedly with Count von Harroch about the precautions he %as taking, when the chauffeur made a mistake and continued to drive straight on Ru- dolphstrasse rather than make the necessary turn to drive to the hospital. The car came to a halt, and this provided the perfect opportunity for another young conspirator, Gavrilo Princip, to accomplish what his friend, Gab¬ rinovics, had failed to do earlier. Princip, who had been waiting all morning for the archduke, leaped from the crowds, jumped onto the car’s running board, and fired Altitude 4,250 ft. English Headmaster, boys and girls 11 to 18. two shots in quick succession. The first shot struck British GCE, American College Board, International Bac¬ Sophie in the abdomen, severing one of her main arteries, calaureate. University entrance USA, UK, Canada and else¬ and the second shot struck the archduke in the neck, where. English-speaking programme. Emphasis on languages piercing his jugular vein. Field Marshal Potiorek thought and extracurricular activities, including Adventure Training. Excellent skiing. Summer Courses. at first that the bullets had missed their mark. Sophie muttered a few words, clutched the telegram she had Headmaster: received minutes earlier from her children, and fell un¬ Philip L. Parsons, M.A. (Cantab) conscious against her husband. The field marshal heard 1885 Chesieres the wounded archduke cry out: “Sophie, don't die! Live Switzerland for our children.” Tel (025) 35 27 21 The car sped to the governor’s palace. Sophie was un¬ Telex 24660 AICOL CH conscious when lifted from the car, but the archduke opened his eyes several times and seemed to grab the air

8 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 with his hands. Six doctors were called and they at¬ SHIPPING LOSSES OF ALL tempted to save the royal couple, but their efforts were in vain. Sophie had already died before reaching the palace and Franz Ferdinand died twenty minutes later. All that could be done was to call for a priest to administer the Ul

lastPET LIABILITY • LIGHTNING DAMAGE . TRANSIT/WAR RISKS SPORTS |QOOnd.WUOl$ rites of the church. o News of the assassinations was broken to the aged z Emperor Franz Josef at his summer resort at Ischl, < in Upper Austria. The emperor, who was not known to 0 be particularly fond of his nephew, Franz Ferdinand, and z who was openly hostile to Sophie, took the news calmly. Although he had reluctantly given his permission, he had < UJ never approved of the marriage of the heir to the throne cc to Sophie, a mere countess before her marriage. Before GO the emperor would give his consent, Franz Ferdinand had to sign a document renouncing all rights of succes¬ sion for his future wife and unborn children. Franz Fer¬ dinand signed that document at noon, June 28, 1900. Fourteen years later, to the very day and hour, Franz CD Ferdinand and his wife were gunned down on the streets < of Sarajevo. Other European capitals quickly responded to the news of the crime. Franz Ferdinand and Sophie had been > CC If, for any reason, you plan to live abroad for very popular in England, and in London King George D awhile—think travel-pak. -» gave orders postponing the state ball which was to be z Travel-pak will cover the household and held that evening at Buckingham Palace and declared a personal possessions you take with you—on the week of court mourning. > way—while there (including storage if desired) Reports from Rome indicated that the pope was very _J and back again. much depressed by the crime. He spent several hours at o Travel-pak also includes personal liability o coverage providing financial protection against the altar praying for the souls of the archduke and his CD wife, both of whom were devout Catholics. those occurrences for which you might become liable. Probably the European leader most upset over the as¬ When you plan to live abroad for awhile— sassinations was the German Emperor. Wilhelm. He and UJ 0 think travel-pak. the archduke had been close personal friends. Wilhelm < Return the coupon below for complete details was aboard the royal yacht Hohenzollern viewing the —or call if you’re in a hurry! annual regatta at Kiel when news of the assassinations < And when you return to the Washington area reached him. The kaiser was visibly moved. He ordered a —call us—we’ll be happy to help you set up a the regatta to continue, but left early the next day for UJ sound, economical insurance program covering Berlin where he w'as joined by his wife w ho was vacation¬ DC your home, auto and life. ing in Schleswig-Holstein.

In the United States ran an edito¬ UJ rial describing the archduke as “a popular prince, a 0 travel-pak sagacious and resourceful man." It described the crime < as “one of the most horrible assassinations ever shame¬ 0 WHEN YOU’RE GOING TO LIVE ABROAD' 0 James W. Barrett Company, Inc. fully associated with the sacred cause of liberty. . . . No Z3 political murder was ever more deliberately performed. " REED SHAW STENHOUSE INC. Z OF WASHINGTON, D C. Newspaper reports on the second day hinted that the Ul Insurance Brokers -I assassinations may have been planned in Belgrade, 1140 Connecticut Ave., N.W. O the capital of Serbia. One article went into detail describ¬ h Washington, D.C. 20036 Telephone: 202-296-6440 ing the anti-Serbian demonstrations which took place the in A REED SHAW STENHOUSE COMPANY night before in Sarajevo. Thousands of pro-Austrian riot¬ ers marched through the streets of the city carrying por¬ traits of Emperor Franz Josef and singing the Austrian Gentlemen 21B O national anthem. They looted, broke windows, and de¬ C/> Tell me all about Travel-Pak stroyed property of the pro-Serbian citizens. Finally mar¬ V) tial law had to be declared and hundreds of arrests were m c/> Name made. 09 American newspapers also published a message of < Address.. condolence sent to the Austrian emperor by President City State Zip Wilson: “Deeply shocked by the atrocious murder of his > Imperial and Royal Highness, the Archduke Francis 2> Ferdinand and his consort at an assassin's hands. I ex¬ tend to your Majesty and to the Royal Family and to the PILFERAGE (Continued on page 35) MARINE •

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June. 1979 9 Outer Space and Foreran Affairs |Artist's concept of proposed geosynchronous Space Solar Power satellite beaming microwave MICHAEL A. G. MICHAUD energy to earth for conversion into electric power.

Ten years ago, outer space Moon Race, and had more than in international affairs is only dor¬ seemed to be more a part of our overcome the imagined missile gap. mant. Though they attract little at¬ lives than it does today. The All things seemed possible: plan¬ tention, unmanned satellites are Apollo-11 mission lifted off from ning was under way for a Moon part of the structure of interna¬ Cape Kennedy on July 16, and the Base, and in 1970 the Nixon Ad¬ tional communications, interna¬ lunar module Eagle landed four ministration officially attached it¬ tional science and public service, days later in the Sea of Tranquility. self to the idea of landing men on military rivalry, and arms control. As we watched Neil Armstrong Mars. The Soviet Union continues to and Buzz Aldrin shuffle and Apollo soon died a budgetary conduct space activities on a much bounce through the lunar dust, we death: the last Moon landing took larger scale than we do, including a sensed a dramatic recovery in the place in December, 1972. Apollo manned spaceflight program almost prestige of the United States as a technologies were used in the unbroken since 1961. Other nations scientific and engineering power in Skylab missions of 1973-1974. and and groups—the European Space the dozen years since Sputnik I. in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project of Agency, Japan, and China—are di¬ The United States had won the 1975. But no American has flown in versifying space power, launching space since then. NASA’s budget, their own satellites; a private com¬ cut back steadily in real terms after pany, the West German OTRAG, the mid-1960s, has leveled out. soon may join them. Michael Michaud has served overseas in Dacca. Tehran and Bombay (with ICA) and But, as development funding for Even more important is the fact in Washington with INR, NEA. EA. PM the Space Shuttle declines and no that the United States will soon and ISP. A member of the the Editorial new starts are made on major pro¬ open a new era of manned space Board, he has been a frequent contributor to jects, the space agency faces an flight with the first launch of a the Journal and other periodicals (22 pub¬ lished articles). He was founding editor of uncertain future. reusable transport from the surface Open Forum magazine and is working on a All this could lead one to con¬ of the earth to low orbit and back, book. clude that the Space Age was a making possible a wide range of new space activities at reduced unit The views expressed here are those of the temporary aberration, a technolog¬ author, and do not necessarily represent US ical high-water mark in the tides of cost. The Soviet Union reportedly policy ■ the Cold War. But space as a factor is building its own space shuttle.

10 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 There is new concern over military tional organization, INTELSAT, weather patterns around the world. activity in space which could was created in 1971 to manage an Information is provided to other threaten satellites on which the international communications sat¬ nations, encouraging a global per¬ superpowers have come to depend. ellite system. ception of climate, and citizens can Scientists and engineers have pro¬ We discovered during the Viet¬ even set up their own ground sta¬ posed new ways of using space that nam war the immediacy that satel¬ tions to receive weather satellite could involve colossal projects of lite communications can give to imagery. The elevated vantage potentially great benefit to man¬ distant events; it is a giant step to¬ points of these satellites allow them kind—projects which would raise ward the creation of Marshall to see large-scale patterns—nearly complex questions about interna¬ McLuhan’s Global Village. an entire hemisphere—so that tional relations in space. By the Clarke, speaking at the signing of meteorologists can study weather early 1980s, the Second Age of the INTELSAT Treaty, predicted as a planetary phenomenon. We Space may have begun. that satellite communications may deride the weathermen for The Present Uses of Space would erode national differences their mistakes. But their satellites, and told the assembled dignitaries by warning us of hurricanes and Perhaps the most familiar use of that they had signed the first draft other events, have helped save space—now taken for granted—is of the Articles of Federation of the thousands of lives and billions of the communications satellite. In a United States of Earth. Today, the dollars. 1945 article titled “Extraterrestrial Direct Communications Link Since 1972, the United States Relays," Arthur C. Clarke pointed (“hot line”) between Moscow and also has engaged in remote sensing out that three communications Washington is routed through satel¬ of the earth’s surface through its satellites 120 degrees apart in lites, as are communications from LANDSAT satellites. LAND- geosynchronous orbit (22,300 miles many of our Foreign Service posts. SAT does not take photographs, high) could cover the entire earth Less developed countries now but repeatedly scans each area of except for the poles. Early in the have the option of leapfrogging the the earth like a TV camera in a var¬ Space Age, the United States land line stage of communications iety of wavelengths. The resulting began testing communications development, jumping directly to images, rich in information, allow satellites; in July, 1962, TELSTAR cheaper satellite relays and stan¬ analyses of vegetation, snow cover I relayed television signals across dardized ground stations. and river flows, and human use of the Atlantic. The first worldwide Another early use of satellites the landscape. The Large Area TV broadcast, made possible by was to monitor the earth's weather. Crop Inventory Experiment satellites, took place in 1967, and Both the National Oceanic and (LACIE) is testing the use of the Moon landing two years later Atmospheric Administration and LANDSAT for collecting informa¬ was experienced through media by the Department of Defense operate tion on agriculture and remote more people than any other event meteorological satellite systems, sensing also could have important in history. An innovative interna¬ which report continuously on uses in forest management.

NASA's Space Shuttle will he the first reusable manned spacecraft, giving the United States new flexibility for operations in low orbit.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAI .June. 197V 11 Successive models of LAND- but in its full colors—infra-red, supplement to the more familiar SAT are producing imagery with ultra-violet. X-ray. Some are inter¬ ground-based radars. Other satel¬ more information and finer resolu¬ national cooperative efforts. Ital¬ lites are designed to detect nuclear tion of detail; the next will achieve ians operated the San Marco explosions, and contribute to nu¬ resolution equivalent to 60 to 90 launch platform off the coast of clear test ban agreements. Com¬ meters by photography. Even finer Kenya for the US X-ray satellite munications satellites, by allowing resolution—not presently planned Uhuru. instantaneous worldwide command for civil satellites—could be used Spacecraft also have been and control, also are an important for town planning, the inventory of exploring the solar system since the factor in the strategic balance. small agricultural plots in oriental first Soviet Moon probe in 1959. It has been widely known for countries and disaster relief. The Before the Apollo astronauts set many years that the US and the United States makes LANDS AT foot on the Moon, our natural satel¬ USSR use satellites for reconnais¬ imagery available to the public lite was studied by crash-landing sance. US systems such as through the Earth Resources Ob¬ Rangers, Lunar Orbiters, and Sur¬ SAMOS were discussed openly servation Satellite Data Center in veyor landers; the Soviets also until 1962. Philip Klass provided Sioux Falls, South Dakota. used unmanned roving vehicles, descriptions of intelligence satel¬ Foreign nations have built and robot craft that returned sam¬ lites in his 1971 book Secret Sen¬ LANDS AT ground stations to re¬ ples of lunar soil to the Earth. The tries in Space and made the case ceive satellite data, and the United US and the USSR have exchanged that they have been a major factor States provides training in the samples of lunar material. in reducing tensions between the analysis and use of LANDSAT Soviet spacecraft have landed on superpowers. But it was not until imagery. Mars and Venus, returning the 1978 that the United States gov¬ In 1978, the United States put up ernment decided to declassify the SEASAT-A, an experimental fact that the US uses recon¬ ocean observation system. Unlike “While few states naissance satellites. Now United LANDSAT. SEASAT-A was not challenge the right of States government spokesmen simply a passive recorder of re¬ refer to them in public statements, flected light, but used active others to collect and describe them as an important sensors—a synthetic aperture radar information by satellite, means for the monitoring of arms and a radar altimeter—to map the many believe that the control agreements. Many experts ocean surface. SEASAT-A has agree that the SALT agreements stopped functioning, but the images prior consent of the and the ABM treaty would not it returned showed such details as sensed state should be have been possible without these individual ships in the St. Law¬ eyes in the sky. rence river, and may have implica¬ obtained before such tions for iceberg patrol and the data is disseminated to Law and Order in Space management of the sea lanes. The Even before the launch of Sput¬ Soviet Union reportedly uses radar third parties.’’ nik I in October, 1957, a few ocean reconnaissance satellites for lawyers and State Department offi¬ military purposes; the Cosmos 954 only pictures from the surface of cials began to think about the need satellite whose pieces fell on the latter. US spacecraft have for international regulation in the Canada last year was said to be flown by Venus. Mars, Mercury, new environment of outer space such a device. and Jupiter, and are on their way to (see Craig Eisendrath’s article on A large variety of other satellites Saturn; they have landed on. and the Outer Space Treaty in the May, are used to conduct scientific ob¬ orbited. Mars and Venus. One of 1967 FSJ). US initiatives led to the servations of the earth and its envi¬ the Voyager craft which flew by formation of a United Nations ronment. One, LA GEOS, reflects Jupiter earlier this year may go on Committee on the Peaceful Uses of laser beams to allow precise loca¬ to Uranus and even Neptune. If it Outer Space, and to the discussion tion of points on earth, and can be does, humankind will have com¬ of principles that were incorpo¬ used to show the slow movement of pleted an initial reconnaissance of rated into the Outer Space Treaty land masses along fault lines. its planetary system, except for of 1967. Others study such phenomena as Pluto, by 1986. the US and USSR Outer space also presented an the chemical composition of the exchange data from planetary mis¬ opportunity to extend some of upper atmosphere, and the sions; the United States and West humankind’s nobler values into a magnetosphere that deflects the Germany sent Helios probes close new environment before its charac¬ constant stream of particles and to the sun, and the French are ter was determined by international radiation from the sun. In this field cooperating with the Soviets on a competition. Several nations had too, scientists cooperate across na¬ Venus atmosphere balloon probe signed a treaty on Antarctica in tional lines. for the 1980s. 1959 which made that continent a Satellites are used increasingly Keeping the Peace nuclear weapons free scientific for astronomy because they are preserve, where nations would above the filtering, distorting ef¬ Satellites also contribute to cooperate rather than compete. fects of the earth's atmosphere. strategic stability and arms control. That experience had some influ¬ These orbiting observatories let us For years, US early warning satel¬ ence on the legal regime for outer see the universe not only in the nar¬ lites have watched for signs of a space. The 1967 treaty bans nu¬ row bands of visual light and radio. missile attack, providing a vital clear weapons and other kinds of

12 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 orbital slots, as well as frequencies for direct broadcast satellites to na¬ tions. Geosynchronous orbit positions, which allow a spacecraft to remain nearly stationary above a specific point on the earth’s equator, also are attractive for satellites which broadcast television signals di¬ rectly to home receivers—Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS). The United States satellite, ATS-6 or¬ bited in 1974, has been used for ex¬ perimental TV transmissions to com¬ munity receivers in India and in this country. Other nations also are experimenting with DBS, and may deploy operational systems. But many want the right to control or prevent foreign broadcasts into their territories. The United States has opposed any principle requiring the prior consent of the receiving country, though it is willing to con¬ sult prior to broadcast. Another area of disagreement is remote sensing. While few states This is a view of the exterior of a possible space habitat for some 10,000 people. challenge the right of others to col¬ The colonists, members of a space manufacturing workforce, would live in homes lect information by satellite, many on the inner surface of a large sphere nearly a mile in circumference which rotates believe that the prior consent of the to provide a gravity comparable to that of earth. The concept is a result of a 1976 sensed state should be obtained be¬ Study on Space Manufacturing at NASA's Ames Research Center. fore such data is disseminated to weapons of mass destruction from space, and no agreed delimitation third parties. US policy is to openly being placed in orbit or being of the boundary between air space disseminate data acquired by civil stationed in space in any other and outer space, the upward extent remote sensing systems. The manner. It also bans military instal¬ of national sovereignty is unclear. USSR has proposed that imagery lations and exercises on celestial Definition and delimitation could which resolves details smaller than bodies. But the treaty does not ban have important implications for 50 meters be subject to a prior con¬ other military activities in space. military measures used to counter sent regime, while coarser data Since 1966, nations have worked intruding foreign vehicles. Since could be disseminated openly. out other agreements for the uses this issue was first raised in the UN In 1971, the USSR proposed a of space, such as those on the re¬ in 1959, there have been many pro¬ draft treaty on the Moon. After turn of astronauts, the registration posals for a boundary, based on many subsequent drafts and much of objects launched into space and physical characteristics or on arbit¬ discussion, members of the Outer liability for damage caused by rary distances. The United States, Space Committee are still working space objects. But some issues— which wishes to retain maximum on a treaty which would establish a whose resolution (or non-res¬ freedom to use space, has argued legal regime for the Moon and olution) could influence the future that definition and delimitation are other celestial bodies more in space—remain under discussion unnecessary and premature. The elaborate—and restrictive—than in the Legal, Scientific and Techni¬ general issue was given a new twist that created by the Outer Space cal Subcommittees of the UN in 1976 when eight equatorial na¬ Treaty. The main issue has been Outer Space Committee. tions claimed the segments of the exploration and exploitation of Perhaps most fundamental is the geosynchronous orbit lying above the Moon’s natural resources. question of national jurisdiction. their territories, raising the pros¬ Some less developed countries The 1919 Paris Convention on the pect of an equatorial OPEC that have in the past proposed a Regulation of Air Navigation and would charge rent for the use of or¬ moratorium until specific rules are the 1944 Chicago Convention on bital slots (the United States has re¬ negotiated. Both the US and the International Civil Aviation allow jected this claim). The issue also USSR oppose such a moratorium states to exercise exclusive (though may be revived if future large sta¬ as unnecessary and undesirable (a not unqualified) sovereignty over tions in geosynchronous orbit take strict legal regime for Moon mining the air space lying above their ter¬ on a more permanent character could have adverse implications for ritories. By contrast, international than current satellites. Meanwhile, resource exploitation in other envi¬ agreements and customary practice the World Administrative Radio ronments, particularly the deep prohibit claims of national sov¬ Conferences of the International seabeds). In the present draft ereignty over outer space. As there Telecommunications Union have treaty, a compromise postpones is no accepted definition of outer begun assigning geosynchronous Continued on page 37 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 13 XM .China Hand

EDWARD DEVOL

Leonard Woodcock may be a great success as the first US ambassador to China in many years, but there is no way he can match the later career of the man who headed the first US diplomatic mission in Peking more than 100 years ago. went to China as United States minister in 1861. When he returned to the United States in 1868 he came as diplomatic representative of the Imperial Chinese Court. On his ar¬ rival in Washington he proceeded to negotiate with his former boss. Anson Burlingame and his Chinese colleagues on arrival in the United States in Secretary of State Seward, on be¬ 1868. half of the Chinese government. In the resulting “Burlingame Treaty"—which the former US diplomat signed without prior au¬ had gained him a considerable ney in . After a term in the thorization of its terms by his new reputation as an orator in the Mas¬ legislature, he was employers—the United States sachusetts legislature and the elected to Congress in 1854. pledged to respect the indepen¬ United States House of Represen¬ He was a good party man and ef¬ dence and territorial integrity of tatives, he painted bright pictures fective debater in the House. In China and granted Chinese the of the future of US-Chinese rela¬ 1856, his speech denouncing the right of immigration to the United tions and of the great economic assault of Con¬ States. benefits of increased trade between gressman on Mas¬ Three years earlier Secretary the two countries. sachusetts Senator Seward had instructed Burlingame After a few months of propagan¬ was so vitriolic that Brooks chal¬ to encourage the Chinese to send dizing for the Manchu Court, he lenged him to a duel. Accepting the diplomatic missions to Western was off to Europe to negotiate challenge, Burlingame chose the countries. He cannot have antici¬ agreements with other powers hav¬ weapons: rifles; and the site: the pated that the recipient of those in¬ ing interests in China. Several Canadian side of Niagara Falls. structions would one day arrive in European countries (and the Brooks rejected these conditions Washington as living evidence that United States) had signed treaties and the duel never took place. the Chinese had taken his advice with China in the past, but Burlin¬ Burlingame ran for a fourth term seriously. game and his two Chinese col¬ in 1860 and was defeated. How¬ Burlingame had not only become leagues were the first official ever, his spirited campaigning for a Chinese diplomat: he had also Chinese diplomats in the West. the Republican ticket earned him become an enthusiast for China The first permanent Chinese mis¬ the gratitude of Lincoln men and he and things Chinese. In speeches as sion in Europe was not established was nominated as Minister to florid and emotional as those which until 1877; the first in Washington Austria-Hungary. The Hapsburg in 1878. Court declared him unacceptable Burlingame came to diplomacy because he had supported the late in life. He was born in 1820 in movement for Sardinian indepen¬ Edward Devol is a former USIA (now 1C A) Foreign Service officer and editor now free¬ New York, raised in and dence and had publicly praised lancing in the Washington area. He is a fre¬ Michigan, graduated from Harvard Louis Kossuth, the leader of the quent contributor to the Journal. Law School, and became an attor¬ 1848 Hungarian revolt against the

14 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 Vienna regime. Peking was offered tempts by rebels or bandits to mal agreements resulted, but Bur¬ instead, and he accepted. counter the rights granted by lingame persuaded the British to Arriving in Peking late in 1861, treaty. issue a declaration that China was Burlingame found himself in a Chinese officials liked the US “entitled to count on the forbear¬ country that was suspicious of minister’s attitude, and welcomed ance of foreign nations.” Similarly foreigners both from an innate his guidance of his Western col¬ vague but reassuring statements re¬ sense of superiority and from the leagues in the direction of restraint sulted from his talks in Paris and events of recent history. The and fairness. They sought his ad¬ Berlin. He was in St. Petersburg to Chinese government had signed vice on various problems. When he work out agreeable language with treaties granting trade concessions learned that their blunders were the Russian government when he to several Western nations, but sometimes caused by ignorance of caught pneumonia and died in Feb¬ sometimes found it hard to enforce the agreed principles of interna¬ ruary, 1870. them against the inroads of bandits, tional law he arranged for a transla¬ Historians disagree about the rebels, and insubordinate provin¬ tion of a treatise on the subjects to significance of Burlingame's dip¬ cial officials. The British and be presented to the foreign office. lomatic mission to the Western cap¬ French had the habit of sending In November, 1867, he informed itals, although there is general troops to create conditions satisfac¬ his Chinese contacts he intended to agreement that he was an effective tory to their merchants in the ports resign from the US diplomatic ser¬ representative of the United States covered by treaties. As recently as vice. They inquired delicately if he government in Peking. The im¬ October, 1860, British and French would remain interested in China. mediate effects of the agreement troops had occupied Peking and set He assured them of his undying with Seward were good, and Pek¬ fire to the Summer Palace. interest and hinted that he might ing ratified it. However, historian Chinese xenophobia kept foreig¬ even be willing to mediate disputes C.U. Hsu writes, it encouraged the ners at arm's length except when between China and foreign powers. mandarins to believe “that foreig¬ Western military force threatened He was then offered appointment ners after all could be managed at a disaster. Not until 1844 were to an official mission to visit the price." foreigners legally entitled to learn United States and Europe to Another modern historian writes the Chinese language. The foreign negotiate revisions to treaties. He that although Burlingame's inten¬ occupation of Peking in 1860 had resigned as US minister early in tions were good, his speeches in stemmed from outrage at the 1868, and he and two Chinese col¬ America in 1868 "laid the founda¬ Chinese insistence that foreign leagues sailed eastward across the tion for a species of oratorical re¬ diplomats—only recently promised Pacific on this mission. porting that was to deceive the permission to reside in Peking— In accepting this assignment to American public from that day to enter the capital by a route cus¬ represent China in negotiations the present." tomarily used by bearers of tribute with inscrutable Occidentals, Bur¬ This was the view of J. Ross from subject states. lingame said: Browne. Burlingame's successor in Burlingame and the representa¬ “When the oldest nation in the the United States legation in Pek¬ tives of France. Britain and Russia world, containing one-third of the ing. Only a few months after Bur¬ were the first foreign diplomats to human race, seeks for the first time lingame and Seward put their signa¬ establish residence in Peking. Be¬ to come into relations with the tures on the new articles. Browne fore 1861, there had not even been West, and requests the youngest wrote the secretary: a separate Chinese government of¬ nation, through its representative, “The impression exists in the fice to handle foreign affairs. to act as the medium of such United States that the government The novice diplomat was a suc¬ change, the mission is one not to be of China is peculiarly friendly to cess from the start. He became the solicited or rejected." our country and that great advan¬ informal leader of the Western dip¬ On arriving on the West Coast, tages to our commerce are about to lomats in Peking and, under his Burlingame began making speeches accrue from this preference . . . guidance, they adopted a more tol¬ on behalf of his new employers. "I need hardly say that these an¬ erant attitude toward the imperial “The hour has struck, the day has ticipations are without foundation. government's problems, and be¬ come," he proclaimed. China wel¬ The government of China may came less likely to cave in when comed "the shining banners of have preferences, but it has no spe¬ Western merchants demanded Western civilization," and wanted cial regard for any foreign power." drastic action to increase profits. American business and American Browne may have been more Burlingame soon made up his technical know-how. As he trav¬ perceptive than Burlingame, or mind what US policy toward China eled across the continent, he con¬ perhaps only more cynical. Ken¬ should be: In a dispatch to Seward tinued to emphasize China's neth Latourette characterizes Bur¬ in 1862. he listed three main princi¬ friendly attitude toward the United lingame’s mission to the West as ples that ought to be followed: States, and the rich harvest to be “an attempt by an American 1. The United States should ac¬ reaped from diplomatic relations idealist to safeguard the inde¬ quire no Chinese territory. between the two countries. pendence and territorial integrity of 2. The United States should not On July 28, 1868. Burlingame's China." It was an attempt made by interfere in internal Chinese politi¬ delegation and Secretary of State generations of American diplo¬ cal struggles except "to maintain Seward signed additional articles to mats, until events of 30 years ago our treaty rights." the Tsientsin Treaty of 1858; they made it evident that the United 3. The United States should help became known as “The Burlin¬ States could not influence de¬ the Chinese authorities resist at¬ game Treaty.’’ In Europe no for¬ velopments'in China any longer. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 1 5 "A good pun may be admitted among the smaller excellencies of lively conversation.”—James Boswell

RACIFIC OVERTURES wrm MARSHALL GREEN

PETER A. POOLE I first interviewed Marshall Green economic problems, both on a re¬ in 1969. not long after he took gional and global basis. However, charge of the State Department's before looking at the ambassador’s Asian bureau. For the past twenty current activities. I wanted to trace years, most major developments in the role of the area specialist and US foreign policy had focused on career Foreign Service officer in Asia. Ambassador Green was the growth of one of State’s key deeply involved in the resolution of geographic bureaus. some of these issues—opening rela¬ Marshall Green belongs to the tions with Peking, adjusting our second generation of career partnership with Japan, and disen¬ Foreign Service officers.* Shortly gaging from . As the de¬ after graduating from Yale in 1939, partment’s senior specialist on he went out to Tokyo as Ambas¬ Asia, he seemed in line to head the sador Joseph Grew's private secre¬ embassy in Tokyo. Yet over the tary. He thus had a ringside seat as next few years, with the invasion of Grew tried with all his skill to avert Cambodia and the Watergate or delay the coming of war with Ja¬ crisis, his relationship with Presi¬ pan. After Pearl Harbor, Green dent Nixon and Henry Kissinger joined the Navy: he was sent back deteriorated. In 1973, the year Kis¬ to school at Berkeley to learn singer replaced Rogers as Secre¬ Japanese before serving in the tary, Green was named ambas¬ Pacific theater. After V-J Day, he sador to Australia, an important resumed his Foreign Service US ally but not on a par with Ja¬ career. He was assigned to the pan. where many people expected Japan desk in Washington just in him to be sent. time to help lay some of the When I returned to interview groundwork for the Japan Peace Ambassador Green in 1978, I took Treaty. Apart from the early 1950s, an elevator to the State Depart¬ when he served in Stockholm, his ment’s prestigious seventh floor. A entire career has been devoted to large sign over his outer door read Asia. “Ambassador Marshall Green. Ambassador Green received his Coordinator of Population Af¬ first chief of mission assignment in fairs.’’ Here was an important 1950, when he became charge d'af¬ story in itself, because the depart¬ faires in Korea. He next went to ment is gradually moving away from its once exclusive emphasis *Tlte first generation, who entered the on bilateral political relations. Offi¬ service just after the 1924 Foreign Service cers are being recruited and trained Act was passed, includes such men as to work on multilateral social and George Kennan. Charles Bohlen and John Carter Vincent. The second generation, who entered around the time of World War 11. are perhaps the last who could expect to Dr. Peter A. Poole is director of the Center rise to the level of ambassador purely on the for International Studies at Old Dominion basis of ability, energy and ambition. The University in Norfolk. He is a former FSO expansion of the service in the 1950s and and Senate staffer. His books include The 60s has greatly slowed the rate of ad¬ Vietnamese in Thailand (1970). America in vancement for most officers. Moreover, World Politics (1975) and Eight Presidents neither Congress nor the executive branch and Indochina (1978). The present article is shows any sign of reducing the number of part of a forthcoming book to be titled. Pro¬ key diplomatic jobs reserved for political files in American Foreign Policy. appointees.

16 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 197V Hong Kong as consul general at a first question. He was less positive by Congress because they resisted time of great unrest in mainland about the second. the views of the supporters Chinese affairs; then back to the Of the noncareer officers who and tried to protect the Truman department, where the end of the have run the Asian bureau, all had adminstration’s political flank. Kennedy era found him acting chief ready access to the top levels of (Robertson and Rusk, on the other of the Asian bureau. their administrations; most of them hand, enjoyed good relations with The Johnson years were spent as also enjoyed good relations with Congress because they invariably ambassador to Indonesia, a time of Congress. Rusk and Harriman suported Taiwan.) John Allison as¬ turmoil following the overthrow of each played a major role in shaping sisted Dulles in the Japan peace Sukarno. President Nixon, travel¬ US policy (not just toward Asia) treaty negotiations, both abroad ing as a private citizen, met Am¬ during the Truman, Kennedy, and and in dealings with the US Con¬ bassador Green in Djakarta and Johnson years. However, their gress. put him in charge of the Asian views were sometimes in conflict. Although Marshall Green’s ex¬ bureau in 1969. Green served with posure to Japanese affairs goes distinction—and his term was back to pre-war Tokyo, his first longer than that of any other FSO. “Green continued to important chance to influence US This fact suggests a number of policy came in 1948, when he was conclusions about the degree of play a key role in still a relatively junior officer. He professionalism in the State De¬ coping with the was assigned to accompany partment. For example, “non¬ George Kennan on a mission to career” officers have led the offshore islands crisis, Japan in 1948. Their reports helped bureau most of the time since which lasted about six bring to a close the period of tute¬ World War 11. The FSOs who have lage of the American Occupation. run the bureau all had prior service weeks. He brought a It was Kennan’s first visit to Asia, in Asia, and most were area fresh and impartial and Green was impressed by his specialists with a working knowl¬ viewpoint to the task, rapid assimilation of a highly com¬ edge of one or more Asian lan¬ plex situation. Kennan was also guages.* None of the noncareer because the China desk able to dictate telegrams that were men spent as much time in Asia or officer and Robertson so well phrased and organized that learned an Asian language. he had no need to edit them before Yet these facts are somewhat and Dulles were all sending. deceptive. For example. Dean strongly committed to At first, Mac Arthur's vast impe¬ Rusk, Averell Harriman. and rial staff in Tokyo had little time for William Bundy have each devoted Chiang Kai-shek.’’ their visitors. But after Green ar¬ most of their lives to public service ranged for Kennan to lecture on and diplomacy. Their style is not Soviet affairs to MacArthur’s top very different from that of many and Rusk was often in a position to aides, all doors were opened. career FSOs.* * Indeed, there is far make his own views prevail. Like MacArthur honored brains; he and less contrast between career and Harriman, Roger Hilsman had di¬ Kennan turned out to be in agree¬ noncareer heads of the Asian rect access to the White House, but ment on many issues. bureau than between FSOs and neither of them managed to alter One of the most troubling prob¬ political ambassadors who are sent the basic thrust of Rusk's policy on lems before US policy-makers at abroad. China or Indochina. the time was the question of eco¬ Do career ambassadors tend to During their long terms in office, nomic “reforms.” Did it serve US have the most influence on the Robertson and William Bundy each interests to dismantle Japanese fac¬ governments to which they are ac¬ served their respective secretaries tories and send the machinery to credited? And do political appoin¬ with exacting loyalty and helped China—where it was often seized tees back home iri the State De¬ them to place their stamp on all the by the communists or allowed to partment tend to have more clout Asian bureau’s activities. How¬ rust and become useless? One day with Congress and the White ever. it would be hard to say just in Osaka, Marshall Green was House than FSOs serving in the how much Robertson or Bundy in¬ struck by the sight of enormous same position? Ambassador Green fluenced their respective secretar¬ crates of machinery waiting on the had no trouble answering yes to the ies. Ingersoll’s influence on Kis¬ docks for shipment to China. He singer may also have been margi¬ sent a cable which helped persuade *Jolm Curler Vincent is included in this nal, particularly since Kissinger Washington to rethink an economic list, although the division was only raised to seemed to lose interest in Asia after policy that was preventing Japan bureau level when Walton Butterworth took the 1973 Paris agreement was from resuming its natural role as over. ; signed. the workshop of Asia. * The same applies, to a lesser degree, to Of the career officers who have Back in Washington, Green also other noncareer members of the succession. Walter Robertson and Robert Ingersoll, run the bureau. Vincent. Butter- pursued the task of ending the both businessmen, had prior service in Asia worth, Allison, Green and Habib purge of war-time collaborators. before taking charge of the bureau. were all highly influential. Each of He tells the story of how one day Robertson was deputy chief of mission in them held office during times of he sought Dean Rusk's clearance China, and Ingersoll was ambassador to Japan. Roger H ilsmun. a former Army offi¬ turbulent legislative-executive rela¬ for a cable to MacArthur sum¬ cer, and Richard Holbrooke, a former FSO, tions. Vincent and Butterworth be¬ marizing all the reasons for ending had both served in Southeast Asia. came the targets for personal abuse the purge. This had been decided

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June. 1979 by the National Security Council, Dulles on Asia policy. Though of the Joint Chiefs, assured him but Mac Arthur and his staff tended their views were far apart on many that Green was right: the islands to ignore orders they disliked. issues, especially China policy, could be resupplied and held with¬ Rusk read the draft and asked if he Green and Robertson liked each out escalating the conflict. Thus, thought it would do any good. other personally. Green’s respon¬ eventually, Peking backed down Green said perhaps not, but at least sibilities included a great deal of from its effort to take the islands by it put the case strongly on record. testifying on Capitol Hill, writing force and settled eventually for Rusk reminded him that the aim speeches and press statements, and shelling them on alternate days, was to get some action, not to make organizing the annual chiefs of mis¬ mainly with propaganda shells. a record. At his suggestion. Green sion conference in Asia. On the strength of his perfor¬ redrafted the cable, indicating that The 1958 crisis over the offshore mance in this and other crises, Mac Arthur had earlier expressed islands of Quemoy and Matsu Green’s stature grew, and he was doubts about the purge—doubts provided Green with a major op¬ sent to Korea as deputy chief of portunity to show his mettle. Just mission. He became charge d'af¬ before the outbreak of this crisis. faires in 1960, just before General Green served as head of an intera¬ Park Chung Hee overthrew a dem¬ gency war-gaming exercise. By ocratically elected government, coincidence, their task had been to whose election the United States “Relations between draw up detailed plans for a PRC had urged and applauded. Green and General aerial interdiction of these islands. At 3:00 a.m., Green learned of Park were extremely When the crisis struck, Dulles the coup from General Magruder, and Robertson were away and the commander of the Eighth Army in tense. Yet finally, Park head of the China desk was ill. Korea (As UN Commander, Ma¬ invited the American to Green had no choice except to take gruder was also in tactical com¬ charge. Within a few hours, he was mand of South Korean Combat a back alley restaurant able to present Robertson and Dul¬ Forces). Magruder suggested and in Seoul; for four hours les with a comprehensive list of Green approved an order to all US recommendations for action—with forces in Korea to stay off the they thrashed out their full clearance by all the US agen¬ streets and not become involved in problems to their cies that would be involved! There the coup. Green also decided that was little left for Robertson and they should immediately announce mutual satisfaction.’’ Dulles to do except approve that the United States had nothing Green’s suggestions, which they to do with the coup and that it still did. supported the duly elected gov¬ Green continued to play a key ernment. His statement and that of role in coping with the offshore is¬ General Magruder were taped in which the State Department had lands crisis, which lasted about six English and in Korean and broad¬ not shared at the time, but which weeks. He brought a fresh and im¬ cast every hour over the US now seemed eminently reasonable. partial viewpoint to the task, be¬ Armed Forces radio in Korea. This Though MacArthur had never ex¬ cause the China desk officer and decision created consternation in pressed such views to Green's Robertson and Dulles were all Washington and. of course, in knowledge, the ploy worked. For strongly committed to Chiang Seoul, but it failed to prevent once. Mac Arthur complied as soon Kai-shek. Green realized before Park’s coup from succeeding. as he received the cable. they did that Chiang was exaggerat¬ For two months, relations be¬ Green's only absence from ing the severity of the situation in tween Green and General Park Asian affairs coincided with the hope of getting stronger US sup¬ were extremely tense. Yet finally, start of the China containment pol¬ port against the mainland. Park invited the American to a icy in the early 1950s. At the re¬ After several weeks, Dulles be¬ back alley restaurant in Seoul; for quest of Walton Butterworth. who came so concerned by the gloomy four hours they thrashed out their was virtually hounded out of the reports emanating from Chiang and problems to their mutual satisfac¬ Asian bureau by critics in Con¬ his supporters that he went to New tion. At the end of the meeting. gress, Green went to Stockholm as York to try to persuade the UN Park smiled and said “Mr. Green, chief of the embassy’s political sec¬ Security Council somehow to 1 want you to know you have done tion. “neutralize” the offshore islands. me a great favor.” In 1956, Green returned to the Green realized this could lead to “What is that. General?” Asian bureau as regional affairs endless complications and that he “You have made it so difficult adviser to the redoubtable Walter must try to prevent it. He per¬ for me to pull a coup d’etat that I Robertson. (Secretary Dulles con¬ suaded Acting Secretary Herter to don’t think anybody will try it again sulted the pro-Taiwan group in call an interagency meeting, which in Korea!” Congress before naming Robertson heard new evidence about the Looking back on the episode, to head the bureau.) A suave, tenability of the offshores and in¬ Marshall Green was inclined to charming, ultra-conservative Vir¬ structed Green to go to New York think it showed the benefits of ginia businessman, Robertson pre¬ and talk the Secretary out of his ini¬ standing on principle. If he had sided over the bureau for six long tiative. yielded to pressures in Seoul—and years and made certain that no one When Dulles returned to Wash¬ pressures from some in Washing¬ in Congress could get to the right of ington, Admiral Burke, chairman ton (but not the bureau, which gave

18 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June. 1979 him full support) to be more preparation of a major speech by from week to week, and led to vio¬ compliant—Park would have taken Roger Hilsman, who was then in lent attacks on US consulates, the United States very much more charge of the Asian bureau, calling Green persuaded Washington to for granted. By taking a principled for a “civil dialogue” with China. threaten the expulsion of all In¬ stance, the United States retained The speech was not cleared by donesian diplomats from America the respect of most Koreans and Secretary Rusk (Hilsman had a unless the violence ceased. His was able to assist many who were personal relationship with Ken¬ demarche, made to leftist Foreign jailed during the coup. nedy, and he and Rusk found it dif¬ Minister Subandrio, produced in¬ At the start of the Kennedy ficult to work together). Shortly stant results. Subandrio arranged a administration, Green was chosen after President Kennedy’s death. meeting with the chief of police, for the senior China-watching post Hilsman delivered the China who received the ambassador at his of consul general in Hong Kong. speech in San Francisco. This was office with a brass band and honor This was a compliment to his skill one of the factors in Rusk’s deci¬ guard! More important, the Ameri¬ and objectivity, because he was not sion to replace him with William can embassy and consulates were a Chinese language officer. Under Bundy, whom he found more com¬ henceforth protected rather than his direction, the consulate patible. attacked by the local authorities. achieved a distinguished record of Many people in the bureau had A month later, Sukarno’s regime reporting on the troubled aftermath thought Green would be named as¬ was overthrown in a series of of Mao’s Great Leap Forward pro¬ sistant secretary, and he was un¬ events that still remain murky. Ap¬ gram and particularly on the widen¬ doubtedly disappointed at being parently, the Indonesian Com¬ munist Party sought to assassinate the nation's top generals to fore¬ stall a military coup which the communists anticipated following “Green, on the other hand uses humor (puns are the demise of the ailing Sukarno. If so, they miscalculated. The army his specialty) for the purpose of relieving tense soon gained the upper hand, and situations. For example, he once interjected into thousands of known or alleged communists were jailed or exe¬ a discussion of a Korean crisis, These are the cuted. The violence in the capital times that try Seoul’s men.’ ” touched off an epidemic of political and racial vendettas throughout Indonesia, resulting in untold mur¬ der and mayhem over the next six months. Ambassador Green did every¬ ing Sino-Soviet split. Green was passed over. Rusk’s choice was thing possible to prevent the called back to Washington in Au¬ probably based partly on his belief United States from being impli¬ gust 1963 and named deputy assis¬ that it is unfair to put a career offi¬ cated in these chaotic events, al¬ tant secretary. His main task was cer in a position where he must though some US officials wanted to to devise a strategy for improving bear a great deal of heat from Con¬ claim credit for what the media US relations with China. gress. William Bundy survived as loosely termed an “anti-communist This was a highly sensitive sub¬ assistant secretary throughout the revolution.” Eventually, Indonesia ject. The Kennedy administration difficult Johnson years. Green’s settled down, under a competent, was divided on both the substance tenure, which followed, was just as though autocratic, regime. In many of China policy and the tactics to long and every bit as difficult. As it ways, the events in Indonesia fol¬ be employed. The crumbling of the turned out, he served an adminis¬ lowed the opposite course of de¬ Saigon regime at this time made it tration that was more open to velopments in Indochina. Ambas¬ all the harder to address the issue change in our China policy. sador Green became a strong ad¬ of China. Green’s proposals fore¬ Green’s first ambassadorial post vocate of the “less is sometimes shadowed those which he helped was Indonesia. He arrived in 1965 more” approach. He argued for put into effect almost a decade to find that vast island nation in a smaller US missions and pointed later. They included such measures state of frenzy. Sukarno’s erratic out to Washington that there were as revising the Foreign Assets leadership had reduced the many situations we could not and Control Act, allowing Americans economy to a shambles while he should not try to control. Mean¬ to attend the Canton Trade Fair, blithely provoked “confrontation” while, he worked hard to promote and normalizing relations with with Malaysia, Britain and the US public and private investment Mongolia. One proposal that was United States and withdrew from to help the Indonesians get back on adopted in 1963 was the creation of the United Nations. Organized their feet. It was in this period that separate State Department desks demonstrators greeted the new US he realized the basic importance of to deal with Taiwan and the Peo¬ ambassador with large signs saying population planning to economic ples Republic of China—a move “Green Go Home.” (He noted development. that hinted at US interest in having one marcher who had added the One of the many American vis¬ relationships with both Taiwan and message in lipstick “and take me itors to Indonesia in the late ’60s . with you.”) was Richard Nixon. He was obvi¬ Marshall Green helped in the As the demonstrations got worse ously preparing for another try at FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 19 the presidency, and he and Ambas¬ at many of the things that Kissinger self found them quite unwarranted. sador Green had several long talks had not yet had time to learn Green’s comment produced on world affairs. The upshot was about—dealing with the Japanese headlines in Australia; some col¬ that Nixon, once elected, asked government, testifying before Con¬ umnists even called for his dismis¬ Green to head the Asian bureau. gress, understanding the fine shad¬ sal for “attacking” the minister. During 1969, their relationship ings of Asian regional politics. Green learned an important lesson: remained direct and cordial. Green Moreover. Ambassador Green was that in a public controversy be¬ provided Nixon with the basic out¬ becoming known to the Washing¬ tween an American and Australian, line of his famous “Guam doc- ton press corps. It is unlikely that most Australians would side with tine”: America would help those Kissinger’s regard for Green was their countryman. nations who were prepared to help enhanced by reading a major col¬ Thus, Ambassador Green kept themselves. He urged the president umnist’s judgment that “Green's silent when, a few months later, a to reduce the size of US missions in understanding of US-China rela¬ back bench member of parliament Asia, particularly the ones in Viet¬ tions perfectly complements that of attacked him as America’s leading nam and , where our high visi¬ Chou En-lai.” Ironically, Green hatchet man sent out to topple the bility made it easy to attack our may have lost his chance to be am¬ Australian Labor Party from Asian friends as “puppets.” Some bassador to Japan because he was power. Eventually, Prime Minister scaling down of US personnel “overqualified.” He could speak Whitlam delivered the rebuttal for resulted—not just in Vietnam and Japanese and he had many high- Green, calling the MPa “misera¬ Laos but also in Korea, Japan, level friendships and contacts in ble, cowardly creature to attack a Taiwan, the Philippines and Thai¬ Japan dating back to the time of foreign diplomat who could not re¬ land. Joseph Grew, who was enshrined spond.” The prime minister then However, it soon became appar¬ in the memories of many Japanese went on to praise Green's contribu¬ ent that Henry Kissinger was de¬ as a peace-maker. tions to Australian-American rela¬ termined to undercut Secretary At any rate. Green was named tions. Rogers as Nixon’s main foreign ambassador to Australia in 1973, In 1975, Ambassador Green policy adviser. Green liked and the year in which Kissinger took completed his tour of duty in Can¬ respected Rogers. In 1970, they over the State Department. His berra and returned to Washington both opposed the idea of a US tour coincided with the election of to join the new Bureau of Oceans ground invasion of Cambodia. As a Labor Government. However, it and International Environmental described elsewhere, Kissinger was not only a lack of ideological and Scientific Affairs. While serv¬ sealed his relationship with Nixon rapport between Washington and ing in Indonesia, he had become by supporting the invasion. While Canberra that made relations deeply concerned with the problem the White House advisor hid be¬ sticky at this time. In the aftermath of limiting population growth in hind the cloak of executive of our Indochina involvement, poor nations to make economic de¬ privilege, Rogers and Green made many Asian allies began to wonder velopment possible. Instead of re¬ frequent trips to Capitol Hill to try aloud just what value our commit¬ sisting the trend toward a broader to explain administration policy to ment to them had. Having finally State Department focus on world an increasingly skeptical Congress. overcome their fear of Japanese issues of this kind, as many of his As the country lapsed into bitter expansion, the Australians had colleagues did. Green decided to domestic conflict over the invasion granted Japan enormous mineral enlist in the struggle. He did so of Cambodia, Marshall Green and concessions. They had long since with all his customary energy and others at the State Department normalized relations with China, dedication. could feel the White House shut¬ and were now intent on aiding In¬ He now spends part of every ting itself off from the advice of donesia’s development to prevent year traveling to out of the way career diplomats. The morale at their giant neighbor from once parts of the poorest nations, such state plunged to the depths it had again running amok, as it had in as Indonesia, India and Bang¬ reached in the 1950s, when Dulles 1965. ladesh, updating his knowledge of purged the Chinese language offi¬ In these circumstances, it was this complex and rapidly changing cers. not unnatural for many Australians subject. Back in Washington, he Ambassador Green’s relation¬ to regard the patron-client relation¬ supervises a staff of young Foreign ship with Kissinger involved a lot ship with America as out of date. A Service officers, most of whom of banter, which they both en¬ few months after Green arrived in have served in Third World na¬ joyed.* But Kissinger's need was Canberra, the minister of trade tions, writing reports on current re¬ mainly for younger or more sub¬ made a public statement denounc¬ search and position papers for the servient men. Green was very good ing the United States as the aggres¬ Carter administration and Con¬ sor in Vietnam. Ambassador gress. Green happened to be passing It is a different life from the old * Kissinger learned to use Intmor mainly through Sydney airport a few hours Foreign Service, epitomized by the as a device to disarm his audience and keep them off balance. An example was his out¬ later, and the press corps flocked courtly style of Green's first boss, rageous quip, '' The illegal ire do today: the around him to seek his comments Joseph Grew. However, Green be¬ unconstitutional takes a hit longer." Green, on the statement. Green replied lieves that the Foreign Service re¬ on the other hand, uses Itnmor (pans are his that, however unfortunate the re¬ mains a valid career for young men specialty) for the purpose of relieving tense situations. For example. he once interjected sult in Vietnam, he doubted many and women who are prepared to into a discussion of a Korean crisis. " These Americans or Australians shared meet the challenge of a more com¬ are the times that try Seoul's men." the minister’s views—and he him¬ plex and interdependent world. 20 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 gressman Edward Derwinski (R- 111.) sought to amend the ACD act Who Dusts by requiring the director of ACDA to report to Congress on several matters relating to verification. the Russians? Most important, the Derwinski bill, as enacted by the House, stipulated that “effective verifica¬ The Political Issue tion of compliance is an indispens¬ able factor in any international of Arms Control arms control agreement." Con¬ gressional arms control supporters and ACDA feared that this word¬ Verification ing could be construed as establish¬ ing an unduly restrictive standard of compliance, especially concern¬ DUNCAN L. CLARKE AND ROBERT H. GROMOLL ing SALT, that would be impossi¬ ble to meet. More bluntly, they saw it as an attempt to kill SALT II. On the evening of April 3, 1979. tional behavior. Congressional un¬ Hence, they concentrated their ef¬ several hundred people, in¬ easiness about Soviet behavior and forts in the Senate, successfully it cluding many congressional arms control verification had been turned out, to substitute the term staffers, a number of executive percolating for some time. Here we “adequate verification" for “effec¬ branch officials concerned with examine some of these concerns as tive verification.” congressional relations, and at least they evolved from 1977 through The debate on this bill, now sec¬ three Russian diplomats—in¬ April 1979. tion 37 of the ACD act, highlighted cluding the first secretary of the Arms control verification is the Congress’s concerns about verifi¬ Soviet embassy—crowded into an process by which parties to an cation, concerns which continue to auditorium at The American Uni¬ agreement assess compliance. Ver¬ gather momentum. While conser¬ versity. They came to witness an ification is a political issue in three vatives are the most outspoken, opening shot in “The Great SALT senses. First, it is a subject of in¬ some moderate and liberal legis¬ Debate." Speaking in support of ternational arms control negotia¬ lators have also voiced reserva¬ the SALT II treaty were Senator tions. Second, only rarely—as with tions. These reservations fall into Joseph Biden (D-Del.) and Paul large yield above-ground tests of four categories: Warnke. director of the Arms Con¬ nuclear devices—can arms control • Untrustworthy Russians. “You trol and Disarmament Agency agreements be verified with cer¬ can't trust the Russians," said (ACDA) and chief US SALT tainty. Governments conclude Derwinski. and other legislators, negotiator from March 1977 arms control accords if they believe like Senator John Glenn (D-Ohio), through October 1978. On the op¬ that their national interests will be agreed. But arms control, certainly posing side were Senators Jake furthered and the agreements are as practiced by the US, has nothing Gam (R-Utah) and John Tower adequately verifiable. Perceptions to do with trust. Said President (R-Tex.). The debate soon became of “adequacy” are affected by Carter, “SALT will not rely on a free-for-all which continued well numerous factors, including: capa¬ trust. It will be verifiable.” Paul beyond its scheduled time. Neither bility of national technical means of Warnke stated, “We don’t trust side clearly prevailed, but one thing verification, ability to respond to them [Russians].” This is precisely was certain—the fate of SALT II, violations in a timely fashion, a na¬ why so much attention is properly and arms control generally, would tion's past record of compliance, given to verification. be decided in major part by Con¬ the degree of risk posed by possible • Soviet SALT Compliance. gress’s perception of the verifiabil¬ violations, and whether the bene¬ Those expressing distrust of the ity of arms control agreements. fits of a treaty compensate for ver¬ Russians often allege, with former This perception, in turn, would ification problems. Therefore, a na¬ Defense Secretary Melvin Laird hinge critically on views about the tional decision about the adequacy (“The Russians are Cheating,” Soviet Union’s overall interna- of verification, given the inherent Reader's Digest, November 1978), lack of certainty, must be a political that Soviet violations of the SALT I accords have been “multiple and Duncan Clarke is an associate professor at judgment, one which is ultimately American University and lias published sev¬ made by the president himself. Fi¬ gross.” This is false. Of all the eral articles on arms control matters in the nally, since the Arms Control and charges against the Soviet Union, Foreign Service Journal, World Affairs, Disarmament (ACD) act requires only one, their failure to meet the Military Review and the Bulletin of the congressional approval of arms time schedule for dismantling old Atomic Scientists. From 1976-78 he was a Ford Foundation arms control fellow. His control agreements negotiated by ICBM launchers, which were book, Politics of Arms Control: The Role the United States, verification can being replaced by newer and Effectiveness of the US Arms Control be a political issue in Congress. submarine-launched ballistic mis¬ and Disarmament Agency, will be published Congress’s interest in verifica¬ sile launchers, has substance. But this fall by Macmillan. Robert Gromoll is a even before the United States Ph.D. candidate at American University tion predates the Carter adminis¬ who is writing his dissertation on arms con¬ tration, but it gained particular raised this issue, the Soviets trol verification. prominence in 1977 when Con¬ acknowledged the problem and

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June. 1979 21 predicted correctly that all their exists, such cheating would not alter York Times reported that CIA Di¬ dismantling actions would be com¬ the strategic balance in view of US rector Stansfield Turner told a con¬ pleted by June 1, 1976. “We have programs. Any cheating on a scale gressional committee that it could demonstrated," said the State De¬ large enough to alter the strategic bal¬ take five years to fully make up for partment, “our ability to verify ance would be discovered in time to the loss of the facilities. The White compliance with the SALT 1 make an appropriate response. There House immediately denounced the agreements with high confidence.” will be areas of uncertainty, but they are not such as to permit the Soviets to report as “inaccurate” and De¬ Several staff members of the produce a significant unanticipated fense Secretary Harold Brown Senate Armed Services Commit¬ threat to US interests and those uncer¬ stated that the Iran-based tee, however, were delighted with tainties can, in any event, be compen¬ capabilities which related to SAL T Laird's article. One staffer re¬ sated for with the flexibility inherent in verification could be compensated marked happily, “it’s pure dyna¬ our own programs [emphasis added|. for within “about one year.” Pres¬ mite,” not because of the incisive¬ SALT critics, of course, chal¬ ident Carter went even further ness of its argument, but because lenged State's assessment of what when on April 25, he delivered the of where it was published and the might constitute a “significant” administration’s most comprehen¬ kind of grass roots effect it could threat to US interests; the Admin¬ sive defense of SALT II. Said the have. Another added that it could istration foresaw a fight on this is¬ president: incite “middle Americans” against sue. To be sure, important verifica¬ There is no question that any cheat¬ SALT by sensitizing them to ver¬ tion difficulties, perhaps decisive ing which might affect our national se¬ ification problems and instilling dis¬ ones, would arise in any SALT III curity would be discovered in time for process, but SALT II supporters us to respond fully . . .This overall trust of the Soviets. capability . . .was certainly not lost Congressional doubts about argued that it was premature in 1979 to cross that bridge. with our observation stations in Iran, Soviet compliance understandably which was only one of many in¬ arose in the SALT II process. A The United States has promptly telligence sources we use for following House Armed Services Committee raised any question about Soviet Soviet strategic activities. We are con¬ panel concluded in December 1978 SALT compliance in the joint cerned with that loss, but we must keep that, “Independent verification of Soviet-American Standing Consul¬ it in perspective. This monitoring several important aspects of SALT tative Commission which was es¬ capability relates principally to the por¬ II will not be possible." Not only tablished by the SALT I accords to tion of the agreement dealing with the would the Soviets have a license to monitor compliance. The Soviets modernization limits on ICBMs and to have raised several questions of only a portion of such moderniza¬ cheat, but, it was feared, such mal¬ tion ... If there is an effort to cheat on feasance could drastically shift the their own. One Soviet objection caused the United States to modify the SALT agreement—including the strategic balance. These concerns limits on modernizing ICBMs—we will were sharpened by three specific its environmental shelters over detect it . . . developments: the loss of US in¬ Minuteman ICBM silos. In the Soviet development of an ASAT telligence facilities in Iran which, SALT II negotiations Moscow was system (the US, incidentally, has among other things, monitored reasonably forthcoming on verifi¬ cation issues (Wamke flatly as¬ not been idle in this area) was not Soviet missile tests; Soviet de¬ forbidden by SALT I, though its velopment of an antisatellite serted that “the Russians adopted (ASAT) system with a potential for the American position on verifica¬ actual use against US photorecon¬ jeopardizing US photoreconnais¬ tion”). For instance, they dropped naissance satellites was prohibited. sance satellites; and Soviet encryp¬ their insistence for a range limit on The Soviet Union had, since May tion (coding) of telemetry (trans¬ air-launched cruise missiles—a re¬ 1978, refrained from testing of mission of data by radio signals) striction which could have posed hunter-killer satellites and those during their ICBM tests which intractable verification problems. systems which had been tested prevents accurate monitoring of The Soviets also agreed to ban all were decidedly inferior to the US these tests by US ground and air¬ deployment of their SS-16 land- system the Pentagon was pushing borne listening posts. based mobile ICBM after the United States raised serious objec¬ to test in 1980 and incapable of SALT II was more difficult to threatening high-flying American monitor than SALT 1 since it tions about that system on verifica¬ tion grounds. In addition. SALT II satellites. An ASAT treaty had sought not only quantitative, but been under negotiation since 1977 qualitative restraints on strategic contained innovative verification arms. Still, the State Department procedures including advance and there was some hope that it had good reason for assessing notice of some ICBM tests and, for might complement SALT II. SALT II as “adequately verifi¬ the first time, a Soviet agreement to Finally, by early 1979, agree¬ able." Even General George Seig- regularly provide specific data on ment was reached banning any en¬ nious, former staff director for the its deployed strategic arms. coding of telemetry which would Joint Chiefs of Staff and Wamke’s Senator Henry Jackson ID- impede verification of SALT II, Wash.) felt that the loss of US successor as ACDA’s director, though some clarifications were was “very comfortable with the facilities in Iran did “irreparable harm” to our SALT monitoring necessary before final submission verification provisions of the to the Senate. treaty.” The State Department capability. This was expressly de¬ stated that: nied by the administration, which • General Soviet International promptly labeled Jackson’s asser¬ Behavior. Verification, revealed a Although the possibility of some un¬ tion “alarmist.” In mid-April 1979 Senate Armed Services Committee detected cheating in certain areas this issue erupted after the New staffer, was really a “catchword” 22 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June, 1979 for “you can’t trust the Russians friend of Jackson’s top national de¬ But this episode engendered ill- because of their behavior in areas fense aide, Richard Perle. Fred will and suspicions among conser¬ external to SALT.” There is great Ikle, ADCA’s director during this vatives who, subsequently, used uneasiness on the Hill about such period, made verification a sepa¬ ACDA as a scapegoat for sup¬ posed executive branch inattention things as growing Soviet military rate specialty by creating the Ver¬ ification Division whose chief to verification. For example, sec¬ expenditures, incursions into Af¬ came to the agency directly from tion 37 of the Arms Control and rica, and meddling in Afghanistan. the Pentagon. Several of the Disarmament act, in placing pri¬ Distrust of these actions spilled analysts in this division were mary verification reporting duties over into SALT. Soviet global be¬ “hardliners,” often characterized on ACDA, was misdirected. havior, it was asserted, was perti¬ by officials in ACDA and State as SALT monitoring is an intelligence nent to SALT II since that be¬ “politically obtuse Cold War function; ACDA is not even a havior revealed the unreliability ideologues.” member of the intelligence com¬ and hostile motivations of the When Warnke succeeded Ikle in munity's SALT monitoring group. Soviet Union. Hence, senators like 1977, after a heated Senate debate Concerning section 37, an ACDA Dennis DeConcini (D-Ariz.) and over his nomination led by official lamented, “All we can do is Paul Laxalt (R-Nev.) insisted upon Jackson, he abolished the division. receive a report from the in¬ This sparked charges by conserva¬ telligence community, stamp forging explicit “linkages” be¬ tives that verification was being ‘ACDA’ on it and send it over to tween SALT and other aspects of deemphasized and erroneous press the Hill." Yet SALT critics con¬ Soviet foreign policy. reports, such as a column by tinued to accuse ACDA’s “arms SALT proponents replied that it William Safire in the New York controllers”—whom they saw as would be tragic if the process col¬ Times alleging that Warnke had soft, naive, and idealistic—of indif¬ lapsed because of developments fired several “verifiers.” In fact, ference to verification problems. It extraneous to SALT. The United no one in the Verification Division was largely to counter this kind of States pursued a SALT treaty be¬ was asked to leave; indeed, its con¬ sentiment, and conservative hostil¬ cause, wholly apart from Soviet ac¬ servative former head remained ity toward Warnke, that Carter tions in Africa, it furthered Ameri¬ with the agency. Warnke actually named General Seignious (never can interests. If we are disturbed suspected of arms controller lean¬ about Soviet involvement in Africa ings) as Warnke’s replacement. we can meet them (and have met “A CIA analyst was fired them) in that currency. Our sup¬ Verification as a political issue in port for Western intervention in after he passed papers Congress was also affected by Zaire and our suspension of talks additional considerations: (A) The for naval limitations in the Indian relating to Soviet SALT views of key NATO allies, all of Ocean are cases in point. If we are Compliance to Richard whom supported SALT II, were concerned about Soviet military Perle. These important. (B) Public opinion was a expenditures, we can raise our de¬ factor. While public opinion polls fense budget—as Carter did for FY documents, containing from 1977-spring 1979 showed 75 1980. SALT advocates pointed out eight classification percent support for a SALT II that the question of establishing treaty, they also revealed signifi¬ linkages between SALT II and categories above top cant anxiety about Soviet treaty other issues had already been secret, were later compliance. (C) Presidential aspir¬ fought out within the administra¬ ants like Senators Howard Baker tion between the proponents, led returned after CIA (R-Tenn.) and Robert Dole (R- by Zbigniew Brzezinski, and such Director Turner Kan.)—both of whom have raised opponents as Cyrus Vance and the verification issue—apparently Paul Warnke. Carter, to his credit, reportedly demanded felt that it was politically exploita¬ opted for the latter position. If (unsuccessfully) that ble. Most legislators hesitated to Congress mandated linkages Jackson fire Perle.” appear as blatant SALT oppo¬ SALT would die, and we would all nents; hence, as a House Foreign pay the price for years to come. Affairs Committee staffer re¬ • The ACDA “Crowd of Arms marked, “Verification is a political Controllers.” After SALT I. Pres¬ upgraded the verification function device by which opponents can op¬ ident Nixon, urged on by Senator by hiring more analysts in this area pose SALT without giving the ap¬ Jackson, purged ACDA of many of and by returning verification to its pearance of opposing it.” (D) its “arms controllers” (a pejorative proper place, where it had always “Stop SALT” groups like the Co¬ term within the bureaucracy and been before Ikle’—the substantive alition for Peace Through Strength, among congressional conserva¬ bureaus. That is, Warnke, and which far outspent arms control tives). In their stead, from 1973 to most others in ACDA. felt that interest groups, drummed away at January 1977, ACDA was staffed, those with full-time responsibility the issue. (E) Another factor was in major part, by those sometimes for SALT should also deal with the unauthorized flow of classified referred to as “the Jackson under¬ SALT verification. This arrange¬ information from the executive ground.” For instance, the agen¬ ment best reflected the intimate tie branch to congressional SALT op¬ cy's deputy director, John between arms control and verifica¬ ponents. A CIA analyst was fired Lehman, was a close personal tion. Continued on page 33

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June. 1979 23 Ordinarily, one doesn't think of Reed had arrived in Washington telligence Agency). In sum, the the Department of State as a the night before with a plea for help fighting spirit of the French in sponsor of covert operations. Yet, in getting his petroleum products North Africa was still high; their after the fall of France in 1940. a past the British blockade. Fie had military establishment under the handful of brave men in the guise of also brought a message from Em¬ command of an anti-Nazi. World vice consuls risked their lives to manuel Monick. secretary-general War I hero. General Maxime obtain vital military information of the French residency in Mor¬ Weygand. was still strong; surpris¬ that paved the way for our spec¬ occo, urging that America step in ingly few members of the German tacular invasion of French North to preserve the economic life of this and Italian Armistice Commission Africa two years later. And Vichy-held territory at somewhere were exerting surveillance over thereby hangs a dramatic if little near its norm and thus keep politi¬ that vast stretch of French empire known tale. cal conditions stable. Reed sub¬ with its population of 17,000,000 Africa at the outbreak of World scribed fully to the idea. "By send¬ Arabs. Here, it was thought, lay War II was a stepchild in the de¬ ing American commodities into the one hope of further opposition partment’s hierarchy—unwanted, North Africa," he pointed out, to the victorious Germans. North unloved, and disdained as a factor "the eyes of the inhabitants will be Africa could prove to be a in the world's problems. It didn't kept turned toward the Western springboard from which France belong to any of the old-line geo¬ democracies—not toward Fascist might eventually re-enter the war. graphical divisions; for lack of a Europe. Economic disaster can be At first. I had to confess, I was better home, it was arbitrarily as¬ staved off. dangerous unrest among skeptical—both as to the wisdom signed to the Arab specialists of the the Arabs prevented." As bait, the and feasibility of the scheme. I division of Near Eastern affairs. French Moroccan authorities were knew the complex issues involved Before long the Dark Continent— offering to sell us strategic miner¬ in dealing with an area under the at least the northern part of it— als, such as manganese, cobalt, jurisdiction of the “collabo¬ would be put on the map with a iron ore and molybdenum. A neu¬ rationist" government of old vengeance. But, as the desk officer tral United States would reap the Marshal Petain. and 1 feared the for the whole crazy-quilt colonial benefit of trade in a region effec¬ Bntish. with their country's back region. I had no inkling of what was tively cut off from its usual sources to the wall, would never go along. in store when 1 was called into a of supply. But when Robert D. Murphy, our meeting one brisk October morning The proposal fell on receptive astute counselor of embassy at to meet Arthur G. Reed, for many ears in the Near Eastern office. Vichy, went to Algiers at the per¬ years general manager of the Wallace Murray, its shrewd and in¬ sonal behest of President Franklin Socony-Vacuum company at cisive chief; his able assistant, Paul D. Roosevelt to explore the situa¬ Casablanca. H. Ailing; and career officer J. tion with Weygand, and then sent Rives Childs, about to assume his in a favorable recommendation, my post as minister at Tangier, were doubts gave way to enthusiasm. I Diplomat, journalist, teacher, ambulance quick to see the practical advan¬ would need all of it if the project driver during WWI for the American Red tages. Moreover, the general con¬ were to be kept alive over the dif¬ Cross, Henry Serrano Villard is also a ception fitted in with reports from ficult months to come. well-known author. The Great Road Races the field, notably from Commander The upshot of the Murphy- 1904-1914 was published in 1972. earlier books were Contactl The Story of the Early Roscoe Hillenkoetter, the US Weygand conversations was an Birds and Affairs of State. Copyright naval attache at Vichy (later to be innocuous-looking agreement ini¬ Henry S. Villard. the first director of the Central In¬ tialed at Algiers on February 25,

HENRY SERRANO VILLARD CIA in Embryo: 1941, under which the French were No such thing as a CIA, of course, French military school at Saint Cyr allowed to import from the United existed at that time; nothing like an and a veteran of Foreign Legion States certain badly-needed con¬ operation of this kind had ever campaigns in Morocco. Another— sumer goods for the civilian pop¬ been tried before. General William David W. King—was an adventur¬ ulace of Morocco—and of Algeria J. (“Wild Bill") Donovan's Office ous, soldier-of-fortune type who and Tunisia as well. In return, a of Strategic Services (OSS), whose had served both in the Foreign Le¬ crucial clause in the agreement cloak-and-dagger sleuths were al¬ gion and the French army during granted the United States permis¬ ready on the loose in French Af¬ World War I, losing an eye at the sion to station a dozen “technical rica, would have been glad to help: battle of Verdun. advisers," or “control officers," in but this was a State Department af¬ Other factors which went into North African ports to ensure that fair, run strictly under its own dip¬ the selection process—as in the the goods were not re-exported or lomatic auspices. Instead, the de¬ cases of Sidney Bartlett, a Califor¬ surreptitiously delivered to the partment turned to Army and Navy nia oil executive, and W. Stafford army of General Erwin Rommel, Intelligence. Hurriedly, with some¬ Reid, an investment counselor and the “Desert Fox" then campaign¬ thing like an air of improvisation, real estate manager—were a back¬ ing in next-door Libya. the observers were recruited from ground of travel or living overseas, Overnight, the State Department civilian life, principally from among tact, patriotism, resourcefulness, a was presented with an unparalleled the New York business commu¬ sense of discipline, unquestioned opportunity to observe and eval¬ nity. On the strength of recom¬ loyalty and personal characteristics uate Axis activity throughout the mendations by the chief of G-2 that indicated an ability to get on Western Mediterranean. It was an Washington and the chief of the Of¬ well with foreigners. How they opening that couldn't be ignored: fice of Naval Intelligence, they were to be paid was a stumbling with its own inspectors checking were accepted by the department, block. I remember the initial shock every shipment from arrival to ul¬ clothed with the protective rank of when it was found there was no timate destination, it would be pos¬ non-career vice consuls in the money in the department's till for sible to make fruitful contacts Foreign Service, and variously as¬ their salaries: the day was saved among the Arabs and the French, signed to work at the strategic sea¬ when someone discovered that the to sound out disaffected groups, ports of Casablanca, Oran, Al¬ new appointees could be paid from and to gather political and military giers, Tunis and Dakar. the president's secret emergency intelligence of the highest order and Needless to say, these twelve funds at the rate of $3,600 per value. Call it espionage if you will. “technical advisers” were rank annum—a small price indeed, it But it was espionage with the con¬ amateurs by today's sophisticated would seem today, for the returns sent of the spied upon: Weygand “spy” standards: not one of them that accrued to the national inter¬ was perfectly aware of the advan¬ had training or experience as an in¬ est. tage we intended to take of the con¬ telligence agent, none could speak One by one, as they were in¬ trol officers' presence, and wel¬ Arabic or was familiar with condi¬ ducted into the Foreign Service, comed the chance to let us know tions in Moslem countries, and not the apprentice vice consuls came to discreetly what he might need to one knew the first thing about ship¬ me for instructions, assuming that 1 combat or resist further aggression ping or the proper handling of car¬ would be able to give them precise by the Axis. goes. Taken together, they were a directions as to the nature of the The intelligence possibilities of strange assortment of untried—if experiences that lay before them. the Murphy-Weygand accord were more than willing—undercover To explain the ostensible purpose so great that they soon became the operatives. of the mission was simple; the rest tail that wagged the dog of the sup¬ But what the chosen twelve wasn't so easy. What exactly could ply program itself. lacked in experience they made up I tell these neophytes, all of whom Once the plan had been ap¬ for in knowledge of la belle France were eager to embark on what proved, it was imperative to move and the French language— a sine promised to be an extraordinary swiftly, before the Germans could qua non for the work in view. adventure, without sounding like a interfere or raise objections. Mur¬ Ridgway B. Knight, for example, spinner of military mystery and in¬ phy remained in Algiers to assume an ex-Cartier salesman and wine trigue? While there was no doubt charge of the coming inspection merchant, had spent most of his life that America's sympathies strongly corps, to maintain contact with in France, where his father was an favored the Allied cause, pressure Weygand, and to report on de¬ artist. Harry Woodruff, too, had was overwhelming in the tumultu¬ velopments as they occurred. In¬ been brought up in France and ous early months of 1941 to keep evitably. it fell to me, as the Afri¬ spoke French like a Parisian. John the country out of war. The United can “specialist," to implement the E. Utter had been employed by the States government was technically accord from the Washington end. National City Bank in Paris, John neutral and the diplomatic branch Faced with unprecedented war H. Boyd had worked as manager had to lean over backwards to demands, the department could for the Coca-Cola subsidiary in avoid giving an impression that its spare none of its career men for the Marseilles. Franklin O. Canfield, a officials were collecting informa¬ uncommon job of control officer, young lawyer, spoke fluent tion to be used for some un¬ nor was it considered appropriate French, and Kenneth Pendar, an specified military purpose, such as. for regular Foreign Service officers art expert and archaeologist, had for instance, beefing up General to be used in such a highly irregular been to the Sorbonne. One member Weygand's forces. This was hardly capacity. Qualified candidates of the group—John Crawford a matter that could be talked about would have to be found elsewhere. Knox—was a graduate of the openly; domestic politics required

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June, 197V 25 that one proceed with infinite cau¬ first of the control officers left for dom. tion. So the control officers were his post by Pan-American Clipper, In the midst of the controversy, warned to raise no false hopes via Lisbon and Tangier. David Eccles, later to be a cabinet among their French contacts or to But however exciting the re¬ minister, was sent over by Chur¬ intimate in any way what we might wards seemed to its supporters, the chill to take a close look at what the one day be able to do to provide economic accord was in danger of Americans were up to. Eccles support for Weygand, but to con¬ being torpedoed from the moment summed up the British attitude one centrate on securing good will for it was launched. To some people memorable day in June when he in¬ America and to stress our steadily the thought of sending supplies to formed Wallace Murray that "un¬ growing productive strength. They Vichy-dominated territory was less something tangible in the form might pose as twelve apostles of sheer anathema: it was soon appar¬ of American military assistance freedom, I suggested with a smile. ent that the plan had its vociferous could be expected ... as a curtain “Beyond that," 1 told them, “we opponents, both in and out of gov¬ raiser to a military adventure" and would like to receive detailed, ernment. A choleric Herbert Feis, unless “staff talks with American comprehensive reports on the at¬ the department's adviser on inter¬ participation" could be expected, titude of the local population, the national economic relations, was as well as some definite evidence presence or absence of Axis adamantly against the concept from that we intended to follow up the agents, the state of the economy, start to finish and crossed swords plan “with the use of American the extent of the resistance move¬ repeatedly with the Near Eastern armed forces or war materials," his ment—in short, anything from the office and its African desk. 1 never government was “not interested in condition of the ports and railway would have thought that such bu¬ permitting economic supplies to centers to the price of American reaucratic passions could be un¬ reach General Weygand from the cigarettes on the black market that leashed for ideological reasons. At United States." While there were conceivably could be of help in the outset, when I asked the those in the late spring of 1941 who building up an accurate picture of newly-appointed assistant secre¬ regarded our entry into the war as the region where you are tary for economic affairs, the usu¬ unavoidable and were psychologi¬ stationed." It was really superflu¬ ally suave Dean Acheson, to ap¬ cally prepared for it. it was by no ous to say more. Most of the men prove a shipment of coal for the means then the fashion to speak quickly grasped the inner purport Moroccan State Railways he re¬ bluntly of staff talks or the use of of the accord. Behind that formal sponded acidly, “Ell see them in American armed forces. Eccles's facade of “neutrality” each one hell first." Officers in the Euro¬ candid statement created some¬ knew implicitly, as well as I, what pean division gave the accord thing of a sensation, its approxi¬ it was all about. merely lukewarm acquiescence— mate effect being that of a giant There was one other point that and then only because the policy firecracker dropped by a mischiev¬ had to be brought out. Nobody line, stemming from the White ous boy at the back door of our dip¬ could deny that the enterprise was House, had been laid down at the lomatic establishment. Most Amer¬ a hazardous one, for the Germans top. Even Sumner Welles, the icans were still resolutely deter¬ were widely thought to be prepar¬ icily-objective undersecretary of mined to stay out of vyar and noth¬ ing an attack for the spring of 1941. state, lent it lip service only. ing like the assurances Eccles de¬ With France still reeling under the Obstructionists in the Treasury sired could possibly be given. sting of defeat, the German jugger¬ Department of Henry Morgenthau Tirelessly, the department ar¬ naut was expected to drive on intermittently and without explana¬ gued that the control officers through Spain and Gibraltar to oc¬ tion suspended the release of provided the necessary safeguards cupy North Africa—in fact, it was French funds for the purchase of against misuse of the supplies. But largely because of this threat that previously-sanctioned goods. before the British could be induced Weygand had agreed to the eco¬ The British—fighting for their to issue their “navicerts" for free nomic plan, for he counted on using lives—understandably resented passage of the goods through the the supplies as an incentive to Arab what they considered even a blockade, the benefits to be derived cooperation in defense of the area. semblance of aid to the enemy. To from the accord's covert aspects The control officers would be in an persuade them that they had more had to be stressed again and again. anomalous position at best: and to gain than to lose by our entering In the end. British intelligence was they realized that if war should en¬ wedge into Vichy Africa was an to express its appreciation for the velop North Africa they could find arduous and uphill task. Here and matchless information we shared themselves in the hands of the in Britain a hapless State Depart¬ with it, and before leaving Wash¬ Nazis, while those who happened ment was the target of vitriolic at¬ ington Eccles was prevailed upon to hold reserve commissions in the tack. “The worst kind of appease¬ to drastically modify his views: but Army or Navy—as several of them ment!" screamed the liberal and his tenacious colleague at the did—could be shot as spies. But all left-wing press. Secretary Hull, British embassy, Eric Wyndham- were prepared to incur the risks himself a liberal of the first water, White, proved to be a tough without a moment's hesitation. was accused of “defying public negotiator, scrutinizing microscop¬ On a blustery March I, the opinion"; extremists called for his ically every item on the list 1 North African Economic Accord resignation as a “Fascist." One handed him and scaling each one got under way with the sailing of might have thought that the de¬ down to a minimum. the French tanker Frinuiire, carry¬ partment's far-sighted diplomats, Although the last of the control ing a load of low-test gasoline for not Hitler and his cohorts, were the officers had reached his station by Casablanca, and late in April the real foes of democracy and free¬ the middle of May, the supply pro- 26 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June, 1979 gram didn't actually get into gear German intrigue among the Arabs, after a spate of reports that the until mid-summer of 1941. A shut¬ of the movement of Axis and Axis was about to take over de-‘ tle service of four French French shipping, of the private fense of the African territories. freighters—two sailing simulta¬ views of leading political figures in Whenever France seemed to be neously from each side of the the three different territories. Be¬ drifting closer to the shoals of col¬ Atlantic—began to transport their hind the scenes they made connec¬ laboration with the “New Order" American cargoes to Casablanca tions with individuals and groups in Europe, whenever rumors crop¬ and bring back token amounts of who showed interest in renewing ped up of massive German infiltra¬ Africa's natural resources to keep the fight against the Axis. They tion in Morocco, the future of the up the fiction of a trade. Thus the even contrived to set up clandes¬ accord—and of the control first direct links were forged with a tine ratio stations for instantaneous officers—hung by a thread. At city that would loom large in communication with Allied head¬ intervals, the thread seemed to American history books, giving quarters at Tangier, Gibraltar and have snapped entirely, and the credence to a prophecy made by London—a contribution of enor¬ trickle of supplies reaching North the distinguished French professor mous importance, especially when African ports would suddenly Louis Rougier. an emissary of the zero hour of our landings ar¬ cease. Bowing to pressure, the de¬ Vichy to the British, when he rived. As their expertise improved, partment would suspend the sail¬ called on me later that year. “In four of the original officers were al¬ ings. 1942 or 1943," he declared with lowed to resign and return to the By the spring of 1942 French of¬ uncanny prescience, “Casablanca United States, where the first-hand ficials were hard put to resist Ger¬ will be the most important port in man demands that the program be the world for the USA. By that terminated forthwith and Murphy time you'll be sending everything “The others were sent home. After all, the situation you've got into that area." contemptuously was unprecedented in the annals of Meanwhile, under the imagina¬ warfare: a neutralized nation. tive direction of Murphy from his dismissed as “a perfect Vichy France, was permitting the base in Algeria, the control officers picture of that savage representatives of a belligerent were starting to accumulate infor¬ power, America, to remain in its mation of incalculable value, some conglomeration called territory for the purpose of control¬ of it obtained at the risk of their the United States of ling shipments that didn't arrive. lives—information about the And if there were no shipments to beaches and their exits, including America . . . We can control, what excuse was there for sketches of possible landing sites; only congratulate control officers? about the tides, the currents and Why indeed did the Germans the seasonal winds and weather; ourselves on the tolerate for so long the existence of about the air fields and the port selection of this group what amounted to a network of works; about French defensive of enemy agents who American spies, functioning as it measures and the French order of did under the very noses of the battle. As a special concession, will give us no trouble.” Armistice Commission and with Weygand had accorded our consu¬ which it frequently came face to lar staffs the rights customarily re¬ face? Such forebearance could only served for diplomatic missions—to knowledge they had acquired was be explained by the incredible travel freely as couriers, to make made available to the State, War smugness with which the Nazis re¬ use of locked pouches, and to send and Navy Departments and the garded individual members of the cipher telegrams; he had signed a OSS. group. “Bob Murphy, the Big Boss secret understanding with Murphy When Pearl Harbor plunged of North Africa, is the only one to on the subject and the vice consuls America into the fray on December be reckoned with," boasted a re¬ made the most of their privileges. 7. 1941. the stream of intelligence, port to Berlin from the German As time went on, the band of for obvious reasons, took on added Consulate General in Casablanca, amateur investigators expanded the significance. A week before that purloined for one of the control of¬ scope of their activities, carefully pivotal event, Weygand was re¬ ficers by an informant known as sowing the seeds of friendship with called to France at German “Ritz." ", . . he is a man of ideas key military and naval personnel insistence—the Nazis no longer far above the average from the who might be in a position to swing trusted his loyalty to the Vichy European point of view and cer¬ sentiment toward America; with regime—and the problems of carry¬ tainly an extraordinary type for an tribal leaders and influential chief¬ ing out the economic accord in¬ American." The others were con¬ tains, such as El Glaoui, the pasha creased. if anything. Now North temptuously dismissed as “a per¬ of Marrakech; with sympathetic Africa was where America too fect picture of that savage con¬ French business circles, led by the might become militarily involved, glomeration called the United promient industrialist Jacques yet because we couldn’t broadcast States of America. . . We can only Lemaigre-Dubreuil; and with the full objectives of the accord congratulate ourselves on the Polish workers employed by the public criticism grew in intensity. selection of this group of enemy government, who had an effective The administration blew hot and agents who will give us no trouble. intelligence service of their own. cold in accordance with the politi¬ In view of the fact that they are to¬ From sources in the French under¬ cal winds from Vichy and its pro- tally lacking in method, organiza¬ ground they extracted details of German premier. Pierre Laval, or tion and discipline, the danger FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 27 presented by their arrival in North cause it could give them “aid and ation Torch"—perhaps the best Africa may be considered as nil. . . comfort." To the frustration of kept secret of the war—was by “It is unnecessary and would be 33-year-old Paul Guerin, patient then in an advanced planning stage. merely a waste of time." the report son of the president of Morocco’s Only a tight inner circle was in¬ concluded, “to describe their per¬ railways, who acted as Weygand's formed of the great military venture sonal idiosyncrasies and charac¬ purchasing agent in Washington, in the offing. But when Vice Con¬ teristics." A grudging exception other non-military articles like sul Frederick P. Culbert, a was made, however, in the case of bales of old clothing and typewrit¬ graduate of Annapolis and control David King, whose activities ad¬ ers were looked upon with equal officer at Dakar, was quietly re¬ mittedly might “one day prove of suspicion and disfavor. called to Washington in September inconvenience for us. Impenetra¬ In a barrage of cables and des¬ for duty with a “Western Task ble, too polite, entirely centered on patches, Murphy pleaded desper¬ Force," 1 felt assured that our his work ... to our mind he is the ately that the fate of the operation unique investment in North Africa only one worth careful supervision. was at stake, while the American was about to pay off. At the same He is too ostensibly discreet not to Joint Intelligence Committee in time. Vice Consuls John Knox be suspect." However grossly the Washington warned that if the con¬ from Algiers and Leland Rounds Germans underestimated the qual¬ trol officers were withdrawn from from Oran were ordered to Lon¬ ifications of the rest, their appraisal Africa "there would be virtually a don. where, because of their per¬ of King was right on the mark: to blackout of an entire and crucial sonal familiarity with the projected illustrate, it was the close personal region." Yet high officials ap¬ landing areas, they were able to contact between him and the peared unable or unwilling to per¬ render outstanding services in the French general Emile-Marie ceive the subtleties of the program: completion of final plans for the Bethouart that encouraged the lat¬ among them only Adolph A. Berle. invasion—the former as a member ter to cooperate with the United Jr., the assistant secretary for polit¬ of General Eisenhower's staff, the States, a factor of the utmost con¬ ical affairs, and the indefatigible latter as consultant to Allied Force sequence when our attack finally Wallace Murray, recently pro¬ Headquarters. A month later Mur¬ came. As “Big Boss" Murphy was moted as adviser on political rela¬ phy came briefly to the United to note in giving him an “excel¬ tions with the Near East and Af¬ States for consultation with the lent" on his efficiency report. rica, had the vision to try to salvage highest military and naval “Vice Consul King was the the plan and preserve the control strategists, which convinced me mainstay of our military and naval officers' cover. that the masquerade would soon be intelligence work at Casablanca." On the first day of a particularly over and that the economic accord There came a time when Cordell hot August—air conditioning had had at last fulfilled its purpose. Hull could no longer stomach alone yet to be widely used— I managed Then, on November 8. 1942, the the hue and cry raised over our so- to assemble a number of responsi¬ world was electrified by news of called “Vichy policy." The Secre¬ ble officials from various interested the Allied landings. Culbert, Knox tary of War. Henry L. Stimson. agencies in a last-ditch effort to and Rounds returned with the as¬ had written him a confidential letter break the deadlock. Admiral sault forces and played an active saying that the data furnished by William D. Leahy, who had been part in the ensuing operations, the control officers was proving our ambassdaor in Vichy and now while the other members of the useful and that the shipments was Roosevelt's strategy adviser, team distinguished themselves like should therefore be continued. But addressed the gathering on the veterans. John Boyd, for example, that was not enough. He cast about president's behalf. “Even at the organized and took charge of the for another agency to share the risk of driblets of supplies going to headquarters of more than 500 onus, and the Board of Economic the enemy,” he directed, “the French patriots who, on the night Warfare under Milo Perkins, lured shipments to North Africa should of the debarkation in Algiers, by the chance of pre-emptive buy¬ be speeded up. The president seized key points and held them ing in the North African territories, wishes to please the French in until the arrival of the Allied agreed to step into the breech. But every way possible." If a “good forces. Kenneth Pendar volun¬ from the State Department's point feeling" could be induced over teered to carry the famous message of view, this arrangement turned there, he added cryptically, “it from Admiral Darlan to the French out to be a pact with the devil. might save thousands of lives." To admiralty ordering the French to All through the sweltering sum¬ the admiral's amazement, chronic cease firing. Harry Woodruff vol¬ mer of 1942 the department and the objectors from the BEW brushed unteered to make contact with the BEW locked horns over questions aside his words and started to first troops to land. When the that verged on the absurd. For in¬ quibble over details. The stormy American consulate general at stance. the BEW's over-zealous session that ensued, if witnessed by Casablanca was surrounded by and independent-minded blockade an outsider, would have dispelled Gardes Mobiles, David King made and supply branch, which con¬ forever the illusion that the State his way through the French lines at trolled the issuance of export Department was a gentleman's great peril to his life and before licenses, objected to the export of club. Leahy walked out in disgust, capture alerted Consul General H. cotton cloth on the ground it might the meeting broke up in disorder, Earle Russell to burn all secret find its way into the hands of and I landed in bed with a high State and War Department codes, Rommel's soldiers and be made temperature. thus preventing them from falling into Nazi uniforms; tobacco was Admiral Leahy could not. of into the wrong hands. held up for the same reason be- course, reveal the fact that "Oper¬ Continued on page 34 28 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June. 1979 pushed the Sovfet Union over the mingham was obliterated. The al¬ pg; | BOOKSHELF abyss. lies immediately destroyed Minsk The Third World War began at in retaliation. Then Poland and 0400 (Central European time) on Kazakhstan rose in rebellion. Uk- Future Shock the fourth of August, 1985. The ranian dissidents in the KGB led a Soviets launched a massive, con¬ coup in Moscow; many senior Red THE THIRD WORLD WAR, A Future ventional assault across the North Army officers, willing to sacrifice History, by General Sir John Hackett, German plain. Their objective was the Soviet Union to save Russia, and others. Macmillan, $9.95. to knock the FRG out of the war, went along. The war was over; the In 1985, three superpowers—the drive to the Rhine, and then halt Soviet empire, its military strength United States, the USSR, and the and demand from the US a cease¬ insufficient to compensate for its China/Japan Co-Prosperity Sphere fire in place or risk a full-scale nu¬ political weakness, collapsed. —confronted one another. The clear war. If successful, this gambit Readers of this “future history” new American president, Thomp¬ would wipe the FRG off the map of may disagree with its details. They son, was a Southern Conservative Europe, push the frontier of may question if the USSR (or the Republican who had defeated Vice socialism to the Rhine, destroy the US, for that matter) would risk war President Mondale the year before NATO alliance, demoralize the in Europe without the support of (retiring at the same time Secretary US, and secure the Soviet empire tactical nuclear weapons or accept of State Brzezinski). A Popular from the temptations of capitalism defeat short of a full-scale nuclear Front governed France. Britain and Eurocommunism and the exchange. But the authors, several was led by a Tory Prime Minister, threats of German revanchism. To senior British officers and military Mrs. Plumber. An aging Politburo, succeed, the Soviet armies had to analysts, have invested their headed by President Vorotrikov, quickly reach the Rhine, before scenario with an awful credibility. ruled the USSR. superior American material re¬ Their lesson is clear: “if the crisis Major Soviet strategic gains in sources could be brought to the of 1985 had occurred ... in 1978, the past 10 years in the Middle East European theatre. it is . . . scarcely conceivable that and Africa had at last awakened the The Soviet invasion failed. the Soviet plan for an advance to NATO allies to the Soviet danger. Western intelligence had given the the Rhine, the dismemberment of The United States, recovered from Allies several days’ warning. To the Alliance and the total destruc¬ its post-Vietnam malaise, had rein¬ the Soviets' surprise, France tion of the Federal Republic of stituted conscription, built up committed her forces in Germany Germany could have failed given stocks of materiel in Europe, and to NATO. SACEUR made two the state of preparedness of the Al¬ significantly improved its air and critical decisions, which proved lies at that time." This book should sea transport capabilities. West decisive: not to use tactical nuclear be required bedside reading for the Germany had expanded its army weapons and not to commit his re¬ president and every member of into the largest NATO land force serves before reinforcements ar¬ Congress. in Europe, widely deployed its ex¬ rived from America. Superior al¬ —MICHAEL DAVIS cellent Leopard II tank, improved lied air and submarine defenses se¬ its civil defenses, and created an ef¬ cured the Atlantic air and sea Toward Peace in the fective reserve force. Britain had at bridge, and men (thanks to the Middle East last thrown off trade union rule, re¬ draft, the US had built up her ready UNDERGROUND TO PALESTINE AND stored prosperity, improved its air reserves) and materiel flowed into REFLECTIONS THIRTY YEARS LATER, and sea defenses, and reinforced Europe. After hard fighting on the hr I. F. Stone. Pantheon Books, the British Army of the Rhine. land and in the air, the Allied cen¬ $10.00. The Soviet leadership was not ter held. The Allies counterat¬ I. F. Stone, a distinguished unaware of these Allied gains, tacked on 15 August and the American journalist, recently re¬ though they believed the USSR re¬ Soviets gave ground. Flexibility of tired from the active pursuit of his tained overall military superiority. command, tactical air superiority, chosen profession and now devotes Alarmed by uprisings in Poland anti-tank weaponry, and above all. himself to study and reflection as a and East Germany, they sought to incredibly sophisticated electronic Scholar in Residence at The regain ground by stirring up trouble warfare technology allowed the Al¬ American University in Washing¬ in the Persian Gulf and Southern lies to prevail over the Warsaw ton. One may well hope for and ex¬ Africa. A February summit ap¬ Pact’s initiative, numbers, and pect more from his gifted mind and peared to calm the crisis, but the fixed battle plan. pen. The reader is not likely to be Soviets perceived the new Ameri¬ The Red Army in retreat had disappointed. can president as weak. They there¬ shown itself vincible. As in 1917, This essay is a reprint of his 1946 upon invaded fragmented, post- military defeat led to revolution. volume in which he portrays his Tito Yugoslavia in order to secure Polish partisans struck at Soviet underground journey, essentially it for Socialism and caution their communications. The Soviet Em¬ from New York and Eastern restless satellites. The United pire began to crack. Desperate Europe (Poland, Czechoslovakia, States unexpectedly intervened, Kremlin hawks decided on a last- etc.) to Palestine, traveling over and for the first time American and ditch throw of the nuclear dice: de¬ land and sea with Jewish refugees Soviet troops engaged each other in stroy a single, non-US city as a (or displaced persons) who had combat. The two superpowers demonstration of Soviet determina¬ survived the holocaust to Pales¬ might still have drawn back, but the tion, then invite the US to enter tine. His original account appeared momentum of military response into bilateral negotiations. Bir¬ in a series of articles in Ralph In-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 29 gersoll’s PM and was then re¬ years the United States govern¬ African syndrome, it is regrettable, printed in book form in 1946. In ment has begun to speak of the yet clear, that independence and many ways the book was a classic southern African region in a new liberation can probably only be document of the period and seems way. This rhetoric masks a process achieved by organized violence. It likely to remain so. Mr. Stone ap¬ of deepening involvement in south¬ would seem that the powers that be proached the problem from the ern African affairs. The United in Pretoria now prefer to transfer viewpoint of a journalist or reporter States is now actively engaged in titular power only after they have who wanted to see for himself what trying to shape events in southern lost the mandate to exercise real had happened to the Jewish DPs Africa. It now seeks a resolution to power, and only after a crisis of and what it meant to try to get to the problems of the region which confidence has occurred. Biko the much-too-much “promised will be compatible with the overall made it clear that he would have land” of Palestine. His was also a interests of the peoples of the area. preferred it otherwise. But the humanitarian point of view. While As one of the most well known and South African whites are culturally sympathetic with his coreligionists, articulate of South Africa’s na¬ and socially unable to deal with a and learning much from his under¬ tionalists, the late Steve Biko black in this vein. They only know ground journey to Palestine, he did pointed out that such was not al¬ how to deal in a master-servant re¬ not allow his feelings to interfere ways the case. During the early lationship. with his attempt to get at the facts years of the Nixon Administration, This brief tome makes it clear and present a responsible picture of Henry Kissinger called for a major that Steve Biko was prepared to die what was going on. review of US policy toward the for the cause of South Africa. He During the ensuing thirty years, whole area in April 1969. The re¬ was himself the living embodiment Mr. Stone changed his perspective view. known as National Security of the hope that freedom would one and he so states very frankly. As a Study Memorandum #39, tilted day come to South Africa. In order result—and despite his proved de¬ US policy towards supporting the to understand what one powerful votion to the Zionist cause—he minority, white-dominated regimes South African black leader dreams found himself practically boycotted of the area. It was only in April for his people, the hopes he has for by the Jewish community. Because 1974 that this entire policy was them, and the way he envisages the he had become a dissident, he was called into question because of a future, the writings of Steve Biko no longer invited regularly to lec¬ revolution in Portugal which led to are highly recommended reading. ture and publication became dif¬ the independence of Angola and The price for the book is well ficult. He now had the audacity to Mozambique. Even with this earned because Biko powerfully point out that Palestine was not kingpin of US policy severely and succinctly imparts that mes¬ “an unpeopled land" awaiting the shaken, the United States re¬ sage. The memoirs of Father advent of a “landless people.” He mained committed to support for Stubbs are pale by comparison and wrote and said that the Palestinian the regimes deemed to best serve need not be read. Arabs, in their conflict with the its interests. Steve Biko, in an un¬ —ROY A. HARRELL, JR. Zionist Jews had been made to suf¬ usually well-articulated series of fer unjustly and had lost their writings, tried to show the absur¬ The Polling Pace homes, their livelihood and their dity of this policy of the US to its country. allies. AMERICAN PUBLIC OPINION AND US As a follower of Hans Kohn, It is most unfortunate that most FOREIGN POLICY 1979, by John E. Ahad Ha’am, Judah L. Magnes of the world only knows Biko in the Rielly. Chicago Council on Foreign and Martin Buber, Stone utterly re¬ dreadful context of his death. Relations. $2.00. jects the point of view of Prime Those who are qualified to do any This small booklet is a report Minister Begin. Stone insists that definitive writing on Steve are based on a Gallup survey carried Jews and Arabs “must live to¬ either in detention, banned, on out in December 1978. This is the gether in the same Palestinian state Robben Island (prison near Cape second public opinion survey and or side by side in two Palestinian Town), or in exile. Even this selec¬ analysis sponsored by the Chicago states.” He holds that the path to tion of his writings is presented not Council on Foreign Affairs, and it reconciliation alone can guarantee by an African, but rather by an appears exactly four years after the Israel's survival. It cannot achieve Anglican priest who first went to first, conducted in December 1974. security by armed conflict. This is South Africa in 1969. The selec¬ The American public and the a book which ought to be widely tions chosen for this book nonethe¬ country’s opinion leaders are read by all those who seek to pro¬ less demonstrate the type of person preoccupied with what they see as mote the welfare and the peace and Steve Biko was. Contrary to South the diminishing position of the security of the Middle East. African propaganda, these writings United States as the pre-eminent —HARRY N. HOWARD demonstrate him to have been rea¬ global power. They exhibit eco¬ sonable. non-racist, and genuinely nomic and military insecurity, wor¬ interested in the future of his coun¬ rying over the steep decline in the Liberty or Death try. value of the dollar and a perceived SUM BIRO: / Write What / Like, A Alas, the voice of reason is to¬ increase in Soviet military power. Selection of His Writings edited with a tally ignored by South African au¬ Their support for defense spending Personal Memoir h\ Aelred Stubbs, thorities. Steve Biko was detained is high; yet they are wary of the C. R. Harper & Row. $8.95. by the South African police and kind of direct involvement in the af¬ Americans are becoming increas¬ died in detention. Thus it was clear fairs of other countries that charac¬ ingly aware that in the last three to Steve Biko that in the southern terized American foreign policy

30 FOREI ON SERVICE JOURNAL. June. 1979 during the past decade. Americans 1974 survey was conducted in the is volatile and can be swayed eas¬ today have a heightened feeling of immediate aftermath of the Viet¬ ily, not only by events, but also by self-interest in their country’s be¬ nam War, a traumatic time at which a determined policy maker. Public half. They are concerned about interest in foreign policy was at its policy should not be based on the securing an adequate supply of postwar high. One can note in this results of polls and, in particular, energy and protecting American report a dramatic fall in the “Don’t on polls taken at different times and jobs, rather than about altruistic Know" categories depending on asking different questions. goals such as combating world whether an item has been in the —CHARLES R. FOSTER hunger and bringing democracy to news recently or not. Furthermore, other nations. frequently the wording of the ques¬ Eretz Israel Other interesting findings of the tions in different surveys is not survey are that 40 percent of the comparable. For instance, on the ISRAEL: THE EMBATTLED AI LY, by public favors the United States tak¬ important question of our reactions Nadav Safran. The Belknap Tress of ing an active stance in opposing to various scenarios involving Rus¬ The Tress, $18.50. apartheid in South Africa, 72 per¬ sian threats to our interest, the 1974 It is especially important to read cent of the public agree that the survey simply asked whether the and study a volume of this kind dur¬ Vietnam war was fundamentally respondent favors or opposes the ing the present critical period in the wrong and immoral, and only four use of US troops. In the 1978 sur¬ history of the Middle East. Profes¬ percent believe Africa to be an im¬ vey the respondent is given a wide sor Safran, who came to the United portant foreign policy focus. choice of possible responses rang¬ States from Israel in 1950 and be¬ Yet those in the foreign policy ing from doing nothing to sending came an American citizen in 1963, field must be careful about the im¬ troops. As a result of the change in tells us that his massive tome is de¬ plications drawn from reports such wording the “Don't Knows" signed to reach the general public as this one. Foreign policy survey dropped by about ten per cent. as well as specialists in Middle data tend to be easily influenced by Thus the increased willingness to Eastern affairs. He also advises us other considerations because engage troops after a lapse of four at the very outset that seldom in the foreign policy attitudes are usually years could be attributed either to history of international relations not well crystallized. Although the the fading of the memory of Viet¬ has such a world power as the samples in the 1978 and the 1974 nam or to the wider range of re¬ United States been involved so in¬ reports appear to be comparable, sponses provided. tensely and for so long with such a the two time frames are not. The Public opinion on foreign policy small state as Israel. In order to

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAI .June. 1979 31 explain and clarify complex prob¬ blitzkrieg of June 1967, and the Oc¬ ers with annotations of any kind, lems, the author attempts to tober 1973 war. whether in his bibliography or in provide a detailed and comprehen¬ In a concluding overview of the specific footnote citations. It would sive portrait of Eretz Israel before “special American-Israeli relation¬ have been helpful to have suppor¬ going on to trace the historical de¬ ship,” the author presents a tive evidence for some of the data velopment of the so-called “spe¬ straight-out Zionist interpretation presented in the volume. The book cial" Israeli-American relation¬ of events and makes an ex parte should be carefully studied along ship. plea for a formal American-Israeli with a host of scholarly works Essentially, Professor Safran has alliance or mutual security pact. which present a different point of written two books within the cov¬ Even Prime Minister David Ben- view from that in this ex parte ers of a single volume. Book I Gurion recognized that Israel and pleading. traces the evolution of Eretz Israel, the United States had different —HARRY N. HOWARD concentrating on the origins of the interests and did not pursue the modem state, the physical, human, same policies in the Middle East. economic and constitutional envi¬ Professor Safran well knows that WOMAN’S PLACE ronment, the pattern of Israeli Israel has not been and is not now “In the United States in 1971, internal politics, the problems of an ally of the United States and women held a mere 150 of the 10.000 would have little, indeed, to offer national defense and threats, re¬ jobs in the executive branch with sponses and implications. Book II such an alliance. Israel is a client of salaries of $26,000 or more. A more is particularly concerned with Is¬ the United States, whose very exis¬ comprehensive profile of the US civil rael and the United States in inter¬ tence depends on massive Ameri¬ service in 1974 was similarly revealing: national politics. The author car¬ can aid, economic and military. Is¬ almost 3 out of 4 white-collar workers ries the reader back to the period of rael is a problem, not an American in the six lower grades were women. 1 1947-1948. when the UN General security interest. Maintenance of out of 4 in the six middle grades, and 1 Assembly recommended the parti¬ Israeli military superiority through out of 20 in the six highest. The tion of Palestine and the establish¬ the "special" relationship with the pyramid narrowed consistently toward the top. with the highest grade-level ment of the state of Israel United States will do little to meet containing only 1 or 2 women per (November 29, 1947). He takes the Israel’s basic issues with its hundred employees. Some departments reader through the various conflicts neighbors. within the government were even from 1948-1949. the Anglo- Although the book is well written worse than others."—The Sisterhood Franco-Israeli attack on Egypt (the and well presented, the author has of Man, by Kathleen Newland. Nor¬ Suez conflict of 1956), the Israeli not bothered his prospective read¬ ton. $3.95.

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32 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, dime. 1979 WHO TRUSTS THE RUSSIANS as specifically authorized by Con¬ from page 23 gress. MOBILE UNITS after he passed papers relating to Since the “adequacy” of verifi¬ DELIVER HEALTH & EDUCATIONAL Soviet SALT compliance to cation is a judgmental determina¬ SERVICES TO THOSE WHO NEED THEM MOST. Richard Perle. These documents, tion, there will be differences of containing eight classification opinion. No responsible person categories above top secret, were “trusts” the Soviet Union, or any later returned after CIA Director other nation, in matters of supreme Turner reportedly demanded (un¬ national importance. Trust is not successfully) that Jackson fire the issue. Perhaps the most basic Perle. (F) Finally, Carter’s skill in question, which is ultimately a congressional relations could prove normative one, is—where do we determinative. But, as an interview want to take our risks for national with Carter by Professor James and international security? No MacGregor Burns revealed in early course of action is risk free. By the 1979, there was room for skepti¬ spring of 1979 it was clear to SALT cism on this score. In the interview supporters that, though partial and Carter stated that, should Congress imperfect, the SALT II accords reject SALT II. he would on his posed far fewer risks to national own authority observe the terms of survival and well-being than a to¬ a SALT agreement as long as he tally unrestrained escalation to was president. As laudable as this weapons of mass destruction. What position may seem to some, it was was not evident at this time, how¬ a tactical blunder that suggested an ever, was whether two-thirds of the insensitivity to the Senate’s con¬ Senate would reach the same con¬ Mobile dental clinic reflecting the qual¬ ity that has earned Medical Coaches the stitutional prerogatives and it was clusion. And, even apart from reputation as one of the world’s finest criticized by several legislators. It SALT, there was a growing con¬ specialized vehicle manufacturers. also overlooked the stipulation of sensus that future prospects for MEDICAL COACHES INCORPORATED the ACD act that no “action” shall arms control would be increasingly MEDICOACH be taken to reduce or limit US circumscribed by verification-re¬ armed forces or armaments except lated issues. HEMLOCK RD„ ONEONTA, N.Y. 13820 TEL. AC 607-432-1333 • TWX 510-241-8294

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June, 1979 33 CIA IN EMBRYO who voluntarily jeopardized his life for reflect “great credit and glory upon from page 28 the success of his country's cause in the whole nation.” battle, reflect great credit and glory Secretary Hull cabled Murphy upon the whole nation. his high gratification “at the suc¬ After the war Medals for Merit, Now it could be told. Secretary cessful results of our policy ... in each bearing the signature of a de¬ Hull didn’t hesitate for a second to the formulation and execution of ceased President Roosevelt and let the world know what lay behind which you had such an important held over for security reasons, the North African Economic Ac¬ part. Your patience, tact and sound were awarded to the twelve vice cord all along. After smarting judgment,” he said, “were the consuls who participated in the under the lash of the misguided and basis on which that policy rested.” dramatic events during the inva¬ the ill-informed, his department And 1 was rewarded with a letter sion. The citation for “exception¬ could be pardoned for a certain from my fellow warrior in the battle ally meritorious conduct” that ac¬ amount of exultation at the out¬ of Washington, the British embas¬ companied the medal given to come of what was, in effect, a CIA sy's Wyndham-White, who gal¬ Gordon H. Browne, of Boston, exercise long before a CIA came lantly hastened to offer his con¬ Massachusetts, typified the high into being. The notably brief resis¬ gratulations on the “brilliant suc¬ esteem in which the valorous vice tance to our arms by the French cess” of the North African consuls were held: throughout North Africa, with the venture. “It must be a source of . . . knowing that only with great dif¬ exception of their naval compo¬ the greatest satisfaction,” he ficulty could a member of the armed nents at Casablanca, was due in wrote, “after so many months of forces be procured prior to the invasion large measure to the groundwork the heart-breaking task of adminis¬ to install and operate a secret radio lis¬ skillfully laid by Murphy and the tering the North African accord to tening device, himself volunteered to courageous control officers whom see your hopes so magnificently render this service for the landing of the he had welded into one of the finest fulfilled.” He himself had always American paratroop force near intelligence units produced by the felt that the turning point in the war Tafaraoui. Algeria. Realizing the con¬ war. It held down the number of would come in the Western sequences if apprehended, disregarding his own safety, he remained with the casualties and thus spared our ex¬ Mediterranean. 1 could not but instrument for four hours under fire, peditionary forces a possible heavy agree with him when he added that and then upon completion of his mis¬ loss of life. Besides bringing well- “now with our great base in North sion. assisted in its disposal. The heroic deserved laurels to the Foreign Africa we can begin to envisage the and fearless loyalty of Gordon Browne, Service, the operation did indeed final assault.”

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34 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 END OF THE PICNIC ERA group tipped the archduke a Swiss 100-franc banknote, from page 9 the equivalent of about $20. Franz Ferdinand was so amused by this mistake that he had had the banknote government of Austria-Hungary the sincere condolences framed. of the government and people of the United States and an expression of my profound sympathy.” On Thursday the bodies arrived in Vienna and final On the third day the embalmed bodies were taken by preparations were being made for the funeral. Fri¬ special train to Metkivitch, Herzegovina, where they day's newspapers noted that foreign visitors, and most were transported by the royal yacht Dalmat to the mouth notably the German kaiser, would not be attending the of the River Narenta. There they were placed aboard an funeral—allegedly on request of Emperor Franz Josef Austrian battleship for the slow voyage to Trieste. who wished to keep the funeral ceremonies as quiet as By Wednesday all news of the assassinations had been possible. It was hinted, though, that the real reason was relegated to the inside pages of most American newspa¬ fear on the part of the Austrian government that the lives pers. A small piece on the bottom of page three in the of the royal personages would be in danger. New York Times told of how news of the assassinations was broken to the royal children, the oldest of whom was The rotogravure section of the Sunday New York thirteen years old. The three children were at Chiumetz Times printed a portrait of Archduke Charles, the Castle in Bohemia. News reached the castle at noon on handsome new heir to the Austrian throne, and his young Sunday, but was kept from the children until later that wife, Princess Zita of Bourbon Parma. Several small ar¬ evening. The children were told by their religious instruc¬ ticles relating to the funeral appeared on page three of the tor to go to the chapel and pray, and they broke into second section, but for most Americans the affair was convulsive weeping when informed that their parents over. were dead. Sunday was the Fourth of July and band concerts, Thursday’s New York Times devoted only one column parades, and speeches were scheduled throughout the of news to the assassinations. It published a telegram of country. There would be outings in the country, picnics, condolence sent by the German emperor to the orphans, and evening fireworks. The weather in New York was and another short article relating an incident which once fair, with temperatures reaching a high of 73 degrees. involved the archduke while he was on one of his fre¬ Official celebrations began in the city at 10 a.m. with a quent hunting trips to Switzerland. A party of Americans speech by Mayor Mitchel at city hall. That afternoon, had lost its way and mistook the archduke for a tour games were held at playgrounds and recreation piers guide. After being led to "safety,” one member of the throughout the city, and municipal parks were strung

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36 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June. 1979 OUTER SPACE AND of sovereignty over outer space or constraints. But the statement did FOREIGN AFFAIRS celestial bodies and limitations on not identify any major new space from page 13 the right to acquire data from projects after the Shuttle, and spe¬ space, and said that the US would cifically rejected any high- the writing of precise regulations. regard purposeful interference with challenge space engineering initia¬ The Moon Treaty discussions also space systems as an infringement tive comparable to Apollo. It illustrate what some space lawyers on sovereign rights. While discus¬ warned that funding for civil space see as a general trend in space law sing remote sensing and the Space programs may be contracted after away from the concept of res Transportation System (the Space the Space Shuttle is developed. communis—common use as on the Shuttle), the release did not suggest One of the most controversial high seas—and toward the concept any new civil space programs. space policy issues during this that outer space and celestial There was a strong emphasis on de¬ period was the anti-satellite bodies are the common heritage of fense preparedness in space, in¬ (ASAT) question. Soviet ASAT mankind. cluding a statement that the United testing, renewed in 1976 after a Redefining the US Role in Space States would respond to Soviet four-year hiatus, provoked concern anti-satellite activities by fielding in the United States about threats In 1977 and 1978, the Carter an AS AT system of its own if veri¬ to its satellites, and about a Soviet Administration undertook the first fiable, comprehensive limits on unilateral military advantage. The full-scale review of all sectors of ASAT capabilities and use could unclassified literature shows that the US space program since the not be negotiated. ASAT systems have a long history; National Aeronautics and Space A follow-on study of civil space during the Johnson administration, Act of 1958. The first public docu¬ policy led to another release on Oc¬ high officials stated that the United ment to come out of this study, a tober 11, 1978. US civil space pol¬ States had an operational ASAT White House press release dated icy was to assure American scien¬ system, and the Soviets clearly had June 20, 1978, noted a distinction tific and technological leadership in begun testing theirs by 1968. The between civil and national security space, foster international space Carter Administration apparently related space programs and said cooperation, emphasize space ap¬ has pursued a two-track policy, that efforts would be made to better plications concerning earth re¬ seeking an ASAT arms control coordinate the two. The release sources, climate, weather, pollu¬ agreement with the USSR while took a tough line on US freedom to tion and agriculture, and space sci¬ reportedly accelerating work on the operate in space, rejecting claims ence and exploration within fiscal development of a new ASAT sys-

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 37 tem. The first round of ASAT arms Shuttle will allow the assembly of cepts in its Salyut space stations. control talks was held in Helsinki large structures in space, including In 1968, engineer Peter Glaser sug¬ in June, 1978, and a second round “antenna farms” that would con¬ gested satellite solar power stations in Bern in February, 1979. centrate the functions now per¬ that would collect solar energy in formed by several satellites, easing space and beam it in concentrated Looking Toward the Future the problems of crowding and radio form to receivers on the earth, Critics of the administration's interference in orbit. There has which could feed it into central space policy have claimed that it been discussion of a “global infor¬ power grids. Others have proposed lacks goals, does not take advan¬ mation system” which would con¬ mining the Moon and the asteroids tage of new opportunities for the tinuously monitor the state of the to escape the resource limitations use of space systems and may planet through satellites. of the earth. Princeton physicist erode the US position of leadership There also have been more am¬ Gerard O'Neill has linked many of in space. Senators Adlai Stevenson bitious proposals for the large-scale these concepts together in a system and Harrison Schmitt have pro¬ expansion of the human economy which would build satellite solar posed space policy bills that would into space and for space systems power stations and space manufac¬ expand US use of space in the which would be used to improve turing facilities from lunar and as- 1980s with a variety of new civil conditions on earth. For years, teroidal resources, which can be systems. Administration officials aerospace engineer Krafft Ehricke transported to space factories with have responded by saying that the has been advocating “Solettas,” less energy than minerals from the future of the civil space program is giant orbiting reflectors that would earth. budget-limited and that many pro¬ redirect solar energy to cooler re¬ Such large projects could sup¬ posed projects need further study gions to extend agricultural grow¬ port sizable populations in space before major commitments are ing seasons, or to provide illumina¬ and on the Moon, perhaps eventu¬ made. tion at night. G. Harry Stine and ally leading to permanent human There is no shortage of ideas. others have proposed space fac¬ settlements beyond the earth. Technologists have proposed that tories that would process materials These activities would test the satellites could be used for a daz¬ under unique conditions (e.g., zero adequacy of the existing interna¬ zling array of new services, from gravity, vacuum) and make spe¬ tional legal regime for space, and monitoring forest fires to enabling cialized products, without further might force revisions. Important communication to wrist-band polluting the biosphere: the Soviet economic installations in space radios. The advent of the Space Union is testing some of these con¬ might require new security ar-

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38 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 rangements, through international European and Japanese interest in taking the initiative in forming a administration, arms control or in¬ these fields. Powersat consortium, might be spection, or the presence of mili¬ A more spectacular possibility is able to shape the international tary forces. The governance of ex¬ an international satellite solar energy politics of the future. traterrestrial communities could power system. This would involve raise complex legal questions, par¬ a number of giant structures as¬ No such visions will be realized ticularly if they eventually sembled in space and placed in if one or more nation states do achieved some degree of self- geosynchronous orbit, and as many not develop and test the compo¬ sufficiency and independent bar¬ ground receivers in different coun¬ nents of space industrialization. gaining power. tries as were necessary. While White House policy statements Space industrialization would there is controversy over the eco¬ have declared it premature to present not only problems for US nomics and environmental effects commit the United States to a policy, but opportunities. COM¬ of such a system, there is little space factory or satellite solar SAT has provided one model of doubt as to its engineering feasibil¬ power station, but have pointed out how space systems might be man¬ ity. If it proved politically accept¬ that useful intermediate steps can aged internationally; the United able and commercially competi¬ be pursued to allow the develop¬ States could take the initiative in tive, energy could be beamed to ment and testing of key proposing others as they became any point on the earth where it was technologies and experience in feasible and economically attrac¬ needed, without regard for shipping space industrial operations. If the tive, using its technological leader¬ lanes, ports, customs barriers, United States chooses not to lead ship to establish a position of policy pipelines, roads or railroads, or the the way in the industrialization of influence within the new organiza¬ location of oil fields and coal space, it may have to accept the tion. The new European-built mines. Such a system eventually fact that human activity beyond the Spacelab, to be carried into orbit could free the participating nations earth will be shaped increasingly by on the US Space Shuttle, shows from their dependence on cartels others. The first two decades of the that complex technological projects which control scarce—and dimi¬ space age have made it clear that in space can be managed multina- nishing—energy resources. The in¬ the uses of space are not just ques¬ tionally. This might allow joint ternational management of a Pow- tions of science and technological funding, manning and operation of ersat system would be a challenge prestige, but of national well-being space processing and manufactur¬ to political and organizational in¬ and influence over the human fu¬ ing facilities, particularly in view of genuity. But the United States, by ture.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June, 1979 39 1-0 I SPECIAL would soon be taking a three week rQj SERVICES LETTERSTO pgj vacation. “I think the department will cave in on this one” he said In order to be of maximum assistance to with mixed feelings. Mixed be¬ On Student Visas AFSA members and Journal readers we are cause if the department authorized accepting these listings until the 15th of I would like to comment on visa issuance the tirades would end each month for publication in the issue Gerald Wunsch's very perceptive but fully aware that he would face dated the following month. The rate is 40C per word, less 2% for payment in advance, letter to the editor in the February, at least one more fit of pique since minimum 10 words. Mail copy for adver¬ 1979, FSJ. the American wife had always been tisement and check to: Classified Ads, Wunsch’s proposal that “for certain that the only reason her Foreign Service Journal, 2101 E Street, every year of education provided in husband could not receive a visa N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037. the United States, the (foreign) was due to some personal vendetta student must agree to spend an on the consul’s part. SHOPPING SERVICES equal period of time back in his My supervisor never got the PERSONALIZED SHOPPING SERVICE. For a small own country before he can emi¬ chance to take his vacation. He fee we will shop for you at Bloomingdale's, Gar- grate to or work in the US ... No finckel’s, Woodward & Lothrop, Hecht’s, died suddenly of a heart attack the Hechinger’s, Peoples Drug Store, McLean Elec¬ adjustments of status, even if he or first week of August, about one tronics and Camera or W. Bell and Co. Write: she marries an American citizen” week after the American wife's last Phoenix Enterprises, P.0. Box 406, Vienna, Vir¬ sounds reasonable. It would cer¬ visit. ginia 22180 for details. tainly make our work adjudicating 1 don't know how the case was FOR RENT student visa applications easier. resolved: 1 was soon transferred to DUTCH COLONIAL HOUSE in Washington, D.C. But my guess is that such a regula¬ another section. My guess is, from August 1979 to August 1980. Furnished or tion might not work unless the though, that the Indian engineer is unfurnished. Close to main bus routes. Central air-conditioning. Three bedrooms, three bath¬ State Department held firm in now living and working as a legal rooms, living room, separate dining room, every case. The regulation might alien resident in the US and will library-study, kitchen, finished basement, en¬ even increase our consular work¬ soon complete his three years of closed backyard with patio and garage. Write load. Let me illustrate. When I residency and become a US citi¬ Pennisi, 4232 Reno Rd.. N.W., 20008. Tel. (202) 244-4908. worked in Canada, one applicant zen. APARTMENT WANTED for an immigrant visa, an Indian Mr. Wunsch’s “very brief engineer married to an American WANTED—Efficiency or one-bedroom, furnished amendment to the INA” would, in apartment, convenient to Department from Au¬ citizen, was found ineligible for his my opinion cause the repetition of gust 1, 1979 to December 21, 1979 at minimal visa because he was subject to Sec¬ the episode described above in caretaker rate. TOM WALSH, AMERICAN EM¬ tion 212 (e) of the INA; that is, he dozens of foreign service posts all BASSY, 100 WELLINGTON STREET, OTTAWA, ON¬ was required to spend two years in over the world. TARIO, CANADA KIP 5T1. India before immigrating to the US MICHAEL J. GUIGNARD HOME LEAVE because he had participated in a San Jose ANSWER TO your home leave/hot summer prob¬ lem. 3-br. mountain home on Deep Creek Lake in government-funded exchange vis¬ Western Maryland. Private dock. Monthly/weekly itor program. The visa refusal summer rentals. Write Ramsay, 1705 Cedar Park seemed a simple one. “Sorry, noth¬ Road, Annapolis, Md. 21401. (301) 267-8735. ing we can do, the law says. . .” Cover Praise VACATION RENTALS It turned out not to be so simple. ADIRONDACK LODGES on Upper Saranac Lake. The American citizen felt that the May 1 express my admira¬ Available for two weeks or a month, July through , consul’s position was cruel and September. Everything provided for comfortable tion for the beauty of the cover— living in the quiet woods. Please write Bartlett heartless. “ Did she not have a right both inside and out—of the Carry Club. RD 1, Tupper Lake, NY 12986. as an American citizen . . .” Soon January, 1979, issue. The savage BOOKS my supervisor, who was handling beauty of the bridge, and the PUBLISH YOUR BOOK! Join our successful au¬ the case, was on the receiving end gorgeous girls on the inside, made thors. Publicity, advertising, beautiful books. All of weekly tirades on the part of the me remove the cover for my files. subjects invited. Send for fact-filled booklet and American citizen. Sometimes she The index does not say in what free manuscript report. Carlton Press, Dept. called, but usually she came in per¬ country is the Diani River. FSR, 84 Fifth Avenue, New York 10011, son to cajole, complain, cry. HEYWARD G. HILL GREAT BOOKS FOR CHILDREN. Mosby, the Ken¬ scream, hurl diatribes. Then came FSO-Ret. 11 nedy Center Cat (ages 7-12), $7.95. Where’s the memos, reports and letters to Rachel? (sequel to Arthur, the White House Athens, Greece Mouse, ages 7-12), $7.95. This is Washington, be written. First to his supervisors, D.C. (ages 6-9), $4.95. Adventures in Art: Na¬ then to V.O., then to a slew of EDITOR’S NOTE: Our January cover ar¬ tional Gallery of Art (9-adult), cloth $14.95, lawyers. Congressmen, Senators, tist, Maryam Sarkisian, tells us that the paper $7.95. Museum People (Smithsonian and. yes, even to the White House. Diani River is in Guinea and our adver¬ Museum, Ages 8-16), $8.95. Order with VISA/ tising people tell us that the "gorgeous MAC from BARCROET BOOKS, 6349A Columbia Not only did my supervisor have to girls’’ were by Heublein. Pike, Bailey’s Crossroads, Va. 22041. explain the law but he had to de¬ GIVE-A-BOOK GIFT CERTIFICATES available for fend himself against charges of sending anywhere in the US. Redeemable at hun¬ rudeness and callousness. dreds of participating bookstores in all 50 The case dragged on for months The JOURNAL welcomes the expression of states. Available in denominations of $2.50, and took a heavy toll on my boss. its readers' opinions in the form of letters to $5.00, $10.00, $25.00. Enclosure cards (op¬ He called me into his office in late the editor. All letters are subject to conden¬ tional) 35c. Charge to VISA or MAC. Order from sation if necessary. Send to: Letters to the BARCROFT BOOKS, 6349A Columbia Pike, July, 1976 to brief me on the latest Editor. Foreign Service JOURNAL, 2101 E Bailey's Crossroads, Va. 22041. I developments in the case, since he Street, N.W.. Washington. D.C. 20037.

40 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June, 1979 JUNE, 1979

This portion of the JOURNAL is the re¬ IRS v. HOME LEAVE sponsibility of the Governing Board of AFSA and is intended to report on Is the IRS harassing Foreign Service amount equal to a per diem allowance. employee-management issues, condi¬ people on the issue of deduction of Employees whose place of residence is tions of employment and the policy and home leave expenses as a business ex¬ in the Fourth or Ninth Circuits should administration of AFSA. including its pense when completing annual income file their returns with the appropriate Board, Committees, and Chapters. tax returns? As reported in the Sep¬ IRS office. If the tax return is chal¬ Members wishing to send letters on tember 1978 issue of the Journal, the lenged by IRS, the employee should employment, working conditions or Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals found justify the home leave expense deduc¬ AFSA affairs should get them to AFSA in the Hitchcock case that expenses in¬ tion on the basis of the court decision by the 10th of the month preceding de¬ curred during home leave by the and our information indicates that IRS sired publication. AFSA News Commit¬ employee (not the employee’s family) will then, but only then, approve the tee, Room 3644, N.S. are legitimate business deductions. claim. This decision reinforced the earlier Home leave tax deduction cases in CONTENTS similar decision in the Stratton case by other jurisdictions are before several Report on ICA 42 the Ninth Circuit Court. Even though courts. AFSA is watching these de¬ For Retirees 42 the IRS did not appeal either of these velopments closely. One of these cases High-One Annuity 42 decisions to the Supreme Court, IRS was recently the subject of a split deci¬ Affirmative Action 43,44,45 continues to inform the public that sion by the United States Court of home leave expenses are not allowable Claims (Bell v. The United States, No. AFSA ELECTIONS tax deductions. 179-74). In this case, the majority of the Tax payers resident in the Fourth judges on the court were persuaded The AFSA Elections Committee has and Ninth Circuits are clearly entitled that “the plaintiff was not entitled to announced that it received, on May 14, under the courts’ decisions to deduct recover because the expenses had not notice from Vice Presidential Candi¬ home leave expenses, but we are re¬ been incurred while away from home date Barbara Bodine that for compel¬ ceiving reports that IRS intends to nor in pursuit of a trade or business." ling personal reasons she is withdraw¬ audit all tax returns which include such In this case, the employee had taken ing her candidacy from the AFSA a claimed deduction. If true, this would home leave between two different as¬ Governing Board elections. Her notice be a form of improper harassment. signments and the court held that the of withdrawal was received too late for AFSA continues to advise foreign employee had abandoned his foreign her name to be removed from the bal¬ service employees to claim deductions residence, was "homeless” and thus lot. for home leave expenses incurred by did not meet the requirement that the Ronald Witherell, candidate for the themselves but not their families. Keep “expense must be incurred ‘while away office of Vice President, is running as a records and receipts of all expenses and from home.’ ” The text of the Bell de¬ member of the Representative Slate. do not count on being able to claim an cision will be published in a forthcom¬ Through an error. Mr. Witherell’s slate ing issue of the Journal. affiliation was not mentioned on the ballot. The Committee also wishes to re¬ mind members that, in order to be counted, a ballot must be returned to 1979 MERIT AWARDS reach the Committee at the designated address on the mailing envelope by The AFSA Committee on Education Susan C. Sigda June 29. Also, appropriate postage is pleased to announce the names of the The following received honorable stamps must be placed on the cover en¬ recipients of the 1979 Merit Awards for mention: velope as mail delivery can reach that outstanding academic achievement: Constance C. Austin address only through the facilities of Gregory Rollin Andrews Margaret H. Bartlett the United States Postal Service. If Bruce A. Aylward Efren V. Garcia Departmental internal mail service is John P. Clyne Laura E. Jones used, envelope must bear a 154 stamp. Evelyn T. Cohen Christopher F. Keiter Christine M. Courtney Daniel S. Komitor OUTRAGE OF THE MONTH Claire P. Engelhart Melina R. Linder Marc C. Ericksen Paul A. McCusker Management Dragging Its Heels Scott J. Dolgoff Steven P. Sherper In October 1978, Congress passed Karen M. Flaten Amy K. Taylor the State Authorization Act FY 1979 Anna Lea P. Florey Kim L. Wells which included provisions allowing Susan A. Fritts These merit awards to graduating employees to take Rest and Recupera¬ Laura L. Gaudian high school students have been made tion Leave in the United States and a Brian S. Heaney possible again this year by the generous limited exemption from the Fly Kenneth F. Hewes-Manapol contribution of the Association of America Act. Since then we have been Stephen A. Higginson American Foreign Service Women pressing Management to develop im¬ Natalie S. Hulen (AAFSW) from funds raised at their plementing regulations. Eight months Elizabeth E. Kiss annual Book Fair and of the American later, Management continues to profess Randall H. Lee Foreign Service Association Schol¬ that it is still in the process of drafting Christopher W. Lehfeldt arship Fund. the necessary regulations. Such foot Laura D. Montgomery A story on the awards and the recipi¬ dragging is an outrage. Becky J. Segall ents will appear in the August Journal. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June. 197V 41 Association of American Foreign Service 'Mamen EDUCATIONAL AND COUNSELING SERVICE OFFICE MOVES For many years AFSA has helped office will provide educational informa¬ provide educational and counseling tion on public and private schools in the services to children of Foreign Service Washington area, on private boarding Needs You! employees. In more recent times this schools throughout the United States If you have BOOKS, MAPS, was accomplished through the Foreign and overseas, and information on MAGAZINES RECORDS, SHEET Service Educational and Counseling higher education in the United States. MUSIC or STAMPS to donate; if you Service, a joint activity of AFSA and FLO is also able to administer the can glean from your collections and the Association of American Foreign Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory PAINTINGS, POSTERS, PRINTS or Service Women. However, AAFSW test and the Scholastic Aptitude Test COLLECTIBLES; MOW is the time to recently withdrew its support from for learning disabled children. bring them in, or CALL 632-9411 for a FSECC and AFSA was concerned One function of the FSECC not pick-up. whether it could finance this important being transferred to FLO is the pro¬ If you have TIME to sort, price or operation on its own. We are now gram of Special Grants. These grants pick-up, come to the bookroom. eighth pleased to announce that FSECC ser¬ have provided support on a limited floor of the State Department. vices will continue to be available: It basis to many Foreign Service families The success of BOOKFAIR depends has been arranged that the Depart¬ with special or emergency type educa¬ on YOU! ment’s Family Liaison Office (FLO) is tional needs which can not be met from being expanded to take over FSECC other sources. AFSA’s Scholarship HI-ONE ANNUITY responsibilities. Committee will continue to provide BENEFITS APPROVED Similarly to FSECC, the new FLO such grants. Last year, AFSA played a key role in sponsoring and pushing through Congress an amendment to the Foreign Relations Authorization Act, FY 1979, which provided that an employee FOR RETIREES: whose salary was “capped” could re¬ Cost of Living Increases tire with an annuity computed on the REPORT ON ICA; basis of a “high one” average annual Foreign Service Act, Promotions AFSA continues to be active in a co¬ salary rather than the normal “high and Morale alition of organizations representing three” average. About 65 employees retired during October 1978 claiming federal employees to protect the inter¬ The recent activities in evaluating annuities based on a “high one” com¬ ests of retirees. We had reported in the and taking positions on the proposed putation before a subsequent bill was rewriting of the Foreign Service Act February Journal that an administra¬ passed October 17 which included a proves that FSIOs are best represented tion proposal to reduce cost of living “rider” denying the use of funds avail¬ by AFSA! A number of FSIOs active increases on annuities by paying the in¬ able to the Foreign Service Retirement in AFSA served on the AFSA task crease only once a year, rather than and Disability Fund for payment of an forces which drew up the AFSA posi¬ twice a year, had been dropped. It now annuity computed on the basis of a tion on the Foreign Service Act. In develops that there is a movement in “high one” average salary. consultation with their colleagues, they Congress toward adopting the same We are pleased to report that State inserted the often unique FSIO point- proposal. has now received authority to pay the of-view into these papers. At the same “high one” annuity to those 65 em¬ Both the Senate and House budget time AFSA/ICA Board Member Peter ployees who retired last October. Ac¬ Wolcott has attended all the major ses¬ committees have recommended that cording to a ruling issued by the Justice sions with the State Standing Commit¬ the federal government’s outlays for Department, the rider was, in effect a tee held with State Department Man¬ federal employee retirement and dis¬ “repealer” of the entitlement and agement. It has been at these sessions ability costs be reduced with the as¬ therefore should not affect the status of that some progress has been made with sumption that the reduction be made by persons who had retired in good faith State Department Management! Re¬ limiting the cost of living adjustments prior to its enactment. grettably, efforts by ICA Director for federal retirees to once a year, Reinhardt including a letter to Under rather than twice. The budget commit¬ COOPER-HEWITT MUSEUM Secretary Ben Read have had little, if tee recommendations in both the any, impact on State’s drive to com¬ The Cooper-Hewitt Museum, the House and Senate are contained in the pletely rewrite the Foreign Service Smithsonian Institution’s National committees’ reports on the FY 1980 Act. Museum of Design in New York, is Morale in ICA continues to be low. Budget Resolution and it should be preparing an outdoor exhibition on The promotion list was depressingly noted that, while the spending guide¬ “Streets," part of a larger project this short. In contrast to AFSA success in lines are for the most part considered summer on the theme of urban open persuading State to take corrective ac¬ binding on the Congress, budget com¬ space. A small selection of street furni¬ tion when State’s promotion list was mittee assumptions are not. ture and graphics will be installed in the short two years ago, AFGE appears to Even if the budget committees’ re¬ Museum’s garden. To present a variety be acting ineffectually in pressing ICA ports are sustained in Congress, there¬ from American and foreign cities, the management to recognize this or other fore, separate legislation would be re¬ Museum is seeking interesting and un¬ problems or to take corrective mea¬ quired to actually limit the cost of living usual examples of signs and of street sures once the problem has been iden¬ furniture such as lamp standards, trash adjustments to once a year. If and tified. The one optimistic sign in ICA cans, kiosks, post boxes, benches and has been its fairly rapid bail-out of FAS when such legislation is introduced, planters. Replies with photos where personnel who were affected by the AFSA will vigorously oppose any such possible are invited as soon as possible. re introduction of mandatory retirement move to further erode the present Send to Director, Cooper-Hewitt by helping them convert back to Civil structure of the Foreign Service Re¬ Museum, 2 East 91st Street, New Service. tirement System. York, New York. 10028. 42 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. June, 1979 AFFIRMATIVE ACTION PROCEDURES

AFSA has invoked two different volved are described in detail in the “c) All qualified personnel, including procedures in recent months under the next two sections. EEO category personnel, should be pro¬ Executive Order governing our labor Assignments posed to the assignments panel together. relations program in order to resolve The Department’s proposed affirma¬ In discussing proposed assignment of disputes between AFSA and the De¬ tive action assignments procedures EEO personnel with bureaus and posts, assignment officers may indicate that af¬ partment concerning affirmative action were: firmative action considerations are in¬ A. proposals. volved, especially when the positions are Recommendation 65: “Special considera¬ Over a year ago the Secretary’s in career fields under-represented by tion should be provided to assure that minorities and women. Executive Level Task Force on Affir¬ Foreign Service Personnel in EEO “d) PER/FCA and PER/CCA Office Di¬ mative Action produced a lengthy categories are given equitable considera¬ rectors are specifically charged with insur¬ series of recommendations to the Sec¬ tion for ‘stretch assignments.’ ” retary proposing various changes in ing that career development officers and Proposed Implementation: assignment officers identify qualified and selection and hiring practices, including “a) PER/FCA and CCA career develop¬ interested EEO category personnel. junior officer entry and the mid-career ment officers should inform themselves However, first-line responsibility for this program for minorities and women; fully concerning the identity, skills and effort must rest with career development upward mobility; counseling; assign¬ onward assignment preferences of EEO officers. When candidates are deemed ment procedures; promotion; perfor¬ category counselees. All EEO category unqualified for assignments specifically mance evaluation; and the handicapped personnel should be made aware of the due to insufficient education or training, identity of their career development offi¬ program. An Implementation Working the career development officer should ad¬ cer and are urged to make their skills and Group then developed a series of pro¬ vise the candidate accordingly, and sug¬ preferences known. This is particularly gest training which would enable the can¬ posed steps to implement the recom¬ important for FSR and FSRU personnel didate to upgrade his/her level of compe¬ mendations of the Executive Level who sometimes have little contact with tence and performance and thereby en¬ Task Force. AFSA was involved in the counseling system. hance his/her competitiveness for more commenting on the proposals at an “b) Assignment officers, in cooperation demanding assignments, early date, as well as in consulting and with career development officers, should e) (Relates to GS positions not subject to conferring under E.O. 11636 on the identify forthcoming vacancies where Foreign Service bargaining) specific proposals for changes in per¬ stretch assignments appear particularly feasible and desirable. C. sonnel procedures when they were “c) In proposing candidates to fill vacan¬ Recommendation 67: "Special considera¬ ready. Some issues are still under dis¬ cies where stretch assignments appear tion should be provided to assure that em¬ cussion, such as the program for the possible, career development officers ployees in EEO categories receive equi¬ handicapped; others have been re¬ should actively seek to identify qualified table consideration for high visibility posi¬ solved in the course of our regular con¬ and interested EEO category candidates tions. sultations, such as those which deal for the positions. Such personnel should Proposed Implementation: with the Precepts. be proposed to the assignments panel or a) Same as 65 (a) AFSA and the Department were un¬ responsible assignments officer together “b) In proposing candidates to fill high able to reach agreement upon the De¬ with other qualified candidates. In discus¬ visibility vacancies counselors should ac¬ sing proposed stretch assignments with tively seek to identify qualified and in¬ partment’s proposed changes in as¬ bureaus and posts, assignment officers signment procedures and in the pro¬ terested EEO category candidates for the may indicate when affirmative action con¬ positions. All qualified personnel, includ¬ grams for junior officer entry for siderations are involved. ing EEO category candidates, should be minorities and the mid-level special hir¬ “d) PER/FCA and PER/CCA Office Di¬ proposed to the assignments panel or re¬ ing program for minorities and women. rectors are specifically charged with insur¬ sponsible assignments officer together. In With respect to assignments, AFSA ing that career development officers and discussing proposed assignments with invoked the assistance of the Disputes assignment officers seek to identify qual¬ bureaus and posts, assignment officers Panel, which exists to mediate and re¬ ified and interested EEO category per¬ may indicate when affirmative action con¬ solve disputes between the Department sonnel as candidates for stretch assign¬ siderations are involved, ments. However, first line responsibility and AFSA when the parties agree that c) Similar to 65 (d) but for high visibility for this effort must rest with career de¬ positions. the issues are subject to consultation velopment officers. “d) M/DG and M/EEO will review as¬ but cannot reach agreement on the “e) M/DG and M/EEO will review as¬ signments with regional and functional as¬ terms. Concerning the second dis¬ signments with regional and functional as¬ sistant secretaries on an annual basis to agreement—the numbers of persons to sistant secretaries on an annual basis to ascertain the degree to which minorities be recruited through the special hiring ascertain the degree to which minorities and women have received special atten¬ programs in the next several years— and women have received special consid¬ tion in the assignment to high visibility A FS A has had to appeal the case to the eration for stretch assignments. M/EEO positions. M/EEO will report the findings will report the findings to the Deputy Employee-Management Relations to the Deputy Under Secretary for Man¬ Under Secretary for Management.” Commission (EMRC) fora ruling on its agement. B. e) (Relates to GS positions not subject to “consultability” because the Depart¬ Recommendation 66: “Special considera¬ Foreign Service bargaining.) ment contends that the issue is not sub¬ tion should be provided to assure that ject to consultation (negotiation). If the EEO category personnel are given equi¬ AFSA’s Position: EMRC upholds the Department’s con¬ table consideration for all vacancies for AFSA believes that the Foreign Ser¬ tention, then AFSA cannot prevent the which they are currently or potentially vice assignment process should be so Department (other than by persuasion) qualified.” structured as to provide equal oppor¬ from moving forward with its mis¬ Proposed Implementation: tunities for all employees to compete guided plans. We hope that the EMRC a) Same as 65 (a) for assignment solely on the basis of will rule favorably on our appeal; in “b) Assignment officers in cooperation de mo n s t rate d pe rfo rm a nc e- re 1 at e d with career development officers must that event, the Department must con¬ qualifications. AFSA would seek to as¬ identify forthcoming vacancies for which sult further and if we still cannot reach an EEO candidate is currently or poten¬ sure that no employee would be dis¬ agreement, the issue can be appealed to tially qualified after comparison of re¬ criminated against or accorded prefe¬ the Disputes Panel in the same manner quirements with candidates’ qualifica¬ rential treatment on the basis of race, as the assignments dispute for media¬ tions, desires and aptitude for training, sex, or ethnic background. Any tion and resolution. The issues in¬ and assignment preferences. employee whose career situation or

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 43 prospects had been adversely affected may be qualified. In counseling, the of equal opportunities for all in the as¬ by an assignment pattern not in accord CDOs should urge counselees not to be signment process, and the Department with this requirement would be entitled inhibited by gender or ethnic stereotyping appeared equally committed to the to special consideration to the extent in listing their preferences. CDOs should principle that if a candidate is qualified take special care to review the file of each needed to remedy such adverse effect employee indicated in paragraph 3 above, (even though not as qualified as other of a past assignment pattern. AFSA to determine whether, in comparison with available candidates), it was then would also be willing to accept special peers, his or her career may have been proper to give the EEO candidate the consideration for women or minority damaged by an assignment pattern ad¬ boost for a given assignment. After candidates who are equally qualified to versely affected by gender or ethnic dis¬ much deliberation, and many times fill a given position if such considera¬ crimination or stereotyping. when we all thought the mediation ef¬ tion would help in breaking down “5. CDOs, in making assignment recom¬ fort would fall through, the parties stereotypes regarding appropriate as¬ mendations, and Assignment Panels, in reached the following compromise, en¬ signments for women or minorities in making assignments, shall not give prefer¬ dorsed by the AFSA Governing Board the Service. We do not believe such ence to any employee or group of employ¬ and the Under Secretary for Manage¬ ees simply on the basis of gender or ment: special consideration is warranted, ethnicity, nor shall they have in mind any however, where an EEO candidate is particular statistical pattern with respect Revised Recommendation 65-66-67: only minimally qualified to fill a given to the gender or ethnic composition of any “Concerted efforts will be made to assure position, or less qualified than other geographic area or functional specialty that Foreign Service personnel in EEO available candidates. AFSA also re¬ within the Foreign Service; provided, that categories are afforded equitable consid¬ jects the Department’s position that the in choosing among equally well qualified eration for all vacancies for which they Service should be broken down and candidates for a position, CDOs and As¬ are equally qualified, notably career¬ analyzed so that each function or geo¬ signment Panels may take into account enhancing positions.” graphic region of the Service could be the need to remedy the damage to an indi¬ Implementation Procedures changed to conform with some “ideal” vidual employee’s career situation and “(a) PER/FCA and CCA career de¬ prospects by a past assignment pattern velopment officers must inform them¬ composition by race or sex. AFSA adversely affected by discrimination or therefore proposed to the Department selves fully concerning the identity, skills, stereotyping based on gender, ethnicity, performance and onward assignment that our eight-paragraph counter¬ or other non-job-related factors; or the preferences of EEO category counselees. proposal as follows be substituted for possible effect of an assignment in break¬ All EEO category personnel must be the Department’s Recommendations ing down gender or ethnic stereotypes made aware of the identity of their career 65, 66, and 67: which may persist within the Foreign Ser¬ development officer and must be urged to vice with respect to assignments. ”1. Assignments of Foreign Service em¬ make their skills, training and assignment “6. Nothing in this regulation is intended ployees shall be made on the basis of the preferences known. This is particularly to limit access by any employee to Equal important for FSR, FSRU and FSS per¬ functional needs of the Service, and the Employment Opportunity (EEO) Coun¬ qualifications, ability, availability, and sonnel who may have had less contact selors, or the formal EEO complaint pro¬ preferences of these employees. There with the counseling system. cess. shall be no adverse discrimination, (b) Assignment officers in cooperation “7. The Director, PER/FCA, shall be stereotyping, or preferential treatment of with career development officers will primarily responsible for the correct ap¬ any employee or group of employees on identify forthcoming assignments, includ¬ plication of this procedure. M/EEO and the basis of gender, ethnicity, or other ing career-enhancing assignments, for AFSA shall monitor assignments process, such non-job-related factors. Any which an EEO candidate is currently or to assure that the above objectives are employee whose career situation and potentially qualified after comparison of being met. prospects have been damaged because of requirements with candidates’ qualifica¬ “8. By joint agreement before August 1, an assignment pattern adversely affected tions, desires and aptitude for training, 1979, or at the initiative of either the De¬ by such discrimination or stereotyping and assignment preference. partment or AFSA on or after that date, shall receive special consideration to the (c) In discussing with a bureau or post the consultations shall begin on amendments extent necessary to remedy any such ad¬ proposed assignment of an EEO category verse effect on his or her assignment pat¬ to this procedure." Foreign Service employee, an assignment tern. Regrettably, the Department did not officer may so identify the employee if (1) “2. All Foreign Service employees shall see fit to negotiate with AFSA on our the assignment would be to a career¬ be informed in a timely fashion of the proposal and commented only that enhancing position, or (2) that bureau has identity of their career development offi¬ “the Department believes that very few EEO category Foreign Service cers (CDOs) and their right to seek as¬ personnel in the category or at the level AFSA’s counterproposals do not in¬ under review. All qualified personnel, in¬ signments to positions for which they are corporate adequate affirmative action available and qualified. Such positions cluding EEO category personnel, should may include those classified above the measures to identify and counsel be proposed together to the assignments employee's current rank (“stretch” as¬ women and minority group members in panel or responsible assignment officer. signments); in a skill code different from the assignment process, or to take into (d) PER/FCA and PER/CCA Office Di¬ the employee’s current primary skill code consideration the needs of the Foreign rectors are charged with insuring that (“excursion tours”) or FSO cone (“out- Service to be more representative at all career development officers and assign¬ of-cone” assignments), or thought par¬ levels when making assignments to par¬ ment officers identify qualified and in¬ ticularly likely to enhance the career ticular positions.” (The Department terested EEO category personnel. How¬ ever, first-line responsibility for this effort prospects of an incumbent who performs refused even to consolidate their three must rest with career development offi¬ well (sometimes called “key” or “high- proposals into one coherent proposal visibility” assignments). cers. When candidates are deemed un¬ “3. Any employee who believes that his because the three “were in the com¬ qualified for assignments due to insuffi¬ or her career situation or prospects have puter.”) cient education or training, the career de¬ been damaged because of an assignment AFSA therefore appealed to the velopment officer should advise the can¬ pattern adversely affected by discrimina¬ Disputes Panel, and with their assis¬ didate accordingly, and suggest training tion on account of gender, ethnicity, or tance and mediation an agreed com¬ which would enable the candidate to up¬ other non-job-related factors, should so promise was reached. Meetings con¬ grade his/her level of competence and per¬ formance and thereby enhance his/her inform his or her C DO when submitting tinued throughout the day for over two qualifications for more demanding as¬ assignment preferences, or at any other days, and many proposals and modifi¬ time. signments. “4. CDOs shall inform themselves of the cations were discussed. It appeared for (e) M/DG and M/EEO will review as¬ qualifications, preferences, and avail¬ much of the time that we would not be signments with assistant secretaries annu¬ ability of their counselees, and of onward able to reach agreement voluntarily, for ally to ascertain the degree to which assignments for which these counselees AFSA was committed to the principle minorities and women have received equi-

44 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June. 1979 table consideration for assignments, in¬ which AFSA cannot agree, provides: ideal gender or ethnic composition for cluding those to career-enhancing posi¬ all or part of the Service. We believe tions. M/EEO will report the findings to “The Department will emphasize re¬ cruitment of women and minorities, set¬ this position to be consistent with the the Under Secretary for Management. A principle of equal opportunity for all copy of the report will be provided to ting as a goal that shortfalls in the target AFSA. levels for the two special programs be American citizens, regardless of their (f) For GS employees only: made up by 1980. [e.g., over three fiscal sex or ethnic background. Since movement of a GS employee to a years] This would mean that: Before the Department’s proposals new position requires that the individual a. The FSR/JO program could recruit were finalized, AFSA urged the Board apply for the position, it is essential that against a target of 68, in addition to the of the Foreign Service to consider the position vacancies receive extensive pub¬ annual target of 20. [e.g., 43 per year] advisability of the Department’s Rec¬ licity: bulletin boards, circular notices to b. The Mid-Career Program could recruit ommendation 29. The Board advised offices, and contacts by counselors with against a target of 27, in addition to the annual target of 20. [e.g., 29 per year] the Secretary that it was “concerned EEO and other category candidates.” that, in a time of limited promotions, [Not negotiable with AFSA.] Every effort will also be made to increase the projected number of those being AFSA believes this language is far the number of women and minorities qual¬ taken in by special recruitment not be more equitable than that originally pro¬ ifying for entry through the examination process. The Task Force will review all disproportionate to the number who posed by the Department and that it recruitment in June 1978 to adjust target enter the Service or the higher classes meets the most important requirements goals as necessary to insure that objec¬ through regular examination or usual for equitable consideration for all em¬ tives are being met.” promotion. Therefore, the Board be¬ ployees in the assignment process. It is lieves that a meaningful relationship probably essentially the same as the AFSA opposes any increase in the should be established between annual Disputes Panel would have issued after target goals for the two special hiring fluctuations in promotions and recruit¬ hearing our lengthy discussion with programs. Larger numbers of special ment levels, and the annual goals for management during the hearing, had hires will absorb, at the mid-level, a the Special Hiring Programs. The we and the Department not been able large percentage of available vacancy Board recommends that these hiring to reach agreement on our own with opportunities for promotion. This is not goals can best be expressed in percent¬ their mediation assistance. We think it only inconsistent with the needs of the age terms subject to yearly review.” represents major improvements over Service, but it deprives all officers— The Board recommended an annual the Department's original proposals including women and minorities cur¬ goal for the Mid-Level Program of and are very pleased that we were able rently in the Service—-with needed 10-15 percent of the combined esti¬ to reach a viable compromise on such a promotional opportunities. Persons re¬ mated promotion vacancies for the next vital area. cruited for the programs are not hired promotion cycle in FSO classes 4 and only for skill codes in which there are The State Department has two spe¬ 5. For the FSR/JO program, the Board cial hiring programs designed to recruit shortages, but rather are hired based on recommended an annual goal of ap¬ qualified women and minority candi¬ the desire of the Department to make proximately 25 percent of the number dates into the Service other than the Service more diversely repre¬ entering through the regular exam with sentational of American society at all through the examination process. The the understanding that minority group first, the FSR/JO program, operates at levels. AFSA supports the need for a members passing the regular exam the entry level and seeks to bring qual¬ representational Service, but we would be counted against the 25 per¬ ified minority candidates into the Ser¬ strongly oppose the undue increases in cent goal. vice on the basis of an oral examina¬ numbers which the Department wishes tion. The candidate is given an FSR to impose upon these programs in the Unfortunately, the Department ig¬ appointment, and after three years (but coming years. Acceptance of the an¬ nored the recommendations of the before the appointment expires in five nual target of 43 for the entry level Board of the Foreign Service in putting years) the candidate takes a second oral FSR/JO program would result in enter¬ the recommendation for special hiring examination in order to qualify for ing classes which would in our view be into final form. The proposal was sub¬ entry into the FSO corps. A candidate too heavily non-exam-entry, and be un¬ stantially identical to the original when may also enter the FSO corps by pass¬ fair both to exam-entry applicants in submitted to AFSA. ing the written exam. This program has these years as well as to FSR/JO appli¬ AFSA recently decided to oppose been in operation since the late 1960s. cants thereafter. The younger levels of the special hiring programs presently The second program, for Middle Level the Service are increasingly representa¬ established for the following reasons: Hiring of Minority Group Members tive, and those persons already in the (1) Limited as they are to women and and Women, was established through Service deserve to be accorded fair certain minorities, the programs are consultation with AFSA in 1975. Its treatment. discriminatory on their face and there¬ purpose was to bring into the Service We support equal employment op¬ fore quite vulnerable to legal challenge. qualified minority candidates and portunity in the Foreign Service and (2) Though the programs are based on women at the mid-career levels, consis¬ have backed improvements in recruit¬ the implicit presumption that there are tent with the needs of the Service and ing women and EEO minorities in too few women and minorities in the the high merit standards expected of all order to make sure that the Service is Foreign Service Officer Corps, there is Foreign Service personnel. The terms attracting the best people, whatever in our view no legal basis to assume of this program were established by their backgrounds. We support efforts that there ought to be any ideal gender agreement with AFSA. As with the to break down gender and ethnic or ethnic composition toward which the FSR/JO program, candidates are ini¬ stereotypes which may persist within “target levels” are steps. (3) The fig¬ tially given FSR appointments and the Service, and to remedy the adverse ures for earlier years for these pro¬ have the opportunity thereafter to effects on employment opportunity of grams were annual ceilings, not “target apply for conversion to FSO. In keep¬ past instances or patterns of discrimi¬ levels” or multiyear targets. The con¬ ing with the purposes of the agreement, nation which may have arisen in indi¬ cept of making up the cumulative the Department’s written intention was vidual cases. At the same time, we “shortfalls” from previous years in ef¬ to bring into this program “up to have resisted proposals to give prefe¬ fect converts these ceilings into quotas, twenty qualified individuals each rential consideration to employees or and the emphasis on achieving these year.” applicants simply because they are quotas, backed by the Secretary’s per¬ The Department’s Affirmative Ac¬ women or members of certain ethnic sonal intervention, seems to have in¬ tion Recommendation No. 29, with minority groups, or to establish some troduced a “body count” attitude

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, June, 1979 45 among working level officials charged has informed us that it considers the in 1919 and served at posts in Spain, with meeting the quotas—an attitude implementation of Recommendation 29 Haiti, Belgium, Great Britain and as which threatens to exalt numbers to be “non-consultable” because E.O. ambassador to Italy, France, Spain and above quality. (4) Any special hiring 11636 reserves to management the right Brazil, under seven presidents and ten program target level limits the hiring of “to hire.” We have appealed their de¬ secretaries of state. He also served as a exam entry candidates, notwithstand¬ nial to the EMRC for a determination member of US delegations to several ing the praise for those who have en¬ on consultability. Meanwhile, the De¬ major conferences, including Dumbar¬ tered the Foreign Service through the partment cannot implement its propos¬ ton Oaks and the UN Founding Con¬ examination route. (5) The increases in als until the EMRC makes its ruling. ference. Ambassador Dunn was a prin¬ the special hiring program “target Unfortunately, a ruling on the consul¬ cipal adviser to Cordell Hull in the levels” are proposed without regard to tability of the proposal is a technical 1930s and also served as a counsellor to any of the other problems or objectives ruling which does not take into consid¬ secretaries of state Edward R. Stet- of the career Foreign Service. (6) The eration the advisability or inadvisability tinius, James F. Byrnes, George C. figure for FSR/JO hires is so high as a of a given proposal. It determines only Marshall and Dean Acheson. He re¬ percentage of total junior officer intake whether, in the Foreign Service labor tired in 1957 and lived in Rome until that it is unfair to FSO exam appli¬ relations program, the Department is 1977, since when he had been living in cants. With respect to the mid-level hir¬ required to consult with AFSA and New York. He is survived by his wife, ing program launched as the result of either reach agreement or submit to the former Mary Augusta Armour, of the 1975 agreement between AFSA mediation by the Disputes Panel before 825 Fifth Avenue, New York 10021. and the Department, we believe the the Department can implement a two daughters, Marianne Dunn of New Department has violated both the letter change in personnel policy. This is a York City and Mrs. Lorenz Esterlech- and spirit of that agreement by hiring critical threshold matter, and we expect ner of Bavaria, four grandchildren and minorities and women for political cone a decision from the EMRC shortly. We nine great-grandchildren. positions, at a time when the Depart¬ will keep you informed in this space. ment says the political cone is in surplus, limiting promotions accord¬ Lawton. Edward P. Lawton, FSO- ingly, yet not permitting officers in the retired, died on April 25 in Naples, Service to transfer into the political Florida. Mr. Lawton joined the cone from another cone. Foreign Service and was first posted in AFSA proposed the following alter¬ Cairo as consul, later serving in natives: Athens, Guatemala, Geneva, Havana, Junior Officer Program: Each year not ForeignService Ottawa and Algiers. After retirement more than 10 percent of all junior officer he lived in Wilton, Connecticut and hires could be made from among takers of Fort Myers Beach, Florida. He was an the Foreign Service Entrance Exam who Births accomplished artist and his works were had not placed high enough on the register to exhibited in several eastern states. He Christian. A daughter, Catherine come in through the exam route, but who, in is survived by his wife, Elizabeth, 320 the oral and background examinations, dis¬ Anne, born on March 16, to FSO Caro¬ Seminole Way, Fort Myers Beach, played qualities which led BEX to believe lyn Christian and Gary W. Christian, in Florida 33931, and a daughter, that they would have a good chance of per¬ Washington. forming effectively in the Service. The pro¬ Daphne. gram would not be limited by ethnic background. We also recommend that the Lenderking. A daughter, Alexandra, born to FSO and Mrs. William R. Len¬ Phillips. Catherine Poe Phillips, wife of Department seriously consider the possibil¬ FSO-retired George W. Phillips, died ity of putting foreign language back into the derking, Jr., on January 9, in Bangkok. FSEE. Language competence is not only a on April 27 in Flat Rock, North requirement for career status in the Foreign Carolina. Mrs. Phillips accompanied Service; it might work to the advantage of her husband on assignments in Austria, some applicants with ethnically diverse Deaths Germany, Brazil, Mexico, France and backgrounds. Bell. Dr. James Dunbar Bell, former Greece before his retirement in 1972. Lateral Entry: AFSA proposes that there be ambassador to Malaysia, died on April In addition to her husband, mailing ad¬ an overall ceiling on all FSR appointments, 14 in Santa Cruz. Dr. Bell joined the dress P.O. Box 147, Flat Rock, N.C. political or otherwise, to program direction 28731, she is survived by a brother, or the four skill codes normally filled by Foreign Service in 1947 and served at FSOs. The ceiling would, in any year, not Santiago, Manila and Djakarta before Francis Bennett Poe, Jr., Damaris- exceed ten percent of promotion oppor¬ his appointment as ambassador to cotta, Maine, two nephews and a niece. tunities to FSO-4 and FSO-5. Applicants Malaysia in 1964 where he served until Memorial contributions may be made could be either from outside the Foreign 1969. He retired in 1970 after a year as to the American Cancer Society, Box Service, or from other Foreign Service pay diplomat in residence at the University 1925, Hendersonville, N.C. 28739 or plans. Hires would be only to cones in of California in Santa Cruz. His first the Henderson County Humane Soci¬ which the Department is in relatively short marriage, to the former Helen Foy ety, Box 706, Hendersonville, N.C. supply, and into which career Foreign Ser¬ Johnstone, ended in divorce in 1960. 28739. vice people are normally allowed to transfer. He is survived by his second wife, The program would not be limited to women and minorities, but the Department could Stephanie M., a son Jeff M., and a Gotlieb. Bernard Gotlieb, FSO-retired, emphasize the hiring of women and daughter, Stephanie S., of 14 Kite Hill died on March 15, in San Rafael, minorities so long as they are individually Road, Santa Cruz, California 95060, California. He joined the Foreign Ser¬ qualified for positions in which the Service two other sons, James D., of El Paso, vice in 1915 as vice consul and student is in short supply. The counting of all lateral Texas, and Christopher of Providence, interpreter in Constantinople and then entrants against the overall ceiling would R.I., another daughter, Diane E. Gil¬ served in Cairo, Tehran, Halifax, Sin¬ protect the career Service from one of its ford, of Oberlin, Ohio, and five grand¬ gapore, Wellington. Messina, Trieste, most basic concerns about the lateral entry children. program—not the prospect of additional Nuevo Laredo, Santiago de Cuba, women and minority colleagues, but the Habana and Windsor, retiring in 1949. negative impact on career opportunities. Dunn. James Clement Dunn, career He is survived by a son, Edward, and a The Department has refused to con¬ ambassador, died on April 10 in daughter, Mrs. L. Ann Perry, whose sult with AFSA on our proposal and Florida. He joined the Foreign Service addresses are unavailable to AFSA.

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“Make yourself at home.” How often is heard that warm invitation to share the comfort and security of a friend’s home. And though the surroundings may be unfamiliar, they somehow seem less foreign and more secure because your host is there to help protect you. Home is where the security is! Similarly, AFSA Group Accident Insurance for loss of life, limb or eye¬ sight provides that added security to make many of our members feel at home anywhere they happen to be. This AFSA program provides financial protection against accidental loss of life, limb or eyesight 24 hours a day, the year round, anywhere in the world. You and your family can be covered ACT NOW! Get all the facts about benefits, whether you’re traveling by car, taxi, train, rates and exceptions .on AFSA Group boat, bus, subway and even as passengers Accident Protection for loss of life, limb or on most commercial, private and military eyesight—direct by mail! No agent will call. planes you’d normally travel in. Just complete the coupon below and mail Moreover, protection is provided during today. No obligation. So don’t delay on a business, pleasure and just plain day-to-day plan that can mean added security for you activities at home and abroad. and your family!

AFSA INSURANCE PROGRAM UNDERWRITTEN BY 1666 Connecticut Ave. NW ■ Washington, D.C. 20009

□ YES! Please rush full details on the Group Accident Insurance Plan avail¬ Mutual IT'S able to me as a member of the American Foreign Service Association. I ^Omahfl.\Lx understand no agent will call. Name : — People you can count on... Address MUTUAL OF OMAHA INSURANCE COMPANY HOME OFFICE: OMAHA, NEBRASKA City State ZIP Code FILL OUT AND MAIL TODAY!