AN NSF-FUNDED CENTER

Center for

Adaptive Optics

Director: Claire Max Annual Report Managing Director: Chris Le Maistre August 1, 2008 Associate Directors: Don Gavel Andrea Ghez Lisa Hunter Program Year 9 Bruce Macintosh Reporting from November 1 Jerry Nelson 2007 to October 31 2008 Scot Olivier Austin Roorda David Williams

Phone: 831-459-5592 Fax: 831-459-5717 email: [email protected]

Institutions: University of California Santa Cruz University of California Berkeley University of California Los Angeles California Institute of Technology University of Chicago University of Houston Indiana University University of Rochester Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Montana State University TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. I - CONTACT INFORMATION AND CONTEXT STATEMENT ...... 4 I.1A GENERAL INFORMATION:...... 4 I.1B BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION FOR EACH NEW FACULTY MEMBER BY INSTITUTION...... 6 I.1C NAME AND CONTACT INFORMATION FOR THE CONTACT PRIMARY PERSON REGARDING THIS REPORT.6 I.2 CONTEXT STATEMENT...... 7 Major Developments that have occurred within the Center’s Themes ...... 8 I.3 CENTER MANAGEMENT, PLANNING PROCESS AND IMPLEMENTATION OF PLANS FOR THE COMING YEARS...... 22 II - RESEARCH 24 II.1A CFAO MISSION, GOALS AND STRATEGIES...... 24 II.1B PERFORMANCE AND MANAGEMENT INDICATORS ...... 24 II.1C PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED ...... 24 II.2A THEMES ...... 26 Theme 2: AO for Extremely Large Telescopes (ELTs)...... 26 Three-Dimensional MEMS for Adaptive Optics ...... 31 Development, implementation and validation of point-spread-function (PSF) reconstruction techniques...... 64 AO Simulator Upgrades for Laser Guide Stars...... 68 Theme 3: Extreme Adaptive Optics (ExAO): Enabling Ultra-High Contrast...... 71 Theme 4: Compact Vision Science Instrumentation for Clinical and Scientific Use ...... 82 II.2B RESEARCH MANAGEMENT (METRICS)...... 89 Partnerships ...... 90 II.2C. RESEARCH PLANS FOR THE COMING YEAR ...... 90 Theme 2. Future Plans for AO with Extremely Large Telescopes...... 90 Theme 3. Future Plans for Extreme AO ...... 91 Theme 4 Future Plans for Vision Science AO...... 92 III EDUCATION 94 III.1A EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES...... 94 III.1B PERFORMANCE AND MANAGEMENT INDICATORS ...... 94 III.1C PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED REACHING EDUCATION GOALS ...... 95 III.2A THE CENTER'S INTERNAL EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES ...... 95 III.2B SUMMARY OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES FOR CENTER STUDENTS...... 100 III.2C THE CENTER'S EXTERNAL EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES ...... 100 Mainland Internship Program ...... 101 Akamai Workforce Initiative ...... 102 Research Experience or Apprenticeship ...... 107 Courses, Instructional Materials, & Professional Development...... 109 III.2D INTEGRATING RESEARCH AND EDUCATION ...... 110 III.2E CONFORMANCE TO METRICS ...... 111 III.2F PLANS FOR YEAR TEN ...... 111 IV. KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER 112 IV.1 KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER OBJECTIVES ...... 112 IV.2 PERFORMANCE AND MANAGEMENT INDICATORS...... 112 IV.3 PROBLEMS...... 112 IV.4 DESCRIPTION OF KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER ACTIVITIES...... 113 IV.5 OTHER KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER ACTIVITIES ...... 116 IV.6 FUTURE PLANS...... 116 V. EXTERNAL PARTNERSHIPS 117 V.1 PARTNERSHIP OBJECTIVES ...... 117 V.2 PERFORMANCE AND MANAGEMENT INDICATORS ...... 117

− − 1 V.3 PROBLEMS ...... 117 V.4 DESCRIPTION OF PARTNERSHIP ACTIVITIES ...... 117 V.5 OTHER PARTNERSHIP ACTIVITIES ...... 120 V.6 FUTURE PLANS...... 120 VI. DIVERSITY 121 VI.1A OBJECTIVES...... 121 VI.1B PERFORMANCE AND MANAGEMENT INDICATORS...... 121 VI.1C CHALLENGES ...... 121 VI.2A/B ACTIVITIES AND IMPACT...... 122 Mainland Internship Program ...... 122 Akamai Internship Program...... 123 Hawaii Akami Recruitment Program ...... 123 Addressing Diversity through Teaching...... 125 VI. 2C DIVERSITY INDICATOR METRICS ...... 127 VI.2D YEAR 10 DIVERSITY PLANS ...... 127 VII. MANAGEMENT 128 VII.1A ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGY ...... 128 VII.1B PERFORMANCE AND MANAGEMENT INDICATORS...... 128 VII.1C IMPACT OF METRICS...... 128 VII.1D MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS...... 128 VII.2 MANAGEMENT COMMUNICATIONS ...... 128 VII.3 CENTER COMMITTEES...... 129 VII.4 CHANGES TO THE CENTER’S STRATEGIC PLAN ...... 130 VIII. CENTER-WIDE OUTPUTS AND ISSUES 131 VIII.1A. CENTER PUBLICATIONS...... 131 Year 9 Peer Reviewed Publications...... 131 Year 9 Books and Book Chapters ...... 135 Year 9 Publications: Non-Peer Reviewed Papers ...... 135 Year 9 Conference Presentations...... 138 VII.1C. DISSEMINATION ACTIVITIES NOT INCLUDED ELSEWHERE IN THE REPORT...... 141 VIII.2. AWARDS AND OTHER HONORS ...... 141 VIII.3 UNDERGRADUATE, M.S. AND PH.D. STUDENTS ...... 143 VIII.4A GENERAL OUTPUTS OF KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER ACTIVITIES SINCE THE LAST REPORTING PERIOD144 VIII.4B. OTHER OUTPUTS OF KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER ACTIVITIES MADE DURING THE REPORTING PERIOD NOT LISTED ABOVE...... 147 VIII.5 CENTER’S PARTNERS...... 147 VIII.6 SUMMARY TABLE ...... 149 VIII.8. DESCRIBE ANY MEDIA PUBLICITY THE CENTER RECEIVED IN THE REPORTING PERIOD...... 149 IX. INDIRECT/OTHER IMPACTS 152 IX.1 INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES ...... 152 IX.2 OTHER OUTPUTS, IMPACTS, OR INFLUENCES RELATED TO THE CENTER’S PROGRESS AND ACHIEVEMENT ...... 152 X. BUDGETS AND EXPENDITURES 153 X.1 YEAR 9 BUDGETS AND EXPENDITURES (AS OF APRIL 30 2008)...... 153 X.2 UNOBLIGATED YEAR 8 FUNDS...... 153 X.5 BREAKDOWN OF OTHER NSF FUNDING...... 153 X.6 COST SHARING ...... 153 X.7 ADDITIONAL PI SUPPORT FROM ALL SOURCES...... 154 APPENDIX A. – BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION ON NEW FACULTY...... 155 APPENDIX B – CENTER ORGANIZATIONAL CHART...... 155

− − 2 APPENDIX C – EXTERNAL REVIEWER REPORTS ...... 156 REPORT OF THE EXTERNAL ADVISORY BOARD MEETING - 4 NOVEMBER 2007...... 156 CfAO Response to Recommendations...... 161 THE PROGRAM ADVISORY COMMITTEE...... 164 APPENDIX D: MEDIA PUBLICITY MATERIALS ...... 166

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I. I - Contact Information and Context Statement

I.1a General Information: Date submitted August 1 2008

Reporting period November 1 2007 to Oct 31 2008

Name of the Center Center for Adaptive Optics

Name of the Center Director Professor Claire Max

Lead University University of California, Santa Cruz

Contact information,

Address 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 Phone Number (831) 459 5592 Fax Number (831) 459 5717 Email Address of Center Director [email protected] Center URL http://cfao.ucolick.org/

Names of participating institutions, role, and name of contact person and other contact information.

Institution 1 Name University of Rochester Address 274A Meloria Hall, Rochester, NY, 14627-0140 Phone Number (716) 275 6672 Fax Number (716) 271 3043 Contact Professor David Williams Email Address of Contact [email protected] Role of Institution at Center Lead institution in Vision Science Research

Institution 2 Name University of Houston Address Houston TX 77204 - 2020 Phone Number (713) 743 1960 Fax Number Contact Professor Scott Stevenson Email Address of Contact [email protected] Role of Institution at Center Vision Science Eye Motion Algorithms

Institution 3 Name Indiana University Address School of Optometry, Indian University, Bloomington, IN 47402-1847 Phone Number (812) 855 7613 Fax Number (812) 855 7045 Contact Professor Donald Miller Email Address of Contact [email protected] Role of Institution at Center Vision Science, Optical Coherence Tomography

4 Institution 4 Name University of Chicago Address 5640 S. Ellis Ave., Chicago, IL 60637 Phone Number (773) 702 8208 Fax Number (773) 702 8212 Contact Professor Edward Kibblewhite Email Address of Contact [email protected] Role of Institution at Center Sodium Guide Star Lasers

Institution 5 Name California Institute of Technology Address 1201 East California Blvd. Pasadena, CA 91123 Phone Number (626) 395 6798 Fax Number (626) 585 1917 Contact Dr. Richard Dekany Email Address of Contact [email protected] Role of Institution at Center AO for Extremely Large Telescopes; Laser Guide Stars

Institution 6 Name University of California, Berkeley Address 36 Sproul Hall, Mail Code 5940, Berkeley, CA 94720 Phone Number (510) 642 8238 Fax Number (510) 642 3411 Contact 1 Professor James Graham Email Address of Contact [email protected] Role of Institution at Center Extreme AO, Astronomical Science, MEMS Tech. Phone Number (510) 642 2380 Fax Number (510) 642 3411 Contact 2 Professor Austin Roorda Email Address of Contact [email protected] Role of Institution at Center Vision Science, Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscope

Institution 7 Name University of California, Los Angeles Address 10945 Le Conte, Suite 1401, Los Angeles CA. 90095- Phone Number (310) 206 0420 Fax Number (310) 206 2096 Contact Professor Andrea Ghez Email Address of Contact [email protected] Role of Institution at Center Astronomical Science, Extreme Adaptive Optics

Institution 8 Name Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Address P.O. Box 808, L435, Livermore, CA 94551 Phone Number (925) 423 6483 Fax Number (925) 422 1796 Contact Dr. Scot Olivier Email Address of Contact [email protected] Role of Institution at Center Extreme Adaptive Optics, MEMS Technology

5

Institution 9 Name Montana State University Address Mathematical Sciences, Bozeman MT 172400 Phone Number (406) 994 5332 Fax Number Contact Professor Curtis Vogel Email Address of Contact [email protected] Role of Institution at Center Math modeling, Algorithm development

I.1b Brief biographical information for each new faculty member by institution. – No new faculty

I.1c Name and contact information for the contact primary person regarding this report.

Name of the Individual Chris Le Maistre Center role Managing Director, Center for Adaptive Optics − Address 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 Phone Number (831) 459 5592 Fax Number (831) 459 5717 Email Address [email protected]

6 I.2 Context Statement The Center for Adaptive Optics (CfAO) received its initial funding on November 1st 1999. In that first year, the Center activities were grouped under: Administration, Education and Human Resources and Research. The research function was further sub-divided into four goals:

Goal 1: Science with Adaptive Optics Vision Science Astronomical Science Goal 2: Bringing Adaptive Optics to the Broad Community Goal 3: Development of Advanced Instruments for Adaptive Optics Goal 4: Advanced Adaptive Optics.

The first NSF Site Visit was held in late September 2000 and the resultant report was critical of several aspects of the then CfAO program, including: a. Education: The report stated “the Center must create new and innovative programs inspired by the field of adaptive optics…. the Center must be a leader rather than a follower.” b. Research: Comments extracted from the report include: Planning – “While the science plan for individual portions of the research is strong, there are major deficiencies in integrating the planning process into the overall structure of the Center.” Astronomy – “The Astronomical Science has produced impressive evidence of progress” however “the plans for the review and distribution of AO-related software remains nebulous.” Vision Science – “the work has not identified major “meta goals” that show where the long range efforts will be focused.” And “to deliver AO to the biomedical community a broader input will be required…..there is a failure in communication between the Center and other groups” Knowledge Transfer – “It is of concern that the engineering faculty who were to be recruited were not.” And “the diversity of the Center’s participants need serious attention and could benefit from creative thinking…..the lack of a meaningful plan to attract and retain minorities is particularly striking.”

This negative evaluation by the Site Visit Committee of the CfAO’s first year led to a visit to NSF headquarters by the CfAO management team to discuss the report and conclusions. Following this visit, a decision was made to restructure the Center and to initiate the process with a two and a half day retreat of the Center’s Executive Committee on February 11 – 13th 2001 at Monterey Bay. The retreat focused on the concerns expressed at the site visit and how to re- organize the CfAO’s activities to conform more closely to the recommendations. The Executive Committee formulated a Mission Statement and proposed a new structure for the Center’s research which would be introduced to Center members at a two day Proposal Retreat on March 3-4 2001. To facilitate discussions and ensure outcomes from this event, the Center hired a strategic planning consultant.

The subsequent outcomes of this intensive strategic planning in Year 2 were that the CfAO membership developed and endorsed a statement of the Center’s mission, goals and strategies (See Section 2.1), and the reorganization of the research into Themes as follows: Theme 1 – Education and Human Resources Theme 2 – Adaptive Optics for Extremely Large Telescopes Theme 3 – Extreme Adaptive Optics Theme 4 – Adaptive Optics for Vision Science

7 This reorganization of the Center’s education and research efforts into Themes enabled Center investigators to develop collaborative programs both within Themes and between Themes rather than work in the traditional “individual research investigator” mode. Collaborations between vision scientists and astronomers have been particularly encouraged. An extended description of the CfAO’s Themes is provided in Section II.2

The new initiatives were implemented in November 2001 (Year 3), and have remained unchanged since then.

Major Developments that have occurred within the Center’s Themes

The changes implemented in Year 2 relative to the management of the CfAO’s science programs and their integration with the Education programs were positively reviewed by subsequent NSF site visit committees. Significant developments that have occurred within each theme over the years follow.

Education and Human Resources The Education program held its first Professional Development Workshop (PDW) for graduate students and postdocs in Hawaii in 2001, with a focus on inquiry-based learning. The 2001 NSF site visitors saw this as a major advance, as in addition to providing young researchers instruction in modern research based teaching techniques it had increased the ties between astronomy and vision science graduate students and post-docs. In that year the CfAO summer program for minority high school students “Stars, Sight and Science” partnered with COSMOS, a University of California summer science program for high school students. Having PDW attendees act as instructors in COSMOS utilizing inquiry-based techniques in their instruction also received favorable comment.

The site visit team was very impressed with the educational programs, stating they are amongst of the strongest components of the CfAO. “It has had a profound influence on the graduate students. The Hawaiian (Maui) involvement has had key developments in the past year and has the potential to be a significant legacy for the CfAO. The professional development workshop is unique among NSF Center programs and the impact of this on the participating students is exceptional.”

The success of Education and Human Resources (EHR) program led to an increase in funding for this theme from 15% to 17.5% of the CfAO budget as a result of the NSF Site Visit Committee recommendation in April 2003. In 2004 CfAO continued to extend the core elements of the program, to expand the number of people in CfAO involved in the EHR offerings, and to begin new initiatives.

Highlights presented at the 2004 review included:  an increase in Hawaii community involvement in the professional development workshop (PDW);  an increase (to 23) in the number of returning PDW participants who wished to assist in the course;  an increase to 135 the number of people involved in the EHR effort;  spin-off of a new UCSC “course offering” in Education (Ed 286) based on CfAO workshops and short courses. Ed 286 is designed for science and engineering graduate students, and the enrollment increased from 14 in 2003 to 20 in 2004. The UCSC

8 chemistry department accepted this course as an elective course outside the department that can be counted towards the Ph.D. degree.  an increased involvement of Maui Community College (MCC) with CfAO programs (2 faculty members assisted in courses); and  a short course in optics for Akamai Maui interns that has become a pilot for a new instrumentation course for MCC. It has also contributed to increased community support, recruiting efforts for new students, and efforts to create better projects.

EHR programs have a significant impact on the educational development of the interns and graduate students. A majority of the 11 graduate students from three CfAO sites interviewed by the Site Visit Committee mentioned that the PDW was as major factor in their graduate experience and, as a result, in their future career plans. Graduate students at Rochester used their experiences from the PDW to develop inquiry-based learning demonstrations for Saturday open- house programs for underrepresented minority students from the Rochester community.

The 2004 Site Visit Committee stated “The Education and Outreach (EHR) Theme continued making significant progress and is a model for NSF Science and Technology Centers and other organizations and institutions. Their programs are outstanding ….. meeting or surpassing all expectations.”

The following year the Center increased the linkages between CfAO and organizations that served significant numbers of underrepresented groups. Eighty-six percent of the 43 interns that participated in the mainland internship program, remained enrolled in a Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) programs of study or had entered the STEM workforce. Six interns entered STEM graduate study in 2005 (4 of these were from underrepresented groups). The Hartnell Astronomy Short Course continued to be a successful recruiting tool and that college awarded CfAO the Hartnell President’s Partnership Award for Excellence in 2005. The committee commended the CfAO for its accomplishments in increasing the participation of underrepresented minorities.

The 2005 Site Visit Committee especially commended CfAO’s outstanding efforts within the Maui community. “Their collaboration with the Maui Community College resulted in the development of a new astronomy course. Additionally, their partnership with the Maui Economic Development Board, the Maui Community College, and the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing Site (AMOS) stimulated new research collaboration and could well serve as a model for other islands.”

A continuing challenge faced by the CfAO EHR has been the development and implementation of projects on the Big Island of Hawaii. Mauna Kea is extremely important to the astronomical community, but weak local community support and involvement are areas of concern.

The Committee encouraged CfAO to continue working with their colleagues on Maui and the Big Island to build support for the implementation of an engineering technology degree program. Given the large number of underrepresented students that attend community colleges, this degree program would have the potential for significantly increasing the diversity of STEM disciplines and would be an investment in the future economic health of Hawaii.

The CfAO education program had an impressive number of meetings and workshops during Year 6. These included the Big Island Education Meeting, the Forum for Observatory and Technical Education, an NSF presentation (Opening Doors in Hawaii) and various meetings with observatory

9 directors and other personnel. Additionally, CfAO sponsored the UH Hilo Internship Forum and continued the annual Hartnell Astronomy Short Course.

CfAO’s efforts to integrate research and education were especially commended. In particular, the Committee mentioned the sponsorship of the Education 286 course, a spin-off of the Professional Development Workshop. This course is taught at the graduate level and is especially designed for scientists and engineers who want to explore science inquiry teaching and learning. The Year 6 site visit Committee urged the Center to continue working with the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC) Department of Education to refine and expand this course.

The 2005 Site Visit Committee commended the CfAO management on their efforts to make EHR an integral part of CfAO rather than an add-on. “This integration greatly facilitates the Center’s effort to effect a smooth transition to the post-NSF funding era. Many of the projects that have been initiated through the Center funding are likely to continue to be maintained through funding to support internships and graduate students.” The Committee strongly recommended that teaching programs be institutionalized within the UC and Hawaii educational systems and hoped that the Associate Director for Theme 1 would remain actively involved to assure a successful transition. The Committee hoped that the opportunities for obtaining funding for education to develop a new center in Hawaii that will involve the major observatories, community colleges, and high-tech industries will be pursued.

The 2006 Site Visit committee summarized their assessment of the Theme 1 activities as follows: “The theme continues to show excellent progress in its current activities and has begun to develop significant, well thought out, and realistic plans to move the CfAO Education and Outreach efforts beyond the end of NSF funding. The plans to institutionalize the Professional Development Program by means of the Institute for Science and Engineering Educators, and efforts associated with the proposed Maui Workforce Initiative should provide a solid foundation for future Theme 1 efforts. To help sustain CfAO-related core efforts beyond Year 10, the committee feels that the hiring of a development officer must be a high priority.”

The 2007 Site Visit Committee stated that Theme 1 continued its outstanduing Education and Outreach activities and had made significant progress towards continuing a substantial portion of these activities in the post –STC era. The plan to institutionalize the Professional Development Program by means of the Institute for Scientist and Engineer Educators (ISEE) has received strong support from the UCSC Vice-Chencellor of Research, Bruce Margon and Chancellor George Blumenthal. Chancellor Blumenthal gave the committee his assurance that a decision on ISEE would be forthcoming before the end of 2007 (Funding was approved in July 2008). The securing of short term external funding for the Hawai’i activities is also a major accomplishment and should provide a solid base for continuing these activities in the future.

Theme 2 – Adaptive Optics for Extremely Large Telescopes (ELTs) In 2003 the NSF Site Visitors commented favorably on the decision to define a goal with clear objectives in multi-conjugate adaptive optics (MCAO) for ELTs and to focus on advanced concepts for sodium laser guide stars and modeling and simulation codes. The visitors recommended continuing development on the fiber based guide-star lasers at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory - “these high risk, high payoff lasers my provide a robust and lightweight alternative to the currently used dye lasers.

10 Laboratory for Adaptive Optics (Moore Foundation Funds) NSF CfAO funds were insufficient to develop and support a new AO laboratory while concurrently maintaining its research programs. Consequently the University of California at Santa Cruz made a formal proposal to the Moore Foundation to fund a Laboratory for Adaptive Optics (LAO) and was subsequently awarded a grant of $9.6 million. The funds were to be used for the refurbishment of existing laboratory space and to support researchers in the first three years of the laboratory’s operation. To ensure continuation of laboratory funding beyond the life of the CfAO, the LAO is officially a unit of the Lick Observatories with a close affiliation to CfAO programs in astronomy.

The plan to develop a test bed to anchor simulation models using the recently awarded Moore Foundation funds was seen by the Site Visit committee as an opportunity to “significantly enhance the Center’s ability to contribute to the ELT community.”

The Year 4 visit by the NSF was part of the CfAO funding renewal process. The Committee unexpectedly expressed several concerns about past performance and lack of tangible deliverables for Adaptive Optics for Extremely Large Telescopes (Theme 2), and the uncertain prospects for the external funding of Extreme Adaptive Optics (Theme 3) goals. There was also comment on a perceived lack of knowledge transfer from these themes: “Dissemination of experimental data and convening of technical hands-on workshops for laser guide star science and techniques should be key components in knowledge transfer activities.”

The CfAO response noted the need to convey “to the broader AO Astronomy community the considerable progress it has made in identifying national goals for the application of Adaptive Optics, the strategy and infrastructure (including the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics) that it is assembling to meet these goals, and the specific new results obtained using the Lick Observatory laser guide star facility. These two themes are difficult to concisely describe, as the identified goals in both cases are long term and costly to achieve. The ambitious goals of Themes 2 and 3 were identified during the CfAO’s Strategic Planning process in Year 2, and were approved by the External Advisory Board, Program Advisory Committee, and Site Visit Committees. The research underway in Theme 2 varies from specific tasks such as laser development to more clearly delineating broader issues and exploring potential solutions, for example, in new architectures for adaptive optics on Extremely Large Telescopes. In all cases, however, it was agreed that publication of results and their presentation at professional meetings was an extremely important component of dissemination that the CfAO must continue to emphasize.”

For both Themes 2 and 3, the CfAO had itself concluded that NSF funds alone were not sufficient to carry the programs through to completion. “This was recognized at the onset and we are actively seeking funds from other sources to complete these ambitious hardware projects. Considerable thought has been applied to this issue, and funding strategies (with decision trees) have been identified. However, as discussed in the Renewal Report for Theme 2, Years 6 to 10 budgets and plans are not predicated on additional funding from any other source. They are based on understanding the fundamental concepts underlying the future development of Extremely Large Telescope systems. As discussed, any additional funds would be applied to the development of expensive full scale prototypes and hardware that are not included in the current plan.”

The funding issues raised in the Year 4 Site Visit were mostly put to rest the following year in which the CfAO reported “The ELT landscape in the U.S. has changed dramatically. The Caltech CELT project, the AURA GSMT project, and the Canadian VLOT merged into a new Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) project. The TMT now has sufficient funding to begin design work. A

11 Project Manager was hired, a Project office established, and various committees organized. The CfAO director, Jerry Nelson, was appointed the TMT Project Scientist. ….. It is of note that the TMT AO working group is largely composed of CfAO members, who continue to actively investigate the feasibility of various AO concepts in consultation with the SAC and others.”

The Year 5 Site Visit Committee recommended that “the CfAO focus on areas of ELT technology and software development that have broad applicability, independent of any particular ELT concept or design; these areas will form the CfAO legacy that will endure when and if an ELT is constructed - there being no guarantee that a final ELT design would resemble current conceptual designs.”

The Committee noted that “there was no discussion of interactions between the CfAO and the ongoing Gemini MCAO project in the Year 6 Annual Report. The work done at CfAO on MCAO algorithms and optimization has now moved to the stage of prototyping and verification. Going beyond the laboratory MCAO prototype, LAO is now designing the on-sky experiment ViLLaGEs, where several key technologies will be tested, namely the fiber laser, uplink compensation, MEMS and open loop compensation. The Committee strongly supports this activity….The Committee views the LAO as a key element ensuring the transition of CfAO to the post NSF funding era…….. The LAO is a unique resource for preparing specialists with hands-on experience in AO. Such specialists are in strong demand.” The Committee also commented favorably on several other CfAO activities including  the designing of a Next Generation AO (NGAO) system for the Keck Observatory. This would offer useful AO compensation at visible wavelengths.  The developing and testing of special radial-format CCD detectors, designed to overcome spot elongation, one of the major problems of LGS AO on ELTs. The committee noted that the University of Arizona has another approach to remove spot elongation, namely dynamic refocusing which is being tested on-sky.

Finally the Committee recommended increased collaboration between CfAO and astronomers in both the national and international communities as a successful transition to the post NSF era.

Progress on Laser Guide Stars In 2006, the Center reported “that the Chicago Sum-Frequency Laser had been shipped to Palomar Observatory for testing with the PALAO adaptive optics system. It produced 3.5 W for a period of 60 hours in the lab and remains to be tested on the telescope.” The Committee congratulated the CfAO staff on this impressive turnaround and commended the management and the Blue Ribbon Committee1 on their analysis of the underlying problems with the laser and instituting a plan to accomplish the turnaround.

Progress had also been made with the LLNL fiber laser by scaling the 589 μm power level to 0.8 W. Hardware problems with the Neodymium fiber laser master oscillator had led to a six-month delay in laser testing while it was being repaired in Europe. Concern was expressed with the slow pace of progress for this laser and the loss of LLNL internal funds that helped sponsor this development.

A recommendation was made that the CfAO define general guide star laser performance requirements for the astronomical AO community in order to guide them in the selection and development of the laser technology best suited for deployment at various telescopes.

1 Panel of experts assembled by CfAO to act as consultants and resolve difficulties being experienced.

12 In Year 6 the NSF Site Visit team’s report summary stated “The Center has already set up the LAO for modeling multi-conjugate adaptive optics and has made major progress on simulation tools towards adaptive optics for extremely large telescopes (ELT).”

With reference to Theme 2, the report contained the following statement “The highest priority of the last US Decadal Survey for ground-based night time astronomy is the design and development of a thirty-meter class extremely large telescope (ELT) using adaptive optics to achieve diffraction- limited resolution at infrared wavelengths. Currently there are two parallel initiatives working towards this goal: The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT, 30-meters in aperture) ….. and the Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT, 22-meters in collecting aperture) consortium. CfAO addresses the needs of both programs even though, because of its home within UCSC, it is more focused on the TMT design and development.”

Other ELT concepts under development at this time, with Adaptive Optics as an essential component, included the 100-m OWL and 50-m Euro50 concepts being pursued in Europe.”

The Year 6 Site Visit committee identified the technological challenges that must be met for Adaptive Optics to be successfully employed in ELTs. These include the development of:

1) Powerful (>50W) sodium-wavelength (Na) lasers, preferably pulsed to enable mitigation of the so-called perspective elongation resulting from the thickness of the Na mesospheric layer and/or to enable the mitigation of Raleigh and Mie scattering in the lower atmosphere; 2) Wavefront sensors for many sub-apertures of ELTs; 3) Wavefront sensors with accurate response over the full range of atmospheric wavefront distortions; 4) Adaptive secondary mirrors to minimize the telescope emissivity and maximize its throughput; 5) Smaller adaptive mirrors when multi-conjugate adaptive optics (MCAO) or its variants multi-object adaptive optics (MOAO), etc. are used. 6) Algorithms to design, build and execute MCAO etc; 7) Methods of using the short laser pulses to mitigate the effects of perspective elongation in wavefront sensors; 8) The extension of AO to visible wavelengths; and, 9) The possible use of LGSs on ELTs in daytime for thermal infrared observations where the daytime sky brightness is acceptable.

The CfAO is actively engaged in items (a), (b), (c), (e), (f), (g) and h.

In 2004 the CfAO had identified four goals for the ELT program. Progress on these main goals were reported in Year 6 as follows:

1. Develop at least one workable point design for wide-field adaptive optics on a 30-m telescope. Several point designs have now been developed, in partnership with teams from the TMT programs The MCAO test bed at the UCSC Laboratory for Adaptive Optics (LAO) was completed and this system has begun testing MCAO hardware components, atmospheric tomography software, and systems modeling needed for an MCAO for ELTs.

13 2. Develop partnerships to co-fund hardware technology development for key components, including lasers. Laser development will be addressed in a following section. However another key technology that affects various ELT AO systems is deformable mirrors (DMs). The CfAO has currently focused on small, high-actuator-density micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) mirrors rather than on larger adaptive mirrors that are better suited for wide-field MCAO applications. MEMS mirrors are ideally suited for both astronomical MOAO and AO applications in vision science. This synergy makes it particularly appropriate for CfAO to pursue the MEMS.

3. Develop techniques for doing quantitative astronomy with laser guide stars. CfAO scientists continue to make valuable science observations with the Lick and Keck LGS AO systems. The Year 6 Site Visit Committee recommended that CfAO continue to develop point spread function (PSF) reconstruction algorithms to generate the PSF for each observation (with or without laser guide stars). This has great potential to make all AO observations more efficient and increase the quality of the results of AO observations on any telescope. The Committee further commended the CfAO for their continuing efforts to make the results of the CfAO Treasury Survey (CATS) public, in both raw and reduced forms, as they become available.

4. Pursue astronomical science related to AO on 30-meter telescopes. The science goals of CfAO astronomers in Themes 2 and 3 should take into consideration the emerging and evolving science cases for ELTs. The Committee was particularly impressed by the results obtained on the region surrounding the Galactic Center from observations made with the Keck telescope laser guide star system.

Site Visit Reports on Laser Guide Star AO Astronomy In its 2005 Annual Report, the Center reported on its progress towards the development of Sodium guide star lasers and provided an overall perspective on the current state of guide star laser technology. The Center was cognizant of the key technical issues related to the use of guide star lasers such as spot elongation, Raleigh and Mie scattering (due to cirrus), the need to mitigate the cone effect, and to minimize fratricide in the scattering when using multiple guide stars. These issues could be addressed using pulsed guide star lasers and the Center was moving in this direction. Center encouraged activity included:

 Development of commercial mode-locked guide star lasers by Coherent Technologies Incorporated (CTI); and  Development of pulsed fiber lasers at LLNL under funding from NSF’s Adaptive Optics Development Program (AODP). The Center’s overall assessment was that these activities, along with the earlier US Air Force’s development of a 50-W rod-based guide star laser, provide several reliable options for future guide star laser needs.

The Center’s efforts on the Chicago Sum-Frequency Laser have focused on supporting the installation and integration of the laser with the Palomar Observatory adaptive optics system (PALAO). The Laser power had been scaled from 3.5 W achieved last year to 8 W, with the goal of projecting 4 W onto the sky. At the time the committee met the power projected into the sky with the 8 W laser had not been determined.

The 2005 Site Visit Committee recommended that CfAO document the Palomar laser design in a technical report. While this laser does not have the appropriate pulse format to address spot elongation, it is capable of addressing Raleigh and Mie scattering and the significance of this

14 should be evaluated and documented. In addition, CfAO should begin documenting reliability- related issues as the laser accumulates more time at Palomar.

Progress had also been made with the LLNL fiber laser by scaling the yellow power level from its initial 0.8 W to 2.7 W, but still short of the goal of 5 – 10 W. The Neodymium fiber laser had been repaired and was now working at an acceptable level but problems were found with the erbium (Er) amplifier that had limited the available pump power at 1.58 μm to 6 W. In addition, damage problems with the Periodically Poled Potassium Titnyl Phosphate (PPKTP), sum-frequency crystal had necessitated shifting to a relatively newly developed crystal, periodically poled stoichiometric lithium tantalite (PPSLT). LLNL planned to perform experiments with a new Er fiber amplifier and PPSLT crystals in late September 2005 and that would conclude the continuous wave (CW) efforts.

The 2005 Site Visit Committee continued to be concerned with the slow pace of progress for this laser but recognized that in part, this was due to the loss of LLNL internal funds that had in the past helped sponsor this development. It hoped that a CW demonstration of 5 – 10 W would be performed as scheduled and documented as a technology benchmark for an efficient compact and highly reliable guide star laser before moving on to pulsed systems. The Committee was concerned that pulsed systems have their own set of performance risks and the availability of a 5 – 10 CW source could be a significant improvement over existing dye lasers and provide an interim solution on the path to more desirable pulsed lasers.

The Center staff was also involved with synergistic work on a pulsed fiber approach at LLNL that was funded by the NSF Adaptive Optics Development Program (AODP), and was closely following a commercial laser development at CTI. As the Center transitions to pulsed fiber sources, the Committee hoped that the AODP work would help to share risk and accelerate the development of next generation pulsed fiber guide star lasers.

The availability of a commercial mode-locked, amplitude modulated (pulsed) guide star laser source in 2005 was a significant benefit to the astronomical community. The delivery of a CW mode-locked 12 W laser to Gemini North and the commitment to deliver a 20 W laser to Keck and a 50W laser to Gemini South on a firm fixed price basis indicated that CTI was developing useful products and was ready to address the guide star laser market with the pulse format needed. There was concern that CTI’s acquisition by Lockheed-Martin might make their future direction uncertain. Thus the Center should continue its vigilance in developing alternate sources and remain engaged with CTI for potential technology transfer should they be forced out of business.

The Site Visit Committee recommended that the CfAO define guide star laser performance requirements for the AO community in order to guide it in the selection and development of the laser technology best suited for deployment at various telescopes.

The 2006 Site Visit Committee expressed its concern at the slow rate of progress on the LLNL fiber laser but recognized that this is a relatively high risk development. The Committee hoped that a demonstration of > 5 Watts is achieved as scheduled and documented as a technology benchmark for an efficient, compact and highly reliable guide star laser.

The Chicago Sum frequency laser continued to operate on Mt. Palomar producing 8.5 W with 4 W projected on the sky. The team at PALAO succeeded in closing the loop on the AO system and looks forward to LGS/AO enhanced astronomical data in the near future. The Site Visit team commended CfAO and PALAO on the progress made.

15 The 2007 NSF Site Visit Team noted that “The Center had completed the transition of the fiber sodium guide star laser to pulsed format at a power level of 3.8 W and is currently on a plan to package the laser for installation at the Lick 1-m telescope, as part of VILLaGES. The goal of transitioning to the pulse format was to address the issue of spot elongation; however, the current pulse repitition rate is a factor of 6 higher than that needed to achieve this goal.

CfAO also has continued to support personnel at the PALAO system at Palomar that are using the CfAO-built University of Chicago Laser. The Laser is currently being used for astronomical science on a shared risk basis.”

Transition Plans The 2006 Site Visit Committee commented that the CfAO is in an excellent position to lead the astronomy community’s work on the MCAO point design for ELTs and also by its participation in the implementation of extreme adaptive optics via the GPI instrument for Gemini. Because of the CfAO’s work on Atmospheric Tomography and MEMS technology, the CfAO should continue in the design of a MOAO instrument for 30-m telescopes where it appears to be in an excellent position to take the lead in the eventual construction of such an instrument.

In year 2007 the Site Visit Committee wrote that in Theme 2, the CfAO has continued in leading astronomical science using AO while advancing the development of key technologies (MEMS and sodium lasers) for ELTs. The ongoing astronomical science includes the CfAO treasury survey, studies of the stars near the galactic center, and observations of the solar system. The use of the LAO for breadboarding and prototyping of astronomical experiments such as the VILLaGES experiment continues to be a unique and highly valuable asset.

Theme 3 – Extreme Adaptive Optics (ExAO) In 2002, the NSF site visit team commended the CfAO for defining an aggressive program that included a plan to install an ExAO instrument at Gemini or Keck within the next five years and the modeling and vigorous observing that has been performed to identify the role of ExAO in discovering and directly imaging new planets around other stars.

As was noted in Theme 2 above, the 2003 Site Visit report was critical of both Theme 2 and Theme 3 programs. Specifically they said that the funding of instruments for both Themes was beyond the scope of available NSF CfAO funds. Later developments in Theme 3 have put to rest these fears. In addition, the report indicated a level of disappointment at the lack of detail in the Theme 3 presentation to which the Center provided a written response. “We regret that a perception was created that there was reluctance to provide such detail. We had prepared our Theme 3 presentations under the (mistaken) assumption that the Committee would want to see the “big picture” without a great deal of technical detail. Some of our technical material within Theme 3 has been already published, and more will be published later this year. The perceived delay is not uncommon with the requirements of data acquisition, analysis and presentation. In any new area there are technical questions that need to be addressed, but we are confident that promulgation of our design both in the literature and at conferences will allay the concerns of the Committee.”

In 2004, considerable progress had been made in conceptual studies and the potential for funding an instrument at an observatory. The Site Visit committee endorsed the then current CfAO roadmap for Theme 3 and noted “CfAO continued to pursue the design and construction of an extreme AO system for direct detection of extrasolar planets and had assembled a broad multinational team to tackle this program. CfAO had also developed

16 simulation tools to address complex science/instrument tradeoffs with both CfAO and the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics (LAO) providing important seed funding for fostering this effort. The CfAO led team had been selected as one of two teams in competition for an ExAO design for a Gemini Telescope. CfAO had also begun modeling efforts to identify the science reach of a high-contrast AO system on a 30-meter telescope.”

During Year 6 (2005), a major effort of CfAO and its partners was the preparation of the proposal for the Gemini Extreme AO Coronagraph (ExAOC) contract, which was subsequently accepted and fully funded by Gemini – the instrument name being changed to the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI). With LLNL the lead institution, CfAO would continue its research activities associated with high- contrast AO instruments. The Site Visit Committee considered this a very significant achievement by CfAO and offered congratulations on this great success. The role of CfAO in providing synergy among different groups involved in the ExAOC proposal and matching their areas of expertise had been crucial to the proposal. CfAO supported or developed several enabling technologies for this and future ExAO instruments, including:

1. MEMS deformable mirrors; 2. Fast optimal wave-front control; and 3. Apodized-pupil coronagraphs.

The newly created LAO (an entity of the Lick Observatory) had been actively involved in the studies of high-contrast imaging techniques and the Committee was impressed by the laboratory test-bench experiment as a proof-of-concept for the apodized-pupil imager.

CfAO partners were actively involved in astronomical programs of high-contrast imaging, preparing to use ExAOC and other similar instruments as they become available. A strong international team was formed around the development of the ExAO science case. This work would continue through Years 7-10 and beyond.

The 2005 Site Visit Committee endorsed the CfAO work plan on Theme 3 for Years 7-10. “The effort will be primarily directed to research and development (R&D) and science support of ExAO, without duplicating or substituting the work on actual construction of the Gemini instrument. The combination of CfAO and LAO positioned them to take the lead in future projects of ExAO instruments and the visiting committee strongly encouraged CfAO to compete in future projects related to ExAO, capitalizing on its achievements.”

The 2005 Site Visit Committee recommended that CfAO extend its role “in the coordination of ExAO research by engaging new partners in these activities – for example, by organizing thematic workshops or conferences and keeping the community informed on the CfAO website.”

The 2006 Site Visit team stated “the successful proposal to Gemini to build GPI (ExAOC) was an outstanding demonstration of how CfAO can bring together various groups in a successful collaboration and support the enabling technologies of their programs.” The committee understood the basis for CfAO funds supporting the underlying research for GPI while the hardware development was funded by the Gemini program. However noting that the technology and hardware requirements were an ambitious undertaking within the proposed development time frame, they suggested that if needed, consideration be given to divert CfAO funding to certain aspects of the hardware development to ensure the project met its time deadline. The Site Visit team reiterated advice from the previous year that the GPI team engage the wider astronomy community in the progress being made on the GPI.

17 The 2007 NSF Site visit team commented, “With the award of GPI to LLNL, a CfAO partner, CfAO has directed its resources to areas that focus on GPI-enabling technologies and methods. These include the development of large MEMS deformable mirror arrays, novel high contrast coronographs and advanced modeling tools.” Theme 4 – Vision Science In 2002 the Site Visit Committee commended progress in Theme 4: “The researchers in the vision science theme have continued to produce interesting scientific results and develop exciting new instruments for measuring the optics of the eye and viewing the retina in vivo. Particularly striking are the measurements using AO that show widely varying red/green cone ratios in persons with normal color vision. They have also demonstrated the ability of the confocal AO scanning laser opthalmoscope to view different layers of the retina and to image individual red blood cells in retinal capillaries. Even more promising in terms of resolution, is the coherence- gated AO retina camera which is in the early development stage.”

In 2003 the visiting committee observed that “the instruments created in the theme are already beginning to find useful applications in clinical environments in imaging vascular disease at high resolution, monitoring retinal blood flow without flourescein angiography, and tracking photoreceptor loss in retinal degenerative diseases. Future applications include tracking ganglion cell loss in glaucoma, and use in retinal surgery with an AO surgical microscope.

The Science in the Astronomy programs, the focus on instrumentation in the Vision Science theme and the increased interaction between astronomers and vision scientists also received positive comments. There was a major concern and some lesser criticism that are commented on below.

Theme 4 continued making advances in the application of AO to vision science instruments and in 2005 the Site Visit Committee observed that

1) The AO spectral domain OCT retinal imaging system at the University of Indiana became operational and created retinal images with the highest lateral resolution obtained to date, which, for the first time, allows visualization of the cone photoreceptor cells in a cross- sectional view. The instrument uses a spectral-domain OCT approach with AO correction of the wavefront in the detector optical train. 2) Detailed studies of eye motion were obtained from the AO scanning laser ophthalmoscope (SLO) at the University of California at Berkeley (UCB). This method was shown to be superior to the best eye tracking method currently in use (dual Purkinje image tracking). 3) The position of the fixation point with respect to the center of the macula was measured at the University of Rochester (UR) with an AO ophthalmoscope. 4) The fixation of the eye in the presence of normal eye movement was studied using the AO SLO at UCB. The fixation target was projected directly onto the retina by modulating the projected beam, so that the exact retinal area used by the viewer for fixation could be monitored continuously. This method has potential application in identifying and determining the viability of areas of functioning retinal tissue in diseased retinas. 5) The AO retinal imaging system was used at the University of Rochester to visualize the cone photoreceptor mosaic and detect genetic photo pigment mutations. 6) Measurements were made with the flood illuminated AO retinal imaging system to study variations in the cone reflectance over time periods of seconds. A model involving the assumption of changes in the index of refraction of the cones due to bleaching effects was used, with some success, to explain the phenomenon.

18 7) Boston Micromachines Corporation (BMC) MEMS deformable mirrors were installed and operated successfully in AO retinal imaging instruments at UCB and UR. The LLNL AO phoropter was also retrofitted with a new BMC MEMS deformable mirror to take advantage of its increased stroke. 8) Dye-marked retinal ganglion cells were imaged in experimental animals at UR. 9) The members of the CfAO Theme 4 group obtained two Bioengineering Research Partnerships (BRP) National Institutes of Health (NIH) grants. The funds involved in these grants amount to $15,000,000 over a 5-year period. 10) Members of the Theme 4 group at UR have written a handbook on the practical aspects of employing AO in vision science. The book will be published by J. Wiley and Sons and is titled Adaptive Optics for Vision Science – Principles, Practices, Design and Applications. 11) The Theme 4 group continued to effectively collaborate with other members of CfAO Themes on vision science issues.”

The NSF Site Visit Committee was highly impressed with these outstanding accomplishments.

In 2006 CfAO transferred the Adaptive Optics phoropter to Bausch & Lomb for evaluation to determine its commercial potential. Also in accord with the 2005 NSF Site Visit team recommendation, a limited number of retinal specialists in the Rochester and the Los Angeles areas were contacted to explore the needs for AO enhanced retinal imaging and the clinical viability of the AO phoropter technology.

Many of the goals for the final period of the NSF grant for the Theme 4 group have already been or are well on their way to being accomplished. The Theme 4 group is actively considering seeking support for establishing a new center that maybe called the Center for Functional Imaging of the Retina. While the use of adaptive optics would be one important and integral part of its activities, the Center’s focus would be on the broader insights that can be obtained in studying the retina and vision with the new instruments developed and under development.

The 2006 NSF Site Visit Team added its commendation of the vision science instruments that had been developed and the resulting scientific research that was made possible both in animal and human subjects. The committee was particularly impressed by the fact that “the University of Rochester (UR) and the University of Houston patents had been licensed to Optos Ltd. for incorporating AO in their existing wide field fundus camera. The imaging system will be marketed to optometrists for mainly screening purposes…..Additionally there are plans to develop “high-end” customized AO imaging systems by a future company that will involve researchers at UR who have contributed to the development of the current prototype instruments. Members of the Vision Science theme are also submitting two BRP renewal grants to the NIH. All of which is very promising for the future of this theme after the conclusion of NSF funding. The Committee stated that it is “highly impressed with the various efforts of Theme 4 in making available their findings and experience in AO imaging to the vision science community and being active in exploring other avenues for continuing AO retinal imaging research.”

The 2007 NSF Site Visit Team noted “Theme 4 continues to make remarkable advances in AO retinal imaging. Emphasis has shifted this year to active imaging, including structured microstimulation of the cone mosaic and investigation of cone photoreceptor scintillation. Collaborative research efforts with leading clinical physicians have resulted in exciting new data on retinal disease in human subjects. Anticipated renewal of one of two BRP grants (in fact both grants have since been renewed) from NIH should continue funding of ongoing research projects.

19 MEMS Technology The CfAO recognized very early that that advances in the functionality of MEMS deformable mirrors would result in their providing a critical enabling technology for three of the CfAO themes. Under its leadership funding has been provided for the development of MEMS deformable mirror arrays by several partner institutions, some without CfAO support. Several different technologies with differing levels of risk and potential performance capability have been supported. While the near term lower risk approaches meet the needs of the vision community, the ELT and ExAO applications for deformable mirrors require the higher risk, longer-term developments. There has also been an inherent risk in pursuing these goals in that the companies involved are relatively small and some did not survive the aftermath of the down turn in the telecom industry.

However in 2004 CfAO underscored its and UC Santa Cruz’s commitment to this important area of technology with the recruitment of a new faculty member who specialized in MEMS development, while continuing to fund MEMS deformable mirror development at Boston Micromachines Corp. and IRIS AO.

As stated earlier, MEMS Deformable Mirror Chips (DMCs) play a key role in the success of the three CfAO projects or Themes:

1) Theme 2, AO for Extremely Large Telescopes; 2) Theme 3, Extreme Adaptive Optics; and 3) Theme 4, AO for Vision Science.

Each Theme requires a different specification for the MEMS Deformable Mirror Chip – for example, mirror array count. In 2005 the CfAO team produced detailed specifications for each Theme to provide the broad MEMS industrial and university communities with guidelines for DMC development. More than five organizations were developing DMCs to meet these specifications. By circulating the new DMC specifications, CfAO hoped to stimulate additional interest in the MEMS community to address the challenge to design and manufacture large count (10,000 elements), large stroke (>10 μm) mirror arrays with supporting electronics.

In 2005, CfAO made substantial progress in the purchase and characterization of a 32x32 (1024 actuators) DMC manufactured by Boston Micromachines Corporation (BMC). The evaluation of the BMC mirror chips highlighted the improved performance and utility of the DMC. The price for the 32x32 DMC was $25,000 and that of the larger arrays under development substantially more. While the DMC price is less of an issue for telescope projects (Themes 2 and 3) it does impact the higher volume market projected for Theme 4 (Vision Science) where the price must be reduced to (at most) $1000 - $3000 per chip (albeit with fewer actuators).

The higher mirror count (4,000 – 10,000 elements) DMCs required for the telescopes are still in the development stage with a 1000 element DMC delivered in 2006 and 10,000 element DMCs scheduled for delivery in 2007. Of the MEMS development efforts funded by CfAO in 2005, the following progress was made: 1. Boston Micro Machines (BMC) delivered and members of CfAO characterized a 140 element, continuous membrane DMC with a ~ 4 μm stroke or mirror displacement, and a 4.4 mm aperture; 2. IRIS AO made incremental progress with their hexagonal discrete planar element design.

20 3. MEMX demonstrated their discrete, hexagonal planar element design with 50 μm stroke and greatly improved element flatness. This was excellent progress, but the company had not developed drive electronics for their device and went into liquidation in 2006.

In late 2005, BMC appeared to be the company most likely to deliver the first 4000 element DMC with at least a 4 μm stroke. The long-term goal for mirror stroke for Themes 2, 3 and 4 is at least 10 μm, and a number of MEMS groups are attempting to meet this very difficult specification in 2006 – 2007.

Another challenge involves the architecture for the high voltage (~ 150 Volts) mirror driver electronics. The present electronics for the 1000 mirror array are off-chip electronics on pc boards. These will be used to drive the 4000 element DMC, but an on-chip or attached Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) architecture for electronics will be required for the 10,000 element array. Fully integrated on-chip electronics on the DMC requires a long lead-time design, fabrication and verification cycle and consequently a substantial increase in price. The 2005 Site Visit Committee commended CfAO for the substantial progress made in FY 2005 in the optical bench demonstration and characterization of a 32-x32 DMC and for the creation and circulation of detailed DMC specifications for Themes 2, 3 and 4.

The 2006 NSF site visit team commended CfAO for the fact “That there continues to be good progress in the design, fabrication and characterization of the Mirror Arrays required for the CfAO Themes.”

The 2007, the NSF Site Visit Team commented “CfAO’s support and collaboration with BMC and IRIS AO has resulted in significant advances in the development of MEMS deformable mirror arrays for applications that span Themes 2 to 4. These include development of 1024 element arrays for ELTs, progress in the development of 4096 element arrays for ExAO and inexpensive 140 element large stroke arrays for vision science. In addition, UCSC, under the leadership of Prof. J. Kubby, is working on the development of >10,000 element arrays for future applications. Related developments include compact drive electronics for thes deformable mirrors and methods for testing and characterizing these arrays using the facilities at LAO.”

Knowledge Transfer Over the years the CfAO has consolidated its Knowledge Transfer activities. Some highlights are:

 The Professional Development Workshops;  The CATS program to provide raw and reduced AO data to the extragalactic astronomy community;  Publication of the first significant papers based on the use of laser guide stars;  Active commercial partnerships for MEMS development;  The annual Adaptive Optics Summer School;  The publication in June 2006 by Wiley of the manual “Adaptive Optics for Vision Science”;  Continued networking between vision scientists and astronomers at all levels – Principal Investigators, post docs and graduate students.

The 2005 NSF Site Visit team report stated: “The transfer of AO knowledge by the CfAO to the broader community continued at an excellent pace,” and listed the range of Center activities over which this had occurred. The 2006 Site Visit report further commended the CfAO on its broad

21 range of knowledge transfer activities, concluding with the statement “… the CfAO has been instrumental in effecting an exciting transition from “AO development” to “AO deployment” for the nation’s vision science and astronomy communities”.

I.3 Center Management, Planning Process and Implementation of Plans for the Coming Years

The extensive NSF Office of the Inspector General audits of the CfAO have indicated sound financial and administrative management.

This view was reinforced by the Year 5 NSF Site Visit report that concurred with the External Advisory Board that the Center is working as a cohesive whole and the current management structure is effective. Astronomy expertise in signal processing is now being used in the Vision Science theme, both Astronomy and Vision Science benefit from work in MEMS development, and all themes benefit from EHR projects and vice versa. The review process for funding new and existing proposals is clearly defined, and runs well: vibrant proposal activity produces requests for 150% of available funds; 90% of projects are at least partially funded. Themes 1, 2, 3, and 4 have roadmaps and well-developed metrics for success.

The 2005 Site Visit report commended the Center for the smooth transition to a new Director (Claire Max replaced Jerry Nelson who accepted the position of Chief Scientist for the TMT program) and noted that Center management continues to be effective. They said that the Center continues to interact effectively with the UCSC Oversight Committee, External Advisory Board, and Program Advisory Committee. The current management structure has successfully brought together the AO community and integrated research and education. The Center held a special retreat to discuss transition strategy for continuing operations after NSF funding ends and solicited input from the members. Subsequent retreats and meetings continue to discuss aspects of the Center’s transition strategy.

The 2005 Site Visit Committee said that the management and transition strategy for Theme 1 is excellent:  Following the CfAO strategic planning meeting (Half Moon Bay, August 2005), a small working group formed to explore institutionalizing the Professional Development Workshop by joining efforts with the UCSC Center for Informal Learning and Schools (CILS). The team met with UCSC administrators and made progress in developing the Institute for Scientist and Engineer Educators (ISEE). A proposal for UCSC funding was submitted in June 2007, requesting “bridge” funding to assist in developing ISEE.  Stars, Sight and Science will be a fully institutionally supported program by UCSC in Year 10.  Akamai Maui Internship Program: Proposals have been submitted to the NSF and the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR) for $3.2M over five years. This would help support the Maui internship program. The AFOSR has committed to $125K/year for the 5 year period, if the NSF is willing to commit funds as well.  Hawaii Island Akamai Observatory Program The participation of Mauna Kea observatories this year has significantly increased and it is hoped that this program will grow to be part of the community outreach by the observatories.

In 2007, Theme 2 successfully obtained independent funding to establish the LAO.. The transition strategy incorporates competing for the design and construction of AO instruments for the TMT or other telescopes. Design of visible light AO and laser guide star related research would also be

22 pursued as possible areas to obtain funding. Identifying additional applications for the AO technology and obtaining independent funding to support the LAO are being sought during the transition period.

Similarly, Theme 3 has effectively utilized the Center’s resources for the design of an ExAO system that resulted in a contract to develop such a system for the Gemini South telescope. The transition strategy involves implementation of this technology in other large telescopes and NASA planet imaging projects. The specifications of MEMS that are needed in astronomy and vision science applications have been thoroughly investigated. Theme 3 will continue interacting with companies and research groups that are developing MEMS.

Theme 4 has been successful in incorporating AO in retinal imaging systems and in obtaining research funding from BRP to build several AO retinal imaging instruments. A manual on the use of AO in vision science has been written and has been published. The transition strategy includes efforts for commercialization of AO retinal imaging instruments, evaluation of the clinical application of AO phoropter, continued progress for renewal of the BRP grants, and establishment of a new center for retinal functional imaging.

In 2008 both BRP grants to CfAO Vision Science researchers were renewed. Also a patent "Method and Design for Using Adaptive Optics in a Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscope" US Patent #6,890,076 to A. Roorda was licensed to OPTOS, in Fall, 2006. Optos plans to deliver the first AOSLO device to the University of Pennsylvania in Fall 2008.

As a whole, the Center envisions continuing and strengthening its core functions at the end of the funding period from NSF. These functions include facilitating scientific interactions through regular workshops and retreats and providing education in optical science. In 2007 several non- NSF funding sources including endowment and the UC Office of the President (UCOP) were identified for support of the Center’s staff and core functions.

In late 2007, a proposal was made to UCOP for funding to provide infrastructure support for the CfAO beyond Year 10. Subsequently, in February 2008 UCOP granted the CfAO $330,000 per year (free of overhead) for five years. The funding is to provide a focus for Adaptive Optics Research with the UC system and be headquartered at UCSC.

23 II - Research

II.1a CfAO Mission, Goals and Strategies

Mission: To advance and disseminate the technology of adaptive optics in service to science, health care, industry, and education.

Goal: To lead the revolution in AO, by developing and demonstrating the technology, creating major improvements in AO systems, and catalyzing advances nationwide within the next decade.

Strategies: CfAO will pursue its purpose and achieve its goal by: 1. Demonstrating the power of AO by doing forefront science. 2. Increasing the accessibility of AO to the scientific community. 3. Developing and deploying highly capable AO systems and laser beacons. 4. Coordinating and combining research efforts to take advantage of the synergies afforded by the Center mode of operations. 5. Integrating education with our research. 6. Building a Center community that is supportive of diversity through vigorous recruiting, retention, and training activities. 7. Encouraging the interaction of vision scientists and astronomers to promote the emergence of new science and technology. 8. Leveraging our efforts through industry partnerships and cross-disciplinary collaborations.

II.1b Performance and Management indicators

Research – When preparing their proposals for funding, researchers must include progress milestones for the coming year. Subsequently on year’s completion, when evaluating research results the Director and Executive Committee review the milestones predicted vs. results achieved and use this as a criterion for determining future funding. The quality of the research is taken into account based on results obtained, publications etc.

Administrative Management - The Center has a Managing Director (reporting to the Director) who is responsible for the day-to-day management and oversight of the various CfAO activities. These include budgets and expenditures, arrangement of retreats, workshops, and summer schools, report writing, facilities, etc. On completion, retreats and the summer school are reviewed and evaluated to determine if improvements can be made. The Center’s Extrnal Advisory Board (EAB) meets with the Center Executive Committee each year and includes in their report an evaluation of management performance. The two recent NSF audits by the Office of the Inspector General (OIG) made a special mention of the high level of competence in the record keeping and administration of the Center.

II.1c Problems Encountered

Characterization of Light Exposure Damage Using AOSLO (Vision Science) In year 8, Rochester discovered changes in the retina resulting while recording autofluorescence (AF) images of the retina of a macaque monkey. At the time, they were using exposure levels that were deemed to be safe according to ANSI. Following the discovery, all proposed AF imaging experiments as well as other experiments on humans were halted at Rochester in order to focus energy on characterizing the nature of the damage and to determine actual safe levels of exposure. In year 9, they continued this effort. Figure 1 shows one of the main results. For low exposures

24 the magnitude of the AF signal from the retinal pigment epithelial cells is unchanged. When the exposure increases the AF signal decreases immediately after exposure, but the RPE cells recover. For higher exposure levels, the AF signal decreases immediately following the exposure and is ultimately damaged. These results are available in prepublication format (Morgan et al, 2008)2. The Rochester group is also communicating results directly to ANSI officials so that the safety levels can be revised.

Figure II.X: AF ratio (change in AF recorded from the RPE cells) as a function of radiant exposure.

It was also determined that the damage is not uniquely caused by adaptive optics or by scanning. Figure II.2 shows that the same changes will occur for three different light delivery methods.

Fig. II.2 AF ratios immediately post-exposure for the three exposure delivery methods: AOSLO with AO employed (black), uniform source (white), and SLO without AO employed (gray). Error bars represent the standard error.

2 Morgan, J.I., Hunter,J.J., Masella,B., Wolfe,R., Gray,D.C., Merigan,W.H., Delori,F.C., & Williams,D.R. (2008). Light-induced retinal changes observed using high-resolution autofluorescence imaging of the retinal pigment epithelium. Invest Ophthalmol.Vis.Sci.

25

II.2a Themes

Theme 1 is the Education and Human Resources Theme and is presented in Section III

Theme 2: AO for Extremely Large Telescopes (ELTs)

The objectives for Theme 2 in Year 9 were to 1) continue support of ongoing observational astronomy using adaptive optics systems on today’s largest telescopes, and 2) development of next generation adaptive optics technology for large telescopes including research in new system design, technology for lasers and deformable mirrors, and quantitative AO data analysis. We funded 12 collaborative research projects covering these areas, coming from a mix of academics and industry. The highest recommendation of the National Academy of Sciences’ Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey Report for ground-based astronomy3 was the design and construction of a 30-m telescope equipped with adaptive optics. Developing an adaptive optics system for such a telescope is extremely challenging and requires an extension of almost every aspect of AO system design and component technology. The CfAO objective in Theme 2 is to explore areas where cross-institutional and multidisciplinary collaboration can help develop the science objectives for AO observations on the Extremely Large Telescope (ELT), and help to develop the technology that could significantly improve the performance or lower the cost of the next generation of AO instruments. In Year 7, we modified the emphasis of our programs to focus on three main areas: 1) MEMS deformable mirror development, 2) Sodium guidestar laser development, and 3) Astronomical science observing using AO. The readjustment reflects several developments during Year 6. A) the main theoretical results and concepts for a workable “point design” for an MCAO system (and new variants, such as MOAO) were mostly completed as of Year 6. In addition, a number

Figure 2.1. Roadmap for AO for Extremely Large Telescopes

3 McKee, C. and Taylor, J. 2001, "Astronomy and Astrophysics in the New Millenium," National Research Council/National Academy of Sciences (National Academy Press: Washington DC).

26 of large telescope projects had received funding for design studies and were picking up a considerable portion of the more detailed AO design efforts. Many of the participants in the CfAO funded analysis and modeling activity are now key players in these telescope design efforts. B) It has been recognized that for the CfAO to have an impact in AO component development a goal by the end of Year 10 (the “sunset” year) should be to successfully demonstrate two key components: a MEMS deformable mirror and a pulsed guidestar laser. Consequently, in Year 7, we directed our component development funding more strongly towards those approaches, which had shown the most progress and promise to date. In Year 9 we added a concerted two-year project designed to develop quantitative point-spread function (PSF) measurement tools that can be applied to AO systems data in post processing. The rationale is that productive scientific output of astronomy is derived from the quantitative photometric and astrometric measurements, both of which require knowledge of the AO-modified PSF.

MEMS Deformable Mirror Development Small, low cost deformable mirrors enable greatly expanded flexibility in the design of AO systems, particularly for the extremely large telescopes where ambitious demands on AO imaging performance are leading to more complex designs and higher orders of correction. The MOAO concept for example, has one DM per science object and possibly one per laser and natural guidestar, placing a premium on cost and size of deformable mirrors. Furthermore, the electrostatic actuation method used in MEMS devices provides much more predictable and repeatable actuation than the piezo actuators used in conventional DMs. This enables open-loop “go-to” operation, which is central to the MOAO concept. MEMS devices promise to scale to large numbers of actuators with much lower cost than conventional technologies, and these devices will be smaller and more precise, making them an ideal choice for high contrast extreme adaptive optics systems. For similar reasons they are attractive for applications in vision science and to the commercial ophthalmology market. By CfAO Year 7, MEMS technology had advanced to the point where it was feasible to start the design and fabrication of a MEMS deformable mirror that could be used in general purpose adaptive optics systems for 30 meter class telescopes and for extreme adaptive optics on 8-10 meter class telescopes. The CfAO facilitated and then joined a consortium of users, partnering with the Thirty Meter Telescope (UC, Caltech, AURA, and CNRC partnership), the UCO/Lick Observatory, and the Gemini Observatory, to build a 4096 actuator MEMS over a two year time frame. This project successfully achieved the goals of the preliminary design phase to design a high stroke actuator and delivered engineering grade test devices to the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics in April, 2008. A science grade device for the Gemini Planet Imager extreme adaptive optics system is due to be delivered at the end of the year. Even as MEMS deformable mirrors are now becoming available on the commercial market, there is a continuing need to advance their basic capability both in stroke and scalability to larger numbers of actuators. Theme 2 funded two research projects devoted to advancing MEMS technology during Year 9.

Through-wafer Interconnects for MEMS DMs Stephen Cornelissen of Boston Micromachines Corporation (BMC) lead this project to develop through-waver electrical interconnects for silicon micromachined MEMS. The approach used for interconnection of commercial MEMS DM arrays to date has been wire bonding to bond pads at the periphery of the chip. These bond pads terminate lithographically- defined routing lines leading from the DM electrode array. This approach is not scalable; fanning out from a two dimensional actuator array to a one dimensional bond-pad array means that the die area required for the device grows in proportion to the square of its number of actuators. In

27 addition to problems processing a large number of fragile wire-bonds, this leads to rapid increase in die and package size. The increasing footprint of the packaged device adversely affects the potential performance of optical systems such as proposed Multi Object Adaptive Optics (MOAO) instruments. An approach that is scalable and minimizes optical footprint involves routing the electrode leads through the wafer. The goal of this effort was to demonstrate the feasibility of using through-wafer electrical interconnects to address Boston Micromachines’ MEMS DMs, by combining a commercially available through-wafer-via manufacturing process with the standard MEMS DM fabrication processes.

Figure 2.2. Illustration of single actuator with a thru-wafer interconnects for both power and ground signals.

The through-wafer interconnect fabrication process was performed at IceMOS Technology, a commercial foundry specializing in supplying pre-processed silicon substrates for MEMS fabrication. The fabrication process used at this foundry to fabricate the vias is illustrated in Figure 2.3. The vias were be formed in 300 m thick, 150mm silicon wafers that were first oxidized to form a silicon dioxide layer which serves as an etch mask for the vias, protecting the areas of the silicon wafer that should not be etched. The 30 m vias were than patterned using photoresist and etched using a deep reactive ion etching technique designed to achieve high aspect ratio features. Following the via etch the photoresist and oxide films were removed. A dielectric material was deposited to electrically isolate the via from the rest of the conductive substrate. The via was filled using doped polysilicon, deposited in multiple steps to achieve the required thickness. Finally, the polysilicon was removed from the front and back side of the wafer, using chemomechanical polishing, leaving a planarized substrate containing the through-wafer interconnects in the desired locations. These wafers were than shipped directly to the commercial MEMS foundry, to be used as substrates for the subsequent well- characterized processing techniques used to produce heritage BMC MEMS actuators.

Following deposition of a protective silicon nitride coating, a 0.5μm polysilicon film (Poly 0) was deposited, patterned, and etched to form the electrode and ground pad layer. A 5μm thick sacrificial silicon oxide was then deposited. Anchor Figure 2.3. Illustration of through-wafer via fabrication process developed at IceMOS Technologies 28 features were etched through the oxide layer, followed by a second polysilicon deposition (Poly1), 2μm thick that formed the actuator layer. The Poly 1 film was patterned and etched, yielding the actuator arrays. To complete the electrical connection, the films that were deposited on the backside of the wafer during the actuator fabrication processes were removed to expose the interconnects. With the front side of the wafer protected, a nitride layer was deposited on the back to provide electrical insulation between the vias and the substrate. Gold via contacts were fabricated on the back side using a lift-off process. The wafers were than diced into individual dies after which the sacrificial oxide was removed using Hydro Fluoric acid (HF) resulting in the released MEMS actuator arrays with integrated through-waver interconnects. Results The image in Figure 2.4 shows the front side of a die with a 12x12 actuator array with integrated through-wafer vias. Since an existing mask set was used for the device fabrication the wire traces that lead out to bond pads are still present on these die. Print-through. Clearly visible on these images is the print-through on the actuator flexure resulting from the topography of the through-wafer interconnects below. The surface measurement in Figure 2.5 shows two ~460 nm tall features on the actuator electrodes where the vias are located, resulting in 350 nm of topography on the actuator film shown in Figure 2.5. The back side of the device die is shown in Figure 2.6 where the 12x12 array of via pairs and the grounding ring can be seen. Since the actuators use a split electrode configuration, each actuator requires two vias that are connected by a single gold band on the back of the die. To keep the actuator structure from charging during device operation a grounding path is provided, also using the through-wafer vias to the square ground ring.

Figure 2.4. Images of 12x12MEMS DM actuator array with integrated through-wafer vias. Top left:10mmx10mm die with identical layout as BMCs current 144 element DM; Top right:Sub-array of actuators; Bottom: Single actuator with print-through resulting from through wafer interconnects visible on actuator film. 29 Figure 2.5. Surface profile of actuator electrodes showing that the vias leave topography of >460nm.

Figure 2.6. Surface profile of actuator flexure showing a print-through of ~350nm resulting from underlying via topography

Electromechanical Functionality. To test the functionality of the MEMS DM actuator arrays with through-wafer interconnects the devices were mounted bonded to a PCB using conductive adhesive such that a high voltage and ground signals could be provided to a section of actuators. The stroke of the DM actuator was measured using a Veeco NT9100 Optical Surface Profiler. Voltage was applied to the device using an Instek High Voltage power supply. As shown in Figure 2.7, the test actuator achieved over 2.5μm of stroke at 138V.

Figure 2.7. Electromechanical performance of the MEMS DM actuator with integrated through wafer vias.

Conclusion We have demonstrated that the through-wafer vias can successfully be integrated with Boston Micromachines Corporation’s MEMS DM devices and that the commercially available process is compatible with the MEMS DM fabrication process. One modification that would be required to the fabrication process in future work is to reduce the print-through resulting from the through- wafer via fabrication process. This would involve additional grinding and polishing of the substrate following the through-waver via fabrication to ensure that the starting substrate is sufficiently smooth that these features will not print-through to the deformable mirror film.

30 Three-Dimensional MEMS for Adaptive Optics Joel Kubby of UC Santa Cruz is investigating the use of the 3-dimensional MEMS LIGA fabrication processes to prototype large stroke (>10 μm) actuators for use in adaptive optics system. Y9 was the third year of this three year project. Kubby’s team submitted the layout for the 16x16 mirror array with an integrated faceplate as shown in Table 2.1. The Y9 proposal was for a 32x32 mirror array but the CfAO reviewers suggested focusing on a smaller 16x16 array and the integrated faceplate. In the previous fabrication run to characterize the post’s effect on the optical surface without having to fabricate the actuators, the faceplates were attached to posts rather than actuators. An image of one of the faceplates is shown it Figure 2.8 below, indicating that the faceplate transfer process will be capable of making nm level optical surfaces.

Table 2.1. Gantt chart for 3-D MEMS project in Year 9. The blue arrow shows current status. The final design has been submitted to the foundry and parts are expected back by June 18th. Originally, attachment to posts caused deformations of the faceplate which were subsequently found to be caused by bubbles formed during the critical point release. Insufficient soak time in the critical point fluid left residual methanol that formed the bubbles that deformed the faceplate during the release. Increasing the soak time eliminated this problem. Also, it will be required to polish the post layer that the faceplate is attached to in order to eliminate non-uniformities in post height that occurs during the electro-deposition step. The actuators were characterized using white light interferometry to measure the displacement versus the actuation voltage. There is good agreement between modeling and the interferometery measurements for the pull-in voltage, the instability where the actuator is pulled down to the substrate. A simple theory based on a parallel plate actuator and linear restoring springs predicts pull-in at approximately 1/3 of the original gap, and this was confirmed by measurements.

Figure 2.8. White light interferometeric image (A) and line scan profile (B) of the transferred faceplate.

31

16x16 layout for integrated faceplate. A layout for the 16x16 deformable mirror with an integrated faceplate, designed and simulated (Figure 2.9). The foundry partner, HT Micro is currently fabricating masks to make the mirrors in this layout.

Figure 2.9. Layout for the 16x16 deformable mirror with integrated faceplate. The layout also includes smaller arrays to test different actuator designs, gaps and faceplate boundary conditions.

Graduate student Oscar Azucena has also performed a nonlinear plate equation analysis of the 16x16 large stroke deformable mirror design. The deformable mirror model is shown in Figure 2.10, with the model parameters shown in Table 2.2. Based on the modeling results, new actuators were designed to minimize tilting during actuation. These have been incorporated into the test set of the ongoing fabrication run.

Figure 2.10. Model used for the nonlinear plate equation analysis of a 16x16 large stroke deformable mirror design.

Table 2.2. Input parameters for the nonlinear plate equation analysis of our 16x16 large stroke deformable mirror.

32 An example of finite-element analysis for one of the actuator designs is shown in Figure 2.11. Four actuator designs, shown in Figure 2.12, were submitted for the run.

Figure 2.11. Modeling results for the four spring actuator. We have seen the corners pulled in before the center of the actuators, so we have intentionally stiffened the support for the corners. The modeling results indicate that the center displacement is greater than the displacement at either the corners or the edges, making this actuator design more robust to tilting.

Figure 2.12. New actuator and faceplate designs from the results of modeling. These designs minimize the actuator tilting observed on the products of earlier fabrication runs. Sodium Guidestar Laser Development (LLNL Fiber Laser)

In Year 9, CfAO funded only one laser guidestar development effort: the fiber laser at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This laser has achieved important milestones this year, although we are behind in our original schedule to have this at 10 W and packaged for observatory operation by 2006. Prior to Year 9, the decision was made to make the CfAO laser program goals coincide to those of the AODP program, with the concurrence of the AODP director. This allows the LLNL team to focus on one laser design, and since the chosen design is a pulsed laser suitable for Rayleigh gating and pulse tracking, this will result in a unique laser for astronomy. The long range (post-CfAO) plan is to mount the laser at the Lick Observatory 40-inch telescope, in tandem with a MEMS based AO system demonstrator, for on-sky tests. The unique modulation capabilities of the fiber laser will enable experimentation with both the pulse and spectral format on-sky for best overall system performance. A schematic of the fiber laser system is shown in Figure 2.13 below. A 938nm master oscillator is phase and amplitude modulated to generate light in the appropriate signal format then a series of custom designed neodymium doped optical fiber amplifiers is employed to boost the optical power up to 15W. A 1583nm master oscillator is similarly phase and amplitude modulated and amplified in commercial erbium/ytterbium doped fiber amplifiers to 10-15W. The output of the IR lasers is sum frequency mixed in a periodically poled stoichiometric lithium tantalate (PPSLT) crystal to generate 589nm light. Frequency locking of the output light to the correct sodium resonance will be accomplished by tuning the master oscillator frequencies, which can be electronically controlled.

33 Figure 2.13. Block diagram of the 589 nm laser system architecture.

In order to make a 589nm guide star fiber laser using the scheme detailed above, three critical technical challenges had to be overcome. First Nd doped fibers that were capable of amplifying light at 938nm to >10W optical powers while simultaneously suppressing parasitic light at 1088nm and avoiding non-linear effects such as stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) needed to be developed. Second 1583nm L-band erbium doped fiber lasers capable of amplifying light to >10W optical powers while simultaneously suppressing SBS needed to be developed. Finally, we needed to demonstrate periodically poled materials capable of efficiently converting the IR light to 589nm with powers on the order of tens of watts without suffering from serious optical damage issues. Initial attempts at sum frequency mixing yielded 2.7W of CW light from 6W of 1583nm light and 11W of 938nm incident upon the frequency conversion crystal (Year 6). Pulsed at 100kHz repetition rate and 10% duty cycle we achieved 3.8W of 589nm light with no sign of roll-off in the 589nm power or sign of optical damage (Year 8). The task in Year 9 was to rebuild the two infrared lasers using newer technology and higher robustness fibers. These were purchased and are now being assembled into a 3-stage amplifier for the 938 laser and a 2-stage amplifier for the 1583 laser. New pump diodes (808 nm) and pump combiners were purchased for the 938 amplifier stages, and a new high power L-band laser (1545 nm) was purchased as the pump for the 1583 laser. It was concluded that a commercial high power 1583 laser is not viable, so the PI, Jay Dawson, has embarked on building his own design 1583 nm 2-stage Erbium-doped fiber amplifier using the much more robust commercial 1545 nm laser as the pump. In Year 9, the PI Jay Dawson and Theme 2 leader Donald Gavel collaborated to create a workable program and delivery schedule. It now appears that the delivery of a multi-Watt 589 nm pulsed laser to CfAO can occur by the end of Year 9 (October 2008). The top-level milestones in Year 9 are:  Complete 938nm fiber laser system operating at 15W and capable of running CW or in pulsed formats suitable for suppression of Rayleigh backscatter or tracking of the pulses through the sodium layer. Target Completion Date: 6/30/08  Complete 1583nm fiber laser system operating at 10W and capable of running CW or in pulsed formats suitable for suppression of Rayleigh backscatter or tracking of the pulses through the sodium layer. Target Completion Date: 6/30/08  Sum frequency mix the above two lasers to generate 10W at 589nm. Target Completion Date: 7/31/08 These have now slipped to 8/15/08, 8/31/08, and 9/14/08 respectively. To date, the 938 power amplifiers stages 1 and 2 have been built and tested, and are demonstrating the desired power gains and parasitic suppression (Figure 2.14). The stages of both the 938 and 1583 nm amplifiers are simultaneously being engineered in packaging that is suitable for the mountaintop operation (Figure 2.15). Square-pulse distortion correction is being incorporated into the system’s pulse modulators using sophisticated computer algorithms. The distortion correction prevents bright turn-on peaks from

34 stimulating non-linear effects in the fiber, and distributes the amplified power evenly over the pulse length. (Figure 2.16). New pulse modulators and phase modulators have been installed and tested so as to form the nominal duty cycle and spectral format for the laser. The laser is intended for experimentation with both pulse length and spectral format, and these modulators, with reprogramming, can provide a variety of formats (Figure 2.17). The initial pulse format is a Rayleigh blanking scheme with 20% duty cycle at 2.7 kHz (Figure 2.18). The initial spectral format is 10 CW lines (each <50 Mhz linewidth) spaced at 200 MHz separation over the Doppler-broadened mesospheric sodium line centered at 589 nm.

Figure 2.14a. Amplifier power output curves for 1st and 2nd stage of 938 nm amplifier. These are now producing gains of 50 and 20 respectively. With pulsed input power of 2mW at 20% duty cycle, the output of stage 2 is >2 Watts.

Figure 2.14b. Power output of 3ed stage of 938 amplifier, with low power seed (100 mW output of 1st stage). The amplifier shows a gain of 50 behavior similar to the 1st stage, and produced 8 Watts output in these tests. After square pulse distortion correction and coupling to the 2nd stage, this amplifier should provide between 10 and 15 Watts output.

35

Figure 2.16. Square pulse distortion measured at the Figure 2.15 Pump diode chassis with 808 output of the 938 nm 1st stage amplifier. A distortion nm LIMO pump diodes for the 938 Nd- compensation circuit for the 1583 nm system is doped fiber amplifier. complete. The equivalent circuit for the 938 nm system is in progress.

Figure 2.17. Chassis with RF circuit that generates the phase modulation signal for Figure 2.18. Example pulse timing for the Rayleigh the IR lasers. gated format. The duty cycle is 20%, pulse width 66 ms. Two pulses in the air at once but the second pulse is always above 20 km when the receive gate is open for the sodium return from the first pulse.

CfAO Sponsored Laser Guide Workshops Under the auspices of the CfAO, we have sponsored three laser guidestars for astronomy workshops, which have had participation from major US and European observatories (Keck, Gemini, Lick, Palomar, European Southern Observatory) and the US Air Force Starfire Optical Range. The latest of these was at the CfAO Fall retreat in November, 2007. The purpose of these ongoing workshops is the interchange of valuable experience and data on the existing systems, as well as reports on progress in modeling proposed future systems for the next generation of giant astronomical telescopes. We’ve learned that, in addition to the importance of spot-elongation and Rayleigh backscatter mitigating pulse formats, the exact spectral content of the laser (centered around the Sodium D2 line) is crucial to the efficiency of sodium fluorescent return. Workshop information and presentations are available on the web as well as a summary web page on all the astronomical AO sodium guidestar lasers currently in operation or under development. http://lao.ucolick.org/twiki/bin/view/CfAO/LaserWorkshop

36 http://lao.ucolick.org/twiki/bin/view/CfAO/LaserWorkshop2007 http://lao.ucolick.org/twiki/bin/view/CfAO/LaserWorkshopFall2007 http://lao.ucolick.org/twiki/bin/view/CfAO/SodiumLaserGuidestars

Astronomical Science Observing Using AO Theme 2 is sponsoring astronomical observing programs where the scientific conclusions are dependent upon the high resolution and contrast afforded by adaptive optics. Three such programs were under way in Year 9: the CfAO treasury survey, a large collaborative program for cataloging galaxies in the early Universe led by C. Max and D. Koo (UCSC), observations of planets, moons, and rings within our Solar System, led by I. de Pater (UCB); and tracking the motion of stars near the massive black hole at the center of our Galaxy, led by A. Ghez (UCLA).

CfAO Treasury Survey We are pursuing a five-year CfAO Treasury Survey (CATS) using laser guide star adaptive optics to observe a large, deep sample of galaxies in the early Universe. This is now in the 4th year. The goal is to track the early assembly of galaxies like our own Milky Way, and to characterize the history of star formation in the Universe. Our near-infrared adaptive optics (AO) observations are up to 4 times sharper than those obtained by the Hubble Space Telescope at the same wavelength. The scientific value of the data will achieve high visibility in the broader astronomical community because the chosen sky fields all have complementary long-exposure observations at other wavelengths, using space-based images from far infrared, optical to x-ray wavelengths, and ground-based images at radio and sub-mm wavelengths. CATS focuses on the largest Hubble Space Telescope (HST) fields designed for faint galaxy surveys. These include two GOODS (Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey) fields (N and S), the GEMS field (extension of GOODS-S), COSMOS (an equatorial field), and one of the four DEEP fields known as the Extended Groth Strip. These regions of the sky are being intensively studied by the most powerful ground and space telescopes, from radio to X-ray. CATs, with 8-10 m telescopes, is providing near-IR images and spectra at a spatial resolution (0.05 arc sec) 4 times finer than HST in the near-IR, and well matched to the optical diffraction limit of HST. The near- IR is particularly valuable because it penetrates dust-obscured regions, is sensitive to old stars, and, for high redshift objects, measures light in the rest-frame visible, allowing direct comparison to optical studies of local galaxies. The OSIRIS integral field spectrograph at Keck enables measurements of kinematics and spectra at high spatial resolution. We are making our AO data available to the public in an on-line archive. We have developed and disseminated the CATS searchable web archive of AO imaging of distant galaxies. The website is available online at: http://www.ucolick.org/~jmel/cats_database/cats_search.php Username: cats Password: galaxy This is the first such public archive of adaptive optics imaging in the near infrared and compliments what has been done with HST for these deep fields. The goals of our public archive include: 1) increasing the scientific awareness of adaptive optics imaging as a tool for studying distant galaxies; 2) educating the community on how handle AO data sets and obtain meaningful measurements given a time varying PSF; and 3) allow others to answer their own science questions given the largest publicly available AO data set of distant galaxies. Postdoc Melbourne designed the web archive to best address all three of these goals. The archive contains reduced frames from 28 CATS “pointings” in the GOODS, GEMS, EGS, and COSMOS fields. Individual galaxy postage stamps can be downloaded. Galaxies can be searched by position on the sky, magnitude, size, or by eye through an interactive interface. For those who want to learn how to reduce the raw frames, we have provided a set of raw data from one of our NGS runs. In addition we plan to provide a library of PSF images from our NGS datasets, to enable people to constrain the photometry of individual galaxies.

37

During Year 9, laser guide star observations were incorporated in the database. In Year 10 we plan to provide PSF reconstructions from the tip-tilt stars, and additional star fields. CATS provides a superb Center-mode activity in several key ways: by unifying previously separate science programs; by providing an excellent platform for demonstrating the power of laser guide star AO; by disseminating AO data and associated reduction and analysis tools; and by focusing on the most intensely studied fields in the sky. CATS has already become an excellent vehicle for growing broad community interest in laser guide star adaptive optics.

UCSC Overview The CATS AGN survey is a pioneering attempt to mate the Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics observational mode with the study of distant AGN. The work thus far has utilized the NIRC2 40” x 40” wide camera with the Keck LGS AO system in the GOODS-South field. In 2005 and 2006, CATS completed 6 dedicated 1-hour pointings, imaging a total of 13 AGN. Calendar Years 2007 and 2008 have not yielded any further AGN observations despite our allocation of 2.5 nights of telescope time: we lost half the time from weather closures and the other half from laser guide star failures (mostly high atmospheric extinction that precluded LGS operation). Nevertheless, we have addressed four initial scientific questions using this small sample of 13 AGNs: 1. Are there young stellar populations in AGN hosts at a redshift of one? Are they distributed or centrally located? 2. What is the nature of obscuration in the Type II hosts? Is the obscuration due to the canonical AGN dusty torus on parsec scales, or due to other features? 3. What are the morphological properties of the AGN hosts? Are there correlations between the morphological properties and the AGN type or strength? 4. How do the answers to the questions above compare to those for local AGN hosts?

We performed a spatially dependent stellar populations analysis of each AGN by fitting Bruzual & Charlot (2003) models to the fluxes in 5 photometric bands, as presented in Ammons et al. 2008. We found a correlation between the presence of younger stellar populations and the strength of the AGN, as measured with [OIII] line luminosity or X-ray (2-10 keV) luminosity. This finding is consistent with similar studies at lower redshift. However, we also find that strong Type II AGN hosts at high redshift are more likely to be spirals or disturbed irregulars than all Type I sources, which are in galaxies of earlier type. In addition, the mid-IR spectral energy distributions of the strong Type II AGNs indicate that they are excited to Luminous Infrared Galaxy (LIRG) status via galactic star-bursting, while the strong Type I AGNs are excited to LIRG status via emission from hot dust surrounding the central AGN. This supports the notion that the obscured nature of Type II AGNs at z~1 is connected with global star-bursting and that they may be extinguished by kpc-scale dusty features that are byproducts of the starbursts. These results were obtained on a small subsample of 8 AGN, which represented the portion of our CATS sample with the most visible host galaxies. The other 5 sources, typically Type I AGNs, had strong dominating central point sources that overwhelmed light from the host in all bands. We have proposed to obtain 8-10 more dedicated pointings of AGN hosts in the winter of CfAO Year 10, and additionally to complete the stellar populations analysis for 3 of our 5 Type I point source-dominated hosts. This will enable the completion of the final analysis on a total of 20 AGN hosts before the end of CfAO Year 10, and will constitute part of the PhD Dissertation of UCSC Graduate Student Mark Ammons.

38 In the following sections, we (1) describe the observations, (2) summarize the morphological properties of the AGN hosts, (3) summarize the results from the stellar populations analysis, and (4) synthesize these observations to arrive at the conclusions that were summarized above.

Current Observations of AGNs in the CATS Fields We are investigating AGNs in the Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey (GOODS) field South, or Chandra Deep Field South (CDF-S). The wide wavelength coverage in this field enables the use of spectral energy distribution (SED)-fitting to estimate fundamental properties of the underlying stellar populations. The deep, 1 Megasecond Chandra x-ray exposure in this region has revealed hundreds of AGNs at 0.5 < z < 1.5 (Fan et al. 2001, 2003; Barger et al. 2003). HST ACS images of the GOODS fields (Giavalisco et al. 2004) in F435W B, F606W V, F775W i, and F850LP z are the most sensitive optical images to date in these regions. We obtained spectroscopic redshifts of galaxies in GOODS-S/CDF-S from Szokoly et al. (2004) and photometric redshifts from COMBO-17 (Wolf et al. 2004, Zheng et al 2004). We obtained K-band NIRC2 imaging with the LGS AO system at Keck Observatory. We use the 40” x 40” wide camera with 40 mas pixels to image the AGN hosts and capture as many field galaxies as possible in the frames, to be used later for comparison purposes. Properties of the AGN hosts and comparison galaxies are shown in Table 2.3.

XID # Z Z-type Class B (AB) Soft LX Hard Lx 15 1.23 Spect AGN I 23.51 23 40 32 0.66 Spect AGN I 23.52 4.6 6.5 83 1.76 Photo AGN I 25.13 8.3 36 155 0.55 Spect AGN II 23.61 1.2 1.87 266 0.73 Spect AGN II 23.70 14 21 536 0.42 Spect AGN 21.99 0.12 0.18 594 0.73 Spect starburst 24.71 0.97 1.47 56 0.61 Spect AGN II 21.68 5.6 20.6 Norm1 0.42 Photo N/A 23.12 N/A N/A Norm2 0.37 Photo N/A 24.64 N/A N/A Norm3 0.73 Photo N/A 25.43 N/A N/A Norm4 0.56 Photo N/A 25.02 N/A N/A Norm5 0.89 Photo N/A 24.03 N/A N/A Norm6 0.61 Photo N/A 24.41 N/A N/A Norm7 0.76 Photo N/A 25.72 N/A N/A Norm8 1.10 Photo N/A 24.46 N/A N/A Norm9 1.08 Photo N/A 24.76 N/A N/A

Table 2.3. Critical parameters describing the AGNs imaged by CATS as well as non-active field galaxies selected for comparison. Spectroscopic redshifts are from Szokoly et al 2004 and photometric redshifts from Zheng et al. 2004. The AGN classification is determined from x-ray hardness ratio and x-ray luminosity (Mainieri et al 2004). X-ray luminosities are in units of 1042 ergs/s. Optical spectroscopic classifications are provided by Szokoly et al. 2004.

39 Morphological Properties of AGNs in the CATS Fields  Panels of log-scale images are shown in Fig. for three AGN hosts of the eight used for our stellar populations analysis. The columns denote imagery in different wavelength bands (B, V, i, z, and K, from left to right). The bottom row is the raw imagery, the middle row gives the best fit morphological model, and the top row gives the residuals after subtraction of this model. Also presented are B-i and V-K color maps, which give information about the colors of low-surface brightness features in the wings of these hosts. These color maps have been smoothed in the outer regions to preserve signal.

B V i z K’ Figure 2.19. Tiled magery, GALFIT models, and color maps for XID 56. The log- residuals scale tiled images are 3” across. The five vertical columns represent the B, V, i, z, and K’ wavebands. The bottom row shows the raw,

models inverted images. The middle row shows the corresponding models with bulge and disk sersic components. Residuals (bottom row minus middle image image row) are displayed in the top row. The B-I colormap for XID 56 is shown in the bottom left and the V-K colormap is shown in the bottom right.

40 B V i z K’

residuals Figure 2.20. Tiled imagery, GALFIT models, and color maps for the galaxy XID 266, as in

models Figure 2.19. This source, like XID 56 in Figure 2.19, is a Type II AGN.

image image

V i z K’ Figure 2.21. Tiled B imagery, GALFIT models, and color maps for the galaxy

residuals XID 83, as in Figure 1. This source, unlike XID 56 in Figure 2.19 and XID 266 in Figure 2.20, is a Type I AGN.

models Note that although there are features in the residuals that resemble spiral arms, image image perhaps indicating disk-like star formation, the V-K color map suggests that the central source is lying on top of a very red, broad feature, most probably the underlying elliptical galaxy.

The AGNs in this sample represent a range of morphologies, including irregulars, normal star forming disks with bulges, and ellipticals. Although there appears to be no preferred morphology for these AGN hosts, a correlation between morphology and AGN type is supported: All of our

41 Type II AGNs are either disks (XID 155 and XID 266) or irregular mergers (XID 56). One of the broad-line Type I AGNs has a star forming ring which indicates disk-like morphology, but four of five of the Type I AGNs are ellipticals (or merging ellipticals, in the case of XID 536). This is consistent with a previous survey of the morphology of AGN hosts at high redshift in the Extended Groth Strip (EGS) by Pierce et al 2007. These authors utilized Gini-M20 non- parametric analysis on Chandra sources in EGS, finding that the median hardness ratio of E/S0/Sa galaxies is -0.46 (Type I unobscured) and the median hardness ratio of Sc/Irr/d hosts is 0.55 (Type II obscured).

Stellar Populations Properties We measured photometry in a series of ten annuli up to a radius of 1.5” around each galaxy’s nucleus, for all five wavelength bands. We fit to these SEDs the stellar populations models of Bruzual & Charlot (2003), assuming an exponentially declining star formation rate with a characteristic decay time τ. All model grids are computed over a range of three variables: (1) age since star formation begins; (2) tau parameter, in years; and (3) the extinction resulting from the dust mixed with the stars. The fractions of the total stellar population (by mass) are computed from the best-fit tau model for three different age ranges: Young (age < 100 Myr), Intermediate (100 Myr < age < 1 Gyr), and Old (age > 1 Gyr). All references to ”young,” ”intermediate,” and ”old” refer to these age ranges. Shown in Figure 4 are plots of the stellar mass fraction as a function of radius for each age population for the three AGN hosts shown in Figures 1-3 (XID 56, 266, and 83). Notice that the Type I source in Figure 2.22, XID 83, is dominated by older stellar populations in the outer regions (r > 1.0”), a trend which is mirrored by the other Type I sources we have analyzed (not shown here).

Figure 2.22. Stellar populations distributions for three AGN hosts – XID 56 (upper left), XID 266 (upper right), and XID 83 (lower left). The mass fractions of all stars formed are plotted versus radius (log scale) for three populations: Young (age < 100 Myr), Intermediate (100 Myr < age < 1 Gyr), and Old (age > 1 Gyr). The young population is denoted by blue asterisks, the intermediate age population is denoted by green triangles, and the old population is denoted by red diamonds.

42 A summary of the dominant stellar populations in the inner (r < 0.3") and outer regions (r > 0.7") is shown for our sample in Table 2. A majority of our Type I AGN (4/5) have old stellar populations in the outer regions, and they all are ellipticals. A majority of our Type II AGN (2/3) have intermediate age stellar populations in the outer regions, although this is not statistically significant due to small number statistics. However, in our entire AGN sample, young stellar populations with ages less than 100 Myr are only observed in the central regions of strong Type II AGN (XID 56, for example). The strongest overall observation that can be drawn from this small sample is that the Type II AGN representatives are more likely to be spirals, disks, or irregulars and the Type I AGN representatives are more likely to be ellipticals, with corroborating evidence from both morphology and stellar populations.

Table 2.4 Summary of stellar populations analysis for AGN and comparison samples. The dominant stellar populations are listed for two locations: The inner region (r < 0.4”) and the outer region (r > 0.7”).

Conclusions and Discussion of Year 9 Technical Results The stellar populations of our z ~ 1 population of AGN can be compared to those at lower redshift (z < 0.3). A study of SDSS AGNs by Kauffmann et al. 2003, selected via optical spectroscopic line ratios, finds that narrow-line AGN (Type II, 0.02 < z < 0.3) of all luminosities reside almost exclusively in massive galaxies and have distributions of sizes, stellar surface mass densities, and concentrations that are similar to those of the ordinary early-type galaxies in our sample. Locally, the SDSS host galaxies of low-activity AGNs have stellar populations similar to normal early type galaxies, when AGN activity/strength are measured using the luminosity of the [OIII] line. By contrast the hosts of high-activity AGNs have much younger mean stellar ages. The young stars are not preferentially located near the nucleus of the galaxy, but are spread out over scales of at least several kiloparsecs. Kauffmann et al. (2003) also examine the stellar populations of the host galaxies of a sample of broad-line AGNs, and conclude that there is no significant difference in stellar content between Type 2 Seyfert hosts and quasars (QSOs) with the same [OIII] luminosity and redshift. This establishes that at low z, a young stellar population is a general property of AGNs with high [OIII] luminosities. Strong AGNs have young stellar populations similar to those of late type galaxies.

43 As Kauffmann et al. (2003) divide the local Type II sample into two categories (strong and weak), we divide our high redshift sample into four categories (now including Type I AGNs): Strong Type I AGNs, Weak Type I AGNs, Strong Type II AGNs, and Weak Type II AGNs. The distinction between Type I and Type II is made at a neutral hydrogen column density of 1022 cm-2. The division between weak AGNs and strong AGNs is made at log [OIII] = 7 in bolometric solar luminosities, as in Kauffmann et al. (2003). Our sample of 8 AGN hosts with 0.4 < z < 1.76 have morphologies, stellar population distributions, and color distributions consistent with the findings of Kauffman et al. (2003) at lower z, as summarized in Figure 2.23.

Figure 2.23. Graphical summary of properties in our AGN sample. As seen in Table 2.4, the Type II AGNs in our sample are more likely to be dominated in the inner regions (r < 3-6 kpc) of the hosts by younger stellar populations than the Type I AGNs of all strengths. Overall, 5 of our 6 strong AGN (Type I and II) hosts are dominated by young or intermediate aged populations at some radius, while 1 of our 2 weak AGNs (both Type I) are dominated by young or intermediate AGNs at some radius. We cannot directly compare these observations with Kauffmann's finding that young stellar populations are correlated with AGN strength, as this result was obtained for both strong and weak Type II AGNs. We do not yet have any weak Type II AGNs in our sample. However, combining Type I and Type II populations we find a correlation between OIII line luminosity and the presence of dominating young and/or intermediate aged populations at any radii. This is consistent with both of Kauffmann's low-redshift findings that (1) AGN strength is correlated with the presence of young stellar populations and that (2) the stellar populations of Type I AGNs are indistinguishable from Type II AGNs. We find that all of our 3 Type II AGNs are LIRGs, as compared to 0 of our 2 weak Type I AGNs. All of our 3 strong Type I AGNs are LIRGS. In our Type I AGN sample (both strong and weak), the Spitzer 24 micron to 8 micron flux ratios indicate that the source of the mid-IR emission is hot dust in close proximity to the central accretion disk. The powerful Type II AGNs, in sharp contrast, display 24/8 micron flux ratios indicative of a strong starburst contribution to the mid-IR emission, which is more than enough to classify them as LIRGs.

44 Overall, the morphologies, stellar population distributions, and color distributions of our high- redshift sample of 8 AGNs are similar to those of the low-redshift SDSS samples in Kauffman et al. (2003). There appear to be differences arguing for more dusty starbursting in the strong Type II population. The evidence for this is drawn from three observations: (1) High-z strong Type II AGNs are more likely to be LIRGS via starbursting events. This should be compared with all Type I AGNs, which, if presenting LIRG activity, are excited to that level via hot dust surrounding the AGN. (2) Young stellar populations, which are correlated with the AGN strength, are more likely to be extended over larger radii in strong Type II AGNs than strong Type I AGNs. (3) Type II AGN hosts at high-z tend to be Sc/d/Irr galaxies, while Type I AGNs tend to be earlier types (verified in Pierce et al 2007). What is causing the obscuration that fundamentally distinguishes the two categories of AGN? With the observation that Type II AGN are more likely to be starbursting disks, it could be that high-z Type II AGNs are obscured via kpc-scale dusty features that are byproducts of starbursting. As we mention in the Year 10 proposal, we intend to follow up this observation and investigate with larger samples how AGN are obscured in Type II AGN.

UCLA

Our goal is to complete the work that started with Shelley Wright’s PhD thesis: to make resolved spectroscopic measurements within high redshift galaxies. Within the past few years, there has been growing evidence that a subset of Lyman Break Galaxies at z~2 have a disk-like morphology (Shapley et al. 2001, Labbé et al 2003) and show large organized rotation which may indicate formation of an early galactic disk (Van Dokkum & Standford 2001, Erb et al. 2003, Erb et al. 2004). These studies have primarily used NIR imaging and spectroscopy under seeing limited conditions. At these redshifts, the best seeing limited observations probe roughly 5kpc and yield only 2 or 3 resolution elements across the typical galaxy. Many have argued that these kinematic measurements are insufficient to claim rotation since there are only three independent samples across the galaxies and their curves could easily be duplicated with any number of clumpy distributions. With the advent of integral field spectrographs (IFS), observations are now able to extend this study to two-dimensional mapping of galaxy's kinematics and morphology. Recently, the IFS SINFONI was used to conduct seeing-limited observations of 14 galaxies at z~2 (Förster Schreiber et al. 2006), which showed four galaxies that exhibit rotating disks with clumpy morphologies. However, the Förster Schreiber et al. (2006) study also observed very high internal velocity dispersions (often >100 km/sec) and concluded that their disks may be short lived and not precursors of modern disk galaxies. Again, with a seeing limited spatial resolution it is difficult to interpret the kinematics in objects that are roughly an arc second in diameter. A single star forming galaxy has now also been imaged with SINFONI using a natural guide star adaptive optics (AO) system. The authors (Genzel et al. 2006) claim that the z=2.38 galaxy has a massive rotating progenitor disk. However, their best fit model has residual velocities comparable to the original measurements, indicating that significant deviations from simple rotation are present. These IFS studies have targeted z > 2 galaxies, with a look-back time of more than 10 Gyr, which is greater than the expected formation age of the Milky Way disk, and likely most other disk systems. In parallel to the SINFONI observations at the VLT, we began the current program to use OSIRIS with the Keck Laser Adaptive Optics system to target slightly lower redshift targets (1.3 < z < 1.7). We believe that these galaxies are closer in look back time to the estimated ages of the oldest stars within the Milky Way disk (7.3±1.5 Gyr, Hansen et al. 2002). At this redshift there is also a major observational advantage in that Ha is found in the H-band where the thermal background is much less problematic than in the K-band where Ha falls at z > 2. The use of the laser further allows us greater flexibility in targets, and we can produce a much more robust

45 sample of targets than the VLT. As described below, with this program we have now detected several star forming galaxies in this redshift regime and have published a first paper (Wright et al. 2007) where we believe a true disk has been found at z=1.478. The bandwidth of the OSIRIS narrow band filters further allows us to simultaneously observe both nearby [NII] lines in order to constrain metallicity. LGS-AO with OSIRIS provides a unique ability to probe the dynamics and line ratios of high redshift extragalactic nebular emission lines in a single observation. A galaxy in the Q2343 field was our first successful detection of a high-redshift star-forming galaxy by OSIRIS, and has provided valuable experience with the data reduction pipeline and analyzing IFS spectra of emission-line dominated galaxies. OSIRIS LGS-AO easily detected this target with the Hn3 filter with 0.1” lenslet scale in individual 15 minute exposures, but it is among the very brightest targets and is fairly compact. With the integral field ability of OSIRIS we are able to develop a 2-dimensional velocity offset map relative to the spatial center of the galaxy. The velocity offsets and dispersions allow further investigation of dynamical and virial masses of the entire galaxy. In Figure 1 we show a map of the velocity structure across the galaxy. It shows a relatively smooth velocity structure with a rapid gradient across the center, and is well fit with an inclined disk model (see overlaid contours). We believe that the Q2343-BM133 galaxy is one of the best candidates to a precursor for a present day spiral galaxy. These results were presented in the first OSIRIS extragalactic paper, recently published in ApJ. We have now made successful detections of 10 galaxies at between 1.3 < z < 1.7 spending roughly 2 hours on each source. We are currently working on the kinematics and mass distribution of all of our detections in a second paper. In addition we are modeling the influences of the LGS PSF on our resolved extragalactic sources. This work encompasses a large portion of Shelley Wright’s thesis.

Figure 2.24. First successful OSIRIS LGS-AO detection of a high redshift star-forming galaxy (z=1.478). The image is a Gaussian smoothed (FWHM=0.2”) mosaiced image of the Q2343 galaxy (Z=1.478) with a total exposure of 90 minutes collapsed around Hα (λ=0.0014 m) with a spatial size of 2.0”x2.0”. (BELOW) Two-dimensional Hα kinematics of Q2343-BM133 showing spatial distribution of velocity (km s-1) relative to the measured systemic velocity. The two-dimensional velocity map for BM133 is indicative 2 of a galaxy with a symmetrically rotating disk. Overlaid is the well-fit (reduced χ of 0.78) spider diagram for an inclined-disk model, with each contour representing 10 km s-1. These results were recently published in Wright et al. 2007.

46

Solar System planetary science

Overview Over the past years, the team led by I. de Pater acquired data with several of the currently available AO systems (on Keck, VLT, Gemini, Lick, and ESO-3.6 m) using different observing modes (imaging in narrow band filters, spectroscopy, and LGS imaging) on Titan, Neptune, Uranus, Io, Jupiter's ring and Callisto, binary asteroids and transneptunian objects (TNOs). In addition to their scientific value, the images have tremendous public appeal. Results are being used for educational and public outreach, giving the CfAO broad visibility.

UC Berkeley (Imke de Pater A major goal in planetary science and astronomy is to understand how our Solar System formed and evolved, preferably in a framework that can also explain the formation of extrasolar planetary systems. The ultimate theory to explain all this can only be developed once individual objects and collections of bodies have been characterized in detail. In particular the study of planetary rings yields direct parallels with planet formation in disks, while observations of binary asteroids and transneptunian objects allow derivation of their density and interior structure, giving clues to the collisional evolution within our early and present-day Solar System. Since observations of solar system objects with small apparent sizes are most strongly limited by technology, and indeed yield data crucial to formation models, we contribute to this overall goal by observing such objects using Adaptive Optics (AO) systems on large telescopes.

Software development The involvement of CfAO Berkeley students Marshall Perrin (now a postdoc in the UCLA group) and Conor Laver has been very helpful in the development/debugging of the OSIRIS pipeline. They both tested the code extensively, and optimized several routines. The pipeline is now routinely used by OSIRIS users.

Io After our initial discovery of the forbidden SO emission on Io-in-eclipse with NIRSPEC (de Pater et al. 2002), Conor Laver reduced data taken over several years and all data showed, like the initial dataset, rotational temperatures of the gas of many 100’s K (Laver et al. 2007a). Detailed analysis of the initial discovery spectra suggests that the SO gas is directly released from a volcanic vent, at about 1500 K. To further investigate the relation between SO gas and volcanic activity, we observed Io-in-eclipse in Nov. 2002 with NIRSPAO, using Callisto for wavefront sensing. Although the SO line during that time was extremely weak, it was clearly detected in several of our scans. This was an extremely challenging experiment and analysis, but we did get some exciting results. Our paper has just been accepted for Icarus (de Pater et al. 2007a).

With student Conor Laver we observed Io with OSIRIS in April and June 2006. We detected a volcanic outburst in Io’s northern hemisphere on 17 April 2006, which was still active in June 2006. The eruption was located in Tvashtar Catena, ~100km southeast of the Feb 2000 eruption. This is the first time anyone has obtained spectra of an eruption with an integral field detector, and we derived a temperature of 1240 ± 4K from the spectra (independently derived from H and K band spectra), over a surface area of 60 ± 5km2, providing a total thermal output of 7.7 ± 0.9 x 1012 W. This paper has now been published (Laver et al., 2007b). This is the same volcano later imaged by the New Horizons spacecraft, on its way to Pluto.

47 Conor Laver further published a note on the SO2 ice coverage on Io’s surface, as observed with OSIRIS on 17 April 2006 (Laver and de Pater, 2008). He constructed equivalent width maps of

Figure 2.25 a) Spectrum of Io(upper trace) obtained by integrating over Io’s disk. The lower trace shows a model spectrum of SO2. The grey area highlights where the atmospheric absorption by CO2 is very dicult to correct. b) Deprojected map of Io, integrated over the Kbb band. c) Equivalent width map of the 2.12 SO2 absorption feature.

the 1.98 m and 2.13 m SO2 ice absorption bands on the surface of Io. The maps show significant regional enhancements of SO2 ice over the Bosphoros, Media, Tarsus and Chalybes Regiones (Fig. 2.25). Conor’s involvement in improving and debugging the OSIRIS pipeline has been triggered by these datasets, which form the core of his Ph.D. thesis. A more detailed paper is in progress, where he compares the data with detailed calculations, using e.g., Hapke scattering models.

Titan Our AO observations of Titan relate to our long-term goal of better understanding Titan’s atmosphere, its seasonal cycles (haze migration and cloud formation) and the com- position of its surface. The problems of mapping Titan’s surface reflectance and haze verti- cal structure are linked. Titan’s surface can be probed in near-infrared ‘windows’ between methane bands, but the radiation will not immediately reveal surface composition, since sunlight reflected from the surface is significantly modified by haze scattering and methane absorption in the atmosphere, neither one of which is known ‘a priori’. Over the past year we have continued our observations of Titan with Keck (OSIRIS and NIRC2) and the VLT (with SINFONI). A highlight is Adamkovics paper On widespread morning drizzle on Titan, published in Science (Adamkovics et al. 2007) (Fig. 2.26). Here we present near-infrared spectra from the VLT and Keck telescopes that reveal an enhancement of opacity in Titans troposphere on the morning side of the leading hemisphere. Retrieved extinction profiles are consistent with condensed methane in clouds near 30km altitude and concomitant methane drizzle below. The moisture encompasses the equatorial region over Titans brightest continent, Xanadu. Diurnal temperature gradients that cause methane relative humidity variation, winds, and topography may each be contributing factors to the condensation mechanism. The clouds and precipitation are optically thin at 2.0 m and models of ‘subvisible’ clouds suggest that the droplets are > ~ 0.1 mm. Widespread and persistent drizzle may be the dominant mechanism for returning methane to the surface from the atmosphere and closing the methane cycle. Two additional papers are in preparation: 1) a paper comparing Keck, VLT and Cassini VIMS data, where the latter is taken under a different solar

48 phase angle, and 2) a paper describing the model in detail, and applying this model to all datasets we accumulated with Keck and the VLT over the past decade (this will be a long paper).

Figure 2.26. VLT and Keck near- infrared images of Titan's surface and lower troposphere can be subtracted to reveal widespread cirrus-like clouds of frozen methane (lower images) and a large patch of liquid methane (dark area within box) interpreted as clouds and morning drizzle above the huge continent of Xanadu (outline). At left is a chart of Titan's aerosol haze versus altitude, indicating higher density haze over portions of the south pole and the heights of frozen and liquid methane clouds. (Adamkovics et al. 2007)

Jupiter’s Red Spots At the time of the Voyager flyby in 1979, Jupiter was characterized as a planet with white zones and brown belts, the Great Red Spot (GRS), and three White Ovals. The Red Spot has been observed since 1665, and the White Ovals trace back to the 1930s (Rogers, 1995). Between 1997 and 2000 the ovals started to merge, and by 2000 only one of them (BA) was left, at 34 S. By the first week of March 2006, this oval had turned red. We were awarded HST time to make detailed observations this new Red Oval (see e.g., de Pater et al. 2007b), which we believe to be indicative of a change in temperature in the weather layer, and a direct confirmation of Marcus’ (2004) theory on global climate change on Jupiter. In early July 2006 the two red spots passed each other, an event that we observed with NIRC2 LGS-AO on Keck. Since Jupiter is 40” across, this experiment was extremely challenging. We (the PI with M. Wong) did this in collaboration with A. Conrad and M. van Dam at Keck. It required precise timing to get the relevant features not too far from Jupiter’s limb, while the laser and a tiptilt star (moon or fieldstar) were as close to the limb (but off Jupiter) as possible. We used the Keck Adaptive Optics Note KAON #385 for planning purposes; the Note was revised after our experiment (http://www2.keck.hawaii.edu/optics/aodocs/JupiterBackground.pdf). Unfortunately, the background noise from Jupiter was much higher than expected. The original study for KAON #385 probably had the wavefront sensor stage (FCS) set to the NGS position, which is why we did not anticipate as much scattering from Jupiter as we observed. In addition, because Jupiter moved relative to the WFS and because the FCS location (effective distance to the sodium layer) changed as the telescope tracked Io, which was used as tiptilt reference, we had many problems with the focus. We tried several different techniques, using different satellites and the LGS. Towards the end of our experiment, when Io had moved close enough to Jupiter to be used as a NGS source, we did get some great images, which were featured in a press release (see Fig. 4 of last year’s progress report): http://www.keckobservatory.org/article.php?id=88. Keck LGS/NGS imaging with NIRC2 complements our HST data in several ways. The thermal IR (M’-band) images provide the highest-resolution look to date at the spatial distribution of Jupiter’s cloud opacity in the 2-bar pressure region, and near-IR Keck AO images yield a spatial resolution comparable to that of HST/WFPC2 in the visible. We are working on radiative transfer modeling of these datasets, in order to retrieve aerosol vertical structures that cannot be determined using the HST visible dataset.

49 CfAO support in 2006 allowed the rapid investigation of Jupiter’s new Red Oval. On 10 May 2008 we have another opportunity to observe Jupiter with Keck LGS-AO, using OSIRIS and/or NIRC2.

Jupiter’s Ring System Jupiter’s ring was imaged with Keck AO in the K’ band during the 2002-2003 ring plane crossing. In this band, Jupiter is relatively dark due to methane and collision-induced ab- sorption by hydrogen gas. Wavefront sensing was performed using Callisto. Since Jupiter’s rings are optically thin, edge-on, and presumably cylindrically symmetric, we could invert the images by using an “onion-peel” deconvolution method, which enabled us to extract a radial profile from the data. After applying this technique to our AO data, we compared the radial structure of the ring to a visible light Galileo profile (Figure 2.27) It is remarkable how well Keck performs in comparison with Galileo, a spacecraft which at the time was in orbit around Jupiter and observed the system at a wavelength 4 times shorter than we did. Using our entire (AO + conventional imaging) dataset together with previous work reveals Jupiter’s ring system in much more detail than before: The main ring is confined to a 800-km- wide annulus between the orbits of satellites Metis and Adrastea, with a ~5000 km extension on the inside. The normal optical depth is 8106. Using radio (VLA) data and radial diffusion models of energetic electrons in Jupiter’s magnetosphere, we determined that 15% of the ring’s optical depth is provided by bodies with radii a >~5cm, which are as red as Metis. The inner edge of the ring falls near the 3:2 Lorentz resonance, and coincides with the outer limit of the halo. The gossamer rings outside of the main ring appear to be radially confined, rather than the broad sheets of material that were envisioned before. These data are published by de Pater et al. (2008) and Showalter et al. (2008); the images will be featured on the cover of the May 2008 issue of Icarus.

Figure 2.27. a) Radial profiles through Jupiter's main ring and halo, obtained by onion-peeling edge-on pro-es from conventional images. The orbits of Metis and Adrastea, as well as 3:2 and 2:1 Lorentz resonances are indicated by dotted vertical lines. b) Onion-peeled results from AO images. The upper profile shows the resulting radial profile for an edge-on scan that was vertically integrated over both the main ring and halo. The lower profile shows the result for just the main ring. The orbits of Metis and Adrastea, as well as the Lorentz 3:2 resonance, are indicated. c) A high resolution radial profile of Jupiter's main ring, obtained by onion-peeling an edge-on profile from the AO narrow camera, integrated vertically over 100 km. The profile was smoothed radially over 0.03”. Superposed is a visible light Galileo profile at low phase angles, normalized to the intensity of the Keck profile's inner extension of the main ring. (de Pater et al. 2008)

Uranus

50 Between May and September 2007, Earth crossed the ring plane of Uranus twice, while in December the Sun crossed the ring plane (equinox) (Fig.2.28). During the days around an RPX, optically thick rings fade because the particles obscure and shadow one another, while optically thin rings brighten substantially as all the particles align into a single line. In addition, observations of the ’dark’ or unlit side of the rings, when the Sun and the Earth are on opposite sides of the ring plane (Fig. 4 shaded regions), reveal faint, optically thin regions, because optically thick rings are opaque to transmitted light but optically thin regions let the light shine through.

Figure 2.28 Uranus-centered latitude of Earth and Sun during 2007 and early 2008. Earth crosses the ring plane three times: 3 May 2007, 16 August 2007, and 20 February 2008. The Sun crosses the ring plane on 7 December 2007 (equinox). Shaded regions indicate the times when the Earth and Sun are on opposite sides of the ring plane (i.e., on opposite sides of 0° latitude), providing a rare E arth-based look at the unlit side of the rings. The date of our image is indicated. (de Pater et al. 2007c)

Observations from Hawaii of the dark side of the rings this past year exceeded expectations, in spite of hurricane Flossie, two earthquakes, a tsunami warning and two power failures in August, and closure due to snow in December. Figure 2.29 shows our series of images taken since 2001, showing the change in viewing geometry, as well as improvements in the adaptive optics observations of this planet. Figure 2.30 shows a more detailed comparison of images from 2004 and 2006 with the May 2007 dark-side images. The radial extent of the rings appears much smaller in 2007: the ring—the dominant feature in observations prior to 2006—faded in 2006 and by 2007 became completely invisible. In 2007, the brightest part of the ring system was the ring, which first detected in our 2004 data (de Pater et al. 2006). In May 2007, the ring system is exceptionally bright near ring , which had already been the brightest region on the northern ansa in 2006.

Fig. 2.29. Infrared (2.2 micron) images of Uranus obtained from 2001 to 2007 using Keck's adaptive optics system. At this wavelength, methane and hydrogen gases absorb sunlight so that Uranus looks relatively dark, allowing ring material to be traced very close to the planet. This series of images emphasizes the changing geometry as Uranus approached equinox. Cloud features are visible as bright spots on some of the images, as are small moons. ( Imke de Pater, Heidi B. Hammel, and the W.M. Keck Observatory).

51

Figure 2.30. Comparison of the lit and unlit sides of the rings of Uranus. (A) The lit side in early July 2004, when the ring opening angle to Earth B = 11°, and the angle Bo to the Sun =13.2°. (B) The lit side on 1 August 2006 when B = 3.6° and Bo = 5.2°. (C) The unlit side on 28 May 2007 when B = 0.7° and Bo= 2.0°. The dotted lines show the position of rings ε (upper line) and ζ (lower line). The pericenter of ε was near the tip of the ring in 2006, at ~11 o’clock in 2004, and at ~ 2 o’clock position in 2007. (de Pater et al. 2007c) In 2007, the rings appear superposed atop each other. To extract a radial scan, we applied the same “onion-peel” deconvolution technique discussed above for Jupiter. Figure 2.31a shows the resulting profile compared with the Keck 2004 data and a Voyager profile; in Fig. 2.31b, the same profile is compared with a Voyager profile taken in forward-scattered light, which is sensitive to micron-sized dust. Both the older Keck and Voyager profiles differ significantly from the 2007 profile, although a few features do correspond to known rings or dust sheets. For example, ring ε is exceptionally bright, suggesting an optically thin component, perhaps the 55- km broad outward extension detected via stellar occultation experiments. The region near 45,000 km is nearly devoid of dust according to Voyager, but is about half as bright as the ε ring in our data. The ε ring shifted radially from the Voyager epoch to the present. Clearly, the dust distribution changed significantly since the 1986 Voyager encounter. These results have been published in Science (de Pater et al. 2007c). Although modest changes in dusty rings over 20-year time scales have been noted in other ring systems, the uranian system reveals changes on much larger scales than was previously recognized.

Figure 2.31. (A) Comparison of the deconvolved (i.e., onion-peeled) radial profile of 2007, averaged over both north and south sides (red; smoothed radially over ~ 650 km), with the northern profile from 2004 (cyan), and the Voyager profile in backscattered light (black). The left axis shows the I/F normal to the ring plane of the 2007 profile. The axis on the right side shows the measured I/F for the 2004 data. The scale for the Voyager data is arbitrary (and o--scale for ε). (B) Comparison of the deconvolved radial profile of 2007 (red; scale on left axis) with the Voyager profile in forward- scattered light (black; scale on right axis) and the Voyager profile of the R/1986 U 2 from image 26846.50 (blue, scale on left axis). The Voyager data were smoothed to match the Keck pixel size.

Cloud tracking of features in the atmosphere have provided new information on wind velocities, while we also discovered powerful storm systems in the atmosphere and the first dark spot –

52 analogous, but different, to the Great dark Spot on Neptune. Observations have been published by Sromovsky et al. (2007) (the image was featured on the cover of Icarus), and Hammel et al. (2008).

Neptune We have compared spatially resolved images of Neptune at mid-infrared wavelengths, sensitive to the planet’s thermal emission, with near-infrared AO observations in reflected sunlight. Our 7.7- and 11.7-m images, taken in 2005 July 4-5 at the Gemini North telescope, respectively show enhanced methane and ethane emission within 30 of the south pole. This bright polar region is the first direct imaging evidence for radiative forcing of Neptune’s stratosphere, similar to that seen on Saturn. Enhanced emission from ethane, but not methane, also emerges from the planetary limb, suggesting differing vertical profiles. Stratospheric emissions are uncorrelated with tropospheric clouds seen in reflected sunlight in our near-simultaneous adaptive-optics images at 1.6 and 2.2 m taken with the Keck 2 telescope on 2005 July 5. These data have been published by Hammel et al. (2007). We have imaged Neptune regularly with the Keck AO system since it first was introduced on the telescope in 1999. Neptune’s atmosphere shows an incredible amount of detailed structure. Small cloud features are concentrated in narrow bands in the southern hemisphere that circle the entire planet (e.g., Fig. 2.32). These bands sometimes contain a few much brighter features (dubbed ‘storms’), some of which are quite stable on time scales of minutes-hours, or even days to perhaps years, while other features are transient. The bands themselves do not always follow a particular latitude, but may deviate away across lines of constant latitude. This may, perhaps, be caused by underlying vortices, such as the GDS or the little dark spot in Voyager images. In July 2007 we observed Neptune with NIRC2, and noticed that the south polar spot was double. Graduate student Statia Luszcz is analyzing these data. (Fig. 2.32)

Figure 2.32 Keck AO image of Neptune in H band from 26 July 2007. On the right is an enlargement of the S. pole, showing the double spot. (Luszcz, de Pater, Hammel)

As part of her Ph.D. thesis, S. Martin shows that the cloud features in a single band, i.e., at the same latitude, do not all travel at the same speed (Fig. 2.33). It is not clear why not; on other planets they usually do have the same velocities. Are they diverted around vortex systems? Disturbed by waves? Is it simply turbulence? Or are they located at different levels in the atmosphere? When Saturn was imaged by HST and Cassini, the winds near the equator appear to have slowed down considerably between 1980–1981 (Voyager) and 2004. A detailed re-analysis of all data suggested that the haze was measured at a higher altitude during the HST-Cassini era (~50–70 mbar) than when Voyager flew by (~350 mbar), and that the data may indicate a decay in velocity with altitude (Sanchez-Lavega et al. 2003; Perez-Hoyos and Sanchez-Lavega, 2006). It remains to be seen if this decay is consistent with the thermal wind equation.

53 Figure 2.33. Figure to illustrate the variations in zonal wind speed on Neptune, at the same latitudes. Plotted is latitude versus rotation rate. The curve is the smooth t to Voyager large features. The wind speeds were measured from over 100 Keck AO images taken on two consecutive days in August 2001. Note that there is a lot of variation in windspeeds; typical errors are small compared to the size of the symbols. The open versus black markers indicate the day of observations (day 1 vs day 2). The size of the circles indicate the baseline of observations. The larger the marker the longer the baseline, up to a maximum of 4 hours. (from Martin et al., 2008)

UC Berkeley (Franck Marchis)

Multiple Asteroid Systems Over the past year, we finalized the determination of the mutual orbit of 9 main-belt binary asteroids which were published in three articles in Icarus journal (Descamps et al., 2007, 2008a; Marchis et al., 2008abc). This important work gives us the opportunity to start new and more challenging observational programs, combining various techniques of observations such as integrated photometry analysis (lightcurve), and spectroscopy in the near-infrared and mid- infrared (with Spitzer and soon with SOFIA) to help characterizing these puzzling multiple asteroid systems Search and Study for Multiple Trojan Systems One night of observation was granted to our group on April 3 2007 to search for multiple asteroid systems in the L5 Lagrange point of the Jupiter-Sun system. (617) Patroclus- Menoetius is the only known double system located in this equilibrium point. It was studied intensively using the Keck LGS AO system revealing a low bulk density (0.8 ±0.2 g/cm3, see Marchis et al., Nature, 2006a). Unfortunately, due to technical problem with the new generation RTC of the AO system, we lost most of our telescope time. We obtained additional time with the VLT and its NACO AO system in service observing to observe with the recently available LGS AO the L4-Trojan asteroid Hektor and its moonlet discovered by our group in July 2006 (Fig 1, Marchis et al., 2006b). The data are being processed. Because we have a good ephemeris of the asteroid itself, it has been possible in collaboration with a group of Japanese amateur astronomers to predict and observe successfully an occultation of Hektor’ primary by a 10.1 mag star. Fig. 2.34 shows the cords of the occultation which confirms that the primary is in fact composed of 2 separated lobes, making this Trojan the first triple asteroid in this population and suggesting a complex history. Nature editor already indicated that they are interested in publishing a combined analysis of the Hektor’s moonlet orbit and of the occultation (Marchis et al., in prep. 2008), since we confirmed the significantly higher bulk density of this Trojan asteroid (~2.1 g/cc).

54

Figure 2.34: [left] Stellar Occultation by (624) Hektor of a 10th magnitude star observed in Japan by two observers. The star light reappeared between the gap of the two components. [right] AO observation of (624) Hektor showing the bilobated shape of the primary and the 7km-size satellite (S/2006 (624) 1). (624) Hektor is the first triple Trojan system (Marchis et al., Nature, in prep, 2008).

(45) Eugenia: mutual orbit of a new triple asteroid system In March 2006, we announced the discovery of a second triple asteroid system in the main-belt. A smaller and closer satellite was detected on 3 images taken in 2004 with the VLT NACO AO system. This discovery was made possible thanks to a detection profile algorithm that we developed specifically for this task. Unfortunately, these three positions were not sufficient to estimate the orbital parameters of this small satellite (code name “Petite-Princesse”). During an engineering Keck time, M. van Dam observed Eugenia on Oct 19 2007 UT to test the NGWFC. Even if the asteroid was still far from its opposition (at 2.3 AU from Earth), thanks the quality provided by the improved Keck AO system, it has been possible to detect “Petite-Princesse” (Fig. 2.35). Subsequent campaign of observations conducted in collaboration with Imke de Pater to collect new astrometric positions at the opposition (Dec 2007) failed due to bad weather conditions. Interestingly, the 4 available orbit positions are well distributed along the orbit and we are able to estimate the orbital parameter of “Petite-Princesse”. The system is very similar to (87) Sylvia, the first triple asteroid system known discovered in 2005 by our team, suggesting a similar formation (catastrophic disruption of a parent body) and evolution. The moons orbit describing a co-planar, equatorial and circular orbit. An article summarizing our finding is in preparation for Icarus (Marchis et al., in prep., 2008).

55

Figure 2.35: [left] Keck AO observation of (45) Eugenia recorded with NGWFC on Oct. 19 2007. The two satellites are detected and labeled with a green circle: Eugenia I Petit-Prince (at 0.6” and 4 o’clock) and “Petite-Princesse” (at 0.3” and 5’o clock). This observation taken in H band illustrate the improvement of the Keck AO system quality. [right] Most likely orbits (yellow line) of Petite-Princesse based on the four positions collected in 2004 at VLT and in 2007 at Keck. The Keck position constrains significantly the system suggesting an almost circular orbit.

Comparative spectra of (22) Kalliope On March 25 2008, M. Wong and I. de Pater observed the binary asteroid systeme (22) Kalliope and its moonlet (Linus) using the Keck AO system and OSIRIS. Mate Adamkovics did a quick data reduction presented in Fig. 2.36. Despite the fact that there are still instrument artifacts and atmospheric telluric bands on the two spectra, they look remarkably similar implying the same surface composition. This is the first comparative spectroscopic analysis of an asteroid and its companion. Our group has been trying for several years to record one of them but always failed due to bad weather or technical problem. This work is important in the context of formation of this binary asteroid. It has been suggested that the satellite is in fact a fragment of the disruption of a parent asteroid. The irregularly shaped and rubble-pile large primary is the result of the accretion of large fragments whereas the satellite formed from smaller fragments. The slope of the primary and its satellite spectra should be therefore slightly different. Our observation suggests that they are almost strictly identical. We are planning to finalize the reduction of these spectra in the following months to publish it before the next DPS meeting (October 2008).

Figure 2.36: Comparative spectra of (22) Kalliope primary and its moonlet Linus (yellow) recorded in H band (left) and K band (right) wavelength range with OSIRIS at Keck. This is the first resolved spectroscopic analysis of a binary system recorded with an intergral field imager. The two spectra are identical in shape suggesting a similar composition and evolution. 56 Future observational projects related to AO To the light of these new results, we submitted a large number of observation proposals to several facilities. We are planning to expand our comparative spectroscopic work focusing mainly of similarly-sized binary asteroid systems. Because (90) Antiope and (216) Kleopatra will be at an exceptional opposition in 2008B, we requested time on VLT with SPIFFI and Keck with OSIRIS to compare the spectra of both components and constrain the origin of the system. B. Macomber, under-graduate student at UC-Berkeley, helped the PI to build a database of the known multiple asteroid systems. To date 161 systems are known and our work revealed that a small number of multiple asteroid systems are classified as S-type, corresponding to a rocky composition. It is possible that the formation of these asteroids by fission or oblique impact is directly linked to the tensile strength of the material they are made of, so their composition. To investigate and confirm this trend-off between composition and binary rate, we requested 3 nights of observations at the VLT to search for binary asteroids in the S-type asteroid population.

Io volcanism monitored in coordination with New Horizons flyby To support the New Horizons (NH) Jupiter encounter, we monitored Io's volcanic activity using high angular resolution images with a spatial resolution from 120 to 350 km in the near infrared (1-5 μm) provided by adaptive optics (AO) systems available on 8-10m class telescopes. We initiated the campaign on Feb. 25 2007 with data obtained with the VLT-Yepun telescope (ESO, Paranal, Chile), just before NH closest approach. We continued monitoring with the Gemini North telescope (Hawaii, USA). The last observation was taken on May 28 2007 (see Table 2.5 for a complete list of the support observations). Preliminary analysis presented at the AGU Fall conference (Marchis et al., 2007) indicates that numerous active volcanoes are visible in the data but the Tvashtar eruption is by far the most energetic (4 detections see Table 2.5, Fig 2.37). Extremely high angular resolution data from NH revealed fine detail of the eruption, such as the presence of an active plume (Spencer et al., 2007). This volcano has an interesting past history. It was seen as a powerful eruption from Nov. 26 1999 during the Galileo I25 flyby (McEwen et al., 2000) to Feb. 19 2001 from the ground (Marchis et al., 2003). It was dormant or below our ground-based limit of detection (T<330 K assuming an area of 460 km2) between Dec 2001 and May 2004 (Marchis et al., 2005). The re-awakening of the volcano was reported by Laver et al. (2007) in April 2006 based on Keck Adaptive Optics (AO) observations. Our last Gemini AO observation taken on May 26 shows that Tvashtar was still very active. Based on the previous behavior of this volcano (Milazzo et al., 2005), it is very likely that the activity reported in 2007 is a continuation of the Tvashtar-2006 eruption. Other active volcanoes, such as Loki Patera, Pele, North Lerna, and others are detected in this large data set. The global picture of Io's volcanic activity can be derived from our observations, by comparison with previous observations from the Galileo spacecraft and using ground-based AO (Marchis et al., in prep, 2008).

57

Table 2.5: Data collected during and after NH flyby with Gemini North, VLT/UT4 and Keck telescopes equipped with Adaptive optics systems and near infrared camera.

Figure 2.37: Basic-processed observation of Io collected at three different epochs using the Gemini North AO system at 2.17 m. The Tvashtar eruption is clearly seen close to the northern pole of Io.

58 Figure 2.38: (4) Vesta observed with HST and its visible camera WFPC2 [left]. This observation was deconvolved using AIDA and TinyTim PSF. On the final image the assymetrical illumination of the asteroid surface can be seen. The size and shape can be constrained.

Deconvolution algorithms We released on November 2007, a complete version of AIDA (v1.2.1) which includes a package for Mac Intel computer. Our JOSA article (Hom et al., 2007) was published in June 2007 and we received numerous requests from potential users around the world. We presented the algorithm at the DPS meeting in October 2007. The PI tested the algorithm on images of Vesta taken with HST/WFPC2 for L. McFadden (University of Maryland). The result (Fig. 2.38) is spectacular; the inhomogeneous illumination of the asteroid can be seen. Its shape and size can be estimated directly from the data. The edge-on artifacts seen when using a classical deconvolution method do not appear on the final image. This experiment illustrates the improvement in quality after deconvolution for data recorded with a stable PSF that we can expect with the NGAO or GPI on bright targets (V~11). A new version of AIDA optimized for the Leopard Mac OS X is in preparation. The PI is co-I of a NASA grant aimed at testing and improving the algorithm for space mission images which was recently allocated.

Future AO systems Next Generation Adaptive Optics The PI and Minjin Baek (lab assistant at SETI Institute) participated in the definition of the science cases for the NGAO project. We developed a realistic image simulator based on the characteristics of the AO system and its instruments (visible and NIR camera). Our analytical work is based on numerous simulations performed with theoretical PSF generated using the TMT Monte Carlo code by C. Lidman & R. Flicke. It helped to address the problem of pixel scale sampling and size of detectors summarized in KAON 529 (Baek and Marchis, 2007). To summarize, we found that the best photometric and astrometric accuracies are obtained for /3D and / 2D pixel scale for the NIR and visible camera. The PI helped also to the creation of the Science Case Requirement (KAON 455, Max et al., 2007) specifically for two planetary science cases: Multiplicity of minor planets, and Size, shape and composition of minor planets. The main goal of this document is to ensure that the NGAO will be built with capabilities that enable this science cases to be carried out to the greatest extend possible. This task was performed through frequent telecons with D. le Mignant (Keck Obs and UCSC) and E. McGrath (UCSC). The NGAO project is about to be reviewed by a SDR panel composed of 6 external members who will provide report and recommendations to the observatory and the NGAO project team.

MAD: a multi-conjugate adaptive optics facility at the VLT MAD is a prototype instrument performing wide field-of-view, real-time correction for atmospheric turbulence (Marchetti et al. 2006). MAD was built by the European Southern

59 Observatory (ESO) with the contribution of two external consortia to prove the feasibility of MCAO on the sky in the framework of the 2nd generation VLT instrumentation and of the European Extremely Large Telescope (ELT). Originally designed as a laboratory experiment, MAD was offered for science demonstration in November 2007 and January 2008 and installed at the Visitor Focus of the VLT telescope UT3 (Melipal) located at the ESO Paranal Observatory. In collaboration with H. Bouy, Marie Curie fellow postdoc at UC-Berkeley, we obtained telescope time with this new instrument to study the - Orionis clusters. The recorded deep H and K images was useful to search for new members and new multiple systems in the 1. 51. 5 central region of the cluster (Bouy et al., 2008b). These images allow us to reach H5 mag as close as 0.2 on a typical source with H=14.5 mag. This collaborative work gives the PI the opportunity to work on the first scientific MCAO data available. We are in discussion with Marchetti’s group to determine if the atmosphere of Jupiter could be observed at the next opposition with this instrument.

Low Mass star population studied with AO In collaboration with Herve Bouy, Marie Curie fellow postdoc at UC-Berkeley, we initiated two programs to characterize low mass star population. We requested LGS AO time with Lick Shane telescope to follow up a population of binary ultra-cool dwarfs. The analysis of the orbits was made adding data collected with Hubble telescope (ACS, STIS, Nicmos) and VLT/NACO. We confirmed that 14 multiple systems have common proper motions and that for six of them their period are short enough to be estimated in the next 15-20 years (Bouy et al., 2008c). We present a complete photometric, spectroscopic, and imaging analysis of 2MASS J044442713+2512164, a young brown dwarf (M7.25) member of the Taurus association. We determined the complete spectral energy distribution from the optical to the millimeter wavelength range providing constraints on the nature of the disk around this young low mass star. AO observations with VLT/NACO processed and analyzed carefully did not show the surrounding disk and outflows (Bouy et al., 2008c)

Galactic Center This program focuses on the use of Adaptive Optics to study the center of our Galaxy from a technical, educational, and astronomical point of view.  Technically, the Galactic Center presents many challenges which range from observational, due to the lack of a bright natural guide star at optical wavelengths, to analytical, due to the crowded stellar field at near-infrared wavelengths.  Educationally, this program offers tremendous opportunities to both display the power of AO and to educate the general community. The benefits of AO are very visually demonstrable and the subject of supermassive black holes is of great interest to the public. Since much of the astronomical investigation rests on very basic principles of physics, it also has served as a great vehicle for more generally educating the public through public lectures, documentaries, and text books.  Astronomically, we study the environment of the Galaxy’s central supermassive black hole to measure the dynamics, distribution, and properties of the stars in the central stellar cluster. The spectroscopy and imaging will allow us to obtain the most accurate and precise estimate of the distance to the Galactic Center, constrain the dark mass distribution at smaller radii than ever before (with special focus now on what might surround the central black hole), improve studies of counterparts to Sgr A* at near- infrared wavelengths, and resolve the paradox of apparently young stars in an environment that is currently quite hostile to star formation, given the strong tidal forces

60 presented by the black hole and the low gas densities. This program serves as an excellent example to the astronomical community of the power of LGS-AO. Milestone: Submit new proposals to use Keck AO systems to carry out Year 9 work Proposal submitted and awarded time in April - July 2008 to conduct LGS-AO Keck observations of the Galactic center.

Milestone: Conduct AO observations on Galactic Center in imaging and spectroscopic modes in Summer ’07 Successful LGS-AO imaging and spectroscopic observations were conducted in the spring and summer of 2007.

Milestone: Analysis on Arches Dynamics Mass Function In the process of analyzing data collected to investigae the stellar mass function within the Arches cluster, we made the surprising discovery of finding many infrared excess sources (see Figure 2.39). We have also expanded our astrometric coverage of the Arches to look for tidal effects (tidal radius and tidal tails) Deep Keck/NIRC2 HKL observations of the Arches cluster near the Galactic center reveal a mysterious populaion of near-infrared excess sources near the cluster center and in its vicinty. Of the 14 identified excess sources, 9 have proper motion measurements, all of which are proper motion members of the Arches. At a cluster age of 2.5 Myr, and with charactersitics of B-type main sequence stars, circumstellar accretion disks should have been depleted. We identify low- luminsority bow shock sources and photevaporative flows in the presecne of nearby O-type stars as the most likely scenarios for the origin of the infrared excess. No extended emission is found, and longer wavelength observations are required to futher constrain the nature of these sources.

Figure 2.39: Arches Keck/NIRC2 K’ mosaic image, with North up and East to the left. The cluster core is visible in the West, and fields east1 and east2 are offest to the East and Southeast, respectively. The IR excess sources are encircled. The density of these sources appears to be higher a larger cluster radii than in the core. Milestone: Improve astrometric analysis (necessary to push for non-Keplerian motion) While last year we showed that LGS-AO has improved our centroiding accuracy, this year we have demonstrated, for the first time, that the Keck LGS-AO system is capable of providing a

61 stable astrometric reference to a level that is better than our centroiding accuracy. This finally shows that the astrometric capbilities of LGS-AO are indeed an order of magnitude better than speckle imaginng. We have applied this data set to a reanalysis of the velocity dispersion problem at the Galactic center, which is leading to some very interesting and unexpected results. This work comprised Sylvana Yelda’s 2nd year paper for her comprehensive graduate progam exam at UCLA (which she passed last month). Two key technical aspects of this work, which were included as appendices were (1) a detailed study of how to properly maintain a stable reference frame in a field where everything is moving and (2) observations of M92 that have allowed her to improved the geometric distortion corrections for NIRC2 (this later analysis is now being extended to included differential atmospheric refraction and will then be applied to all our existing data).

Figure 2.40: (left) Example of a line fit model to the positional measurements for a typical star. Over 1.5 time baseline and 5 measurements, there are no sigificant systematics above our centroiding accuracies of " 0.15 mas. (right) Our new distortion solution using new M92 data taken with Keck/NIRC2 last summer and archived HST/ACS data. This significant improves the characterization of the distortion over what has been done with pin hole mask in NIRC2. Milestone: Publish Galactic Center distance paper We reported new precision measurements of the properties of our Galaxy’s supermassive black hole. Based on astrometric (1995-2007) and radial velocity (2000-2007) measurements from the W. M. Keck 10 meter telescopes, the Keplerian orbital parameters for the short period star S0-2 6 imply a distance of 8.3 ± 0.3 kpc, an enclosed mass of 4.8 ± 0.3 10 Msun, and a black hole position that is localized to within ± 1 mas and that is consistent with the position of SgrA*-IR. Astrometric bias from source confusion is identified as a significant source of systematic error and is accounted for in this study. Our black hole mass and distance are significantly higher than previous estimates. The higher mass estimate brings the Galaxy into better agreement with the relationship between the mass of the central black hole and the velocity dispersion of the host galaxy’s bulge observed for nearby galaxies. It also raises the orbital period of the innermost stable orbit of a non-spinning black hole to 38 min and increases the Rauch-Tremaine resonant relaxation timescales The near-infrared properties of Sgr A* - the supermassive black hole in the Galactic center - still remain elusive despite intense investigation. A putative quasi-peridocity of " 20 min reported by groups using ESO’s VLT is not confirmed by Keck observations. The connection to the mm- regime is thought to occur via some kind of expansion of energetic plasma with reported time lags between 20 and 110min depending on the data sets used. Here, we report on a 592 min

62 lightcurve from Sgr A*, achieved by combining Keck and VLT data from one common night and therefore longer by a factor of two than any previously reported infrared lightcurve of this source. Simultaneous Chandra and SMA data have been reported previously. We find that (i) the simultaneous 1.3 millimeter observations either don’t show a corresponding flare or the assumed time lag between NIR- and mm-wavelengths needs to be revised, (ii) the different NIR data reduction methods used by the VLT and Keck groups lead to consistent results, (iii) the periodogram of the whole NIR lightcurve is featureless and follows a power-law with slope -1.4, and (iv) scanning the lightcurve with a a sliding window to search for possible transient periodicities reveals peaks with no more than 3" significance threshold.

Figure 2.41: Two of seven lightcurves from Keck LGS-AO of SgrA* at K and L’. A statistically rigorous test for periodicity reveals no significant peaks at 20 min, in constrast to early reports. Establishing the veracity of such a possilbe QPO is important as it has been interpretted a signature of a hot spot at the innermost stable orbit (ISO) of a spinning black hole (since 20 min is less than the period of the ISO of a non-spinnning black hole).

Milestone: Dynamics of Young Stars Detailed much of this work in last year’s progress report. This work continues and has focused on moving to measuring orbits at larger radii and fainter stars in the central arcsec with the new LGSAO data sets. With last year’s LGSAO measurements we have doubled the number of known short period stars at the Galactic center that can be used in our efforts to move beyond Keplerian orbits. Measuring these stars’ orbits also reduces the effects of source confusion in this critical region.

63 Figure 2.42: Discovery of new short period stars (solid points). Measured velolicities and accelarations are compared to the two shortest previously known periods (S0-2 [15 years] and S0-16 [30 years]).

Papers in Preparation Stolte, A., Ghez, A. M., Morris, Do, T., Mills, E., Lu, J. R., Matthews, K., “Infrared Excess sources in the Arches Cluster”, very preliminary draft recently circulated to co-authors Yelda, S., Ghez, A., Lu. J., Do, T., Morris, M., Hansen, B., Meyer, L., Matthews, K., “ Enclosed Mass Estimates from High-Precision Proper Motion Measurements in the Galactic Center,” Submitted as S. Yelda’s second year project and in preparation for ApJ. Ghez, A. M., Salim, S., Weinberg, N., Lu, J., Do, T., Dunn, J. K., Matthews, K., Morris, M., Yelda, S., Becklin, E. E. “Probing the Properties of the Milky Way’s Central Supermassive Black Hole with Stellar Orbits,” 2008, Invited paper in IAU 248 and final draft ready for submission to ApJ. Meyer, L., Ghez, A. M., Do, T., Morris, M. R., Witzel, G., Eckart, A., B´elanger, G., Sch¨odel, R. “A 600 minute near-infrared lightcurve of Sagittarius A*,” second draft circulated to co- authors

Development, implementation and validation of point-spread-function (PSF) reconstruction techniques This work is being spearheaded at Keck Observatory by PI David Le Mignant in coordination with postdoctoral researcher Ralf Flicker, plus a large host of collaborators spanning the AO community of experts in PSF reconstruction. The Y9 proposal outlined three large phases in this project. The first phase, which roughly covers the first 8 months, includes the following steps for developing the on-axis NGS PSF reconstruction: 1.a) Review previous research on PSF reconstruction and select candidate algorithms 1.b) Develop K2 AO simulation tools for the purpose of producing simulated AO telemetry data 1.c) Develop TRS (telemetry recorder/server) query and analysis tools 1.d). Develop prototype PSF reconstruction algorithm containing the fundamental components (fitting, aliasing, noise and bandwidth errors); test on simulated data and apply to real on- axis NGS K2 AO data. This report is on the first 6 months of Y9 progress. More detailed technical discussions and supporting material can be found in the documentation on the PSF reconstruction at: http://lao.ucolick.org/twiki/bin/view/CfAO/PsfReconstruction

64 The second phase has already begun and will last about 12 months. It will focus on the on-sky validation and component development phase; off-axis NGS, LGS, optical aberrations: 2.a) Develop and validate angular and focal anisoplanatism components for NGS and LGS; 2.b) Develop static and dynamic telescope aberration components (segment figures, vibrations, instrument optical distortions) and a strategy for measuring them; 2.c) Integrated product development, preliminary deployment to routine observing. The third and last phase of the project (4 months) will be to deliver the final product and prepare for future development: 3.a) Integrated product and user interface development; 3.b) Initial studies into PSF reconstruction techniques for future multi-beacon tomographic AO systems (i.e. MCAO, MOAO, LTAO) and extremely-high-order AO systems (applicable to, e.g., NGAO). Tools for monitoring the atmospheric turbulence A turbulence monitor/profiler provides one solution to both the time-variability problem of the PSF and the field-variability (with the Cn2 profile – see Britton et al. 2006). The Véran 2007 PSF reconstruction review emphasizes that need for turbulence profile measurements to complement the telemetry-based PSF reconstruction, and allow the overall method to take into account the various terms of anisoplanatism. We now have access to this data from the TMT site monitor. Continued access to this data is critical for this project. We also plan to initiate talks among the various parties interested by the use of a DIMM/MASS instrument atop Mauna Kea and secure access to such instrument.

Figure 2.43: Variations in turbulence strength during observations of the Galactic Center. The red points indicate measurements at zenith while the green data points are from Galactic Center images.

65 Current Status: Phase 1

Review previous research, select candidate algorithm (100% complete) Reviewing the literature, we resolved to base our algorithm development on the previously most commonly applied method, introduced by J.-P. V´eran in [3] (henceforth the “Véran method”). One recent improvement [5] to the V´eran method was adopted early on as the baseline algorithm for PSF reconstruction at WMKO, as it reduces the computational complexity without sacrificing realism, potentially allowing the algorithm to be scaled up to high-order AO systems with future development.

Develop K2 AO simulation tools (100% complete) In order to prototype the PSF reconstruction algorithm, and for future debugging and sanity checking, it was deemed important to have a capable simulation tool that emulates the current AO system on the Keck 2 telescope as closely as possible. Such a numerical simulation tool was developed within the first half of Phase 1, and has been employed to generate streams of fake AO telemetry data on the same format as the actual TRS, greatly facilitating development of the PSF reconstruction algorithms.

Develop TRS query and analysis tools (50% complete) The new wavefront controller (former NGWFC) recently implemented on the K2 AO system [4] is crucial to the success of PSF reconstruction, as it allows several nights of full-frame-rate AO telemetry to be recorded for later post-processing. This complete recording and generous storage capacity offered by the TRS obviates the need for real-time data reduction, and allows the PSF reconstruction to be carried out at any later time with complete access to the raw data. A set of general TRS database query tools were available at the start of this PSF reconstruction project, but for the PSF reconstruction task a number of extensions and modifications were identified as necessary. There is currently an ongoing effort, lead by proposal participant Erik Johanson (WMKO), to develop additional software tools and add such functionality to the TRS in order to facilitate PSF reconstruction, as well as other applications.

Develop prototype PSF reconstruction algorithm (50% complete) The first departure from the V´eran method that we decided upon was to omit the pupilaveraging step, which approximates a non-stationary structure function by a stationary one in order to simplify computation. This approximation may lead to an underestimation of the optical transfer function (OTF), but we found that, in conjunction with the methodology in [5], the advance in affordable computing power has rendered the pupil-averaging approximation unnecessary. A second reason for avoiding pupil-averaging is that the structure function for focal anisoplanatism (cone-effect) with LGS is in itself non-stationary [6], and could not be used within the V´eran method without some form of additional approximation. By evaluating the OTF directly from the non-stationary structure function, we avoid applying any additional approximation to the focal anisoplanatism term. The fitting and aliasing components have been modeled and implemented into the algorithm, as described in the documentation on the TWiki [2]. In brief, both are based on Fourier-domain modeling. The fitting component consists of a numerically generated Fourier domain mask that is applied to a model turbulence power spectral density function (PSD). The PSD mask takes into account the shape of the DM influence functions, producing a smoother and more realistic roll-off at the AO cut-off frequency than simple analytical models (e.g. [7]). The aliasing component is modeled by an analytical PSD model based on the formalism in [8], generalized here to closed- loop conditions (see Appendix 1 in [2]).

66 The noise/servo-lag component is the central object that is computed from real-time AO telemetry. The Véran method applies two approximations to this component that we too have used initially. In order to achieve a PSF reconstruction algorithm that is reliable also in high-noise conditions (faint guide star regime), however, we also consider more realistic representations of this component that include the temporal filtering (omitted in [3]). Considerable effort is devoted during the second half of Phase 1 to model this component and verify it against AO lab data. The details are outlined in [2]. One set of AO lab data was collected for initial model testing. Unfortunately the test needs to be repeated and new lab data collected, due to a failure to record all the necessary telemetry the first time. On-sky data was also collected on bright NGS for testing the fitting and aliasing components, as well as providing data for validation of the seeing estimator (see Sect. 1.3). A reliable and accurate r0 estimation is essential to PSF reconstruction, so testing and potentially making improvements to the algorithm currently in operation is a high-priority task that is being carried out presently. Technical Challenges The more challenging technical aspects of the project which are currently being worked on as part of Phase 1 include seeing estimation, noise modeling, and residual error covariance matrix modeling.  Seeing estimation. The atmospheric seeing (or r0) is one of the most important parameters to have a good estimate of. Even though we are employing the approximation that the long-exposure PSF can be represented by an average r0 value (while we know that r0 can vary strongly even on short time scales), the PSF is still very sensitive to this value. As part of the PSF reconstruction project we therefore deemed it necessary to validate the seeing estimation algorithms currently used with K2 AO (based on Schoeck et al. [10]). Data that was collected during two half-nights of observing (in January and April 2008) are being analyzed currently.  Noise model. This is one of the critical components of the PSF reconstruction algorithm, and the realism of this component decides whether the algorithm can be applied in the high-noise regime of faint AO guide stars. Depending on how the calculation is pursued, we either estimate a noise covariance matrix in the WFS domain and a temporal noise transfer function, or we can try to estimate the temporally filtered noise covariance matrix in the DM domain in one step. Most previous PSF reconstruction projects have followed the first approach, which requires good knowledge of the noise in the WFS and other hard-to-measure quantities such as the centroid gain. No successful implementation of the latter approach has yet been demonstrated, but it is the goal of the current project to investigate this method and attempt to implement it. For the purpose of testing the noise modeling in an idealized setting, noisy AO telemetry data was collected from the AO bench operating on the internal (fiber) light source, with no atmospheric turbulence (hence no fitting or aliasing error) present. This data and the noise models are currently being tested.  Covariance matrix model. This aspect of modeling covers how the components of noise, aliasing and residual turbulence error are combined into a single covariance matrix that is used in the final OTF calculation. Approximations can creep in at different stages here, as the quantities are either poorly known or their exact representations become too complicated to deal with numerically. Firstly, there are cross-terms between the AO telemetry and the noise and aliasing terms, and secondly there is the temporal filtering mentioned in relation to the noise model above. In following the approach suggested by Véran [3] both of these effects are approximated to a degree, but the goal of the project is to investigate the feasibility and performance of more realistic representations.

67 Publications and Documentation The project has been extensively documented. We have created a TWiki page at the CfAO that allows anyone to check our progress. The TWiki page presents the various phases for the project and provides details for the current active phases [2]. A research paper on the effects of a turbulence outer scale on the PSF and methods for modeling those in the PSF was submitted to a peer-reviewed journal in early April [6]. [1] “Development, implementation and validation of PSF reconstruction techniques,” Y9 CfAO proposal (2007) URL: http://lao.ucolick.org/twiki/pub/CfAO/PsfReconstruction/CfAOY9LeMignant v3nobudget.pdf [2] PSF reconstruction project TWiki web page and document collection, URL: http://lao.ucolick.org/twiki/bin/view/CfAO/PsfReconstruction [3] J.-P. Véran, F. Rigaut, H. Maˆıtre, and D. Rouan, “Estimation of the adaptive optics long exposure point spread function using control loop data,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 14 (1997). [4] M. van Dam, E. Johansson, P. Stomski, J. Chin, R. Sumner and P. Wizinowich, “Keck Adaptive Optics Note 489: Performance of the Keck II Next-Generation Wave Front Controller”, URL: http://www2.keck.hawaii.edu/optics/aodocs/KAON489.pdf [5] E. Gendron, Y. Cl´enet, T. Fusco, and G. Rousset, “New algorithms for adaptive optics point- spread function reconstruction,” Astron. Astrophys. 457, 359–363 (2006). [6] R. Flicker, “Outer scale effects on anisoplanatism in adaptive optics,” submitted to OSA, April 2008. [7] L. Jolissaint, J.-P. Veran and J. Marino, “OPERA, an automatic PSF reconstruction software for Shack-Hartmann AO systems: application to Altair,” Proc. SPIE 5490, 151–163 (2004). [8] F. J. Rigaut, J. Veran, and O. Lai, “Analytical model for Shack-Hartmann-based adaptive optics systems,” Proc. SPIE 3353, 1038–1048 (1998). [9] R. Flicker et al., “NGAO High-Contrast & Companion Sensitivity Performance Budget,” KAON 497 (2007) URL: http://www.oir.caltech.edu/twiki oir/pub/Keck/NGAO/HighContrastBudget/contrast.pdf [10] M. Sch¨ock, D. Le Mignant, G. A.Chanan, P. L.Wizinowich, and M. A.van Dam, “Atmospheric turbulence characterization with the Keck adaptive optics systems. I. Open-loop data,” Appl. Opt. 42, 3705–3720 (2003).

AO Simulator Upgrades for Laser Guide Stars This work was performed at the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) project office by PI Brent Ellerbroek and researcher Lianqi Wang. The Year 9 research effort was focused upon upgrading a well-established adaptive optics (AO) simulation code (LAOS), and applying it to a variety of studies for the Keck and TMT laser guide star (LGS) AO systems. This work was in fact originally proposed in the year 8 proposal, but was delayed until year 9 pending the hiring of researcher Wang.

Detailed 3D laser beacon modeling capability implemented in LAOS Originally, our standard isoplanatic LGS imaging model was based upon the assumption that the uplink and downlink LGS PSFs were effectively constant over the depth of the mesospheric sodium layer. LAOS has implemented a more general anisoplanic LGS imaging model that accounts for the modest focus variation over the sodium layer and (more significantly) the variations in the atmospheric turbulence which are sampled over the downlink path. To do so, the sodium layer is represented as a finite sum of narrower, isoplanatic sublayers centered at different ranges. We have also upgraded the imaging model for elongated laser guide stars. The new LAOS code properly models the nonlinear mapping from the sodium layer profile onto the LGS WFS focal

68 plane array. The new model has been cross-checked against the Keck LGS AO simulation code [1], and excellent agreement has been obtained for the wavefront sensing biases resulting from this nonlinearity. • Pupil misregistration implemented in LAOS WFS pupil misregistration and rotation have been implemented in LAOS as a simple linear transformation on the pupil intercepts of rays traced through the atmosphere and AO system onto the WFS lenslet array. A more detailed LGS WFS optics distortion model has also implemented using a 5th order polynomial fit to an arbitrary pupil distortion function, and is now being exercised using optical design data for NFIRAOS provided by Jenny Atwood of HIA. Finally, a DM mis-registration model has also been implemented as a simple linear transformation on the DM actuator locations and the shape of their influence functions. Pupil amplitude modeling implemented in LAOS A general pupil amplitude modeling capability has been implemented in LAOS for both (i) PSF calculations and (ii) geometrical and physical optics WFS measurements. We have exercised this feature extensively using gray pixel amplitude maps of the TMT pupil function provided by JPL. We also developed our own “local” code to generate gray pixel amplitude maps to simulate the different truss and tension member geometries proposed for the TMT telescope top end design. There are no ringing effects in these gray pixel amplitude maps because the code does not utilize the FFT method. Implement models for the Keck vector-matrix-multiply reconstructor, the Keck low bandwidth WFS (LBWFS), and other Keck LGS AO parameters in LAOS. We have simulated the basic Keck LGS AO system parameters in LAOS, and have obtained good agreement with independent Keck simulations for the impact of LGS elongation on AO system performance [1]. We did not model the vector-matrix-multiply reconstructors or the LBWFS since these features evidently weren’t required to reconcile the results of the two simulations. Detailed analysis and simulation of the LGS WFS non-common path aberrations (NCPA’s) induced by elongated sodium beacons. Simulation codes anchored against Keck code and field tests. As describe above, we have obtained excellent agreement between the two codes when modeling the value of these aberrations for the Keck LGS AO system parameters and a sample sodium layer profile (several bugs were identified and corrected in both codes to obtain these results). NCPA Contributions allocated to the Keck II and TMT wavefront error budgets. We turned to simulating the TMT NFIRAOS system after successfully completing the Keck simulations described above. The NFIRAOS system design is significantly different from Keck, since the quadrant detector pixel geometry and pixel processing algorithm used for Keck are replaced by the polar coordinate CCD array and the matched filter algorithm. Based upon these parameters, we have simulated and quantified the wavefront aberrations arising in NFIRAOS when the knowledge of the sodium layer profile used to compute the matched filter algorithm and process the LGS WFS measurements is out-of-data (or “stale”) by a certain amount of time. A single conjugate LGS AO system with a single ground-level atmospheric turbulence layer was simulated to quantify the wavefront aberrations induced by the temporal variations in the sodium layer profile. A series of sodium profile at 0.01 Hz collected at the Purple Crow Lidar system of the University of Western Ontario [2] was used for this analysis. We found that the RMS wavefront error (WFE) due to sodium layer variability ranges from about 12 to 27nm as the “staleness” of the sodium layer profile increases from about 100 to 1000 seconds. This relatively small value of these errors depends in large part upon the used of an on-axis laser launch telescope (LLT), the “polar coordinate” CCD array geometry used in the NFIRAOS LGS WFS, and the matched filter gradient estimation algorithm.

69 Figure 2.44 shows the decomposition of the wavefront error into the first 45 Zernike modes with the “staleness” of sodium profile ranging from 1 to 10 frames (100 seconds per frame). The large majority of the error is concentrated in the radial modes 4, 11, 22 and 37 (note that the focus error in the Z4 mode occurs even though the sodium profiles were shifted to have a fixed center of gravity). Figure 2.45 shows the radial mode component of the wavefront error as a function of staleness of sodium profile. The total WFE ranges from 12 to 27 nm. Refer to reference [3] for details.

Figure 2.44 Decomposition of the wavefront error into the first 45 Zernike modes with stale of sodium profile from 1 to 10 frames (100 seconds per frame). The large majority of the error is concentrated in the radial modes.

Figure 2.45 Radial mode component of the wavefront error as a function of staleness of sodium profile.

Assessment of the potential improvements that are possible with advanced wavefront sensor (WFS) designs and processing algorithms. These simulations have helped confirm that the TMT NFIRAOS system will utilize the polar coordinate CCD with up to 16x4 pixels per subaperture and a matched filter processing algorithm [4]. The results described above indicate that the required update rate for the matched filtering algorithm is on the order of 0.01 Hz, which is feasible and can be achieved using a LBWFS with satisfactory sky coverage.

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Theme 3: Extreme Adaptive Optics (ExAO): Enabling Ultra-High Contrast

Astronomical Observations

Introduction and Review of Theme

Extreme Adaptive Optics (ExAO) focuses on the development and utilization of precision AO systems and instrumentation to enable ultra-high-contrast astronomical observations. The primary goal is the discovery and characterization of extrasolar planets through direct imaging, thereby providing new insights into planet properties and formation. Commencing in Year 4, members of the ExAO theme set out to accomplish this by proposing an ambitious, highly collaborative, multi-institutional, long-term project that included scientific and technological components. The objective is deploying o a dedicated ultra-high-contrast system for an 8-10 meter telescope capable of imaging self-luminous, extrasolar planets at contrast levels > 10-7.

In Year 5, the CfAO team completed the conceptual design of an ExAO system for the Keck Observatory and subsequently competed for and was awarded a contract from the Gemini Observatory for a similar ExAO system design study. During Year 6, this partnership completed the Gemini ExAO system design study and delivered to Gemini a comprehensive conceptual design report and a proposal for construction of the instrument. Following a series of technical and programmatic reviews, this proposal – now called the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) -- was ultimately selected for funding by Gemini, thereby fulfilling one of the overall ExAO theme goals and objectives: obtaining the additional funding required for an instrument capable of imaging extrasolar planets. Figure 3.1 shows simulated GPI image.

Figure 3.1: Simulated 1hr GPI exposure of a 75 Myr-old G2V star at 20 pc, with a 4 MJ (11 AU @ 7 o’clock) and 1 MJ (6 AU @ 3 o’clock) companions. Background stars and dust artifacts are also visible. Simulations used an end-to-end multiwavelength Fresnel model developed by former CfAO postdoc Christian Marois (Marois et al 2008.4) Left: Composite color-coded 1.5, 1.6, & 1.8 μm image. Right: After spectral differencing.

4 Marois, C., et al. “An End-to-End Polychromatic Fresnel Propagation Model of GPI”, 2008 Proc. SPIE in press

71 Figure 3.2: CAD rendering of the GPI instrument with covers and electronics racks removed. The plate on the right, 1.2 meters on a side, mounts to the Gemini telescope.

The GPI instrument project continues on track; it passed its Critical Design Review (CDR) in May 2008. When it becomes operational in 2011, GPI will be a major legacy of the Center. The major priorities for the Center in its last years are working to insure GPI meets its objectives and that Center scientists can get full scientific benefit from it.

As described in last year’s, the Year 7-10 ExAO theme efforts include risk reduction and the study of key technologies for ExAO: MEMS properties, wavefront sensing and reconstruction without systematic errors, optimal coronagraph architectures, and precision wavefront calibration. We continue to demonstrate some of these technologies in the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics at UCSC, JPL and the American Museum of Natural History. We also continue to support ongoing programs in high-contrast observations at Lick and Keck observatories. The CfAO supports science planning for GPI to enhance the ability of the scientific community to utilize this instrument and prepare the ground for Center scientists to carry out a large-scale Gemini survey in 2011. In Year 9 we also continue to support new ExAO concepts and techniques – for example, a project to use a 1.5-meter off-axis portion of Palomar 5-meter telescope along with the existing Palomar AO system to produce an AO system with very high Strehl ratios, allowing ExAO concepts such as spatially-filtered wavefront sensors to be tested.

The ExAO theme takes explicit advantage of the “Center mode of operation,” since its project is significantly larger in scope and duration than a typical NSF single PI project, and can only be accomplished by coordinating and combining the efforts of numerous researchers at multiple institutions. Developing the key enabling technologies for an ExAO system necessitates multi- disciplinary collaborations, including links to engineering researchers and industrial partnerships. Development of key enabling technologies also strengthens links between astronomy and vision science. For example, MEMS deformable mirrors are being developed for both applications, and current AO system performance optimization activities address both astronomical and vision science systems. Finally, design and implementation of an ExAO system with 103-104 degrees of freedom on the current generation of large telescopes is an important step towards AO for extremely large telescopes, which requires a similar number of control points.

High-contrast science with current AO systems The team led by Andrea Ghez at UCLA continues to probe star and planetary system formation, with a major project being measuring the complete 3-dimensional orbits of very low mass binary stars. Currently, the masses of the smallest stars are only very poorly known. Using the power of the Keck AO system, the UCLA group is now directly measuring the masses of very low mass

72 binary stars (Konopacky et al 20075) and brown dwarfs. Masses can be directly measured through studies of the orbits of binary stars, but low-mass binaries that move fast enough to be studied in a reasonable time will automatically be very compact – the two components too close to be studied without AO. Further, measuring the orbit from only the apparent positions of the stars leaves an ambiguity from the three-dimensional orientation of the binary relative to the line-of- sight to the Earth. The UCLA group is combining high spatial resolution AO images (measuring the projected positions of the two members of the binary system) with spatially resolved IR spectra (measuring the spectral type and line-of-sight Doppler shift of the individual stars) to completely map out their orbits. This in turn will lead to the first accurate determination of the masses of the smallest known stars, including objects that may be below the dividing line between stars and failed “brown dwarfs”. These measurements will then calibrate theoretical evolutionary calculations. In Year 9, the UCLA group completed their first such three-dimensional orbits in a survey of 20 low-mass objects using the Keck AO system and the NIRSPEC and OSIRIS instruments. A striking result so far is that for all the systems with well-determined masses, evolutionary models consistently underpredict the mass (or equivalently overpredict the temperature and luminosity) – stemming from either errors in the model atmosphere and its connection to the interior or in the initial conditions of the formation of these brown dwarfs. Figure 3.3 shows an example of this. Figure 3.3: (Top): Astrometric (left) and relative spectroscopic (right) orbital solutions for the binary L0+L1.5 2MASS0746+20. We have constrained the total system mass of this object to 0.147 ± 0.003 M
(Konopacky et al. 2008). With an accuracy of 2%, it is the most precise mass to date for a brown dwarf. (Bottom):(Left) NIRSPAO+LGS K band spectra of both components of 2MASS0746+20. This data was used to extract the radial velocities, shown above, and also to improve the temperature uncertainty on these sources to 1%. (Right) Utilizing dynamical mass and improved temperatures, we have found that the predictions of all three popular evolutionary models are under-predicting the correct mass by at least 2σ.This has implications for the physics input into the models, suggesting that L dwarfs are cooler than expected for a given mass and implying poorly understood initial 5 Konopacky, Q. M., Ghez, A. M., Duchene, G., C. McCabe, and Macintosh, B. A. “Measuring the massconditions of a Pre- and incomplete Main-Sequence Binary Star through the Orbit of TWA5A”, AJ, 133, 2008 (2007) opacities in these models. Konopacky, Q. M., et al 2008 Cool Stars meeting and Ap.J. in prep.

73 The team led by James Graham at UC Berkeley is continuing a program of observing debris disks around nearby stars with Keck and Gemini AO, the Hubble Space Telescope, and a survey of young protoplanetary dust disks around Herbig Ae/Be stars using Lick AO polarimetry. Debris disks are the extrasolar analogs of our Zodiacal and Kuiper dust belts. The objects studied to date are young, massive dust disks, signposts of the transitional phase from protoplanetary disk to mature solar system. In year 8-9, Graham and his collaborators used Keck, HST and Gemini observations to study structure in multiple debris disks. Observations of these dusty disks at multiple wavelengths constrain the optical properties of the dust, allowing inferences about whether the dust grains are the remnant of the original interstellar cloud that formed the star or the debris from comet and planetestimal formation in a young solar system (Figure 3.4 and 3.5).

Figure 3.4: Left: Four-color composite (JHKL’) of the AU Mic debris disk using Keck AO/NIRC2 coronagraphy (Fitzgerald et al. 2007a6). The blue color gradient indicates an outer component composed of small grains. Right: AO surface photometry showing the blue color of the disk.

Figure 3.5: Left: Model fit to the scattered light and SED of AU Mic (Fitzgerald et al. 2007a). The surface brightness profiles from Figure 3.4 along with surface brightness profiles from the best-fit model. The gray boxes above the profiles represent the grain locations in the model; the dark region indicates the inner region of larger grains, while the smaller scatterers are in the lighter zone outside. Right: The model SED along with photometry of AU Mic. In this model, the smaller grains cause the bulk of the scattered light and the mid-IR emission, while the larger grains reproduce the long-wavelength end of the SED.

6 Fitzgerald, M. P., Kalas, P. G., Duchêne, G., Pinte, C., Graham, J. R. “The AU Microscopii Debris Disk: Multiwavelength Imaging and Modeling”, 2007, ApJ, 670, 536

74

HD 32297 10 μm PSF

Figure 3.6: Results from Fitzgerald et al. (2007b7) Left: AO K-band image of HD 32297’s edge-on disk. The AO image provides a comparable inner working radius NICMOS, enabling a measurement of the near- IR disk colors and establishing the grain properties. Right: (a) shows mid-IR Gemini imaging in N band showing resolved disk emission. The PA is same as the scattered light disk. Panel (b) shows the PSF. The contour spacing is selected to match those in (a) relative to the stellar flux.

The Berkeley group has long been in the forefront of the use of polarimetry to study circumstellar dusts, from the early IRCAL polarimeter used with the Lick AO system to the polarimetric capability planned for GPI. Polarization measurements serve the dual purpose of suppressing speckle noise and constraining grain properties. Figure 3.7 shows how polarimetric observations can be used to suppress quasi-static wave front errors. These errors render the PSF unsuitable for detection of low surface brightness emission from a debris disk. However, light scattered by small grains (x = 2 a/λ 1, or smaller) in the disk is strongly polarized (> 30%), whereas light diffracted at small angles by wave front errors is only very weakly polarized. As a consequence, the astrophysical signal can be disentangled from the instrumental one. (Figure 3.7). A detailed description of the design, operation, and calibration of the Lick AO polarimeter has just been accepted for publication (Perrin, Graham, & Lloyd 20088)

7 Fitzgerald, M. P., Kalas, P. G., Graham, J. R. “A Ring of Warm Dust in the HD 32297 Debris Disk” 2007, ApJ, 670, 557

8 Perrin, M. D., Graham, J. R., Lloyd, J. P. “The IRCAL Polarimeter: Design, Calibration, and Data Reduction for an Adaptive Optics Imaging Polarimeter 2008, ApJ in press—2008arXiv0804.1550

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Figure 3.7: The AU Mic debris disk observed with HST/ACS in F606W showing how polarization can be used to suppress speckle noise (Graham, Kalas & Matthews 20079). No reference star was used for PSF subtraction. All three images are displayed with the same linear stretch. In total intensity, I (left), the disk, at PA 105°, is indistinguishable from PSF artifacts due to quasi-static wave front errors, ghosts, and bleeding. However, in Q (center), the unpolarized PSF artifacts have been largely suppressed and the disk is evident. Stokes Q traces light polarized at PA 0° or 90°, and hence the disk shows up most strongly in this channel. On account of the scattering geometry, and the orientation of the disk, U (right) is negligible.

The CfAO is currently providing partial support at Berkeley for two graduate students (Maness & McConnell), one postdoc, and a research astronomer (Kalas). Kalas is focusing on Keck observations of debris disks. Kalas will continue a successful observing campaign with Keck, Gemini, and VLT to image debris disks around nearby stars His activities encompass preparation of observing proposals, observing, data reduction, data analysis and modeling and publication. Four half-nights on Keck and Gemini are pending, and data reduction from two VLT programs is on going.

Maness and McConnell are developing skills as observers using AO systems at Lick and Keck. McConnell is working full time on AO, while Maness is using AO as part of a broader astrophysical study of debris disks that includes HST, SPITZER, and mm interferometer data. The post doc is tasked to work full time on assembly of GPI target lists. Since fall 2007, Gaspard Duchêne – a former CfAO postdoc at UCLA, now a faculty member in France - is on leave from Grenoble and has a research astronomer position at Berkeley. His salary is paid by State funds and CfAO makes a small contribution to his AO-related research expenses. This enables CfAO astronomers at Berkeley, Livermore and UCLA to take advantage of Dr. Duchene’s outstanding expertise in modeling the scattered light from these debris disks.

Science Case for Gemini Planet Imager

CfAO member James Graham at UC Berkeley continues to serve as Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) Project Scientist and has been leading the development of the GPI science case. The science case currently includes three main themes for exoplanet research. First, to assemble a statistically significant sample of exoplanets that probes beyond the indirect searches and quantifies the abundance of solar systems like our own, studying the fossil remnants of planet formation to constrain current theories that make different predictions for populations in the outer parts of solar systems. Second, to begin spectroscopic characterization of extrasolar planets. GPI will produce spectra of individual planets from 1-2.4 mm at resolution dl/l~ 45. The third major

9 Graham, J. R., Kalas, P., & Matthews, B. C. “The Signature of Primordial Grain Growth in the Polarized Light of the AU Microscopii Debris Disk”, 2007, ApJ, 654, 595

76 science area for GPI is extending the study of circumstellar dust disks from the current target set – young stars with very massive debris disks – to more mature sun-like stars. GPI will combine extremely precise AO correction with a polarimetric mode that can distinguish the polarized light scattered by a dust disk from unpolarized artifacts (Figure 3.6). Prof. Graham’s group has extensively developed this technique at Lick Observatory and are now planning how to incorporate it into GPI.

Figure 3.8: Simulated 5-minute GPI image of a young planetary system orbiting an H=5 mag. F0V star at a distance of 20pc. The star has a outer Kuiper belt (15-20 AU t=10-3) visible in the direct image (left) and an inner asteroid belt (5-8 AU t=10-4) visible only in polarized light.

In Year 10, the science focus continues to be on target selection and preparation for a large-scale survey. The Gemini Observatory plans to devote ~200 nights of telescope time to a systematic survey of 1000+ stars using the GPI instrument – an extremely significant investment for a major observatory. The team for this survey will be selected competitively (as with Gemini’s current NICI instrument.) Although the survey itself won’t begin until 2012, Gemini will carry out the team selection in 2009. A major goal for Theme 3 in Year 10 is to consolidate the foundation for this survey, to ensure that a CfAO-led team is positioned to carry out the most scientifically productive survey.

As stated in Year 8, the single most important issue in such a survey is target selection. The infrared brightness of extrasolar planet brightness decreases with age, as planets cool. Current imaging surveys for extrasolar planets have focused on the very youngest stars (<50 Myr), when 5 planets may be quite bright (fstar/fplanet 10 .). However, these young stars are necessarily rare and hence distant. GPI has been designed to observe planets at contrasts up to 107. This allows more mature planets to be detected, but GPI still has greatest sensitivity for stars with ages below 1 billion years. Which stars fall in this “adolescent” category is actually poorly known – they are no longer clustered into easily-identifiable associations and lack the prominent features that make young stars stand out. In principal the age can be determined from the level of chromsopheric activity but few stars have measured and published activity levels (Figure 3.9). James Graham’s team has begun a collaborative program to identify adolescent stars, drawing on the existing target catalogs of Doppler planet surveys (which deliberately exclude young stars) and collaborating with astronomers in Canada, Australia, and the UK on a spectroscopic survey of the solar neighborhood to produce the definitive GPI target list. To date, 400 stars have been observed spectroscopically with an additional 400 scheduled for the next year.

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Figure 3.9: Histogram of HIPPARCOS G dwarfs within 60 pc. The upper histogram represents all GV stars, while the inset depicts only those with measurements of chromospheric activity. The shaded subset comprises adolescent stars that are estimated to be younger than 2 Gyr. Only a fraction of potential GPI targets have been discovered in existing chromospheric activity surveys. The CfAO is supporting a large- scale spectroscopic survey to identify the remaining GPI science targets.

UC Berkeley now hosts a Gemini Planet Imager web page, http://gpi.berkeley.edu to provide public outreach and educate the scientific community about this instrument.

Wavefront Sensing and Reconstruction

ExAO systems with large numbers of actuators operating at high frame rates require wavefront photons. The CfAO LLNL group previously developed an efficient Fourier-domain reconstructor and then (in collaboration with Jean-Pierre Veran at HIA) extended it into an optimized modal- type framework, the Optimized Fourier Controller (OFC, Poyneer and Veran 200510) The next extension of this is a wavefront controller that predicts the motion of the atmosphere across the telescope. Several algorithms have previously been proposed for this (Gavel and Wiberg 2002, 11Dessenne et al 199812, Le Roux et al 200413), but these are generally computationally infeasible,

10 L. A. Poyneer and J.-P. Véran, “Optimal modal Fourier transform wave-front control,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 22, 1515–1526 (2005)

11 D. T. Gavel and D. Wiberg, “Towards Strehl-optimizing adaptive optics controllers,” in Adaptive Optical System Technologies II, P. L. Wizinowich and D. Bonaccini, eds., Proc. SPIE 4839, pp. 890–901 (2002). 12 C. Dessenne, P.-Y. Madec, and G. Rousset, “Optimization of a predictive controller for closed-loop adaptive optics,” Appl. Opt. 37, 4623–4633 (1998).

13 B. Le Roux, J.-M. Conan, C. Kulcsar, H.-F. Raynaud, L. M. Mugnier, and T. Fusco, “Optimal control law for classical and multiconjugate adaptive optics,” J. Opt. Soc. Am.A 21, 1261–1276 (2004).

78 capable of correcting only a single moving layer, and/or require a priori knowledge of the wind direction and speed.

The predictive Fourier controller (Poyneer et al 200714) exploits the properties of the Fourier modes and was reported in Year 8. Figure 3.10 shows the potential improvement from this controller – the equivalent of one magnitude in star brightness, or a factor of 2 reduction in required laser power. This work formed the core of the Ph.D. thesis of LLNL engineer Dr. Lisa Poyneer under the supervision of Dr. Bruce Macintosh. For her research, she was awarded the Anil Jain prize for best Ph.D. dissertation in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, the Zuhair A. Munir award for best Ph.D. dissertation in the College of Engineering and the Allen G. Marr prize for best dissertation in Mathematics, Physical Sciences, and Engineering at UC Davis.

Figure 3.10: Wave front variance at controllable spatial frequencies vs WFS SNR for a plain controller, the baseline OFC controller, and the predictive controller. Dots correspond to I=0 to I=9 mag.

The LLNL group continues working to refine and verify this, using telemetry from existing AO systems or atmosphere-characterization experiments to establish the existence of multiple frozen- flow layers, and developing a practical implementation of the controller. This work is a strong example of “Center mode” – through the CfAO, the LLNL group obtains AO telemetry date from Lick, Keck, and Palomar observatories that can be evaluated for evidence of atmospheric “frozen flow” that could be predicted. Given a stream of AO telemetry, we convert it into open-loop Fourier modal coefficient estimates. Then we can examine these open-loop estimates just as the PFC algorithm would do during its adaptation phase. In PFC, a layer of frozen flow in the atmosphere causes a concentrated peak of power in the temporal power spectral density of a Fourier mode. The exact temporal frequency (positive or negative, since the Fourier modes are complex-valued) is set by the dot-product of the wind velocity vector and the wave vector. We observe these peaks in our experimental data; an example if shown in Figure 3.11. In the left

14 L. A. Poyneer, B. A. Macintosh, and J.-P. Véran, “Fourier transform wave front control with adaptive prediction of the atmosphere,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A in press (2007

79 panel, the estimated open-loop temporal PSD of the atmosphere for a specific Fourier mode during an Altair observation is shown. The model fit (which the Kalman filter uses) is given in red. For this particular mode, 42% of the total power is in the assymetirc peaks (layers). The right panel shows the components of the fit.

Figure 3.11: Temporal PSD for a Fourier mode in Altair observation. [Left] PSD estimate (black) and complete model fit (red). [Right] The three sub-components of the model fit. Frozen flow causes asymmetric peaks (red).

In order to verify that these peaks of power are actually from frozen flow, the peak locations in all Fourier modes must be examined. The result of the peak-finding process is a data cube of the temporal frequencies of the peaks found in each Fourier mode. We convert this into velocity space and calculate the number of modes where a peak of given velocity was found. The result of this calculation is a map of velocity-vector space that show where the layers are, as is given in Figure 3.12. Aside from its astronomical use, this represents a technique to measure wind velocities completely passively with a Shack-Hartmann sensor.

Figure 3.12: Wind map (+/- 60 m/s for both x- and y- velocities) for an Altair observation. Three likely layers are clearly identifiable. The strongest layer is at 13.3 m/s, 66 deg and 73% likelihood; layer 2 is at 26.4 m/s, -6 deg and 65% likelihood. The weakest layer is at 8.2 m/s, 99 deg and 51% likelihood.

Ultimately, the predictive fourier controller could reduced necessary guide star brightness by a factor of 2 – a significant science reach extension for a NGS system like GPI and equivalent to an enormous reduction in laser cost for future LGS AO systems.

Precision wavefront calibration

The single greatest factor limiting high-contrast observations with current AO systems are quasi- static wavefront errors from sources such as non-common-path calibration errors in the wavefront sensor. A key requirement for future AO systems is to reduce these static errors by 1-2 orders of

80 magnitude. To do this, we must sense these wavefront errors at the science wavelength and as close as possible to the science instrument or coronagraph. In an ExAO architecture, the conventional Shack- Hartmann sensor cannot see these errors – it must operate at visible wavelengths to achieve high frame rates, has internal optics such as lenslets that introduce non- common-path errors, and will likely have undersampled pixels/quad cells and hence a limited linear range. To address this problem, the CfAO has developed an ExAO architecture incorporating a precision infrared wavefront sensor. This system is tightly integrated with the coronagraph and operates at the near-IR science wavelengths. Rather than attempting to control atmospheric wavefront errors, it measures the time-averaged wavefront to sense any systematic offset in the science wavefront. This time-averaged information can then be fed back to the main AO system to change the calibration of the Shack-Hartmann sensor, and/or be used to reconstruct the final PSF.

In Year 9, a team led by Kent Wallace at JPL continued working on the precision wavefront control needed for future ExAO systems, such as the Gemini Planet Imager. With CfAO funding, the group assembled a testbed implementation of this calibration interferometer and further evaluated its ability to measure and control phase at the 1 nm RMS level.

Figure 3.13: Layout of the JPL precision calibration testbed.

81 Theme 4: Compact Vision Science Instrumentation for Clinical and Scientific Use

Introduction

The goals for Theme 4: Vision Science are:

1) Improve technology to image the retina in vivo at the 3-D resolution limit, exploiting confocal methods, OCT, fluorescence, polarization, retinal tracking, and post-processing in addition to adaptive optics. 2) Improve and commercialize AO systems for correcting vision, such as AO phoropters that are superior to and replace conventional subjective refraction, and the use of such systems to clarify the role of optical and neural factors in visual performance. 3) Expand the capabilities of adaptive optics instrumentation for vision science, such as improving wavefront sensing, deformable mirrors, control algorithms, or system calibration. 4) Disseminate knowledge about vision AO by increasing connections with science, medicine and/or industry. Demonstrate possibilities for fundable research beyond year 10.

It is clear from the progress reported below that we made efforts toward all the major thrust areas of the CFAO in year 9.

Year 9 Scientific Progress and Results

Arrangement and Visual Implications of the Trichromatic Cone Mosaic One of the landmark scientific outcomes of adaptive optics for the ophthalmoscopy has been the ability to map the trichromatic cone mosaic (Roorda and Williams 199915, Hoffa et al, 2005a16) and also to stimulate the same cones and measure perceived color appearance (Hofer et al 2005b). In the (Hofer et al (2005b))17 study, subjects reported a wide variety of color sensations - even blue sensations - despite the fact that the S cones were not stimulated by the 550 nm light. They concluded that the variation in sensation corresponds to different microcircuits for color vision tailored to the local topography of the cone mosaic. In year 9, David Brainard at Penn collaborated with Rochester in developing a Bayesian calculation that models the data as a consequence of chromatic sampling. The main features of color naming across observers emerged naturally as a consequence of the measured individual variation in the relative numbers and arrangement of L, M, and S-cones. This work has just been published in the Journal of Vision (Brainard et al, 2008)18. In unpublished work, we obtained retinal images of the test flash and the retina at the same time. It is possible to measure the flash location within 1/10 of a photoreceptor diameter. With this new method, we have successfully measured the receptive fields of single cones near the center of the human fovea.

To continue the work further, Osamu Masuda, a postdoctoral fellow at Rochester, has undertaken the task of mapping the cone mosaic in more individuals. In addition, he has been able to study

15 Roorda,A. & Williams,D.R. (1999). The arrangement of the three cone classes in the living human eye. Nature 397, 520-522 16 Hofer,H., Carroll,J., Neitz,J., Neitz,M., & Williams,D.R. (2005a). Organization of the human trichromatic cone mosaic. J.Neurosci. 25, 9669-9679. 17 Hofer,H., Singer,B., & Williams,D.R. (2005b). Different sensations from cones with the same pigment. J.Vision 5, 444-454. 18 Brainard,D.H., Williams,D.R., & Hofer,H. (2008). Trichromatic reconstruction from the interleaved cone mosaic: Bayesian model and the color appearance of small spots. J.Vision 8,

82 the organization of the cone mosaic outside the fovea. He classified the L, M, and S cones in 3 subjects with adaptive optics imaging combined with retinal densitometry at eccentricities including 1.25, 2.5, 4, and 10 deg in the temporal retina. All the subjects had color normal vision according to standard behavioral tests. We conducted several analyses of mosaic organization and an example of one of the subject’s data is shown below:

Fig. 4.1. Distribution of S (short), M (middle) and L (long) wavelength sensitive cones in one individual as a function of eccentricity. Left: 1.25 deg, Middle: 4 deg, Right: 10 deg

From these experiments, they concluded that it is possible to identify the pigment in single cones in human peripheral retina in vivo. All three statistical tests of the packing arrangement showed a high degree of concordance. The S cones in every retinal location of every subject were more evenly distributed than expected from a random assignment rule. Two subjects showed very similar L/M ratios across the modest retinal eccentricities studied here. However, one subject (B) showed a significantly higher L/M cone ratio at 10 deg than at 1.25 deg. Over the eccentricities studied here, there are no dramatic differences in L and M cone organization between fovea and extrafoveal retina. The L and M cones outside the fovea are neither evenly distributed nor strongly clumped. Their arrangement outside the fovea is approximately random, with two subjects exhibiting a small but significant amount of clumping. The clumping observed in the deutan carrier may be a result of X inactivation, but the clumping in the normal female presents a challenge for current models of retinal development.

What is the Human Fovea?

As the resolution and scope of applications of AO systems improves, CFAO researchers have found interesting properties related to the human fovea. Previously, Putnam et al (Putnam et al, 2005)19 Putnam et al, 2005) reported that the eye does not chose to place fixated images at the location of maximum cone density. In year 9 Stevenson used new psychophysics tools for the AOSLO and found that the preferred retinal locus (ie where the eye choses to place an image) depends on task. The specific measurements were i) where does the eye place the image of an object that it is tracking and ii) where the eye place an image of an object that it has made a saccade (fast fixational eye movement) toward? An example result from that study is shown in figure 4.2.

19 Putnam,N.M., Hofer,H., Doble,N., Chen,L., Carroll,J., & Williams,D.R. (2005). The locus of fixation and the foveal cone mosaic. J.Vision 5, 632-639

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Fig 4.2: Left: Saccade starting and ending point indicators superimposed on a multi-frame average retinal image. Scale bar represents 30 arc minutes. These figures show at very fine scale how a target image that lands outside the fovea is redirected to the central foveal region by a saccadic (jerk) eye movement. This normal subject shows a well-defined target locus for all starting points. Right: Data are plotted to show statistical analysis of starting and ending points. Each pair of ellipses connected by a line shows the mean position (+/- standard deviation) of starting and ending points for a cluster of saccades. In every case, the subject attempted to “look at” the target. In almost all cases, the saccade brought the visual target into a region with a diameter of about 20 arc minutes. One starting location in the lower right quadrant reliably undershot this zone.

Optical and Retinal Limits to Human Vision

AOSLO provides a unique way to study the optical and retinal limits to human vision. Ethan Rossi’s PhD research at UC Berkeley involves the exploration of the relationship between acuity, eye movements and cone spacing. First, he records AO-corrected acuity along with a retinal image at a specific retinal location (figure 4.3). Then he finds the exact location of the stimulus by comparing it with the large field microscopic reference image of figure 4.4.

Figure 3: Single frame AOSLO image containing a letter ‘E’ stimulus. These frames indicate exactly which cones are receiving the stimulus signal. Figure 4: Microscopic image of the human foveal region, generated from a series of AOSLO videos.

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Finally, over the course of the video, he determines the average image recorded by the photoreceptor apertures. As the eye moves, the fidelity of the recorded image improves, as long as one assumes that the eye can compensate for its own motion (figure 4.5). If this is true, then the eye ought to be able to resolve retinal images beyond the Nyquist limit – a form a super- resolution conferred by eye movements.

Fig 4.5: Left frame shows the signal detected by a single frame of the letter E. The right frame shows the accumulated signal seen by the photoreceptors (assuming that the visual system has accounted for its own eye motion)

Current results indicate that, after AO correction, the eye can perform very close to the resolution limit of its retina. Considering the presence of continuous eye movements, this has to imply that some type of motion correction is taking place.

Intrinsic Retinal Signals

The benefit of the ability to record retinal activity optically and non-invasively is very high, both from a clinical and basic scientific perspective. Such measurements will allow for making direct relationships between structure and function in the retina. Two CFAO supported efforts are underway to explore these intrinsic signals.

At Indiana, researchers are capitalizing on interference between two primary reflecting layers within the optical fiber of the cone photoreceptors to record small optical and physical changes to the photoreceptors in response to visible stimulation. What they observe is an large oscillation of the reflected intensity in response to stimulation. These changes occur on similar time scale to biochemical activity in the neurons and so they might provide some insight into their function. Figure 4.6 shows the oscillation magnitude (measured as time-RMS) for stimulated (pink) vs unstimulated conditions (yellow, green and brown). On an individual cone scale, this oscillation may indicate the specific chromatic cone-type.

85 Fig. 4.6. (Experiment with AO flood camera) (bottom) Time-RMS images of the cone mosaic for two stimulus levels. Stimulus delivered to the right half (approximately) of each image. Left half was unstimulated. For all stimulus levels, a difference in time-RMS between stimulated and unstimulated retina is evident in the larger number of bright cones in the right half of each time-RMS image. (top) Average time-RMS of cones is shown in the bar graph; error bars show ± one standard error. For each stimulus condition, sub-regions of the video known to lie in the unstimulated (left) portion of the patch and stimulated (right) portion of the patch were chosen. For each stimulus condition, mean time- RMS is shown for four cases: pre-stimulus, masked; post-stimulus, masked; pre-stimulus, unmasked; and post-stimulus unmasked. The first three cases provide control conditions, showing baseline time- RMS of unstimulated cones. The last shows the experimental condition, showing time-RMS of stimulated cones. Under both stimulus conditions, the time-RMS of stimulated cones is significantly higher than the time-RMS of control cones.

In a collaboration between UC Berkeley and UC San Francisco, CFAO researchers were able to record intrinsic signals from a monkey retina for which the resolution and stability was sufficient to record changes in individual cones. In the experiment, the amount of scattered light in the IR image (840 nm) was recorded in response to visible light stimulation (680 nm). Some cones responded more vigorously than others - up to 40% - while others remained flat. The variable response might be due to interference artifacts which can persist even though we are using a low- coherent imaging source (Jonnal et al, 2007)20.

Fig. 4.7. The left image shows a selected subset of cones from a macaque retina. The right plots show the normalized intensity over each cone aperture over a video sequence (10 seconds). The red shaded area indicates the time when the red stimulus light was turned on.

20 Jonnal,R.S., Rha,J., Zhang,Y., Cense,B., Gao,H., & Miller,D.T. (2007). In vivo functional imaging of human cone photoreceptors. Optics Express 15, 16141-16160.(Abstract)

86 Theme 4 Technical Progress

AO systems for vision science have continued to improve in both the scope of applications as well as imaging performance.

Improved AO Control and Use of New Performance Metrics in AOSLO

In the AOSLO, we have found that confocal image intensity provides an excellent metric to compare different control algorithms. This has enabled Kaccie Li, PhD student in Roorda’s lab to compare different AO-control methods. Figure 4.8 shows an example where he used image intensity to find that the actuator penalty method (ie suppression of waffle mode) provided a higher intensity,which corresponds to a better correction. Incidentally, the residual RMS according to the wavefront sensor was the same for both conditions.

Fig. 4.8: Two imaging sessions for the same eye using different reconstructors. AO was turned on at the 2 second mark. Although the rms metric (left plot) shows similar AO performance, the actuator penalty method generates a PSF with higher encircled energy as measured by the mean image intensity (right plot).

The corresponding images showed an improved image of the photoreceptor mosaic near the fovea.

Fig. 4.9: Frame averaged images using the previous control software (left) and the new software (right). Images were acquired minutes apart under the same conditions and at approximately the same location. The width of each image is about 0.9 degrees.

Improved Axial Resolution

In year 9 Don Miller’s lab at Indiana equipped their AO-OCT system with a broader band light source and a special lens designed to correct for chromatic dispersion in the eye, and obtained images with axial resolutions of 3 microns. This technical achievement enables them to reach the ultimate imaging goal of cellular-level resolution in three dimensions.

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Fig 4.10. Ultra-high resolution AO SD-OCT B-scan acquired at 2 degree temporal (vertical scan) on a 24 year old subject. Axial resolution of the AO SD-OCT camera was improved to 3 m (retina) by integration of a T-870 HP Broadlighter, achromatizing lens, and new detection channel. Focus in the retina was controlled by the AOptix mirror and optimized for the photoreceptor layer.

Eye Tracking and Stabilized Stimulus Delivery

In year 9. The group at MSU, in collaboration with Roorda lab at UCB successfully delivered stabilized, AO-corrected stimuli to the retina (Arathorn et al, 2007)21. The system has been used to deliver AO-corrected stimuli to a monkey retina while simultaneously recording electrical activity from neurons downstream (collaboration with researchers at UC San Francisco). Fig. 4.11 shows the time-averaged image intensity compared with a diffraction-limited spot.

Fig. 4.11: Normalized power distributions superimposed on a cone photoreceptor array. The small distributions are for a single diffraction limited spot of 600 nm light though a 6 mm pupil. The large distributions show a convolution of the diffraction-limited spot with the stabilized stimulus delivery error

21 Arathorn,D.W., Yang,Q., Vogel,C.R., Zhang,Y., Tiruveedhula,P., & Roorda,A. (2007). Retinally Stabilized Cone- Targeted Stimulus Delivery. Optics Express 15, 13731-13744.

88 (standard deviation of 0.26 arcminutes (Arathorn et al, 2007)22. The upper plot shows those distributions with respect to a typical spacing of foveal cones (simulated) and the lower plot show the same distributions with respect to cone array at 1.8 degrees eccentric to the fovea. A 0.5 arcminute aperture (~ approximate cone aperture at the foveal center) collects 70.4% of the diffraction-limited power distribution and 28.2% of the time averaged power distribution. A 1 arcminute aperture (~ approximate cone aperture at 1.8 degrees eccentricity) collects 84.7% of the diffraction-limited power distribution and 71.6% of the time averaged power distributions. In a monkey under neuromuscular blockade, the standard deviation of the stabilization is four times better than in an awake human.

IRIS AO - Closed Loop Performance on Human Eye Iris AO made an important step to becoming a viable producer of deformable mirrors for vision science applications. In previous years they demonstrated that their mirror can generate microscopic images in living eyes but the improvement was not quantified as the system was running in open-loop. In year 9 they demonstrated, for the first time, closed loop AO performance in a human eye. Figure 4.12 shows closed-loop shows the results. They plan to deploy the mirror to run closed-loop on an ophthalmoscope by the end of year 9 or early year 10.

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0.6 Figure 4.12: Wavefront error temporal response (30 Hz frame rate) of the AO correction as calculated by the WFS 0.5 data for a human subject. 0.4 0.3 RMS (microns) 0.2

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II.2b Research Management (Metrics) Research Management is provided by the Director and the Center’s Executive Committee (EC). The latter includes Theme Leaders and other Center representatives. The EC meets biweekly utilizing video- and telephone-conferencing links. The Center Director and EC are assisted by two external committees, the External Advisory Board (EAB) and the Program Advisory Committee (PAC). The EAB meets annually and advises on strategic issues and directions. It reports to a University Oversight Committee chaired by the Vice-Chancellor for Research at UCSC. The PAC also meets annually and assists in ensuring the scientific and technical vitality of the Center’s research program, reporting to the CfAO Director. UC Santa Cruz oversight is via our Oversight Committee, consisting of the Vice Chancellor for Research, the Dean of Physical and Biological Sciences, the Dean of Engineering, the Director of Lick Observatory, and other key officials. The Oversight Committee meets annually.

In the spring of each year, researchers forward their proposals to the CfAO for continuing or new research. Proposals are reviewed by external and internal reviewers and then discussed in committee. Each internal proposal includes a set of Milestones. Performance relative to these milestones is a strong consideration in the decision for further funding. Those proposals “on the

22 Arathorn,D.W., Yang,Q., Vogel,C.R., Zhang,Y., Tiruveedhula,P., & Roorda,A. (2007). Retinally Stabilized Cone- Targeted Stimulus Delivery. Optics Express 15, 13731-13744.

89 edge” are directed to the PAC for discussion and advice. Funding decisions are typically made by the end of June each year. The official annual cycle for funding begins on November 1.

The Center organizes annual Fall and Spring Retreats which are attended by most researchers, graduate students, and postdocs. This year’s Spring Retreat (2006) differed from those of previous years in that it was held at UCSC as a series of sequential and overlapping Theme Workshops. The thematic approach enabled participants to have “in depth” sessions in their discipline and by overlapping some sessions and meal times the desired information exchange between disciplines was achieved. An example of this focused thematic approach was in Theme 4 where attendees were encouraged to demonstrate and exchange vision science software they had developed. Participants at these sessions considered them to be most informative and a success. In addition, smaller workshops and symposia on specialized topics are held during the year as the need arises.

Partnerships The objective of CfAO’s partnership activities is to enhance the Center’s ability to fulfill its research and education goals. The Center is pursuing this objective through:  Leveraging its efforts through industry partnerships and cross-disciplinary collaborations.  Stimulating further investment by government and industry sources in AO research and development  Catalyzing commercialization of AO technologies leading to technological advancements relevant to CfAO research objectives and enabling broader use of adaptive optics.

The CfAO has on-going partnership activities with 13 optics and micro-electronics companies, 5 national laboratories, 5 non-CfAO universities, 6 astronomical observatories, and 2 international partner institutions. The Education program has in addition developed 22 partnerships both in Hawaii and on the mainland. The former include the Maui Economic Development Board, high tech companies in Hawaii, educational institutions, the Air Force in Maui, and several Observatories.

Key partnership activities in our research Themes are with the Thirty Meter Telescope Project (Theme 2), and with the Gemini Observatory (Theme 3).

II.2c. Research Plans for the coming year

Theme 2. Future Plans for AO with Extremely Large Telescopes The theme is focusing for the most part on completion of the projects identified back in Year 6 as “legacy” projects for the CfAO: MEMS, Lasers, and astronomical AO science. We are continuing to fund the CATS, Galactic Center, and solar system science programs at our member institutions. These projects are creating databases and a body of science knowledge that will truly remain a heritage of the CfAO for a long time to come. Also, the researchers involved on these projects are active participants in defining the science cases for AO on the future giant telescopes. The interaction between AO science users and AO researchers in the CfAO venue has proven crucial in designing the kind of systems that can realize the full potential of AO on large telescopes. Two new projects in MEMS technology are being funded in Year 10. Jason Stewart at Boston Micromachines will be refining a MEMS open-loop modeling technique that was pioneered at the CfAO. The promise is that a precise open loop model of the complex nonlinear interactuator response function will be made available, packaged with every deformable mirror. Open loop control opens up a number of new applications within AO instruments, in particular it enables

90 multi-object AO and sharpening of tip/tilt stars. The second MEMS effort has IRIS AO developing a silver coating for their segmented deformable mirror. The coating development will target wider applications for this device, in particular, the ability to increase the reflectivity at the guide star wavelength which in turn will make uplink-correction of the outgoing guidestar laser beam feasible without distorting the mirror segments due to power load. The LLNL fiber laser is due to be complete by the end of Year 9. Per a recommendation from the External Advisory Board, we will be funding a continuing effort at LLNL to thoroughly test the laser for functionality, robustness, and reliability in the laboratory before it is shipped to the observatory for on-sky tests. Plans are to complete the testing under a Y10 CfAO grant. At that point, the PI will be collaborating with UCO/Lick to propose to NSF that we field the laser at Mt. Hamilton and perform laser guidestar experiments there. These experiments, part of the Villages (Visible Light Laser Guide Star Experiments) series, will have the goal of demonstrating uplink correction of the laser beacon to form a small spot in the mesosphere and also experimenting with various pulse and spectral formats for optimal guidestar return. The smaller, better than seeing- limited, spot will provide a higher usable wavefront signal per laser Watt on the sky than current laser guidestars - potentially breaking the cost curve for the multiple laser AO systems on future giant telescopes and paving the way to visible wavelength LGS AO.

Theme 3. Future Plans for Extreme AO Future plans remain unchanged from Year 8: The cornerstone of the CfAO ExAO theme remains the construction and deployment of an operational high-contrast AO system for the discovery of extrasolar planets. Our strategy is to support fundamental research and development activities required to enable the deployment of an ExAO system on an 8-10 meter telescope, with construction provided by an external source. We completed a detailed design for such an instrument, the Gemini Planet Imager, and this instrument was selected for funding by Gemini at a level of ~$24M, including contingency. The GPI instrument program is now progressing, and the CfAO-led GPI team recently passed (with highly positive comments) their Critical Design Review.

First light for GPI, and the planned large-scale survey, will occur beyond the CfAO horizon (2011-2014.) In Year 10, the CfAO will continue supporting the basic research and development needed to enable and enhance this instrument. At LLNL, CfAO funds will support the development of advanced wavefront control algorithms suitable both for GPI and future ELT ExAO systems, especially the predictive control algorithm. Science planning for use of the GPI continues to be an important issue. At UC Berkeley, CfAO is funding GPI Project Scientist, James Graham, to develop the GPI science case and plan for GPI science operations. As will be discussed, Gemini intends to carry out a 100-200 night GPI survey of nearby stars, with a team selected from competitive proposals. The most crucial survey issue identified in Year 9, continues to be designing such a survey, namely, target selection – identifying a large population of moderately young (100 – 2000 Myr) nearby (<50 pc) field stars. Key issues include developing image processing techniques to extract planetary signals from point spread function speckle noise. Developing the science plan for GPI now, will ensure that this CfAO legacy is used effectively by CfAO researchers when GPI becomes operational. At UCLA and UC Berkeley, Andrea Ghez and James Graham continue using current AO systems for high contrast science, with CfAO providing the frame work for collaboration for researchers both within and external to the Center.

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Theme 4 Future Plans for Vision Science AO

UC Berkeley During 9 years of support from the CFAO Roorda’s lab developed and demonstrated the first adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscope (AOSLO), providing the first real-time, microscopic views of the retina. Since first light on the system in December 2001, they have made steady improvements to the scope of applications and to the technology itself. Notable improvements include: real-time noninvasive imaging of dynamic activity, including blood flow and eye movements first application of MEMS to AOSLO precise AO-corrected complex stimulus delivery real time eye tracking and stabilized stimulus delivery dual-wavelength imaging Now, in our 10th year, the AOSLO system is capable of advanced anatomical imaging, functional imaging and vision testing. In year 10, they will perform a series of basic and clinical science experiments that represent a culmination of 9 years of technical development. The experiments are intended to launch future applications and secure continued funding for our research. Specifically, they plan to: apply dual-frame imaging, stimulus delivery, image stabilization and improved AO control to resolve foveal cones, measure local distortions in mapping between retina and brain using stabilized AO-corrected stimulus delivery in the AO psychophysics module, perform a series of experiments to probe vision and perception of single cones (Joe Carroll experiment), investigate the relationship between eye length and cone spacing.

U Rochester The Rochester group is proposing to use the flood-illuminated adaptive optics system to complete one major project on human color vision in the remaining year of CfAO funding. They propose to make substantial progress on characterizing the organization of the trichromatic cone mosaic across the visual field and microstimulation experiments in which the color appearance of lights that stimulate single cones is recorded. Characterization of the trichromatic cone mosaic in human peripheral retina. Add dual wavelength imaging capabilities to the flood-illuminated AO system. Microstimulation of single cones with retinal location known.

Indiana U The Miller lab at IU has developed two high-resolution retina cameras based on conventional flood-illumination and fiber-based spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). Both employ adaptive optics (AO) for dynamically correcting the ocular aberrations of the eye. In year ten, they will extend the technical capabilities of both cameras as well as provide technical support for science projects. Milestones include (1) evaluation of a 1050 nm swept source for AO SD-OCT, (2) investigation of the impact of transverse chromatic aberrations on SD-OCT image quality, (3) comparison of cone classification techniques (cone scintillation and densitometry) that employ AO flood illumination, and (4) the detection of outer segment phagocytosis with AO SD-OCT. Collaboration with engineering and vision expertise both in and outside the Center will accelerate the four milestones. Vision science experiments will be conducted with both cameras under the auspices of a National Eye Institute (NEI) grant. Collaboration with engineering and vision expertise both in and outside the Center will accelerate camera development and vision science experiments.

92 Iris AO Iris AO has developed the S37-X DM to a state where it is robust and very easy to use because of a factory-calibrated open loop controller and easy interfacing to high-resolution, low noise electronics. Furthermore, the DM has been demonstrated in vision science applications by providing good closed-loop wavefront correction of the human eye. However, there are two key milestones that should be achieved for the Iris AO DM to leave a lasting legacy for the CfAO: 1) demonstration of closed-loop retinal imaging; and 2) demonstration of the DM in an astronomy application. This proposal addresses these last critical milestones by collaborating with the Roorda lab to integrate the Iris AO DM into his AOSLO system and Dr. Don Gavel to test and further develop the DM for laser guide star uplink correction.

Montana State University The long-term goal of this proposal is to develop an instrument to deliver prescribed visual stimuli to designated precise location, or set of locations, on the human or animal retina, stabilized against movements of the eye. As the first experimental use at UCSF has already indicated, this capability will provide a breakthrough experimental tool for visual psychophysics and neuroscience. Custom hardware which will allow minimal target delivery latencies will improve the already state-of-the-art capability.

University of Houston The AOSLO uses wave aberration correction techniques, to produce retinal images of unprecedented clarity and magnification. These images of the living human eye are distorted by eye motion, and correction of the distortion provides a record of the eye movement that is an order of magnitude more precise than comparably priced dedicated eye trackers. Additionally, the AOSLO allows for precise localization of stimulus elements on the retina because the scanning beam is also the stimulating beam. In this project we take advantage of these two features of the AOSLO to study how very small eye movements depend on the precise location of a target feature, and to study how subjects perceive the position of targets at various known retinal locations. Comparison between normal and amblyopic (“lazy eye”) subjects gives insight into the development and organization of spatial coordinates in the human nervous system for perception and eye movement control. These experiments are performed in the Roorda lab at UC Berkeley.

Commercialization We are expecting the deployment of the first commercial AOSLO system from Optos in Fall, 2008 (Optos has licensed AO and AOSLO patents from Williams and Roorda)

Proposals that are spin-offs from CFAO-funded research Awarded: Bioengineering Research Partnership “Adaptive Optics Instrumentation for Advanced Ophthalmic Imaging, NIH (PI David Williams, University of Rochester). July 2009 – June 2013 Bioengineering Research Partnership “Ophthalmic Imaging Using Adaptive Optics and OCT” (PI: Jack Werner) NEI-NIH R01 “Optical Imaging of Photoreceptor Function and Structure” (PI: Donald Miller) , 9/2007 - 8/2012 NIH SBIR “Near Infrared Detector for Advanced Ophthalmoscopy” (PI: Rick Myers, Radiation Monitoring Devices). Work with UC Berkeley to develop detector for 1 micron wavelengths. Pending : NIH K23: “Adaptive Optics Microstimulator for Color Vision” (PI: Lawrence Sincich, UCSF)

93 III EDUCATION

III.1a Educational Objectives The mission of the CfAO EHR program is to use the Center’s unique resources to promote institutional and cultural changes that help broaden student access to CfAO related fields,. A range of programs that are aligned with our overall mission, have been developed and implemented. The impact of CfAO EHR activities is measured by our success in each of the four interwoven initiatives:  TOOLS. Implement activities and programs that broaden access to CfAO related fields.  PRACTICES. Involve CfAO members in CfAO EHR programs and activities, and more specifically in educational practices that broaden participation.  PARTNERSHIPS & LINKAGES. Develop linkages and partnerships that broaden participation in the CfAO and CfAO sites. PEOPLE. Advance students that will broaden participation of the CfAO and CfAO fields

III.1b Performance and Management Indicators The CfAO measures short-term and long-term success by monitoring progress in the four major areas as follows:

TOOLS. Implement activities and programs that broaden access to CfAO related fields. The metrics for determining success include:  Programs developed, implemented, and documented  Activities (within programs or stand-alone) developed, implemented, and documented  Courses developed, implemented, and documented  Progress in sustaining programs, activities, and courses beyond CfAO Year 10  Publication of new knowledge learned from programs, activities or courses  New educational pathways stimulated by, or spun off of, programs, activities, or courses

PRACTICES. Involve CfAO members in CfAO EHR programs and activities, and more specifically in educational practices that broaden participation. The metrics for determining success include:  Number of CfAO members involved in CfAO EHR  Number of CfAO members that incorporate new teaching or mentoring strategies into their practice  Number of CfAO graduate students and postdocs who implement inquiry based teaching strategies  Number of CfAO graduate students and postdocs who move into faculty positions, and incorporate inquiry based teaching strategies  Number of new research proposals that include EHR components due to affiliations with CfAO  Number of communications that include research and EHR

PARTNERSHIPS & LINKAGES. Develop linkages and partnerships that broaden participation in the CfAO and CfAO sites. The metrics for determining success include:  Linkages between CfAO sites and organizations that serve significant numbers of students from underrepresented groups  New pathways that broaden access to CfAO and CfAO related fields

94  Joint activities, programs, and courses developed and implemented by CfAO and organizations that serve students from underrepresented groups  New mechanisms for engaging relevant communities in the CfAO and CfAO related fields

PEOPLE. Broaden participation of CfAO and CfAO fields by advancing students from underrepresented groups. The metrics for determining success include:  Number of underrepresented undergraduates participating in CfAO activities (research and education)  Number of underrepresented undergraduates retained in STEM  Number of underrepresented undergraduates advanced into CfAO, and CfAO related, graduate programs  Number of underrepresented graduate students participating in CfAO activities (research and education)

III.1c Problems Encountered Reaching Education Goals The primary challenge faced by the education theme beyond Year 10 is in transitioning successful activities utilizing STC funding into sustainable programs, that are generally dependant on institutional funds. STC’s tend to be national in scope, with partnerships across the country. However, to gain institutional support, the activities must meet local needs and have value for the institution. The challenge has been to retain a “center” program with a national scope, while at the same time developing a complementary program having a local focus that would attract long term institutional funding. We believe we have achieved this balance, but it has been challenging for personnel and partners during the transition phase.

III.2a The Center's Internal Educational Activities Professional Development Workshop (PDP)

Activity Name Annual Professional Development Program Led by Lisa Hunter. Team includes: Candice Brown, Barry Kluger-Bell, Anne Metevier, Jason Porter, Lynne Raschke, and Scott Seagroves. Intended Audience CfAO graduate students and postdoctoral researchers; graduate students from CfAO institutions who commit to teaching in CfAO programs; some scientists and education partners Approx Number of 50 participate each year (~50% are new each year; 50% returning for Attendees (if appl.) their 2nd year or more) http://cfao.ucolick.org/EO/PDWorkshop/

Goals: The Professional Development Program has three major goals:

1) To create a pool of graduate students and postdoctoral researchers proficient in inquiry-based teaching and learning. 2) To develop and disseminate tools and strategies for facilitating the incorporation of inquiry based approaches in scientists’ teaching practices. 3) To stimulate the development of partnerships and linkages between CfAO and Hawaii community Project Description: The CfAO PDP is an ongoing, multi-year educational activity for science and engineering graduate students, postdoctoral researchers and CfAO education partners. The primary goal is to build a community of scientists/engineers who are proficient in teaching the

95 processes of scientific inquiry, and who are better prepared to take on the educational roles expected of today’s scientists and engineers. There are two integrated components of the PDP: the workshop, and a practical teaching experience in a one of CfAO’s educational programs. Participants may return year after year in more advanced roles, and over the years the workshop has become a complex, multi-layered activity. The Maui Science and Technology Education Exchange (MSTEE) has been embedded within the workshop, and is an event that brings the CfAO together with the Hawaii technical and educational community to share accomplishments and new opportunities. Information on the past workshops can be found at: http://cfao.ucolick.org/EO/PDWorkshop/current.php.

Workshop Components: The PDP prepares scientists to teach the processes of science and engineering (S&E) through lab activities, and general skills for engaging diverse student populations in S&E. Participants in the PDP attend a workshop and gain practical teaching experience, with ongoing expert consultation. The PDP workshop includes the following components: Comparing Approaches to Hands-On Learning: Designed by the Exploratorium Institute for Inquiry (IfI), this unit gives participants a hands-on learning experience in three different ways, and is followed up by a reflective discussion on pedagogy and matching activity to goals. Learning Science Content Through Inquiry: In this unit participants take on the role of a learner and engage in a laboratory unit on light and shadows that follows the classroom inquiry model developed by the IfI. After the inquiry activity, participants consider the ways that their experience differs from the way that labs are typically taught. How People Learn Science: Participants engage in a facilitated small group discussion on a reading assignment from “How Students Learn: Science in the Classroom”23 Connections are also made to participants’ learning and teaching experience. Designing Inquiry Activities: This unit begins with “Backward Design”24 and focuses on participants learning about the identification and prioritization of learning goals. Participants learn about content, process, and attitudinal goals. Participants work for an extended period of time designing their own lab activity with expert consultation. Advanced Elements of Inquiry Design: Participants who have completed the above introductory design unit experience a variation on an inquiry activity, discuss differences, and then lead a design team in developing and teaching an inquiry activity. Designing for Diversity: Participants are exposed to issues of diversity, equity, and the cultural context for science, through readings, discussions, and visiting speakers. Elements of Engineering Design: In this unit, participants learn about designing lab activities that build engineering skills by redesigning a science focused activity to emphasize the engineering process. Assessment: Rubric Design: Participants are introduced to rubrics and the general field of assessment. Facilitating Learners in Inquiry Activities: Participants learn about how teachers can facilitate learners in the inquiry process by either shadowing an expert teacher (introductory level), or facilitating with an expert (advanced level).

PDP Participants: The Professional Development Workshop was developed during CfAO Year 2, serving CfAO graduate students, postdoctoral researchers, and educators. Following the recommendation of

23 National Research Council (2005). How Students Learn: History, Mathematics, and Science in the Classroom. M.S. Donovan and J.D. Bransford, Editors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. 24 Wiggins & McTighe (1998). Understanding by Design.

96 CfAO advisory committees, the workshop has also served an increasing number of UCSC graduate students, who are not necessarily CfAO members. The 2005 and 2006 workshops (~40 participants each year) included slightly less than half CfAO members. In 2007 and 2008 the workshop was expanded to include University of Hawaii graduate students and researchers, and had 50 participants. A total of 68 applications were received for the 2008 program, and priority was given to those with a clear teaching opportunity and those affiliated with the CfAO.

Returning Participants: An element that began in Year 3, and has become increasingly formalized over the years, is the incorporation of past participants into leadership roles of the workshop. Participants may return year after year in more advanced roles, and have begun to shape the workshop considerably. Training is provided for all of these leadership roles, and for a few roles requires an extra day of attendance at the workshop. By returning for multiple years, participants gain new teaching skills, new perspectives, and professional skills, such as how to lead an effective group discussion. Returning participants contribute significantly to the workshop by bringing their experience in designing and teaching inquiry-based learning activities to new participants. Each year approximately one-third to one-half of the participants are returning; the most common pattern is two years of participation, although three years is not uncommon. The handful of participants that go beyond three years typically move on to become staff of the workshop.

Teaching experience after the workshop: All participants are expected to teach in a CfAO program, or in some cases an affiliated program, after the workshop. Participants learn about possible teaching venues before the workshop, so that by the time they arrive at the workshop, they are on a teaching team. At the workshop, “design teams” form (often the same as a teaching team, but not necessarily), and have an extended period of time to work on design. By the end of the workshop, design teams have made significant progress on their design and have established a plan for time between the workshop and the actual teaching.

Design teams have developed and taught a wide range of innovative, inquiry-based laboratory units, which have significantly improved CfAO programs. The activities have well articulated learning goals (content, process, and attitude), and are all aimed at teaching content through scientific inquiry processes. The outcomes (on the learners who are taught by the PDP participants) have been extremely positive: learners are deeply engaged with the content, while learning the processes of science; learners are empowered when they “figure it out on their own;” and learners effectively work in teams. It is also a transformative experience for the PDP participants when they see the impact this has on their learners.

While participation in the workshop is a beneficial experience; the follow-up teaching experience in one of CfAO’s “teaching labs” can be transforming. We have developed many opportunities for workshop participants to pilot their new teaching skills, and then reflect on their experience with peers. The combination of the workshop and the teaching experience has led to the development of many new inquiry activities and a cadre of reflective science teachers with proficiency in inquiry based teaching approaches.

Outcomes: All participants are matched with an appropriate teaching venue, and work in teams of 3-4 to design an inquiry-based activity. The 2008 participants are shown in the table below.

97 Table III.1: 2008 PDW Participants and their subsequent inquiry teaching activity First Last Discipline & Institution etc New/Returning Teaching Venue* Frank Black Env. Toxicology grad - UCSC New Biomed Marc Bresler Chemistry grad - UCSC New PhysWEST Lisa Chien Astro grad - UH Manoa / IfA New MCC Michael Cooney Elec. engineering grad - UH Manoa New AOSC Christopher Crockett Astro grad - UCLA New MCC Ian Crossfield Astro grad - UCLA New MCC Michael Foley Env. engineering grad - UH Manoa New Po’okela Firas Khatib Bioinformatics grad - UCSC New Biomed Sora Kim Earth science grad - UCSC New PhysWEST Kristin Kulas Astronomy grad – UCLA New MCC Bernhard Laurich Phy. Sciences professor - Hawaii CC New MCC Eric Maklan Biochemistry grad - UCSC New BioWEST Nino Marina Elec. Engin. postdoc - UH Manoa New AOSC Shannon McCann MESA director, Hartnell New Hartnell Nicholas McConnell Astro grad - UC Berkeley New MCC Liz McGrath Astro postdoc - UCSC New Hartnell Betsy Mills Astro grad - UCLA New Po’okela Nick Moskovitz Astro grad - UH Manoa / IfA New MCC Mark Mozena Astro grad - UCSC New Mike Nassir Astron/Phys. instructor/lecturer - UH Manoa New Po’okela Nina Nowshiravani Ecology & Evolut. Bio grad - UCSC New BioWEST Arnberg Lisa Petrella Genetics postdoc - UCSC New Nicole Putnam Vision grad - UC Berkeley New AOSS Ciril Rozic Electrical Eng. grad - UH Manoa New MCC Josue Samayoa Bioinformatics grad - UCSC New Biomed Greg Wirth Support astronomer - Keck New AOSC Patrick Yuh MCD biology grad - UCSC New Biomed Mark Ammons Astro grad - UCSC / LAO Returning AOSS JD Armstrong Astro researcher - Maui IfA Returning AOSS Kathy Cooksey Astro grad - UCSC Returning UCSC Tuan Do Astro grad - UCLA Returning AOSS Kristel Dorighi MCD bio grad - UCSC Returning Hartnell Dave Harrington Astro grad - UH Manoa / IfA Returning AMSC Mark Hoffman Physical Science professor - MCC Returning AMSC, MCC Jennifer Hunter Vision postdoc - Rochester Returning AOSS Katherine Kretke Astro grad - UCSC Returning PhysWEST Ryan Montgomery Astro grad - UCSC Returning AMSC, UCSC Katie Morzinski Astro grad - UCSC / LAO Returning MCC Isar Mostafanazhad Electrical Eng. grad - UH Manoa Returning MCC Lana Nagy Biomed. Eng. grad - Rochester Returning Biomed Mark Pitts Astro grad - UH Manoa / IfA Returning AMSC John Pye Astro. professor - MCC Returning MCC Tiffani Quan MCD bio grad - UCSC Returning Biomed Marc Rafelski Astro. grad - UCLA Returning Po’okela Emily Rice Astro. grad - UCLA Returning AOSC Steve Rodney Astro. grad - UH Manoa / IfA Returning MCC Ethan Rossi Vision grad - UC Berkeley Returning Biomed Gabriel Roybal MCD bio grad – UCSC Returning BioWEST Sarah Sonnett Astro. grad - UH Manoa / IfA Returning AMSC *AOSC=Akamai Observatory Short Course; Po’okela=High School Bridge program on Maui; Biomed=UCSC NIH funded Biomedical program for minorities; Hartnell=Hartnell High School Bridge Program; MCC=Maui Community College Instrumentation course; UCSC=UCSC Astro class; BioWEST=Biology Workshop for Engineering and Science Transfers; PhysWEST=Physical Sciences Workshop for Engineering and Science Transfers.

98 Comparison of 2006, 2007 and 2008 PDP workshop final survey At the end of the main PDP workshop, participants complete a survey designed to gather feedback on their immediate perspectives on the workshop. Included within their responses of ratings of individual sessions, questions assessing what they gained, and the extent to which the workshop was valuable to them. The question on how much they valued their experience is broken into four sub-questions: a. In developing as an scientist educator b. In feeling supported/valued as a graduate student c. In being part of a community of scientists, grad students, educators, CfAO d. Overall value of the workshop (any of the above, or for other reasons)

The following four charts show the responses to these questions over the past three years (2006, 2007, 2008)

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III.2b Summary of Professional Development Activities for Center Students  Annual Professional Development Workshop – The workshop (more fully described in Section 3.2.1.1) builds teaching, collaborative teamwork, communication, and other important skills.  Summer School on Adaptive Optics – Courses are intended to convey the scope and application of adaptive optics to research. This is a professional development course for both astronomers and vision scientists. See description in Knowledge Transfer section.  Center retreats and workshops – Center students have multiple opportunities each year to participate in Center retreats and workshops, with many opportunities for presenting their research. Our industry affiliates program meets at our retreats and is an excellent venue for students to make contacts in industry.

III.2c The Center's External Educational Activities All our external programs focus on students from underrepresented groups. The Mainland, Akamai and Big Island Internships focus on Community College students.These programs begin with a short course followed by summer internships.

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Mainland Internship Program

Activity Name Four Year and Community College Internships Led by Lisa Hunter; Lead Staff: Lynne Raschke, Scott Seagroves Intended Audience Undergraduates, primarily from underrepresented groups, with an emphasis on community college students Approx Number of 10-15 each year from 2002-2007. No new students accepted in Attendees (if appl.) 2008

Web link: http://cfao.ucolick.org/EO/internshipsnew/mainland/

The Mainland Internship Program was accepted a cohort of 10-15 students each year from 2002- 07. The program was very successful in advancing students from groups underrepresented in the sciences into graduate studies and successful careers. However, due to the overall reduction in NSF funding, the program was unable to accept a new cohort in 2008. The program continues to track the progress of the 2007-08 students, and work with them on their career and educational interests. If funding is obtained in the future, we will re-open the program to a new cohort of students.

The Mainland Internship program provided research experiences for community college and 4- year university students, with an emphasis on students from underrepresented groups. Students were placed at CfAO sites and worked intensively on an authentic research project under the guidance of a CfAO advisor (faculty member or senior scientist) and supervisor (often a graduate student or postdoc). Interns were integrated into the research team gaining an in depth knowledge of the research subject, as well as professional skills and an expanded network. Throughout the internship, communication was an ongoing theme. At the end of the summer, interns gave a ten- minute formal oral presentation. For many students this was their first experience in presenting at this level, so we implemented a set of activities that gave students all the resources they needed to deliver a high quality, professional presentation. Our survey of past interns indicates that the preparation and delivery of the oral presentation was one of the most valuable elements of the program.

A unique element of the Mainland Internship Program was our five-day short course that preceded the research experience. The goal of this course was to establish a community among the students; prepare them for the research environment; orient them to the CfAO; and teach them some of the background necessary for a successful experience in the multi-disciplinary environment CfAO. The short course prepared students for their coming research experience through a set of inquiry activities, laboratories, lectures, discussions, and small team problem solving. Topics included astronomy, vision science, engineering, research practices, and preparation for graduate school. The short course was developed by CfAO graduate students and has become a model for three other short courses. The Mainland Short Course as one of CfAO’s “teaching labs,” provided opportunities for piloting new inquiry based teaching activities.

Outcomes: Mainland Intern Graduate School Entry The CfAO has strived to increase the diversity of Center graduate students, and has found this to be an extremely challenging goal. At the Center’s beginning in 1999, we have had only one graduate student from an underrepresented minority group. However, the student was not significantly involved in Center activities, such as retreats, workshop, or the Professional

101 Development Workshop and did not complete a doctoral program, as had been the intention, leaving with a Master’s degree.

The Mainland Internship Program resulted in a pool of prospective students for our graduate programs. It enabled us to develop a “grow your own” strategy. During the intern selection process, special attention was given to those students who had the academic qualifications and interests to enter graduate school. After running the program for several years, and a great deal of mentoring and advising, we began to see a steady stream of Mainland Interns entering graduate school. Currently, there are 18 students with confirmed enrollment (or completion) in S&E graduate school, who are underrepresented minorities and women:  Oscar Azucena, UC Santa Cruz, Electrical Engineering, Entered F2005, Cota-Robles Fellow; 2008, Graduate Research and Education in Adaptive bioTechnology (GREAT) Training Grants Fellow  Carlos Cabrera Andres, UC Santa Cruz, Electrical Engineering, Entered F2005  Nella Barrera, UC Irvine, Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Entered F2006  Arturo Cisneros, San Jose State University, Electrical Engineering, Entered S2007  Rigo Dicochea, UC Santa Cruz, Computer Engineering, Entered F2005  Jesus Enriquez, San Diego State University, Astronomy, Entered F2006  Bautista Fernandez, UC Santa Cruz, Electrical Engineering Master’s program, Entered F2004  Alex Gittens, California Institute of Technology, Applied and Computational Mathematics, Entered F2006  Monica Pinon, Optometry, IAUPR Bayamon campus, Entered F2007 (entered UCB Fall 2005; left w/o degree)  Amanda Young, Virginia Tech, Applied Math, Entered F2004  Sahar Kashef, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State, Entered F2007  Diana Lozano, Physiological Optics, University of Houston, Entered F2007  Neil Mendoza, Dartmouth Medical School, Entered F2007  Layra Reza, University of Texas, Mechanical Engineering, Entered F2007  Sarah Jenkins, University of Texas, Molecular Pathology, Entered F2007  Justin Griggs, Temple University, Math, Entered F 2007

Earned graduate degrees:  Kerry Highbarger, Optical Engineering, Ohio State, MS June 2006. Current position at SCHOTT as an optical engineer  Jacyln Plandowski, Electromagnetics, UC Los Angeles, Master’s Degree in December 2006. Current position at Raytheon

Two students entered graduate programs and left without degrees.

Akamai Workforce Initiative

Activity Name Akamai Workforce Initiative Led by Lisa Hunter Intended Audience Hawaii-based undergraduates, primarily from underrepresented groups, with an emphasis on community college students Approx Number of ~12-15 per year in Maui internship; 12-15 per year in Big Island Attendees (if appl.) internship; ~20 graduate student instructors; Web link: http://cfao.ucolick.org/EO/internshipsnew/akamai/index.php

102 The Akamai Workforce Initiative (AWI) is an expansion on past CfAO Akamai activities, and is now headquartered at the University of Hawai‘i Institute for Astronomy (IfA) Maikalani Advanced Technology Research Center (ATRC) in Pukalani, Maui. AWI is a consortium of multiple partners and funding sources, and will be a major legacy of the CfAO, with activities on both Maui and the Big Island. This proposal outlines the overall consortium and goals, and requests funding to continue the Hawaii Island Akamai Internship program, and continued professional staff time for some of the Maui Akamai activities. The remaining elements of AWI are either funded, or pending funding, from external sources.

On Maui, AWI will train and retain a diverse student population in electro-optics through an inquiry-based, equitable, culturally relevant, designed to meet workforce needs in astronomy, remote sensing, and other technology industries in Maui and the state of Hawai‘i. The AWI will improve current scientists’ and engineers’ skills in contemporary education, and will use their new teaching skills to advance Maui’s akamai25 students into the technology workforce. The AWI will immediately build an innovative curriculum-development infrastructure on Maui, an electro- optics certificate program at Maui Community College, and a service-learning recruitment and retention effort, while also establishing the foundation for further statewide and four-year programs.

On the Big Island, AWI will primarily include the Hawaii Island Akamai Internship Program, as well as ongoing partnership activities, and infrastructural development, such as the new AO workstation at Hawaii Community College.

Major educational goal(s) of program. AWI will implement activities that will have an immediate impact, and will build an infrastructure for long-term impact through the accomplishment of four major goals:  Increase the participation of women, Native Hawaiians, and other underrepresented groups in astronomy, remote sensing, and related education and employment in Hawai‘i.  Prepare local students for careers in electro-optics and related high tech fields.  Increase the capacity of the Hawai‘i scientific and technical community to teach diverse learners and design effective research experiences and laboratory courses.  Build partnerships and encourage mutual awareness of educational and employment opportunities in high tech industry among the local communities of Maui.

Description of AWI AWI includes four interwoven components that build and expand upon many years of CfAO work, and innovations developed by the education staff at the CfAO:  Akamai Internship Program: o Maui Internship Program: placement at a Maui high tech company or facility. 15 interns/year. o Hawai‘i Island Internship Program: placement at a Mauna Kea observatory. 10-15 participants/year.

 Teaching and Curriculum Collaborative (TeCC): Infrastructure for AWI curriculum development, including three elements: o Scientist and Engineer Educator Development (SEED) Program: A series of workshops that help scientists and engineers design curriculum, teach, and

25 akamai – smart, clever, expert, skilled

103 mentor students (spin-off of CfAO Professional Development Program). 30 participants/year. o TeCC Educators: Faculty, visiting instructors, and small teaching teams of graduate students who will create a significant teaching resource for AWI. o Electro-optics Curriculum Development Group: A core group of AWI leaders who will guide the development of electro-optics courses, overlap with SEED, and feed into MCC’s institutional process.

 New electro-optics program at Maui Community College, Working within the infrastructure of TeCC, AWI will develop four new courses for a new certificate of Electro-Optics Engineering Technology at MCC (one course currently in development; three new courses proposed). In addition to the certificate, the program will include co- curricular elements designed to retain and advance students, using lessons learned from other programs.

 Akamai in the Community: Students in the electro-optics program will be encouraged to participate in Akamai in the Community, as both a mechanism to recruit new students and to enhance retention rates in the electro-optics program.

AWI will utilize the educational model developed by the CfAO. The two-strand model simultaneously develops scientist/engineer educators, and applies their teaching efforts to advancing undergraduates from diverse backgrounds:

Following the CfAO internship model, the Akamai internships includes the following elements: - Short course - Research experience or apprenticeship - Communication - Advancement

The following sections outline the Akamai internship model used on both Maui and the Big Island, with references to both.

104 Akamai Short Courses Each of the two Akamai internship programs has a unique short course designed to prepare interns for their coming internship experience. The courses all run for five days, all day, and are residential. The goals of the short courses are for participants to: 1) learn scientific and technical content relevant to their internships; 2) gain scientific process skills; 3) build community amongst themselves and the instructors; and 4) gain an understanding of the work environment. Each course includes an inquiry component in which students learn important content (e.g. optics) through scientific inquiry processes. The courses also all include sessions on education and career opportunities, and strategies for succeeding in the research/technical environment. The Short Course instructional teams have developed a wide range of innovative activities, which are now available on the web. The activities are not written in publishable form, on a password protected site: http://cfao.ucolick.org/EO/scplanning/allactivities.php User name: cfao Password: ShortCourse

The short courses that have become “teaching labs” for graduate students and postdocs to try their newly acquired skills in teaching with inquiry. Short course instructors work in teams to design a course that includes content background, process skills, and community building. We have found that the short courses are an ideal environment for piloting our inquiry-based instructional material, and providing an unconstrained, classroom-like setting for individuals teaching with inquiry for the first time. The instructional team for Akamai short courses has been changing over the last few years to utilize an increasing number of University of Hawaii graduate students (from IfA and the UH School of Engineering).

Fig. 1 Akami Interns engaged in the Light and Telescpope Activity Prepared by PDP participants Photo Courtesy Sarah Anderson

Post-course survey results from 2008 Maui Short Course: At the end of the course all students complete a survey which asks them about their experience. The following items are some highlights from the 2008 Akamai Maui Short Course.

1. “Using the following scale, please provide your rating of each of the following aspects prior to attending the short course and at the end of the short course.” (interns circle their rating for “prior” and “at the end”)

105 SELECTED RESULTS FROM SURVEY: Rating scale: Poor Okay Good Excellent 1 2 3 4

106 Some quotes from the survey: "I will always be using the skills and knowledge I have gained from this course." "There was nothing that I learned that I could not use in any situation..." "...I think it made me a stronger presenter, researcher, and thinker." "It really boosted my confidence in a lot of areas." "I learned more than I ever expected." "Loved the instructors." "...it taught me a lot on how to think critically and to simplify complex problems into many simple questions." "...it taught me to think like a scientist." "Definitely helped me see different opportunities and potential to stay in Hawaii." "...after this course, I'm planning to further my education as an electrical engineer" "thinking about grad school." “…I now have a clearer and broader view of the types of research I could do in the future.”

Research Experience or Apprenticeship

Participants are placed at a range of sites to complete a seven-week independent research or apprenticeship experience. They work full-time under the guidance of a supervisor and a senior level advisor (faculty member or permanent senior personnel). CfAO EHR conduct weekly meetings with interns covering topics such as: oral presentations, letters of recommendation, resumes/CV’s, career opportunities, graduate school, and transferring to a 4-year institution. The weekly meetings are also a time to just check in and hear how all the interns are doing, a key component of maintaining the community established during the short course. Research/apprenticeship experiences are arranged by CfAO education staff. In Year 10 we expect placements to be similar to our 2008 Akamai placements:

Table III.2: 2008 Hawaii Island Akamai Observatory Hosts Site Host(s) # students Gemini Observatory Cavedoni/Sheehan 1 Subaru Observatory Dinkins, Potter, Colley 3 Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Vermeulen, Cruise 2 Smithsonian Submillimeter Array Kubo, Chitwood 2 UH Hilo Hamilton/Asaoka/Fox 2 W. M. Keck Observatory Nance/Ward/Kinoshita/Pott 3 Institute for Astronomy Hodapp, Aspen 2 Total 15

Table III.3: 2008 Maui Akamai Hosts Site Mentor(s) # students Institute for Astronomy/Maui Kuhn/JD Armstrong 1 Institute for Astronomy/Maui Kuhn/John Messersmith 1 Institute for Astronomy/Maui Jefferies/Hope 1 MHPCC Bal/Meyer 1 Trex Nishimoto/Douglas/Maeda 1 Trex Nishimoto/Douglas/Maeda 1 Northrop Grumman Esquibel 1 Textron Ruffato/Nolan 1

107 Site Mentor(s) # students Textron Ruffato/Nolan 1 Pacific Disaster Center Mielbricht/Cowher 1 HNU Photonics O’Connell 1 Akimeka Paris/Lawson/Garcia 1 Akimeka Paris/Lawson/Garcia 1 Akimeka Paris/Lawson/Garcia 1 Oceanit Leonard/Sylva 1 Total 15

Communication The CfAO EHR team has created a “communication curriculum” over the past few years. The goal of the curriculum is for all interns to complete: 1) a 10-minute technical oral presentation; 2) a poster presentation; 3) an abstract; and 4) an updated resume. In addition the curriculum helps interns learn about informal communication in the scientific/technical environment, such as meetings with advisors. The curriculum begins in the short course, continues through weekly meetings, and wraps up when the interns come together near the end of the program to finalize their oral and poster presentations. The skills gained by interns through the curriculum are extremely valuable as students advance in their education and careers, regardless of the path that they follow. It also serves to build confidence and a strong sense of belonging in the sciences. In addition, we have found that the reflective thinking that occurs when developing presentations is a critical part of the learning process.

Advancement after the internship experience In addition to the eight-week formal program experience, interns are provided with ongoing support and activities as they move through their academic careers and into the next educational level or the workforce. We provide assistance is preparing students for attending conferences, applying for fellowships, and applying for graduate school, and a range of other activities related to retention and advancement in STEM.

Outcomes Table III.4 Demographics of Akamai Interns 2003-2008 Cohorts, June, 2008

Hawaii Island Maui Total (49) (67) (116) Men 31 (63%) 46 (69%) 77 (66%) Women 18 (37%) 21 (31%) 39 (34%) Underrepresented minority1 21 (43%) 35 (52%) 56 (48%) Other ethnicity 28 (57%) 32 (48%) 60 (52%) Underrepresented group2 34 (69%) 44 (66%) 76 (67%) Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander 12 (24%) 17 (25%) 29 (25%) Hawaii Born3 27 (55%) 46 (69%) 73 (63%) 1. Includes Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, African American, Hispanic, and Native American, Filipino (does not include other Asians) 2. Women and/or underrepresented minorities 3. Note: all students in the Akamai program have ties to Hawaii

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Table III.5 Status of Akamai Interns 2003-2007 Cohorts: June, 2008

Hawaii Island Maui Total (34) (52) (86) Participants maintaining contact 31 (91%) 48 (92%) 79 (92%) %’s below calculated from 92% of students maintaining contact A. In STE workforce 6 (20%) 19 (40%) 25 (32%) B. Enrolled in S&E program 22 (71%) 22 (46%) 44 (56%) C. On STE pathway (A+B) 28 (90%) 41 (85%) 69 (87%) Alternative calculation based on all students in the program A. Unknown 3 (9%) 4 (8%) 7 (8%) B. In STE workforce 6 (18%) 19 (37%) 25 (29%) C. Enrolled in S&E program 22 (65%) 22 (42%) 44 (51%) D. On STE pathway (B+C) 28 (82%) 41 (79%) 69 (80%) STE=science, technology, or engineering

Equipment & Technical Training

Technical collaborations and curriculum enhancements have resulted from our partnership. An adaptive optics (AO) workbench is on loan to MCC for student use, and will be transferred permanently when this initiative is funded. This AO system was built by an MCC student/faculty pair, under the guidance of a CfAO graduate student, and has stimulated significant technical exchanges between AO experts in Santa Cruz and students and faculty at MCC. Three new courses have been added to MCC’s offerings in optics, adaptive optics, and lab experiences in astronomy. A new AO workbench was also built for Hawaii CC (on the Big Island) with funding from Iris AO and the CfAO. A past Akamai intern completed an internship at UCSC to help build the system, which is now at the college and will be used for the Akamai short course.

One of the goals of the CfAO’s EHR program is to incorporate inquiry-based teaching into CfAO related fields, by providing “teaching lab” for newly trained instructors to gain experience and pilot instructional material. The 2006 AOSC included an optics inquiry, originally designed by Scott Severson and Lynne Raschke of UCSC and then refined at the 2005 and 2006 PDWs. It was facilitated by Catherine Ishida, Sarah Anderson, Candice Brown, and Marc Rafelski.

For 2007, again an AOSC inquiry team met and planned at the PDP Workshop to re-align the inquiry activity with the goals of the course, in consultation with the lead instructional team and experienced PDP participant Patrik Jonsson of UCSC. This summer the AOSC inquiry activity will be led by Mike McElwain, Emily Rice, and Steve Rodney.

Courses, Instructional Materials, & Professional Development

Highlights of our accomplishments include:  We are developing a unique course, “Instrumentation I,” which will be the first course for incoming electro-optics students. This will be lab intensive; it will give students an early look at the field with career paths and opportunities, and it will build technical problem solving and communication skills.  We are piloting the Teaching and Curriculum Collaborative (TeCC) and our model for developing curriculum. Three teams of PDP-trained graduate students are designing

109 inquiry-based lab units for Instrumentation I: Spectrometer Design, Charge-Coupled Devices, and Digital Image Files.  8 UH community college faculty, 1 UH Manoa instructor will have participated in PDP workshops  21 UH graduate students and postdocs will have participated in PDP workshops; 14 of those plus 5 observatory staff will have completed all PDP workshops, activity design and teaching experiences  12 new laboratory units will have been developed and taught in Hawai‘i venues  4 new UH community college courses will have been developed and taught: ~50-hr “short” courses associated with the two internship programs (MCC and Hawai‘i CC), Astronomy Lab (MCC), and AWI Phase I Instrumentation I (MCC); also a AO component was add to a Special Projects course  1 new weeklong course (~30 hrs) developed and taught by a PDP design/teaching team, within Po‘okela, a partner high school bridge program at MCC, serving Native Hawaiian students (Po’okela is not our program, it is funded and managed by others; we provided instructional team)

Publicity and Press Coverage for CfAO’s EHR Programs  Cosmic Matters Newsletter; Keck Observatory Summer 2007: Rising Stars: Beyond the Books (https://keckobservatory.org/support/magazine/2007/june/07june_4.htm)  North Hawaii News: Local Students Enjoy Real-Life Learning by Maata Tukuafu. October 18, 2007  Keck Observatory Public Lecture: Next Generation in Astronomy, November 14, 2007, regular Keck lecture series featured three Akamai interns as the speakers, Joseph Hernandez, Eric Dela Rosa and Heather Kaluna  Program highlighted in State Representative Dwight Takamine’s promotional video: http://homepage.mac.com/newtv/keck.html  Press Release, University of Hawaii: Hawai’i Community College Student Receives Conference Award, posted March 31, 2008 and run by the Hawaii Tribune Herald on 4/23/08  (http://www.hawaii.edu/cgi-bin/uhnews?20080331173156)  Na Kilo Hoku, Institute for Astronomy Newsletter: IfA Joins Akamai Workforce Initiative. No. 26, 2008. http://www2.ifa.hawaii.edu/newsletters/

III.2d Integrating Research and Education All our Center members have agreed to commit time to education. Considerable gains have been made in this area, and we continue to focus on involving members in meaningful activities that directly contribute to our educational goals. A few illustrative examples of how we have integrated research and education follow:

 To date, 72 undergraduates have worked on CfAO related research (2002-2007 student cohorts).  Fifteen high school students and one high school teacher participated in Stars, Sight and Science each year, a course on vision science, astronomy, and optics.  CfAO graduate students and postdocs participate in the Maui technical and educational community, at the annual Maui High Tech Industry Education Exchange.  The CfAO has developed four new short courses covering CfAO related topics  CfAO members have developed many new inquiry-based instructional activities, including:

110 o Variable star project and inquiry activity (Stars, Sight and Science) o Galaxy Project (Stars, Sight and Science) o Color and Light (Stars, Sight and Science) o Color, Light and Spectra (Mainland Internship Short Course) o Color and Light, version 2 (Akamai Short Course) o Table Top Optics (Stars, Sight and Science) o Camera Obscura (Akamai Short Course) o Lenses and Refraction (Akamai Short Course) o Photodiode Activity (Akamai Short Course) o Physiology of the Eye (Rochester Saturday Open Lab) o Color Vision Inquiry (Rochester Saturday Open Lab) o Visual Illusions (Stars, Sight and Science) o Retinal Anatomy (Mainland Internship Program) o Galaxy Research Project (Hartnell Short Course and UCSC Saturday Open Lab) o Image Correction & Engineering Processes (Mainland Short Course)

III.2e Conformance to Metrics The metrics have been described in Section III.1b. Conformance to these metrics was described in previous sections under outcomes for each activity.

III.2f Plans for Year Ten

Institute for Scientist and Engineer Educators (ISEE) In September 2008 the new Institute for Scientist and Engineer Educators (ISEE) will be launched at UC Santa Cruz. ISEE will be administratively led out of the UC Santa Cruz Division of Social Sciences and housed at the Center for Adaptive Optics. The institutional funding for ISEE comes from a number of units of campus, and will establish a long-term legacy for the CfAO. ISEE will continue the PDP work, in addition to courses and a certificate program for science and engineering graduate students. In addition ISEE will have a research strand to gain new knowledge about teaching, learning and professional development. Institutional funding for ISEE will be used to gain additional support from federal and private sources.

Professional Development Program The PDP will run as a combine CfAO/ISEE program in Year 10, and so in Year 9 the PDP team will be planning for the transition and beginning the change to a more institutionally focused program.

Akamai Workforce Initiative The Akamai Workforce Initiative (AWI) was launched in September 2007, with funding from University of Hawaii, NSF, AFOSR, and the CfAO. In Year 9 we are moving the headquarters of Akamai from the CfAO in Santa Cruz to the Institute for Astronomy (IfA) on Maui. Additional funding has enabled the hiring of a full-time program assistant who handles all program logistics, fiscal, and administrative details. We submitted a 5-year AWI proposal to the NSF and AFOSR in the spring, which if funded will allow us to develop new electro-optics courses and continue a Hawaii-based PDP of University of Hawaii graduate students. The Hawaii Island Akamai Internship Program is not currently included under the AWI umbrella, but we have been steadily moving in that direction. Our current plan is to obtain funding for the program and move its management to AWI headquarters at the IfA/Maui.

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IV. KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER

IV.1 Knowledge Transfer Objectives The knowledge transfer activities focus on enhancing the Center’s ability to fulfill its research and education goals as summarized in the CfAO mission statement: “To advance and disseminate the technology of adaptive optics in service to science, health care, industry, and education.” In Year 8, the CfAO has continued to emphasize knowledge transfer by employing strategies articulated in its mission statement:  Increasing the accessibility to AO by the scientific community  Coordinating and combining research efforts to take advantage of the synergies afforded by the Center mode of operations  Encouraging the interaction of vision scientists and astronomers to promote the emergence of new science and technology  Leveraging our efforts through industry partnerships and cross-disciplinary collaboration

In addition, specific objectives for knowledge transfer include: increasing national competence in AO within the scientific, medical, and industrial communities, and enhancing the cohesiveness of the AO technical community, particularly with respect to system performance characterization and optimization.

IV.2 Performance and management indicators Indicators of the success of CfAO partnership activities in meeting our objectives include:  The number of CfAO workshops, and professional training activities that involve non- CfAO participants,  The level of attendance by non-CfAO personnel at the CfAO summer school,  The level of attendance by non-CfAO personnel at CfAO workshops,  The number of institutional members of the AO technical community engaged in the exchange of information concerning system performance and optimization.

IV.3 Problems An ongoing challenge for the CfAO knowledge transfer activity is the exchange of information with industry: both the dissemination of CfAO research results to a broad cross section of the industrial community, and the determination of industrial issues which might best be served by this research. Our strategy during the first 5 years of the Center was to invite a broad cross- section of industry participants to Center events, particularly to our Center-wide retreats in the spring and fall of each year. The main goal of this involvement was to catalyze specific research collaborations with industrial partners. In Year 6, we began to concentrate on more specific collaborative activities with industry partners with whom we had established strong ties during the previous 5 years. This successful strategy has been carried forward in Year 8. Based on our experience in the first 6 years, we believe that strong collaborations with specific industry partners are most beneficial to both the industrial and academic participants. We continue to target new industrial partners in specific areas as appropriate. In addition, dissemination of research results to the industrial sector has been improved through several new conferences, topical meetings and panel discussions in areas such as MEMS and vision science. Nevertheless, we continue to view increasing involvement of industry participants in Center research as both a goal and a challenge.

112 We have carried out a broad range of effective CfAO knowledge transfer activities during Year 9. These activities are summarized in the following sections, along with future plans for the Center’s knowledge transfer program.

IV.4 Description of Knowledge Transfer Activities We carried out a broad range of effective CfAO knowledge transfer activities during Year 9. These activities are summarized in the following sections, along with future plans for the Center’s knowledge transfer program.

Knowledge Transfer Activity CfAO Summer School Led by Don Gavel, Chris Le Maistre Participants Organization Name and State 1 Multiple organizations (see below)

The CfAO holds an annual week-long Summer School on adaptive optics, in Santa Cruz CA. The target audience is graduate students, postdocs, and industrial researchers. Emphasis is given to topics that are of interest to astronomers and vision scientists alike. Each year approx. 100 participants attend. In 2008, 31 of those registered to attend were graduate students, 13 were post docs and 16 were industrial researchers. In Year 8, the structure of the summer school was modified to be more self supporting, in anticipation of the end of NSF Center funding support after Year 10. This has been achieved mainly by charging amounts closer to current market rates for industrial participants. Based on registration for Year 9, this transition appears to be proceeding successfully.

Knowledge Transfer Activity Workshops Led by Multiple leaders (see below) Participants Organization Name and State 1 Multiple organizations (see below)

The CfAO sponsors workshops each year. These range from large formal sessions at international meetings to smaller special-topics discussions, Workshops in Year 9 included:

Meeting/Event Date(s) Held Location Fall Retreat November 1-4, 2007 Lake Arrowhead, CA

Re-Thinking Science Learning & November 16, 2007 Maui, HI Teaching (Re-SLT) Workshop November 30, 2007 Santa Cruz, CA Santa Cruz, CA Keck NGAO Meetings Various Hawaii Island, HI MEMS Adaptive Optics Conference January 2008 San Jose, CA, Professional Development Workshop March 13-17, 2008 Maui, Hawaii Gemini Planet Imager Management meeting April 15, 2008 Santa Cruz, CA Education and Program Development Retreat March 27-28, 2008 Santa Cruz, CA Maui Akamai Internship Program Maui Community College, Short Course May 25-30, 2008 Maui, Hawaii

113 Meeting/Event Date(s) Held Location GPI Critical Design Review April 15, 2008 Santa Cruz, CA Hawaii Island Observatory Short course June 1-6, 2008 Hawaii Island, HI TMT Review Meeting June 4, 2008 Santa Cruz, CA UC CfAO Launch Meeting June 12, 2008 Santa Cruz, CA Proposal Review and Proposal Advisory Committee Meeting s June 16-18, 2008 Santa Cruz, CA Maui Akamai Intern Symposium July 22, 2008 Maui, HI Hawaii Island Akamai Intern Symposium July 25, 2008 Hawaii Island HI Adaptive Optics Summer School August 4-8, 2008 Santa Cruz, CA NSF Site Visit September 22-24, 2008 Santa Cruz, CA

Knowledge Transfer Activity Assisting Vision Science Labs. With AO Instrumentation Development Led by David Williams PhD Participants Rigmor Baraas PhD Norway Heidi Hofer PhD University of Houston Jason Porter PhD University of Houston Joseph Carroll PhD University of Wisconsin

David William’s lab at the University of Rochester is providing assistance to Rigmor Baraas in Norway, Heidi Hofer in Houston, Jason Porter in Houston, and Joe Carroll at the Medical College of Wisconsin in the construction of their adaptive optics instruments for vision science.

Knowledge Transfer Activity Commercializing AO scanning laser ophthalmoscope Led by David Williams PhD Participants Dan Gray PhD Optos, Scotland Jessica Morgan PhD University of Pennsylvania

David Williams at the University of Rochester is assisting Optos, Inc. in the development of the first commercial adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscope. Dan Gray, a former graduate student in the Williams lab, is now an engineer at Optos dedicated to this project. Jessica Morgan, who completed her PhD at Rochester in May, is now at the University of Pennsylvania as a postdoctoral fellow. Jessica will soon accept delivery of the first prototype AOSLO from Optos where it will be used to study Leber's Congenital Amaurosis patients undergoing gene therapy.

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Knowledge Transfer Activity CATS Database of Distant Galaxies Led by Claire Max Participants 1 David Koo UC Santa Cruz 2 James Larkin UCLA 3 Jason Melbourne Caltech (formerly UCSC)

We have developed and disseminated the CfAO Treasury Survey (CATS) searchable web archive of AO imaging of distant galaxies. The website is available online at: http://www.ucolick.org/~jmel/cats_database/cats_search.php Username: cats Password: galaxy

This is the first such public archive of adaptive optics imaging in the near infrared and complements what has been done with HST for deep fields such as GOODS, GEMS, and EGS. The goals of our public archive include: 1) increasing the scientific awareness of adaptive optics imaging as a tool for studying distant galaxies; 2) educating the community in how handle AO data sets and obtain meaningful measurements given a time varying PSF; and 3) allow others to answer their own science questions given the largest publicly available AO data set of distant galaxies

Knowledge Transfer Activity AOSLO Collaboration with UCSF Led by Austin Roorda Participants 1 Jacque Duncan, MD UC San Francisco 2 Jonathan Horton, MD, PhD UC San Francisco

Professor Roorda has built and developed an Adaptive Optics Scanning Laser Opthalmoscope (AOSLO) system. He is collaborating with Dr. Jacque Duncan and using this system for clinical imaging of patients with inherited retinal disease. The research is jointly funded by the “Foundation Fighting Blindness” and a National Institutes of Health BRP. He is also collaborating with Dr. Jonathon Horton on “Combined AO Stimulus Delivery and Electrophysiology in Monkeys”. Both collaborations involve moving the actual AOSLO system to UCSF, which has occurred several times this year. Roorda’s group is planning to build an AOSLO system for Dr. Duncan.

Knowledge Transfer Activity AO microscopy for in vitro bio-imaging Led by Joel Kubby Participants 1 Bill Sullivan, Jin Zhang , Don Gavel UC Santa Cruz 2 John Sedat, David Agard , Peter Kner UCSF 3 Steve Lane, Scot Olivier LLNL

In year 8, we began a joint developmental/seed project with the NSF Center for BioPhotonics Science and Technology at UC Davis in the application of AO to microscopy for in vitro biological research. This work links research groups at UCSF, UCSC and LLNL affiliated with these two NSF Centers to explore the potential for advanced bio-imaging with adaptive optics. This work has continued in year 9

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IV.5 Other Knowledge Transfer Activities

The CfAO web site (http://cfao.ucolick.org) is an important vehicle for knowledge transfer. Information on the CfAO and AO in general is available at this web site, including research projects, education and human resources activities, membership, meetings, publications, distributed software, employment opportunities, and Claire Max’s AO graduate course (http://www.ucolick.org/~max/289C/ ).

The CfAO plays a leading role in the publication of scientific and technical articles on adaptive optics. A list of publications is maintained on the CfAO web site and appears at the end of this Report.

CfAO members play leadership roles in professional societies concerned with adaptive optics, serve on organizing committees for international professional conferences on adaptive optics, and present results of CfAO research.

Collaborative program development has been a successful strategy for leveraging Center resources to enable research and development of adaptive optics beyond what would be possible with CfAO funding alone. This strategy is also a highly effective means of knowledge transfer since the new collaborative programs include participants both inside and outside the Center. The major collaborative program development activities in Year 8 were in the areas of ExAO, next- generation AO for Keck Observatory, ophthalmic instrumentation and biophotonic systems.

In the area of ExAO, the theme has been responsible for bringing together additional institutions in the US and Canada, including the Hertzberg Institute of Astrophysics, the American Museum of Natural History, and the Université de Montréal, to work on system design, technology development, simulation and modeling of ExAO systems for the Gemini Telescope. A major outcome of this activity in Year 9 was the successful critical design review of the $23.5M project to develop the ExAO system for Gemini.

The Next Generation AO (NGAO) system for Keck Observatory is in the conceptual design phase. This is a collaboration with Caltech and the Keck Observatory, and involves the entire Keck observing community.

In vision science, we have developed a new generation of portable vision science AO systems that are being used at partner medical facilities, such as the Doheney Eye Institute at USC, for evaluation in a clinical environment. This is extending the scope of possible collaborative activities by accessing unique capabilities and conditions at the partner sites, while further broadening the reach of AO into the clinical community.

IV.6 Future Plans We plan to maintain our program of information dissemination while enhancing specific aspects and incorporating new efforts. We will continue to encourage our researchers to publish in a timely mode in the peer reviewed literature.

Specific areas of emphasis in collaborative program development in Year 10 will include AO for ophthalmic instrumentation, next generation AO for Keck Observatory, MEMS development, and biophotonic instrumentation.

116 V. EXTERNAL PARTNERSHIPS

V.1 Partnership Objectives The fundamental objective of our partnership activities is to enhance the Center’s ability to fulfill its research and education goals. The CfAO is pursuing this objective through strategies articulated as part of its mission statement.  Leveraging our efforts through industry partnerships and cross-disciplinary collaborations  Encouraging the interaction of vision scientists and astronomers to promote the emergence of new science and technology  In addition, specific objectives for partnerships include:  Stimulating further investment by government and industry sources in AO research and development  Catalyzing the commercialization of AO technologies leading to technological advancements relevant to CfAO research objectives and enabling broader use of AO.

V.2 Performance and management indicators Parameters are used to measure the success of CfAO partnership activities in meeting our objectives include: [1] The number of partner institutions engaged in active collaboration with the Center, [2] The number and scope of CfAO projects involving cross-disciplinary collaborations, [3] The number and amount of additional investment by government and industry sources in AO research and development, [4] The number and scope of AO commercialization activities in which the CfAO plays a role, [5] The number of institutional members of the AO technical community engaged in the exchange of information concerning system performance and optimization.

V.3 Problems An ongoing challenge for CfAO partnership activities is the development of meaningful new industrial partnerships, particularly in areas involving highly competitive commercial markets, such as ophthalmic instrumentation. We are continuing to seek guidance on best practices in the commercialization of the type of medical imaging instrumentation being developed by the Center.

V.4 Description of Partnership Activities

Partnership Activity Development of Advanced Ophthalmic Instrumentation Led by David Williams Participants Name of Organization List Shared Resources Use of Resources (if any) 1 University of Rochester (Lead) Adaptive optics Demonstrate value scanning laser of AOSLO for ophthalmoscopes clinical and science use 2 Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 3 University of California, Berkeley 4 the Doheny Eye Institute at USC 5 Indiana University 6 Optos

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CfAO’s PI at the University of Rochester is leading a NIH Bioengineering Research Partnership (BRP), which was awarded a 5-year grant in 2003 at the level of $10 million. Five partner institutions shared the funds; these were the University of Rochester, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, the University of California at Berkeley, the Doheny Eye Institute at USC, and Indiana University. The partnership developed and assessed the value of adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopes for clinical vision research and patient care by studying the following: neovascularization in age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy; photoreceptors in retinal degenerative disease such as retinitis pigmentosa; ganglion cell bodies in glaucoma; individual retinal pigment epithelial cells; and blood flow in the smallest retinal capillaries. Five new scanning laser imaging instruments were completed using MEMS-based adaptive optics developed by the CfAO. This instrumentation was selected for a 2007 R&D 100 award, through a program sponsored by the Chicago-based, R&D Magazine, which recognizes the 100 most technologically significant inventions in the U.S. each year. In a related development, the U.K. company, Optos, is proceeding with plans to incorporate adaptive optics in a wide field scanning laser ophthalmoscope using intellectual property held by Rochester and Houston. This licensing agreement was signed in Year 7 and a newly graduated Ph.D. from the University of Rochester group joined Optos to participate in this effort in Year 8. In Year 9, a 5- year, competitive renewal proposal was awarded a follow-on grant by NIH, extending this work through 2013.

Partnership Activity Optical Coherence Tomography with Adaptive Optics Led by John Werner Participants Name of Organization List Shared Use of Resources Resources (if any) 1 UC Davis (Lead) Demonstrate the clinical utility of the combination of AO and optical coherence tomography (OCT) 2 LLNL 3 University of Indiana 4 Duke University

Based on research activities initially sponsored by CfAO, UC Davis led a successful proposal in 2003 for a Bioengineering Research Partnership (BRP) Grant for $5 million over 5 years. The proposal focuses on demonstrating the combination of AO and optical coherence tomography (OCT). The clinical utility of this combination, which should enable high-resolution imagery of the living retina with extremely high contrast ratios, will be evaluated. Achieving the highest possible contrast ratios in three-dimensional retinal images is important for the accurate visualization of many clinically important structures in the retina that have intrinsically low scattering cross sections, such as ganglion cells, which are damaged by glaucoma. Joint recipients of the grant are UC Davis, LLNL, Indiana University. During the fourth year of this project, we tested concepts for combining OCT with a scanning laser ophthalmoscope, enhancing polarization-sensitive OCT with AO, increasing axial resolution of AO OCT by compensating for ocular chromatic aberration, and completing a compact clinical AO OCT system. In Year 9, a 5- year, competitive renewal proposal was awarded a follow-on grant by NIH, extending this work through 2013

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Partnership Activity Micro-electro-mechanical systems Led by Scot Olivier, Don Gavel Participants Name of Organization List Shared Use of Resources (if any) Resources 1 A consortium, organized by the CfAO, to develop MEMS deformable mirror technology for adaptive optics for vision science and astronomy

The CfAO continues to support and coordinate the work at several universities (UC Santa Cruz, Boston University), national laboratories (LLNL) and industrial partners (Boston Micromachines, Iris AO, AOptix) to develop MEMS deformable mirror technology for adaptive optics suitable for application to vision science and astronomy. In Year 9, Boston Micromachines 140-actuator mirrors with ~4 micron stroke are being used in 7 vision science instruments developed by CfAO partnership activities, as well as an astronomical system on the 1-meter Nickel Telescope at Lick Observatory as part of the NSF-supported “Villages” project. Boston Micromachines has also developed a 140-actuator device with ~6 micron stroke. AOptix 37-actuator bimorph mirrors with a 10-mm clear aperture and ~15 micron stroke for focus correction are also in being used in Year 9 in 3 of these vision science instruments in combination with the Boston Micromachines devices in order to increase the ease of use in a clinical environment. Iris AO has successfully demonstrated a 37 segment deformable mirror with 5 micron stroke in a vision science test-bed at UC Berkeley. Furthermore, Boston Micromachines 1000-actuator mirrors continue to undergo testing in the ExAO test bed at the UCSC Laboratory for AO (where these devices have been used to reduce aberrations, initially at a level 1 micron peak-valley from a phase plate based on atmospheric statistics, to less than 6 nm rms in the controlled spatial frequency range using a spatially filtered Shack-Hartmann WFS) and on the LLNL high-speed ExAO test-bed (where these devices are being used to demonstrate high-speed AO control, using FFT-based reconstruction techniques, which are applicable to the Gemini Planet Imager). In addition, Boston Micromachines has developed a first-generation 4000-actuator device that is necessary for the Gemini Planet Imager.

Partnership Activity Lasers Led by Jay Dawson Participants Name of Organization List Shared Resources Use of Resources (if any) LLNL, UCSC, Stanford

LLNL has a project within the CfAO to study fiber lasers. Complementary aspects of this work have been supported by internal funding at LLNL. LLNL also has a grant from the NSF Adaptive Optics Development Program to extend this fiber laser work to a pulsed format more suitable for use on giant (30-m class) telescopes that will require multiple laser beacons. In Year 7, 3.8 W of output power was generated at 589 nm in a pulsed format. Significant industrial contacts have also been established to produce the new custom technology components required for this research, namely Nufern, Crystal Fibre in Denmark, PSI. There have been discussions with Actinix and Neolight regarding commercialization of this fiber laser system. In Year 9, the focus has been on preparing for the deployment of the system to the 1-meter Nickel Telescope at Lick

119 Observatory, to be tested with a MEMS AO system being developed for this telescope as part of the NSF-supported “Villages” project.

V.5 Other Partnership Activities

In the area of design of AO systems for future giant telescopes, CfAO previously cosponsored a working group with NOAO to produce a national AO technology development roadmap. This roadmap was used by the NSF to initiate an Adaptive Optics Development Program, which began in 2004 with an initial budget of ~$3M which was used to support 6 projects. CfAO researchers led 2 of these projects, and 2 others involve CfAO personnel. In addition, many CfAO institutions worked on design concepts for AO systems on giant segmented mirror telescopes as part of the California Extremely Large Telescope (CELT) project sponsored jointly by the University of California and Caltech. In Year 5, the CELT team joined with the U.S. and Canadian national efforts in giant segmented telescope design. The combined effort is called the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) project; substantial support for this project has been received from the Moore Foundation. The Canadian government (NRC and ACURA, the Association of Canadian Universities for Research in Astronomy) has also contributed funding for coordinated work in Canada. Many of the developments within the CfAO Theme on AO for Extremely Large Telescopes are now feeding in to the TMT Project implementation.

In a separate partnership between three CfAO institutions (the W. M. Keck Observatory, Caltech, and the University of California), CfAO members are leading development of the Next Generation AO (NGAO) system at Keck.

V.6 Future Plans  Continue to extend our leveraged partnership activities in the development and assessment of prototype clinical ophthalmic instrumentation.  Continue to drive the development of MEMS for vision science and astronomical applications through partnerships coordinated within the framework of our national MEMS consortium.  Continue to support coordinated development and demonstration of advanced laser guide star technologies.  Continue to develop a partnership with the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing Site that combines technical research and development with education and human resource development in Hawaii.  Focus on design concepts for AO systems on giant segmented telescopes in partnership with the TMT project.

120 VI. DIVERSITY

VI.1a Objectives. The CfAO established the following diversity goals early in the Center’s life:  Increase participation of underrepresented groups in CfAO research and education activities  Advance students from underrepresented groups into CfAO related fields through participation in CfAO activities

More recently, the CfAO added a new diversity goal that is aimed at making long-term changes in how science and engineering is taught:  PDP participants will gain tools and strategies for teaching science and engineering that promotes diversity and equity

VI.1b Performance and management indicators PARTNERSHIPS & LINKAGES. Develop linkages and partnerships that broaden participation in the CfAO and CfAO sites. The success metrics are:  Linkages between CfAO sites and organizations that serve significant numbers of students from underrepresented groups  New pathways that broaden access to CfAO and CfAO related fields  Joint activities, programs, and courses developed and implemented by CfAO and organizations that serve students from underrepresented groups  New mechanisms for engaging relevant communities in the CfAO and CfAO related fields

PEOPLE. Broaden participation of CfAO and CfAO fields by advancing students from under- represented groups. The success metrics are:  Number of underrepresented undergraduates participating in CfAO activities (research and education)  Number of underrepresented undergraduates retained in STEM  Number of underrepresented undergraduates advanced into CfAO, and CfAO related, graduate programs  Number of underrepresented graduate students participating in CfAO activities (research and education)

VI.1c Challenges The challenge faced by the CfAO can be seen throughout U.S. STEM graduate programs: women, underrepresented minorities, and U.S. citizens in general, are not pursuing doctoral degrees at the level appropriate to their representation in the U.S. college age population. Issues need to be tackled at many levels, from affecting who is interested in science and engineering (S&E), to who stays engaged and ultimately pursues and stays on a career path to S&E. One of the biggest challenges to diversity is convincing those who are currently in S&E, and those who teach S&E at our colleges and universities, that there is a problem at the undergraduate level, and that there are a growing number of strategies that can be implemented. We have found that our higher education communities are more interested in focusing attention on K-12 (where attention is certainly needed as well), rather than look at what is happening in their own classrooms. It has been an ongoing challenge to convince our own university community that we should first focus on the problems that are our own – that

121 we lose far too many students who start off in college interested in S&E, and disproportionately those from underrepresented groups.

VI.2a/b Activities and impact The CfAO has developed a two-strand approach to address diversity. The first is aimed at making an immediate impact by advancing students from underrepresented groups, who are currently “in the pipeline,” pursuing a career in science or technology. The second is aimed at addressing the longer-term problem created by how science and engineering is being taught and the belief, that how we teach science impacts who ends up in science. There are challenges in both strands that are faced not only by the CfAO, but by the entire country. While we have made progress in both strands, diversity continues to be a challenging issue that needs much more work. The following programs and activities (fully described in Education section of this report) are focused on:  Increasing participation of underrepresented groups in CfAO research and education activities  Advancing students from underrepresented groups into CfAO related fields through participation in CfAO activities

Mainland Internship Program Summer research experiences for undergraduates (4-yr and community college). The goal of the program focused retaining and advancing students from underrepresented groups in CfAO related fields. The most recently compiled record shows that 63 students entered the program (73% underrepresented minority [URM]; 62% female; 95% URM or female). Of those 63, at least 52 (83%), are still on a STEM education/career path. Eighteen of these students are now in science, engineering, or math graduate programs, or have earned graduate degrees (9 women; 14 URM):  Oscar Azucena, UC Santa Cruz, Electrical Engineering, Entered F2005, Cota- Robles Fellow; GREAT Fellow  Carlos Cabrera Andres, UC Santa Cruz, Electrical Engineering, Entered F2005  Nella Barrera, UC Irvine, Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Entered F2006  Arturo Cisneros, San Jose State University, Electrical Engineering, Entered S2007  Rigo Dicochea, UC Santa Cruz, Computer Engineering, Entered F2005  Jesus Enriquez, San Diego State University, Astronomy, Entered F2006  Bautista Fernandez, UC Santa Cruz, Electrical Engineering Master’s program, Entered F2004  Alex Gittens, California Institute of Technology, Applied and Computational Mathematics, Entered F2006  Monica Pinon, Optometry, IAUPR Bayamon campus, Entered F2007 (entered UCB Fall 2005; left w/o degree)  Amanda Young, Virginia Tech, Applied Math, Entered F2004  Sahar Kashef, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State, Entered F2007  Diana Lozano, Physiological Optics, University of Houston, Entered F2007  Neil Mendoza, Dartmouth Medical School, Entered F2007  Layra Reza, University of Texas, Mechanical Engineering, Entered F2007  Sarah Jenkins, University of Texas, Molecular Pathology, Entered F2007  Justin Griggs, Temple University, Math, Entered F 2007

122 Earned graduate degrees:  Kerry Highbarger, Optical Engineering, Ohio State, MS June 2006. Current position at SCHOTT as an optical engineer  Jacyln Plandowski, Electromagnetics, UC Los Angeles, Master’s Degree in December 2006. Current position at Raytheon

Akamai Internship Program Summer research experiences for college students who are Hawaii residents, or from Hawaii and studying on the mainland. The goal of the program is to retain and advance students in technical and scientific fields relevant to the state of Hawaii. Demographics and education/career status for Akamai participants are shown in the tables below:

Table 1 Demographics of Akamai Interns 2003-2008 Cohorts June, 2008

Hawaii Island Maui Total (49) (67) (116) Men 31 (63%) 46 (69%) 77 (66%) Women 18 (37%) 21 (31%) 39 (34%) Underrepresented minority1 21 (43%) 35 (52%) 56 (48%) Other ethnicity 28 (57%) 32 (48%) 60 (52%) Underrepresented group2 34 (69%) 44 (66%) 76 (67%) Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander 12 (24%) 17 (25%) 29 (25%) Hawaii Born3 27 (55%) 46 (69%) 73 (63%) 1. Includes Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, African American, Hispanic, and Native American, Filipino (does not include other Asians) 2. Women and/or underrepresented minorities 3. Note: all students in the Akamai program have ties to Hawaii

Table 2 Status of Akamai Interns 2003-2007 Cohorts June, 2008

Hawaii Island Maui Total (34) (52) (86) Participants maintaining contact 31 (91%) 48 (92%) 79 (92%) %’s below calculated from 92% of students maintaining contact A. In STE workforce 6 (20%) 19 (40%) 25 (32%) B. Enrolled in S&E program 22 (71%) 22 (46%) 44 (56%) C. On STE pathway (A+B) 28 (90%) 41 (85%) 69 (87%) Alternative calculation based on all students in the program A. Unknown 3 (9%) 4 (8%) 7 (8%) B. In STE workforce 6 (18%) 19 (37%) 25 (29%) C. Enrolled in S&E program 22 (65%) 22 (42%) 44 (51%) D. On STE pathway (B+C) 28 (82%) 41 (79%) 69 (80%) STE=science, technology, or engineering

Hawaii Akami Recruitment Program Recruitment is carried out by our on-island Internship Coordinator, Sarah Anderson, and through our statewide Akami Workforce Initiative (AWI) recruiting. Anderson focuses on

123 Big Island recruitment by visiting classes at Hawaii CC and UH Hilo, and maintaining contacts with a range of programs and program staff.

The 2008 Akamai programs experienced a significant change in the applicant pool, compared to 2007 (see Table 3 below), and had a dip in the number of applicants. Unfortunately, the number of women applicants dropped significantly, as did community college students (primarily due to a drop in Maui CC applicants). Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (NHPI) applicants also dropped. UH Manoa applicants increased; however, many of the past year’s NHPI applicants also came from UH Manoa. We have yet to understand if there is a reason or this is simply a natural part of the ebb and flow of applicant pools. There were several changes this year that could have negatively impacted the recruitment: 1) we did not host the Akamai Expo on Maui as we did in the past; 2) MEDB (including Women in Technology) is far less involved and is also hosting their own internships; 3) MCC is also hosting their own internships; and 4) staff turnover. Although the specific reason for the change in the applicant pool is unknown, it became apparent that we may have pulled back too much of our effort from Santa Cruz, or pulled it back too quickly. In the coming year, we will spend time analyzing our recruitment results from Year 9, and our plans for Year 10 for both Maui and the Big Island.

Table 3: Recruitment outcomes for Big Island and Maui Akamai Programs: 2008: 2007: 41 Complete Apps 49 complete apps 9 Maui, 16 BI, 16 both 18 Maui, 17 BI, 14 both 9 Female, 32 Male 21 female, 28 male 21 URM - 8 Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, 13 other 23 URM - 14 Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 8 CC (2 Hawaii, 1 Kauai, 4 Maui, 1 Windward) 17 CC - (3 HawCC, 2 HonCC, 12 MCC) 14 UH Manoa, 11 UH Hilo, 8 Mainland 6 UHManoa, 19 UHHilo, 7 mainland BI – Big Island, CC – Community Colleges, URM =underrepresented minorities

Applicant Breakdown (Percentages) Category 2007 2008 women 43% 22% all URM 57% 51% Hawaiian 29% 20% all CC 35% 20% just MCC 24% 10% all 4-year 65% 80% UHManoa 12% 34% UHHilo 39% 27%

124 Addressing Diversity through Teaching As stated earlier, the CfAO added a goal to address diversity in the long-term:  PDP participants will gain tools and strategies for teaching science and engineering that promotes diversity and equity

The primary method for achieving this goal is through the Professional Development Program (PDP) described earlier in this report. Over the last few years, we have added new components to our inquiry workshops specifically aimed at promoting diversity and equity through teaching methods. Research on undergraduate S&E education is growing, but there is already a rich body of knowledge that largely has not entered teaching practice. Studies that focus on issues of diversity from science education, cognitive and developmental psychology and the behavioral sciences offer an increasing number of practical recommendations for changing curricula. The rich body of knowledge aimed at K-12 education can also inform S&E higher education. For example, an individual’s cultural, linguistic and economic background can impact their productive participation in scientific practices. Communities that have studied multicultural education have guidelines for culturally responsive curriculum that could be adapted to higher education. This is an example of the diverse areas of the knowledge base that can help influence change now. The challenge is applying this knowledge in the classroom, and this has been our focus in the last few years. In March 2007, the PDP staff piloted a workshop entitled “Designing for Diversity.” The goal was to increase participants’ awareness of issues related to diversity and equity. The workshop included small group discussions and a review of the national data on S&E demographics, illustrating challenges and problems. Participants also read articles on stereotype threat26,27,28 and some of the teaching strategies that have emerged from that work. Participant response to this workshop was very good overall, so the PDP staff team used this feedback to offer the workshop again in 2008.

The 2008 CfAO PDP included a three hours workshop developed by Scott Seagroves, Anne Metevier, Lynne Raschke, Patrik Jonsson, and Lisa Hunter. The workshop, “Addressing Diversity and Equity” was designed to help PDP participant use diversity/equity as a consideration in their rationale for their design choices. Specifically, we wanted participants to:  Gain an awareness of diversity/equity issues in S&E, and why they should care about these issues  Gain an awareness that there is a culture of science (that interfaces with other cultures)  Gain an exposure to some strategies for designing for diversity  Grapple with the subtlety and difficulty of stereotype threat

The workshop began with an introduction to help introduce diversity within the context of the larger 4-day workshop and the overall PDP, and included the following components:

26 Steele, C. M., 1997. “A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance.” American Psychologist, 52:613-629. 27 Dar-Nimrod, I., and Heine, S., 2006. “Exposure to Scientific Theories Affects Women’s Math Performance”, Science 314:435. 28 Lehrman, S., 2005. “Performance without Anxiety”, Scientific American January 24, 2005. "The Power of Social Psychological Interventions", Wilson 2006, Science 313:1251.

125 Demographics of science and why science should care: Utilizing the eloquent argument for diversity outlined by Princeton University President Shirley M. Tilghman in 2003, demographics and statistics are presented to make the case for the need for diversity in science and engineering:  Talent pool: science and engineering want the best possible minds tackling the hardest problems – by not drawing on the broadest talent pool our fields do not reach their potential  Interests: the science and engineering interests of the overall population may differ from the interests of the sub-set currently pursuing science.  Recruitment: as some fields become more inclusive, those fields that lag behind in their diversity appear more and more anachronistic. This makes them not only less attractive to women and minorities (a reinforcing feedback effect) but also to the broader science community.  Fairness: a simple appeal to fairness, justice, democracy. From Tilghman: “it is simply unjust for a profession to organize itself, intentionally or unintentionally, in such a way as to exclude a significant proportion of the population”

Case Studies Related to Diversity and Equity: Participants were broken into smaller groups to discuss classroom scenarios, with facilitation by a PDP staff member. Some cases were taken directly from the Center for Integrating Research, Teaching and Learning (CIRTL), others adapted from CIRTL, and still others created by the PDP staff.

Beliefs about Identity: In this portion of the workshop a short presentation was given on “stereotype threat,” which refers to being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group. More than 300 peer-reviewed papers have been published on stereotype threat and its effect on academic performance. Participants were given a reading assignment prior to the workshop on stereotype threat, as well as some interventions for reducing it. The presentation included examples including, the “racism of lowered expectations” and others concerning outcomes of stereotype threat, but enforced the message that there are concrete strategies that can be used to offset this. (see: http://reducingstereotypethreat.org/).

Embedding Malleable Mindset into Teaching: This session built upon a reading assignment on the positive effect of classroom practices that encouraged students to view intelligence as malleable, or something that can grow with effort. Participants worked in small groups on the theme: "The readings mostly discuss social-psychology experiments. In these experiments, the intervention that encourages learners to think of their intelligence as malleable is entirely separate from the "real" learning that they do. How could we do a better job of "embedding" the malleable mindset within science activities?"

Outcomes from “Addressing Diversity and Equity” Workshop Participants completed a survey on how much they valued the diversity/equity workshop. Ratings were as follows: 1=not valuable at all 0 2=minimally valuable 3 (6%) 3=fairly valuable 19 (40%) 4=very valuable 25 (53%)

Overall participants valued this workshop, and indicated where improvements could be made. They suggested several case studies may need to be revised, and some participants remained

126 a little vague as how to take action. We will continue to make revisions, and may also need to consider whether our ambitious goals can be accomplished in a three hour period.

The real measure of impact is whether PDP participants can make design choices as they develop and then teach their activities. We are currently working on an assessment that hopefully will help determine to what extent, participants do change their practice.

VI. 2c Diversity Indicator Metrics The Diversity Indicator Metrics are provided in the section om Mainland Interns, and Tables 1, 2, and 3 above.

VI.2d Year 10 Diversity Plans No changes in strategy from Year 9 are anticipated.

127

VII. MANAGEMENT

VII.1a Organizational Strategy The Center’s Director is Professor Claire Max; the Managing Director is Dr. Chris Le Maistre. The Director has responsibility for the overall running of the Center and in particular the Center’s research agenda. The Managing Director is in charge of Center operations. A University Oversight Committee reviews Center activities on an annual basis and reports to the Vice Chancellor for Research. The Center’s Organization chart is shown in Appendix B.

The Center’s Research is divided into Themes as discussed in Section II. The theme leaders report to the director. UC Santa Cruz is the headquarters for the Center and the business offices of the ten collaborating sites report to the Managing Director.

Internal Management of the Center is by an Executive Committee (not shown in the organizational chart). This Committee meets bi-weekly and consists of the Director, Managing Director, Associate Directors (Theme Leaders) and selected leading researchers. The Director receives advice on management issues and developments in the Adaptive Optics field, from an External Advisory Board. This Board also reports to the Vice Chancellor for Research.

Each researcher submits an annual report and proposal for future research. Proposals are reviewed by the Executive Committee and funding for new or continuing proposals is determined by progress made against milestones in the previous year and the quality of the research proposal. A Proposal Advisory Committee (PAC) meets with the Executive Committee to review the proposals and funding levels and to help with decisions on proposals that are on the edge.

VII.1b Performance and Management Indicators. All proposals are required to include benchmarks to enable determination of progress during the year. As described above all progress reports and proposals are reviewed each year by the Executive Committee with assistance from the PAC. The final funding decisions rest with the Director.

VII.1c Impact of Metrics The stringent review of proposals and reports have over the years resulted in funding cuts to researchers and cancellation of projects. Conversely new projects have been funded in most years thus maintaining the vitality of the Center’s research agenda.

VII.1d Management Problems The Center’s Program Review Committee has already reviewed and evaluated the Year 10 research proposals. Most of the PIs, in anticipation of the reduction in funding, had reduced their budgets accordingly. This in conjunction with some further reductions and the elimination of some projects enabled the Review Committee to meet the budget constraints while maintaining the vitality of the research program.

VII.2 Management Communications The Center’s Executive Committee meets biweekly. The UC Santa Cruz members assemble in the CfAO conference room and out of town members join by video or tele-conferencing

128 links. The Executive Committee also meets periodically with NSF staff – Morris Aizenman (CfAO Technical Coordinator at NSF) and other members of NSF staff invited by Dr. Aizenman based on the agenda items to be discussed. These meetings are also held via video and tele-conferencing connections. The Executive Committee consists of:

Claire Max Director, UC Santa Cruz Chris Le Maistre Managing Director, UC Santa Cruz Lisa Hunter Associate Director (Leader Theme 1 – Education and Human Resources), UC Santa Cruz Don Gavel Associate Director (Leader Theme 2 – Extremely Large Telescopes), UC Santa Cruz Scot Olivier Associate Director Knowledge Transfer and Partnerships Austin Roorda Associate Director (Leader Theme 4 – Vision Science), UC Berkeley Bruce Macintosh Associate Director (Leader Theme 3 – Extreme AO), LLNL Jerry Nelson Former Director, Astronomy UCSC Andrea Ghez Member at large – Astronomy, UCLA David Williams Member at large – Vision Science, University of Rochester

Communication Problems No major problems associated with our electronic connectivity have been experienced. The video conferencing facility is used extensively for Executive Committee meetings, information exchange between researchers at different institutions, workshops, and also for interacting with summer interns who are at different research institutions on the Islands of Hawaii.

VII.3 Center Committees

Internal Oversight Committee – University of California Santa Cruz Name Affiliation 1 Bruce Margon Vice Chancellor, Research 2 Stephen Thorsett Dean of Physical and Biological Sciences 3 Michael Isaacson Acting Dean, School of Engineering 4 Michael Bolte Director, UCO/Lick Observatory 5 Lisa Sloan Vice Provost, Dean Graduate Studies

The Committee meets at least once a year. Additionally, the Center Director meets regularly with the Director of the UCO/Lick Observatory, who conveys concerns or issues to the Oversight Committee as needed.

129

The Program Advisory Committee Name Affiliation 1 Dr. Michael Lloyd-Hart University of Arizona 2 Dr. Mark Colavita Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA 3 Dr. Stanley Klein (Chair) University of California, Berkeley, CA 4 Dr. Malcolm Northcott AOPTIX Technologies, Campbell, CA 5 Ms. Carrol Moran University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 6 Dr. Rodney Ogawa University of California, Santa Cruz, CA

The External Advisory Board Name Affiliation 1 Dr. Christopher Dainty National University of Ireland 2 Dr. Ray Applegate University of Houston, TX 3 Dr. Thomas Cornsweet Visual Pathways Inc, Prescott, AZ 4 Dr. Norbert Hubin European Southern Observatory, Munich 5 Dr. Fiona Goodchild University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 6 Dr. Robert Fugate (Chair) NM Institute of Mining and Technology, Chairman 7 Dr. David R. Burgess Boston College, Boston, MA

VII.4 Changes to the Center’s Strategic Plan There have been no significant changes to the strategic plan since the last report. The Center as a whole, and the individual themes will continue to follow the strategic plans and Ghannt charts that were prepared at the commencement of Year 6.

The Center community in earlier Retreats focused on transition strategies after Year 10, were strongly in favor of continuing the core Center’s activities (Retreats, AO Summer School etc,) after the NSF funding ends a proposal was made to the University of California Office of the President (UCOP) to provide this funding.

In November 2007, UCOP informed the CfAO, “the Office of Research will provide $330,000 per year for five years (through to June 2012) for the operation of the CfAO.” Note: UCOP funding is not subjected to overhead. The new UC CfAO will be a UC systemwide, multicampus center within the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP).

The funding provides support for the continuation of the current NSF CfAO infrastructure – Office Staff, AO Summer School, Retreats, workshops and professional development programs for postdocs and graduate students. It is anticipated that affiliated faculty will seek research funding from Federal Agencies and other sources. The continuing collaboration between researchers in Astronomy and Vision Science is a key component of this UC funded Center.

130 VIII. CENTER-WIDE OUTPUTS AND ISSUES

VIII.1a. Center Publications

Year 9 Peer Reviewed Publications [1] Ádámkovics, M., M. Wong, C. Laver, and I. de Pater. “Detection of widespread morning drizzle on Titan.” Science 318 (2007); 962-965. (also Science Express Online 11 October 2007). [2] Arathorn D. W., Yang Q., Vogel C. R., Zhang Y., Tiruveedhula P., and Roorda A. "Retinally stabilized cone-targeted stimulus delivery." Optics Express 15 (2007): 13731-13744. http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?URI=oe-15-21-13731 [3] Baraas, R., Carroll, J., Gunther, K., Chung, M., Williams, D.R., Foster, D., Neitz, M. “Adaptive-optics retinal imaging reveals S-cone dystrophy in tritan color-vision deficiency.” JOSA A 23.5 (2007): 1438-1447. [4] Boden, A. F., Torres, G., Sargent, A. I., Akeson, R. L., Carpenter, J. M., Boboltz, D. A., Massi, M., Ghez, A. M., Latham, D. W., Johnston, J. K., Menten, K. M., Ros, E. “Dynamical Masses for Pre-Main-Sequence Stars: A Preliminary Physical Orbit for V773 Tau A.” Astrophysical Journal 670 (2007): 1214. [5] Bouy, H., E.L. Martin, W. Brander, T. Forveille, X. Delfosse, N. Huelamo, G. Basri, J. Girard,M.-R., Zapatero Osori, M. Stumpf, A. Ghez, L. Valdivielso, F. Marchis, A.J. Burgasser, K.Cruz. “Follow-up Observations of Binary Ultra-Cool Dwarfs.” Astronomy and Astrophysics 481.3 (2008): 757-767. [6] Brainard, D.H., Williams, D.R., Hofer, H. “Trichromatic reconstruction from the interleaved cone mosaic: Bayesian model and the color appearance of small spots.” Journal of Vision (in press). [7] Chen, L., Artal, P., Gutierrez, D., Williams, D. R. “Neural compensation for the best aberration correction.” Journal of Vision 7.10.9 (2007): 1-9. [8] Choi, Stacey S., Doble, Nathan, Christou, Julian, Pan, Gang, Enoch, Jay M., Williams, David R. “In vivo imaging of the human rod photoreceptor mosaic.” Optics Express (submitted). [9] de Pater, I., C. Laver, F. Marchis, H.G. Roe, and B.A. Macintosh. “Spatially Resolved Observations of the Forbidden SO Rovibronic Transition on Io during an Eclipse.” Icarus 191.1 (2007): 172-182. [10] de Pater, I., H.B. Hammel, M.R. Showalter, and M. van Dam. “The dark side of the rings of Uranus.” Science 317 (2007): 1888-1890. (also: Science Express Online 23 August 2007) [11] Descamps, P., Marchis, F. “Specific Angular Momentum of Binary Asteroids.” Icarus 193.1 (2008): 74-84. [12] Doble, N., Miller, D.T., Yoon, G., Williams, D.R. “Requirements for discrete actuator and segmented wavefront correctors for aberration compensation in two large populations of human eyes.” Applied Optics 46.20 (2007): 4501-4514. [13] Duchêne, G., Bontemps, S., Bouvier, J., Andr´e, P., Djupvik, A. A., and Ghez, A.M. “Multiple Protostellar Systems II. A High Resolution Near-Infrared Imaging Survey in Nearby Star-Forming Region.” Astronomy & Astrophysics 476 (2007): 229.

131 [14] Duncan, J.L., Zhang, Y., Gandhi, J., Nakanishi, C., Othman,M., Branham, K.H., Swaroop, A., and Roorda, A. "High resolution imaging of foveal cones in patients with inherited retinal degenerations using adaptive optics." Investigative Ophthalmology and Vision Science 48 (2007): 3283-3291. [15] Fitzgerald, P., Kalas, P. G., Duchêne, G., Pinte, C., Graham, J. R. “The AU Microscopii Debris Disk: Multiwavelength Imaging and Modeling.” Astrophysical Journal 670 (2007): 536. [16] Fitzgerald, M. P. & Graham, J. R. “Speckle Statistics in Adaptively Corrected Images.” Astrophysical Journal 637 (2007): 541. [17] Fitzgerald, M. P., Kalas, P. G., Graham, J. R. “A Ring of Warm Dust in the HD 32297 Debris Disk.” Astrophysical Journal 670 (2007): 557 [18] Flicker R. "Outer scale effect on anisoplanatism in adaptive optics", OSA, submitted, April 2008. [19] Gao, W., Cense, B., Zhang, Y., Jonnal, R., and Miller, D. "Measuring retinal contributions to the optical Stiles-Crawford effect with optical coherence tomography." Optical Express 16 (2008): 6486-6501. http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?URI=oe-16-9-6486. [20] Gaudi, B. S., Bennett, D. P., Udalski, A., Gould, A., Christie, G. W., Maoz, D., Dong, S., McCormick, J., Szymas ki, M. K., Tristram, P. J., and 58 others. “Discovery of a Jupiter/Saturn Analog with Gravitational Microlensing.” Science 319 (2008): 927. [21] Gedeon, T., Arathorn, D. W. “Convergence of Map-Seeking Circuits.” Journal of Mathematical Imaging and Vision 29.2-3 (2007): 235-248. [22] Graham, J. R., Kalas, P., & Matthews, B. C. “The Signature of Primordial Grain Growth in the Polarized Light of the AU Microscopii Debris Disk.” Astrophysical Journal 654 (2007): 595. [23] Gray, D.C., Merigan, W., Wolfe, R., Gee, B., Scoles, D., Geng, Y., Masella, B.D., Dubra, A., Luque, S., Williams, D.R. “In vivo imaging of the fine structure of rhodamine labeled macaque retinal ganglion cells.” IOVS 49.1 (2007): 467-73. [24] Grieve, K.F., Roorda, A. “Intrinsic Signals from Human Cone Photoreceptors.” Investigative Ophthalmology and Vision Science 49.2 (2008): 713-719. [25] Hammel, H.B., Sitko, M.L., Lynch, D.K., Orton, G.S., Russell, R.W., Geballe, T.R., and de Pater, I. “Distribution of Ethane and Methane Emission on Neptune.” Astronomical Journal 134 (2007): 637-641. [26] Hornstein, S., Matthews, K., Ghez, A. M., Lu, J. R., Morris, M., Becklin, E. E., Rafelski, M., Bagano “Sagittarius A* During Infrared/X-ray Intensity Variations,” ApJ, 667, 900 [27] Jonnal, R., Rha, J., Zhang, Y., Cense, B., Gao, W., and Miller, D. "In vivo functional imaging of human cone photoreceptors." Optical Express 15 (2007): 16141-16160. http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?URI=oe-15-24-16141. [28] Kalas, P., Duchene, G., Fitzgerald, M. P., Graham, James R. “Discovery of an Extended Debris Disk around the F2 V Star HD 15745.” Astrophysical Journal 671L (2007): 161. [29] Kalas, P., Fitzgerald, M, & Graham, J. R. “Discovery of extreme asymmetry in the debris disk surrounding HD 15115.” Astrophysical Journal 661L (2007): 85.

132 [30] Konopacky, Q. M., Ghez, A. M., Rice, E. L., and Duchêne, G. “New Very Low Mass Binaries in the Taurus Star Forming Region.” Astrophysical Journal 663 (2007): 394. [31] Lafreniere, D., Doyon, R., Marois, C., Nadeau, D., Oppenheimer, B., Roche, P., Rigaut, F., Graham, J., Jayawardhana, R., Johnstone, D., Kalas, P., Macintosh, B., and Racine, R. “The Gemini Deep Planet Survey.” Astrophysical Journal 670 (2007): 1367. [32] Larkin, J., Barczys, M., Krabbe, A., Adkins, S., Aliado, T., Amico, P., Brims, G., Campbell, R., Canfield, J., Gasaway, T., and 15 coauthors. “OSIRIS: A diffraction limited integral field spectrograph for Keck.” New Astronomy 50 (2006): 362. [33] Laver, C., de Pater, I., Roe, H.G., and Strobel, D.F. “Temporal variability of the SO 1.707 μm rovibronic emission band in Io’s atmosphere.” Icarus 189 (2007):401-408. [34] Laver, C., I. de Pater, and F. Marchis. “Tvashtar awakening detected in April 2006 with OSIRIS at the W.M. Keck Observatory.” Icarus 191.2 (2007): 749-754. [35] Maness, H., Martins, F., Trippe, S., Genzel, R., Graham, J. R., Sheehy, C., Salaris, M., Gillessen, S., Alexander, T., Paumard, T. “Evidence for a Long-standing Top-heavy Initial Mass Function in the Central Parsec of the Galaxy.” Astrophysical Journal 669 (2007): 1024. [36] Hom, E.F. Y., F. Marchis, T.K. Lee, S. Haase, D. A. Agards, J.W. Sedat. “AIDA: an adaptive image deconvolution algorithm with application to multi-frame and three dimensional data ” JOSA A 24.6 (2007): 1580-1600. [37] Marois, C., Lafreniere, D., Macintosh, B., Doyon, R. “Confidence and Sensitivity Limits in High-Contrast Imaging.” Astrophysical Journal 673 (2008): 647. [38] Marshall, P. J., T. Treu, J. Melbourne, R. Gavazzi, K. Bundy, A. M. Ammons, A. S. Bolton, S. Burles, J. E. Larkin, D. Le Mignant, D. C. Koo, L. V. E. Koopmans, C. E. Max, L. A. Moustakas, E. Steinbring, S. A. Wright. “Super-Resolving Distant Galaxies with Gravitational Telescopes: Keck LGSAO and Hubble Imaging of the Lens System SDSSJ0737+3216.” Astrophysical Journal 671 (2007): 1196. [39] Matthews, B. C., Graham, J. R., Perrin, M. D.; Kalas, P. “The Molecular Gas Environment around Two Herbig Ae/Be Stars: Resolving the Outflows of LkH alpha 198 and LkH alpha 225S.” Astrophysical Journal 671 (2007): 483. [40] McElwain, M.W., Metchev, S.A., Larkin, J.E., Barczys, M., Iserlohe, C., Krabbe, A., Quirrenbach, A., Weiss, J., Wright, S.A. “First High-Contrast Science with an Integral Field Spectrograph: The Substellar Companion to GQ Lupi.” Astrophysical Journal 656 (2007): 505. [41] Melbourne, J., Dawson, K. S., Koo, D. C., Max, C., Larkin, J. E., Wright, S. A., Steinbring, E., Barczys, M., Aldering, G., Barbary, K., Doi, M., Fadeyev, V., Goldhaber, G., Hattori, T., Ihara, Y., Kashikawa, N., Konishi, K., Kowalski, M., Kuznetsova, N., Lidman, C., Morokuma, T., Perlmutter, S., Rubin, D., Schlegel, D. J., Spadafora, A. L., Takanashi, N., Yasuda, N. “Rest-Frame R-band Light Curve of a z ~ 1.3 Supernova Obtained with Keck Laser Adaptive Optics.” Astronomical Journal 133 (2007): 2709. [42] Melbourne, J. Ammons, M., Wright, S. A., Metevier, A., Steinbring, E., Max, C., Koo, D. C., Larkin, J. E., Barczys, M. “Triggered or Self-Regulated Star Formation Within Intermediate Redshift Luminous Infrared Galaxies. I. Morphologies and Spectral Energy Distributions.” Astronomical Journal 135 (2007): 1207. [43] Morgan, J.I.W., Hunter, J.J., Masella, B., Wolfe, R., Gray, D.C., Merigan, W.H.,

133 Delori, F.C., William, D.R. “Light induced retinal changes observed using high resolution autofluorescence imaging of the retinal pigment epithelium.” IOVS (in press). [44] Oppenheimer, B. R., Brenner, D., Hinkley, S., Zimmerman, Neil; Sivaramakrishnan, A., Soummer, R., Kuhn, J., Graham, J. R., Perrin, Marshall; Lloyd, J. P. “The Solar- System-Scale Disk Around AB Aurigae.” Astrophysical Journal in press. arXiv0803. (2008): 3629. [45] Perrin, M. D., Graham, J. R., Lloyd, J. P. “The IRCAL Polarimeter: Design, Calibration, and Data Reduction for an Adaptive Optics Imaging Polarimeter.” Astrophysical Journal arXiv0804 (2008): 1550. [46] Perrin, Marshall D. & Graham, J. R. “Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics Integral Field Spectroscopy of a Tightly Collimated Bipolar Jet from the Herbig Ae Star LkH alpha 233.” Astrophysical Journal 670 (2007): 499. [47] Poyneer, L.A., and Véran, J.-P. “Predictive wavefront control for adaptive optics with arbitrary control loop delays,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A (accepted 2008). [48] Poyneer, L.A., Dillon, D., Thomas, S., and Macintosh, B. “Laboratory demonstration of accurate and efficient nanometer-level wavefront control for extreme adaptive optics.” Applied Optics 47 (2008): 1317–1326. [49] Poyneer, L.A. , Macintosh, B.A., and Véran, J.-P. “Fourier transform wavefront control with adaptive prediction of the atmosphere.” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 24 (2007): 2645–2660. [50] Quirrenbach, A., Larkin, J., Barczys, M., Gasaway, T., Iserlohe, C., Krabbe, A., McElwain, M., Song, I., Weiss, J., Wright, S. “OSIRIS: AO-assisted integral-field spectroscopy at the Keck Observatory.” New Astronomy Review 49 (2006): 639. [51] Rossi, E.A., Weiser, P., Tarrant, J., Roorda, A., "Visual Performance in Emmetropia and Low Myopia After Correction of High Order Aberrations." Journal of Vision 7.8 (2007): 1-14. http://www.journalofvision.org/7/8/14/ [52] Roorda,A., Zhang,Y., & Duncan,J.L. "High-resolution in vivo imaging of the RPE mosaic in eyes with retinal disease." Investigative Ophthalmology and Vision Science 48.5 (2007): 2297-2303. [53] Sabesan, R., Jeong, T.M., Cox, I., Williams, D.R., Yoon, G.Y. “Vision improvement by correcting higher-order aberrations with customized soft contact lenses in keratoconic eyes.” Optics Letters 32.8 (2007): 1000-1002. [54] Spencer, J.R., S.A. Stern, A.F. Cheng, H.A. Weaver, D.C. Reuter, K. Retherford, A. Lunsford, J.M. Moore, O. Abramov, R.M.C. Lopes, J.E. Perry, L. Kamp, M. Showalter, K.L. Jessup, F. Marchis, P.M Schenk, C. Dumas, “Io Volcanism seen by New Horizons: a major eruption of the Tvashtar volcano.” Science 318.5848 (2007): 240. [55] Sromovsky, L.A, P.M. Fry, H.B. Hammel, I. de Pater, K.A. Rages, M.R. Showalter. “Dynamics, evolution, and structure of Uranus’ brightest cloud feature.” Icarus 192 (2007): 558-575. [56] Steinbring, E., Melbourne, J., Metevier, A. J., Koo, D. C., Chun, M. R., Simard, L., Larkin, J. E., Max, C. E., “CATS: Optical to Near-Infrared Colors of the Bulge and Disk of Two z ~ 0.7 Galaxies using HST and Keck Laser Adaptive Optics Imaging,” 2008, Resubmitted to AJ in response to referee comments. Publication expected shortly.

134 [57] Stolte, A., Ghez, A. M., Morris, M., Lu, J. R., Brandner, W., Matthews, K., 2008, “The Proper Motion of the Arches Cluster with Keck Laser-Guide Star Adaptive Optics,” ApJ, 675, 1278 [58] Tanner, A., Beichman, C., Akeson, R., Ghez, A., Grankin, K. N., Herbst, W., Hillenbrand, L., Huerta, M., Konopacky, Q., Metchev, S., Mohanty, S., Prato, L., Simon, M. “SIM PlanetQuest Key Project Precursor Observations to Detect Gas Giant Planets around Young Stars.” PASP 119 (2007): 747-767. [59] Wang Lianqi, Ellerbroek Brent, and Gilles Luc “Impact of sodium layer profile variability upon LASER guidance adaptive optics performance” Submitted to Optics Express, 2008 [60] Wright, S. A., Larkin, J. E., Barczys, M., Erb, D. K., Iserlohe, C., Krabbe, A., Law, D. R., McElwain, M. W., Quirrenbach, A., Steidel, C. C., & Weiss, J. “Integral Field Spectroscopy of a Candidate Disk Galaxy at z ~ 1.5 Using Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics.” Astrophysical Journal 658 (2007): 78. [61] Vacca, W. D., Sheehy, C. D., & Graham, J. R. “Imaging of the Stellar Population of IC 10 with Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics and the Hubble Space Telescope.” Astrophysical Journal 662 (2007): 272. [62] Zawadzki, R., Cense, B., Zhang, Y., Choi, S., Miller, D., and Werner, J. “Ultrahigh- resolution optical coherence tomography with monochromatic and chromatic aberration correction.” Optical Express (accepted).

Year 9 Books and Book Chapters

[1] Hofer, H., Carroll, J., Williams, D.R. (in press) Photoreceptor Mosaics. In Larry R. Squire, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, Academic Press, Oxford, 2008. [2] Dubra and D. R Williams, “Dual wavefront corrector ophthalmic adaptive optics: design and alignment,” Proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Adaptive Optics for Industry and Medicine, Galway, Ireland (2007). [3] Dubra, D.C. Gray, W. Merigan, J.I. Morgan and D.R. Williams, “MEMS in adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy: achievements and challenges,” SPIE Proceedings, Vol. 6888, edited by Scot S. Olivier; Thomas G. Bifano; Joel A. Kubby (2008).

Year 9 Publications: Non-Peer Reviewed Papers

[1] Ádamkovics, M., M.H. Wong, C. Laver, I. de Pater, 2007. Detection of Condensed Phase Methane in Titan’s Lower Atmosphere with Near-IR Spectra from Keck/OSIRIS. BAAS 39, #47.03 [2] Baek, M. and F. Marchis. “Next Generation Adaptive Optics: Optimum Pixel Sampling for Asteroid Companion Studies.” KAON 529 (2007). [3] Berthier, Eugenia J., P. Descamps, F. Marchis, M. Baek, I. de Pater, H. Hammel, and M. Showalter. CBET 1073 (2007) [4] de Pater, I., H. Hammel, M.R. Showalter, S. Gibbard, K. Matthews, P.D. Nicholson, D. Stam, M. Hartung, M. van Dam, 2007. First results from Ground-based Observations of the Ring Plane Crossings of Uranus. BAAS 39, #10.11 [5] Duncan, J.L. Zhang, Y, Solovyev, A., Sundquist, S. Chang, S., Smaoui, N., Roorda, A,

135 “Structural Correlation Using Adaptive Optics Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy in X- Linked Retinoschisis” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48: E-Abstract 5391 [6] Duncan ,J.L., Roorda, A., “Adaptive Optics Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy Imaging in Patients with Retinal Degenerations” invited talk for ARVO minisymposium. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48: E-Abstract 1999 [7] Doble, N. Kempf, C., Helmbrecht, M., Roorda, A., “Closed Loop Adaptive Optics in the Human Eye Using a Segmented MEMS Deformable Mirror” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48: E-Abstract 4195 [8] Ghez, A. M., Salim, S., Weinberg, N., Lu, J., Do, T., Dunn, J. K., Matthews, K., Morris, M., Yelda, S., Becklin, E. E. “Probing the Properties of the Milky Way’s Central Supermassive Black Hole with Stellar Orbits,” 2008, Invited paper in IAU 248. [9] Graham, et al. “Ground-Based Direct Detection of Exoplanets with the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI): A White Paper Submitted to the AAAC Exoplanet Task Force”, 2007, astroph/ 0704.1454 [10] Graham, et al. “Ground-Based Direct Detection of Exoplanets with the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI): A White Paper Submitted to the AAAC Exoplanet Task Force”, 2007, astroph/ 0704.1454 [11] Graham, James R.; Macintosh, B.; Doyon,!R.; Gavel, D.; Larkin, J.; Levin, M.; Oppenheimer, B.; Palmer, D.; Saddlemyer, L.; Sivaramakrishnan, A “Ground-Based Direct Detection of Exoplanets with the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI)”, 2007, BAAS, 211.13402 [12] Hammel, H. B., M.L. Sitko, G.S. Orton, T.R. Geballe, D.K. Lynch, R.W. Russell, I. de Pater, 2007. Infrared Imaging of Neptune with Gemini/Michelle and Keck/NIRC2. BAAS 39, #55.07 [13] Hammel, H. B., I. de Pater, M. Showalter, M. van Dam, 2007. First Image of the Dark Side of the Rings of Uranus. AAS Meeting #211, #56.08 [14] Helmbrecht M. A., C. J. Kempf, N. Doble, “Towards a compact ‘plug and play’ MEMS deformable mirror system,” Proc. of SPIE, Vol. 6888, San Jose, CA, Jan. 2008. [15] Helmbrecht M. A., C. J. Kempf, N. Doble, “Wavefront fitting characterization of a piston-tip-tilt segmented MEMS deformable mirror,” Proc. of SPIE, Vol. 6888, San Jose, CA, Jan. 2008. [16] Kaasalainen M., F. Marchis, B. Carry,Asteroid maps from photometry and adaptive optics (talk) AAS-DPS, 39, #30.12, Orlando, FL, October 2007 [17] Hom E., F. Marchis, T.K. Lee, S. Haase, D.A. Agard, and J.W. Sedat AIDA: an Adaptive Image Deconvolution Algorithm (poster) AAS-DPS, 39, #35.17, Orlando, FL, October 2007 [18] Kalas, P., Duchene, G., Fitzgerald, M. P.; Graham, J.R. “Hubble Space Telescope Discovery of a Large, Fan-Shaped Debris Disk around HD 15745” 2007, BAAS, 211.12404 [19] Kalas, P. “The Observed Structure of Exosolar Kuiper Belts: Surprising Results and Unanswered Questions”, 2007, BAAS, 211.10902 [20] Kalas, P.; Graham, J. R.; Fitzgerald, M. “The Blue Needle: A Highly Asymmetric Debris Disk Surrounding HD 15115” 2007, Proceedings of the conference In the Spirit of Bernard Lyot: The Direct Detection of Planets and Circumstellar Disks in the 21st

136 Century. June 04 - 08, 2007. University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. Ed. Paul Kalas. [21] Kalas, P. “The Spirit of Lyot Conference: Motivations and Goals”, 2007, Proceedings of the conference In the Spirit of Bernard Lyot: The Direct Detection of Planets and Circumstellar Disks in the 21st Century. June 04 - 08, 2007. University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. Ed. Paul Kalas. [22] Kalas, P. “The Direct Detection of Planets and Circumstellar Disks in the 21st Century” 2007, Proceedings of the conference In the Spirit of Bernard Lyot: The Direct Detection of Planets and Circumstellar Disks in the 21st Century. June 04 - 08, 2007. University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. Ed. Paul Kalas. [23] Konopacky, Q., Ghez, A.M., Barman, T.S., Rice, E. L., McLean, I.S., and Duchéne, G. “A Keck Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics Study of Brown Dwarf Binaries: Constraining Evolutionary Models with New Dynamical Masses.” BAAS 211 (2007): 3305. [24] Laver, C., I. de Pater, 2007. Mapping SO2 Ice On Io’s Surface Using The Osiris Integral Field Spectrometer At The W. M. Keck Observatory. BAAS 39, #3.02 [25] Li, K.Y., Tiruveedhula, P., Roorda, A, “Assessment of a Linearized Controller on a MEMS Adaptive Optics System for Correcting Static and Dynamic Aberrations” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48: E-Abstract 4197 [26] Macintosh, B., Graham, J.R., Palmer, D., Doyon, R., Larkin, J., Oppenheimer,B.; Saddlemyer, L., Veran, J., Wallace, J. K., “The Gemini Planet Imager”, BAAS, 211.3005, 2007 [27] Marchis F., P. Descamps, J. Berthier, D. Hestroffer, F. Vachier, M. Baek, “Mutual Orbits, Bulk Densities, Formation and Evolution of Multiple Visualized Main-Belt Asteroids” (talk) AAS-DPS, 39, #16.07, Orlando, FL, October 2007 [28] Max, C. E., “Active Galactic Nuclei with Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics: Status and Future Prospects,” Invited plenary talk, American Astronomical Society meeting #212, St. Louis MO, BAAS 40, p. 270, 2008 [29] Mueller M., F. Marchis, J.P. Emery, J. Berthier, D. Hestroffer, A. Harris, P. Descamps, F. Vachier, S. Mottola, Spitzer Observations of Mutual Events in the Binary System (617) Patroclus-Menoetius (talk) AAS-DPS, 39, #30.12, Orlando, FL, October 2007 [30] Perrin, M. D., Graham, J. R., Macintosh, B. A. “Diffraction-Limited Infrared Imaging Spectroscopy of Outflows from Young Stars” 2007, AAS, 211.15402 [31] Poyneer L.A. and D.Dillon, “MEMS Adaptive Optics for the Gemini Planet Imager: control methods and validation,” in “MEMS Adaptive Optics II,” S. Olivier, T. Bifano, and J. Kubby, eds. (2008), Proc. SPIE 6888, p. 68880H. [32] Putnam, N. Hammer, D.X., Roorda, A., “Optical Properties of Foveal Cones: Consequences for Imaging” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48: E-Abstract 4202 [33] Roorda, A, Sundquist, S. Zhang, Y, Solovyev, A., Nakanishi C., Gandhi J., Duncan J.L., “Cone Identification and Tracking Using High-Resolution in vivo Imaging” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48: E-Abstract 1850 [34] Showalter, M. R., J.J. Lissauer, R.G. French, D.P. Hamilton, P.D. Nicholson, I. de Pater, 2007. HST Observations of the Uranian Ring Plane Crossing: Early Results. BAAS 39, #10.12

137 [35] Sicardy B., T. Widemann, F. Colas, and 25 collaborators,Pluto's Atmospheric Activity, Ephemeris Offset and Satellite Detections from Observations in 2007 (talk) AAS-DPS, 39, #62.02, Orlando, FL, October 2007 [36] Stolte, A., Ghez, A. M., Morris, M., Lu, J. R., Brandner, W., Matthews, K. “The Proper Motion of the Arches Cluster with Keck Laser-Guide Star Adaptive Optics.” Astrophysics Journal 675 (2007): 1278 . [37] Sundquist, S. Duncan J.L., Zhang, Y, Solovyev, A., Chang, S., Macdonald, I.M., Roorda, A, “Cone Structure in Patients With Mutations in the Choroideremia Gene” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48: E-Abstract 2157 [38] Thomas, S., Evans, J., Phillion, D., Gavel, D., Dillon, D.,, and Macintosh, B., “Amplitude variations on the ExAO testbed: Part II”, Proc. SPIE 6888, 17Zhang, Y. Tiruveedhula, P., Roorda, A, “Dual-Wavelength Confocal Adaptive Optics Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscope (AOSLO)” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48: E-Abstract 4510

Year 9 Conference Presentations

[1] Berthier J., F. Marchis, P. Descamps, and 21 collaborators,An Observing Campaign of the Mutual Events Within (617) Patroclus Menoetius Binary Trojan System (poster) AAS-DPS, 39, #35.05, Orlando, FL, October 2007 [2] Cense Barry, Jeffrey M. Brown, Eric Koperda, Ravi S. Jonnal, Weihua Gao, and Donald T. Miller, "Retinal imaging with adaptive optics and ultra-high resolution optical coherence tomography," Thorlabs, Newton, NJ, April 10, 2008 (invited). [3] Cense Barry, Ravi S. Jonnal, Weihua Gao, and Donald T. Miller, “Quantifying polarization properties of the in vivo retina with adaptive optics and polarization- sensitive optical coherence tomography,” Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers' 2008 International Symposium on Ophthalmic Technologies XVIII, San Jose, CA, January 19-24, 2008 [4] Cense Barry, Jeffrey M. Brown, Eric Koperda, Ravi S. Jonnal, Weihua Gao, and Donald T. Miller, "Adaptive optics combined with ultrahigh resolution and polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography," Utsonomiya University, Utsonomiya, Japan, May 9, 2008 (invited). [5] Cense, Barry, Jeffrey M. Brown, Eric Koperda, Ravi S. Jonnal, Weihua Gao, and Donald T. Miller, "Adaptive optics combined with ultrahigh resolution and polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography," Kyung Buk National University, Taegu, South Korea, May 13, 2008 (invited). [6] Cense Barry, Jeffrey M. Brown, Eric Koperda, Ravi S. Jonnal, Weihua Gao, and Donald T. Miller, "Adaptive optics combined with ultrahigh resolution and polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography," Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejon, South Korea, May 14, 2008 (invited). [7] Cense Barry, Jeffrey M. Brown, Eric Koperda, Ravi S. Jonnal, Weihua Gao, and Donald T. Miller, "Adaptive optics combined with ultrahigh resolution and polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography," Conference on Opto-electronics and Optical Communications, Pusan, South-Korea, May 16, 2008 (invited). [8] Cense Barry, Ravi S. Jonnal, Jeffrey M. Brown, Weihua Gao, and Donald T. Miller, “Functional imaging of cone photoreceptors using ultrahigh resolution optical coherence tomography and adaptive optics,” Association of Research in Vision and Ophthalmology, Fort Lauderdale, FL, April 27 – May 1, 2008. [9] Helmbrecht M. A., C. J. Kempf, M. He, “Extreme-precision segmented deformable mirror development for nulling-coronagraph imaging,” to be presented at the SPIE

138 Astronomical Instrumentation conference, session 7010, Marseille, France June 28, 2008. [10] Jonnal Ravi S., Barry Cense, Weihua Gao, and Donald T. Miller, “Sight seeing: in vivo detection of human cone phototransduction,” Optical Society of America Fall Vision Meeting, Berkeley, CA, September 16-19, 2007. [11] Jonnal Ravi S., Barry Cense, Weihua Gao, Jeffrey M. Brown, Cheng Zhu and Donald T. Miller, “Imaging the functional response of cones to color stimuli,” Association of Research in Vision and Ophthalmology, Fort Lauderdale, FL, April 27 – May 1, 2008 [12] Li, K.Y., Mishra, S., Roorda, A., “Simulation and experimental demonstration of a linearized adaptive optics control loop” OSA Fall Vision Meeting, Berkeley CA, September 2007. [13] Marchis F., M. Baek, J. Berthier, P. Descamps, B. Macomber, J. P. Emery, J. Pollock, F. Vachier, “Multiple Asteroids Systems: new techniques to study new worlds” (talk) Asteroid, Comets, Meteors conference 2008, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, July 2008. [14] Marchis F., M. Baek, J.P. Emery, T. Michalowski, J. Pollock, J. Berthier, P. Descamps, B. Macomber, F. Velichko,Survey of Binary Asteroid Systems with Spitzer/IRS (poster) Asteroid, Comets, Meteors conference 2008, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, July 2008. [15] Marchis F., I. de Pater, Solar System results with Adaptive Optics (invited talk) SPIE Proceeding, in preparation, June 2008. [16] Marchis F., J. Spencer, R.M. Lopes, A.G. Davies, Monitoring Io Volcanism with AO telescopes during and after the New Horizons flyby (talk) AGU Fall conference, San Francisco, CA, USA, December 2007 [17] Marchis F., J. Berthier, P. Descamps, B. Sicardy, A. Doressoundiram,Stellar Occultations of Small Solar System Bodies with SOFIA (talk) SOFIA 2020 vision workshop, Caltech, CA, USA, December 2007 [18] Marchis, F. Searching and Characterizing Multiple Trojan Asteroids with LGS AO Systems (talk) Astronomy with Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics, Ringberg Conference, Germany, November 2007 [19] Marchis F., Astronomy with Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics, Ringberg castle, Germany, Nov 2007, Searching and Characterizing Multiple Trojan Asteroids with LGS AO Systems (talk) [20] Polinska M., P. Bartczak, T. Michalowski, F. Marchis, J. Pollock, F. Colas, J. Lecacheux, M. Baek, B. Macomber, M.H. Wong, D. E. Reichart, K.M. Ivarsen, J.A. Crain, M.C. Nysewander, A.P. Lacluyze, J.B. Haislip, J.S. Harvey, F.B. Ribas, M. Assafin, J.I.B. Camargo, R. Viera Martins, CCD Observations and Modeling of 4492 Debussy Eclipsing Binary Asteroid (poster) Asteroid, Comets, Meteors conference 2008, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, July 2008. [21] Poyneer L.A. and J.P. Véran, “Adaptive wavefront calibration and control for the Gemini Planet Imager,” in “Adaptive Optics: Analysis and Methods,” (2007), OSA Topical Meeting. [22] Sincich, L.C., Zhang, Y., Tiruveedhula, P., Adams, D.L., Yang, Q., Vogel, C.R., Arathorn, D.W., Horton, J.C., Roorda, A., “Mapping LGN receptive fields by single cone stimulation with adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy” Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, November 2007 [23] Stevenson Scott, Girish Kumar, Austin Roorda (2007). Psychophysical and oculomotor reference points for visual direction measured with the Adaptive Optics Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscope. Vision Sciences Society Annual Meeting 2007 http://journalofvision.org/7/9/137/ [24] Venkiteshwar M., I. Cox, N. Doble, “Dynamics of the Iris AO Deformable Mirror in a Wavefront Aberrometer,” Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, Ft. Lauderdale, FL, USA, May 2008.

139 [25] Zawadzki Robert J., Yan Zhang, Steven M. Jones, Stacey S. Choi, Barry Cense, Julia W. Evans, Donald T. Miller, Scot S. Olivier, John S. Werner, “Ultra-high resolution adaptive optics: optical coherence tomography for in vivo imaging of healthy and diseased retinal structures,” Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers' 2008 International Symposium on Ophthalmic Technologies XVIII, San Jose, CA, January 19-24, 2008. [26] Zhang, Y., Tiruveedhula, P., Sincich, L., Horton, J., Roorda, A, “Adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscope (AOSLO) for precise visual stimulus presentation” OSA Fall Vision Meeting, Berkeley CA, September 2007.

140 VII.1c. Dissemination activities not included elsewhere in the report

CfAO Research in Textbooks [1] Marc Kutner ”Principles of Astrophysics”, 1st edition, Cambridge UP Undergraduate Introductory Astronomy Textbook for Science Majors [2] Pasachoff & Filippenko ”The Cosmos: Astronomy in the New Millennium” 2nd edition Hartcourt College Publishers Undergraduate Introductory Text for Non- Science Majors [3] Pasachoff ”My Astronomy: From the Earth to the Universe”, 6th edition Saunders College Publishing Undergraduate Introductory Text for Non-Science Majors [4] Hartle ”Gravity: An Introduction to Einstein’s General Relativity”, 1st edition Addison-Wesley Undergraduate General Relativity Textbook [5] Kuehn ”The Milky Way System”, S. Hirzel Verlag Stuttgart Popular Science [6] Chaisson & McMillan ”Astronomy Today”, 4th edition, Prentice Hall Undergraduate Introductory Text for Non-Science Majors [7] Arny ”Explorations: An Introduction to Astronomy, Stars First” 1st edition McGraw-Hill Undergraduate Introductory Text for Non-Science Majors [8] Okuda & Sofue “Enigma in the Galactic Center” in prep, popular book describing the quest of the giant black hole at the center of our Milky Way through multi-wavelength observations [9] Alex Filippenko “Understanding the Universe: An Introduciton to Astronomy” by, 2007 edition, The Teaching Company, Undergraduate Introductory DVD course for Non-Science Majors [10] Dan Maoz “Astrophysics in a Nutshell”, 1st edition (2007), Princeton University Press, Upper division undergraduate introduction to astrophysics for physics majors [11] Nick Strobel “Astronomy Notes”, 1st edition, Primis/McGraw-Hill, Undergraduate Introductory Text, hardcopy and on-line (http://www.astronomynotes.com) versions

VIII.2. Awards and Other Honors

Recipient Reason for Award Award Name and Date Award Sponsor type de Pater, Excellence in Writing AAS Chamblis Award 2007 Science Imke and Astronomy Text Book Award Lissauer Jack Dubra Alf Understanding eye Career Award at the January Science disease through struct- Scientific Interface, 2008 Related ural and functional in Burroughs Wellcome vivo cellular imaging Fund of the retina Eisner, Discover talented Adolph C. & Mary 2006- Fellowship Josuah A. scientists and to sup- Sprague Miller Institute 2009 port basic research at for Basic Research in UC Berkeley Science

141 Recipient Reason for Award Award Name and Date Award Sponsor type Ghez, Science Excellence Helen Hogg 2008 Science Andrea Distinguished Visitor- Related ship Graham Teaching Excellence Donald Sterling Noyce 2007 Science James R. Prize for Excellence in Teaching Undergraduate Teaching Related Masuda Science Excellence ARVO Travel Fellowship May Science Osamu 2008 Related Max, Claire Outstanding Research Membership in the April 29 Scientific National Academy of 2008 Award Sciences Morgan, Science Excellence OSA Young October Science Jessica Investigator’s Award 2007 Related Poyneer, Lisa Best Ph.D. dissertation Jain Prize 2008 Science UC Davis Electrical and Award Computer Engineering Department Poyneer, Lisa Best Ph.D. dissertation Munir Award 2008 Science UC Davis College of Award Engineering Poyneer, Lisa Best Ph.D. dissertation Marr Prize 2008 Science UC Davis (2008 award Award given in fields of Mathematics, Physical Sciences, and Engineering) Roorda, Science Excellence Distinguished Alumnus 2008 Science Austin Award, University of Related Waterloo, School of Optometry Roorda, Science Excellence R&D 100 Award 2008 Science Austin, (awarded to AOSLO team Related Yuhua involved in NIH BRP Zhang, Pavan grant) Tiruveedhula Williams, Innovation in the Rochester Business March Science David Application of Journal Health Care 2008 Award Adaptive Optics to Achievement Award for Vision Science Innovation Williams, Application of Bressler Prize, Jewish October Science David Adaptive Optics to Guild for the Blind 2007 Award Vision Science

142

VIII.3 Undergraduate, M.S. and Ph.D. students

Student Name Degree(s) Years to Placement Degree(s) 1. Barczys, Matthew Ph.D. 6 2. Carroll, Joe Post-doc Asst. Professor of Univ. of Opthalmology at Medical Rochester College of Wisconsin 3. Chen, Li Ph.D. Advance Medical Optics Research, Santa Clara, CA 4. Clergeon, C B.Sc 4 M.Sc at Université de Paris 5. Duchene, Gaspard Ph.D. postdoc Astronomer Grenoble France 6. Fitzgerald, Michael Ph.D. 6 NASA/Michelson Fellowship at LLNL 7. Glassman, Tiffany Ph.D. Postdoc at SPITZER Science Center 8. Gray, Dan Ph.D. 5 Senior Engineer at Optos in Scotland 9. Grieve, Kate Ph.D. Postdoc Oxford University

10. Hornstein, Seth Ph.D. 6 Adjunct Professor at the Univ. of Colorado, Boulder 11. Lu, Jessica Ph.D. Millikan Postdoc Califonia Institute of Technology 12. Martin, Joy Ph.D. 6 Optometrist in Ft. Worth, TX 13. McCabe, Caer Ph.D. NRC postdoc at JPL 14. Melbourne, Jason Ph.D. 6 Postdoc at Caltech

15. Metevier, Anne Ph.D. 6 Staff at Sonoma State UCSC University 16. Perrin, Marshall Ph.D. 6 NSF Fellow at UCLA

17. Porter, Jason Ph.D 6 Assistant Professor at University of Houston 18. Raghunandan, Avesh OD/Ph.D. 5 Faculty member at Michigan College of Optometry 19. Raschke, Lynne Ph.D. 7 CfAO's Education Program 20. Roe, Henry Ph.D. Astronomer, Lowell Observatory 21. Sheehy, Christopher BS 4 PhD Student at University of Chicago. 22. Sheinis, Andrew Ph.D. Postdoc Assistant Professor at UCSC UCSC University of Wisconsin

143 Student Name Degree(s) Years to Placement Degree(s) 23. Stienbring, Eric Postdoc Astronomer, UCSC HIA, Victoria, CA. 24. Tanner, Angelle Ph.D. Postdoc Jet Propulsion Laboratory 25. Wolfgang Morgan, Ph.D. 5 years Postdoc Pugh’s Laboratory. Jessica Univ. of Pennsylvania 26. Wright Jason Ph.D. Postdoc. Cornell University

VIII.4a General outputs of knowledge transfer activities since the last reporting period Patent Name and Number Application Receipt Date (leave Inventors/Authors Date empty if pending) 1 Rapid, automatic measurement U.S. Patent March 13, 2001. of the eye’s wave aberration. #6,199,986 Williams, D.R., Vaughn, W., Singer, B., Hofer, H., Yoon, G-Y, Artal, P, Aragon, J.L., Prieto, P., Vargas, F. 2 Wavefront sensor with off- U.S. Patent July 24, 2001 axis illumination. Williams, #6,264,328 D.R. and Yoon, G-Y. 3 Rapid, automatic measurement U.S. Patent October 9, 2001. of the eye’s wave aberration. #6,299,311 Williams, D.R., Vaughn, W., Singer, B, Hofer, H. Yoon, G- Y

. 4 Apparatus and method for U.S. Patent January 15, 2002. improving vision and retinal #6,338,559 imaging. Williams, D.R., Yoon, G.Y., Guirao, A. 5 Determination of ocular U.S. Patent 10/00 January 28, 2003 refraction from wavefront #6,511,180 aberration data & design of optimum customized correction. Williams, D.R., Guirao, A. 6 Method and Apparatus for 6,890,076 May 10, 2005 Using Adaptive Optics in a Scanning Laser Ophthalmo- scope. A. Roorda 7 Synthetic Guide Star U.S. Patent 4/ 2001 March 9, 2004 Generation. S. A. Payne, R. H. 6,704,311 Page, C. A. Ebbers, and R. J. Beach 8 High power 938 nanometer Sept. 29, 2003

144 Patent Name and Number Application Receipt Date (leave Inventors/Authors Date empty if pending) fiber laser and amplifier. Note: Filing Dawson, J.; Beach, R.; for European Drobshoff, A; Liao, Z.; Patent rights Pennington, D.; Payne, S.; in progress, Taylor, L.; Hackenberg, W.; Bonaccini,, D. 9 Method and Apparatus for the US Patent 11/2001 12/28/2003 Correction of Optical Signal 6639710 Wave Front Distortion Using Adaptive Optics. Peter Kurczynski, J. A. Tyson 10 Method and Apparatus for US 7,364,296 6/12/2002 4/29/2008 Improving both Lateral and B2 . Axial Resolution in Ophthalmoscopy. D. T. Miller, International R. S. Jonnal, and J. Qu and PCT/US03/ 8/26/2005 Karen E. Thorn 18511

11 A PZT unimorph based, high CIT.PAU.14.P 6/12/02 stroke MEMS deformable CT mirror with continuous membrane and method of making the same. E. H. Yang

12 Adaptive Optics Phoropter. October 4, Scot Olivier, Brian Bauman, 2002 Steve Jones, Don Gavel, Abdul Awwal, Stephen Eisenbies, Steven Haney 13 Repeatable Mount for MEMS October 4, Mirror System. Stephen 2002 Eisenbies, Steven Haney, 14 Actuator Apparatus and 10/705,213 November NA Method for Improved 2003 Deflection Characteristics, M. Helmbrecht, Clifford Knollenberg 14A Method and Apparatus for an 11/097053 April 20005 NA Actuator Having an 10/705,213 Intermediate Frame, M. Continuance Helmbrecht, Clifford Knollenberg 14B Electrode Shaping and Sizing 11/096395 April 2005 NA for an Actuator System, M. 10/705,213 Helmbrecht, Clifford Continuance Knollenberg 14C Method and Apparatus for 11/097599 April 2005 NA Fabricating an Actuator 10/705,213

145 Patent Name and Number Application Receipt Date (leave Inventors/Authors Date empty if pending) System Having Buried Continuance Interconnect Lines, M. Helmbrecht, Clifford Knollenberg 15 Deformable Mirror Method 10/703,391 November November 2005 and Apparatus Including 2003 Bimorph Flexures and Integrated Drive M. Helmbrecht 15A Method and Apparatus for an 7,138,745 April 2005 November 2006 Actuator System with Integrated Control M. Helmbrecht 16 Method and Apparatus for 11/096,367 April 2005 Fabricating an Actuator System. Michael Helmbrecht

TableVIII.4a – Licences and Start-up Companies

License Name Number Licensed By Date

1 “Method and Design for Using US Patent Optos, Inc 10/2006 Adaptive Optics in a Scanning #6,890,076 Laser Opthalmoscope” (Roorda) OPTOS plans to deliver the first AOSLO device to the University of Pennsylvania in Fall 2008 2 See Patents Table 1,2,3,4,5 U.S. Patent The Univ. of 2007 #6,199,986, Rochester U.S. Patent established #6,264,328, license U.S. Patent agreements #6,299,311, pertaining to U.S. Patent adaptive #6,338,559, optics with U.S. Patent AMO and #6,511,180 Johnson and Johnson.

Name of Start-Up Company Main Product(s)

1 Iris AO MEMS Segmented Deformable Mirrors, AO controllers, AO development systems, AO imaging systems

146 VIII.4b. Other outputs of knowledge transfer activities made during the reporting period not listed above. The 2008 AO Summer School included an AO Laboratory. The AO demonstrator built at UC Santa Cruz and delivered to Maui Community College in Year 7 for class instruction was lent to UCSC for use in the AO Summer School laboratory.

VIII.5 Center’s Partners

Organization Organization >160 Address Contact Name Type of Partner** Name Type* hours 1. Maui Economic Non-profit 1305 North Holopono Leslie Wilkins or Education/Diversity Y Development Street, Suite 1 Jeanne Skog Board (MEDB) Kihei, Hawaii 96753 2. Air Force Maui Military 590 Lipoa Parkway, Joe Janni Education N Optical and Suite 103 Super-computing Kihei, Hawaii 96753 Site (AMOS) 3. Maui Com. Academic 310 Kaahumanu Mark Hoffman or Education/Diversity Y College Kahului, HI 96732 John Pye 4. Hartnell Com. Academic 156 Homestead Ave Andy Newton Education/Diversity Y College Salinas, Ca 93901 5. Boeing – Maui Company 535 Lipoa Pkwy, Lewis Roberts Education/Research N Suite 200 Kihei, Maui, HI 96753 6. Oceanit - Maui Company MRTC, Suite 264 Curt Leonard Education N 590 Lipoa Parkway Kihei, Maui, HI 96753 7. Akimeka - Maui Company Akimeka, LLC Andrew Vliet, Education N 1305 N. Holopono St., Cynthia Fox Suite 3 Kihei, Hawaii 96753 8. Trex - Maui Company MRTC, Suite 222 Allen Hunter Education N 590 Lipoa Parkway Kihei, Maui, HI 96753 9. Maui High Government 550 Lipoa Parkway Gene Bal Education N Perform. Comp. Kihei, Maui, HI 96753 Center (MHPCC) 10. Institute for Academic PO Box 0209 Mike Maberry Education N Astronomy Kula, HI 96790 11. Textron - Maui Company 535 Lipoa Parkway, Michael Reilly Education N Suite 149 Kihei, HI 96753 12. Smithsonian Observatory 645 North A'ohoku Billie Chitwood Education N Submillimeter Place Array (SMA) Hilo,Hawaii 96720 13. Exploratorium Science Center 3601 Lyon Street Barry Kluger-Bell Education Y San Francisco, CA 94123 14. W. M. Keck Observatory 65-1120 Mamalahoa Taft Armandroff Research/Education Y

147 Organization Organization >160 Address Contact Name Type of Partner** Name Type* hours Observatory Hwy /Sarah Anderson Kamuela, HI 96743 15. Gemini Observatory 670 N. A'ohoku Place Peter Michaud Education/Research N Observatory Hilo, Hawaii, 96720 16. University of Academic 200 W. Kawili St. Richard Crowe or Education/Diversity N Hawaii – Hilo Hilo, HI 96720-4091 Robert Fox 17. Pajaro Valley Academic 500 Harkins Slough Rd Gary Martindale Education/Diversity N High School Watsonville, CA 95076 18. ALU LIKE Non profit 458 Keawe Street Doug Knight Education/Diversity N Honolulu, HI 96813 19. Institute for Academic 4761 Lower Kula Road Jeff Kuhn or Stuart Education N Astron. - Maui P.O. Box 209 Jefferies

20. Institute for Academic 640 N Aohoku Pl # 209 Darryl Wantanabe Education N Astron. - Hilo Hilo, HI 96720 21. Educational Academic U.C. Santa Cruz Carrol Moran Education/Diversity Y Partnership 3004 Mission Street, Center Suite 220 Santa Cruz, CA 95060 22. Carl Zeiss- Company 5160 Hacienda Dve. Barry Kavoussi Research Y Meditec Dublin, CA 94568 23. Northrop Corporation P.O. Box 398 Albert Esquibel Education N Grumman - Maui Makawao, HI 96768 24. Lucent Company Bell Labs. David Bishop R & D Y Technologies Murray Hill N.J 25. Agile Optics Company 1717 Louisiana, Suite Dennis Mansell R & D N 202 NE Albuquerque NM 87110 26. Ciba Vision Vision 11460 Johns Creek R & D N Corporation Company Parkway Duluth Georgia 30097 27. Lockheed Martin Laser Division 135 South Taylor Ave. Tim Carrig R & D Y Louisville, CO 80027 28. Wavefront Company 14810 Central Ave, Tim Turner R & D N Sciences Albuquerque NM 87123 29. Bausch & Lomb Company One Bausch & Lomb Peter Cox R & D Y Place Rochester NY 14603 30. Lockheed ATC Company Palo Alto CA John Breakwell R & D Y

31. Pacific Disaster Agency 1305 North Holopono Sharon Mielbrecht Education N Center Street, Suite 2, Kihei, Hawaii 96753 32. Subaru Observatory 650 N. Aohoku Place Catherine Ishida Education Y Telescope Hilo, Hawaii 96720

148

VIII.6 Summary Table

1 the number of participating institutions (all academic institutions 10 that participate in activities at the Center) 2 the number of institutional partners (total number of non- 32 academic participants, including industry, states, and other federal agencies, at the Center) 3 the total leveraged support for the current year (sum of funding $2,141,330 for the Center from all sources other than NSF-STC) [Leveraged funding should include both cash and in-kind support that are related to Center activities, but not funds awarded to individual PIs.] 4 the number of participants (total number of people who utilize 256 center facilities; not just persons directly supported by NSF) .

VIII.8. Describe any media publicity the Center received in the reporting period.

Andrea Ghez  Oct 31 2007 Featured in Washington Post Page 1 article by Marc Kaufman “Huge Black Holes May Hold Keys to Galaxy Formation” (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2007/10/30/AR2007103002 073.html)  “Homing in on BLACK HOLES” - Smithsonian April 2008 Page 45 (Article on Black Holes includes Professor Andrea Ghez amongst the astronomers it features)  11/19/07 UCLA Program for Excellence in Education and Research in Sciences (PEERS), Los Angeles, CA  11/26/07 Harvard-Westlake High School, Los Angeles, CA  02/06/08 Marlborough School (Annual Mentors Dinner), Los Angeles, CA  03/27/08 Helen Hogg Evening Pubic Lecture, Toronto, ON Canada  04/11/08 Santa Monica Amateur Astronomy Club, Santa Monica CA  04/17/08 UCLA San Gabriel Valley Chancellor’s Associates, Glendale, CA

Máté Ádámkovics October 2007 Máté Ádámkovics (and de Pater) gave a press conference at the DPS in Florida on Titan’s drizzle. March 2008: Invited talk at SETI Institute

Imke de Pater:  Aug. 2007 attended EuroPlanet : gave an invited talk on Uranus’ rings, held a press conference, and participated in the SAB (Science Advisory Board) meeting.  Interviews in 2007: Daily Cal, SF Chronicle, Scientific American, Science news  September 2007: Keynote speaker for the Astronomy Association of Northern California conference at the College of San Mateo’s new Planetarium and Science Center.  Oct-Nov. 2007: Presented paper at the Ringberg castle LGSAO meeting (radio podcast), several European radio stations and newspapers

Conor Laver  work with AO datacubes of the eruption of Tvashtar on Io was showcased in the

149 American Museum of Natural History’s science bulletin.

Marchis, Franck [I’m sure Franck has gobs of press releases]

Max, Claire  “Astronomer Claire Max elected to National Academy of Sciences,” April 2008. Press coverage nationally.

Marshall, Phil and CfAO colleagues, 2007  “Scientists study tiny galaxy halfway across the universe,” press release carried in many places both in print and online. Keck AO and Hubble observations of a distant galaxy being gravitationally lensed by an intervening galaxy.

McGrath, Elizabeth  [ask Liz about her press release for the AAS meeting]

Akamai Program – Press Releases in Hawaii

IfA Joins Akamai Workforce Initiative Nov. 26, 2008. http://www2.ifa.hawaii.edu/newsletters/ The Akamai Workforce Initiative (AWI) is a partnership between the Center for Adaptive Optics (CfAO), Maui Community College (MCC), the IfA, and the Maui Economic Development Board. Its purpose is to give Maui students the opportunity to enter a wide range of science, technology, and engineering careers that are increasingly available on Maui.

Since 2003, these organizations have collaborated on the Akamai Internship Program, which that has placed more than 50 Hawaii college students in paid high-technology summer internships on Maui. Forty percent of former Akamai students are now working in the technology industry, and another 45 percent are continuing their college education in science or technology, a very high rate of success. The internships are open to undergraduate students who The Akamai 2008 recruitment poster. Art by Sarah attend college in Hawaii or are Hawaii residents attending school on the mainland. Members of groups who are underrepresented in the science and technology fields, including women and Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders, are especially encouraged to apply………….

UH News on 3/ 31/08 / Hawaii Tribune Herald on 4/23/08 (http://www.hawaii.edu/cgi-bin/uhnews?20080331173156)

150

Hawai‘i Community College Student Receives Conference Award

Eric J. Dela Rosa, a student in Hawai‘i Community College’s Information Technology Program, has won the award for Best Poster Presentation in Computer Science at the national SACNAS (Society for Advancement of Chicanos and Native Americans in Science) Conference. It was held in October 2007, in Kansas City, Missouri, where over 600 college and university students presented results from science projects. Dela Rosa was the only community college student among the 22 participants in the computer science category. In May 2007, Dela Rosa was accepted as a student intern in the Akamai Program which is led by the Center for Adaptive Optics. ………………..

Additional Press releases on the Akami Program in Hawaii

 Cosmic Matters Newsletter; Keck Observatory Summer 2007: Rising Stars: Beyond the Books (https://keckobservatory.org/support/magazine/2007/june/07june_4.htm)  North Hawaii News: Local Students Enjoy Real-Life Learning by Maata Tukuafu. October 18, 2007  Keck Observatory Public Lecture Series: Next Generation in Astronomy, November 14, 2007, featured three Akamai interns as the speakers, Joseph Hernandez, Eric Dela Rosa and Heather Kaluna  Program highlighted in State Representative Dwight Takamine’s promotional video: http://homepage.mac.com/newtv/keck.html

151 IX. Indirect/Other Impacts

IX.1 International activities A partial list of international conferences attended by CfAO researchers follows. We have not done detailed tracking in this category.  October 29 – Nov 2 2007, CfAO researchers were presenters at the Ringberg Conference (Germany) on “Astronomy with Laser Guide Stars for Adaptive Optics.”  April 6 –11 2008 “Science with AO-fed instruments on large telescopes” on Dunk Island, Australia attended by Claire Max (Session Chair and Presenter) and Jerry Nelson (Presenter)  June 23–28 2008 SPIE Astronomical Telescopes and instrumentation 2008 Conference held in Marseilles, France. – A significant contingent of CfAO researchers attended this conference and made presentations.

IX.2 Other outputs, impacts, or influences related to the Center’s progress and achievement None to report

152 X. Budgets and Expenditures

X.1 Year 9 Budgets and Expenditures (as of April 30 2008) Budget has been provided to NSF

X.2 Unobligated Year 8 Funds There are no unobligated funds.. X.4 Center Support from All Sources.

Current Award Year Requested Award Year Award Source Cash ($) In-kind Cash ($) In-kind NSF-STC Core funds 3,320,000 2,656,000 Other NSF 462,788 83,613 Other Federal 120,416 308508 Agencies State Government Local Government Industry University 826,490 365,655 826500 450,000

International Private Foundations Other TOTAL 5,095,675 365,655 3,874,621 450,000

X.5 Breakdown of Other NSF Funding.

Current Award Year Requested Award Year Funding Source Cash ($) In-kind Cash ($) In-kind STC underrepresented groups supplemental funds STC international supplemental funds NSF $462,788 83,613 Directorate/Office Specify MPS/AST______TOTAL $462,788 83,613

X.6 Cost sharing Cash ($) In-kind Annual 923,796 733,209 Cumulative (to date) 3,214,385 6,375,158

Signature ______Date August 1 2008

Title Managing Director CfAO

153 X.7 Additional PI Support from All Sources.

Current Award Year Requested Award Year Award Source Cash ($) In-kind Cash ($) In-kind NSF 1,120,977 Other Federal 2,460,755 2,263,268 Agencies State Government Local Government Industry 116,00 University 114,053 $302,781 143,500 300,000 International Private Foundations 84,745 200,499 Other TOTAL $4,453,928 $302,781 2,607,217 300,000

154 Appendix A. – Biographical Information on New Faculty

There were no new faculty starting with the Center in Year 9.

Appendix B – Center Organizational Chart

UCSC Oversight External Committee Advisory Board Director Program Advisory Committee Managing Director

Associate Associate Associate Associate Associate Director for Director for Director, Director, for Director, Theme 1 Theme II Theme III Theme IV Knowledge Transfer

Project Leaders Site Coordinators and Business Offices

155

Appendix C – External Reviewer Reports

Report of the External Advisory Board Meeting - 4 November 2007

Held at Main Lodge, UCLA Conference Center, Lake Arrowhead, CA

Introduction

The External Advisory Board met during the annual CfAO fall retreat held November 1-4, 2007 at the UCLA Conference Center, Lake Arrowhead, CA. EAB meetings at the Retreat follows a recent trend to interact with all communities served by the Center and to meet and discuss progress, accomplishments, and plans with Theme leaders and Center performers. First-hand experiences gained at the Retreat have proved very useful to EAB members in formulating assessments and advice for out-year planning.

The members of the EAB are Bob Fugate (chair as of Nov, 2006), NM Tech, Ray Applegate, U of Houston, Norbert Hubin, ESO, David Burgess, Boston College, Fiona Goodchild, UC Santa Barbara, Tom Cornsweet, Visual Pathways Inc. AZ, and Christopher Dainty, National University of Ireland, Galway. Ray Applegate, and Chris Dainty were unable to attend the meeting.

The External Advisory Board reports to the Vice Chancellor of Research at UC Santa Cruz, Bruce Margon. The EAB is charged with reviewing the policies, priorities and management effectiveness of the Center.

The primary focus of this EAB meeting was to listen to reports from theme leaders and to discuss and understand current thinking for CfAO’s way ahead.

Summary

The EAB continues to find that the Center for Adaptive Optics is providing outstanding research opportunities while creating an atmosphere for its members and participants to produce excellent science, advance the development of technology for adaptive optics, and provide a much needed resource for education of students as well as professional educators.

Furthermore, the fall retreat continues to provide an ideal venue for the EAB to gain access to the research, issues, and plans on an individual, first-hand basis by interaction with CfAO researchers, theme champions, and the executive leadership in a relaxed setting conducive to frank and open discussion. The CfAO retreats are the only meetings where one can count on hearing the good, the bad and the ugly that occurs in one’s research. A recurring theme heard at this retreat was “how can the atmosphere of the retreat developed during the time of CfAO be maintained after CfAO – were will we go to get the peer level review and interaction that has become so natural and productive here?”

It was clear to the EAB this year, even with our very low duty-cycle sampling of the workings of the CfAO, that the CfAO leadership has spent considerable time and effort to develop plans to sustain the essential services and legacy projects after CfAO funding ends in two years. There was a plenary session at this fall retreat in which the leadership presented to the attendees information and solicited feedback on several key issues.

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One of those issues, perhaps the one most at risk, was ‘is it beneficial to maintain the connection between adaptive optics research in vision science and astronomy.’ The exchange of experiences, methods, and problems between these very diverse applications of adaptive optics is a unique contribution made by CfAO. We think it is unlikely that research scientists and engineers working in such different fields could have been brought together so closely on such a regular basis. It is remarkable how much one’s own research benefits by being made aware of seemingly unrelated work in another field. It is also remarkable to hear in one session about the response of a monkey’s eye to stimulation through electrical probes sticking into his head and an hour later the challenges and issues of detecting and characterizing the atmosphere on an extrasolar planet to determine if life exists outside the solar system. Even though these seem completely unrelated, they share common technologies in adaptive optics, and even more importantly applications of adaptive optics through significantly different visions that provide unexpected synergy to all. Nevertheless, it is the EAB’s perception that the astronomy and vision communities are not that concerned with maintaining the close connection that CfAO has enabled. There are some connections (through LLNL for example) where overlap between researchers will be maintained. The evolving vision research community partners are spread around the country and with the loss of CfAO funding for attendance at retreats, more traditional methods will be used for interactions. At the time of the fall retreat the CfAO Director, Claire Max, was putting final touches on a proposal to be submitted to the University of California. Details were not readily available but, if approved, funding would be available almost immediately to partially restore the planned NSF cuts of roughly 20% for the last two years, allowing new starts and making the transition period much smoother. If the proposal is not funded there are other options to consider.

Norbert Hubin recommended that CfAO update their website to reflect some of the most recent accomplishments and progress. While Education and Outreach theme is well done on the website, the other themes could use some attention. Pumping up the website can never hurt in a time when proposals are being submitted. We all know website maintenance is a drag so it was also suggested to survey graduate students as a process to find someone that has a burning desire to expand their expertise beyond being a PI and add to their resume as a scientific journalist. The best situation is perhaps a combination of the theme leaders providing the content to technical writers who then interact with web page designers. The point is that perhaps the writers could be graduate students and the web page designer could be a full time software technician or programmer.

In addition it was suggested that presentation charts and some restricted content such as informal discussions be made available on the web site as password accessible pages for those members of CfAO who were unable to attend parallel sessions or the retreat in general. Protected pages may also be a good place to put candid pictures of attendees with the caveat that anyone offended could request their picture be removed. Photographs do have lasting content and historical value as the years pass.

Education and Outreach

Plans are really excellent for the continuation of the education theme after CfAO. The emphasis in the near is to determine the best structure to institutionalize the Professional Development Program (PDP) embodied as the Institute for Scientist and Engineer Educators (ISEE). We heard some experiences from participants in the PDP in a well attended and very interactive plenary session that clearly supported the value of this program and therefore the need for it to survive and flourish. Furthermore, the EAB feels that researchers submitting proposals to funding agencies such as NSF have an advantage in being able to access the ISEE as a means to broaden

157 the impact of their research. The EAB congratulates the CfAO for getting the ISEE to the stage it’s at today. It is truly a unique and innovative concept that has attracted attention outside of CfAO and must be protected as one of the educational jewels for the future. The principal challenge ahead for CfAO is where the ISEE might end up in the UC structure, either locally at UCSC or under a UC system wide office. The EAB strongly recommends that CfAO consider the pros and cons of each of these alternatives.

Members of the EAB were impressed by the actions of former CfAO researchers who have continued to develop their expertise in education while at the institutions they have moved to since graduating from UCSC. This kind of follow up through CfAO is important in terms of reporting on the broader impact of the education programs from the perspective of the NSF.

The EAB also recognizes CfAO’s continued success in the Akami Work Force Initiative in Hawaii, which has received equal funding from both NSF and the Air Force. This initiative will help in NSF’s mitigation effort for final approval of construction of the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope atop Haleakala on Maui.

Adaptive Optics for ELTs

CfAO has strong involvement with the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) program. CfAO did fund ground work for the GPI survey, in particular concentrating on identifying targets, probably the most important area of research. This research includes a strong collaboration with Berkeley and will result in complementary target lists (roughly divided into old planets and planets around young stars). Gemini is intending to run the competition next summer or fall for who gets to do the survey. This is an opportune time for CfAO participants since they will be writing the proposal while Center funding still exists and if successful as the selected team they will be able to write proposals for the survey observational program to NASA and NSF before the center ends. So, the assessment is that the CfAO team for GPI is in better shape now than they thought they would be in a year ago. There is also discussion between Gemini and ESO on collaboration. The target lists are somewhat converging on same objects since the ESO planet imager SPHERE and GPI are looking at the same sky. It was suggested by the EAB for CfAO to consider a scenario where GPI is at Gemini North and SPHERE is in the south. Bruce Macintosh relates that the concept has mixed support on the GPI team and it may sort out as targets are better identified. Other topics beyond CfAO include planet imaging for TMT and the general issue of new AO concepts generation and evaluation and who will be involved in those activities.

Vision Science

David Williams is not that concerned about losing the connection between Vision Science and Astronomy since the connections at Livermore will always maintain that tie between the two groups. However there is no funding to keep all the vision center partners (Houston, Indiana, Montana, Waterloo, Rochester) together. So, whatever the retreats evolve to, these groups will be invited but they will have to provide their own funds to support the meetings. One suggestion for the future is to have retreats in conjunction with other meetings that groups and partners will be attending at their own expense.

There are two Bioengineering Research Partnership (BRP) adaptive optics proposals being reviewed by the National Institute of Health. Unfortunately the proposals were submitted by different groups at the same time and ended up competing for a small funding budget. The University of Rochester proposal was the larger of the two and is being resubmitted at half the cost, forcing them to eliminate two of their partners, one being Lawrence Livermore National

158 Laboratory. The resubmission has slowed their look for other sources of funding. Furthermore, while AO is an important part of the BRP proposal it does not have the same level of importance as it would have in a CfAO project, but is more like one tool among many for the BRP work. So, AO will be a smaller part of new initiatives for new research in vision science. The thing that has changed is there is not sufficient money to secure large grants that were in the past beneficial in binding together partner institutions. Getting individual grants for advancing AO, for instance, is not such a big problem, and many grants have been funded for AO related vision science research outside of CfAO. The thing that has made CfAO so valuable is binding the groups together to work collaboratively, allowing each to design their research projects with the other institutions in mind, eliminating redundant research and amplifying the synergy between programs. There is no clear path for funding beyond CfAO to continue the collaboration aspects. NSF is one possibility for a new STC but the medical aspects are becoming more prominent in vision science and it is not in NSF’s charter to fund medical research.

The suggestion was made to examine the possibility of jointly seeking private funding between astronomy and vision science to keep the connection going. Private foundations that are into medical imaging and astronomy might be interested.

The use of AO in vision science and clinical trials reached a plateau several years ago when not much work was devoted to improving the AO but emphasis was on applications and research. However, improving AO is now trickling back to the top of the list of priorities since the applications are demanding more performance. The CfAO contribution to this area has been useful since students in vision science have interacted strongly with researchers developing new methods for AO, particularly in astronomy. Also, there will be new groups in vision science emerging as AO technology for vision science becomes more mature and readily available. This is particularly true for some of the instruments and techniques developed under CfAO sponsorship. As an example the Optos (Scotland) commercial imaging system is using MEMs mirrors, Austin Roorda’s AO Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscope, and AO control software, all developed under CfAO funding. Furthermore former students of CfAO partners are directly involved in bringing and operating this commercial instrument to market and seeing its deployment in the academic research environment and medical industry. This is a candidate success story of technology and educational transition that perhaps should be on the CfAO website.

Adaptive Optics for Astronomical Science

Don Gavel reported that the work in this theme is basically falling in line with last year’s plans. The plans include getting some legacy components working and tested on the sky, including some external funding to support the ViLLaGES project to integrate components such as a MEMs DM, and sodium laser developed by LLNL on the Lick 1- meter telescope for visible wavelength observations. The objective is to develop some experience with real world environments while evaluating new component technologies and AO concepts (like uplink compensation for the laser guide star beam). The sodium wavelength laser developed by Ed Kibblewhite is no longer being funded since it is semioperational at Palomar. This is the only macropulse/micropulse laser (macropulses of mode locked pulse trains) in use today and produces an efficient return (photons/watt of laser power) – comparable to CW lasers. The CfAO has for five years jointly funded (with NSF’s AODP) LLNL to build a fiber laser with the goal of a flexible, even programmable, pulse format. The goal now is to package the existing laboratory laser (several watts at 589 nm) to be on the sky in 2008 as part of the visible AO project at the 1-m Lick telescope. It is somewhat disappointing to two of the EAB members that CfAO is not ‘holding LLNL’s feet to the fire’ on keeping the laser in the lab to meet the original specifications and

159 performance goals. It seems that Don’s mind is made up, but we recommend he reconsider this decision, since this is one of only about two programs to develop needed laser technology for ELTs. In addition, the CfAO has had some impact on the AO for the Thirty Meter Telescope through analysis and numerical modeling. CfAO did not succeed in getting the Multi-Object Adaptive Optics concept to be considered by TMT, but MOAO will most likely be considered by Keck Observatory as part of their Next Generation AO system. CfAO has submitted two proposals in support of conceptual designs for Next Generation Keck AO system and the multi- object spectrograph instrument. External funding will be required to build these systems and a future proposal would most likely be by consortium of California based institutions (UC Lick/UCSC, Palomar/Caltech, UCLA -- with Keck being PI).

The Laboratory for Adaptive Optics is funded by the Moore Foundation and collocated on the UCSC campus with CfAO. The funding for this effort will expire in 12-18 months. The LAO will remain as a permanent facility for UCO Lick for graduate student training and research. Don Gavel is working on concepts for continued funding. The main theme for continued work is visible wavelength adaptive optics using laser guidestars. The science that most observatories are doing now with AO is in the near IR and is coupled with Hubble Space Telescope visible observations. However, by about 2013 or so the HST will be out of service. The objectives of the research being done in this theme will go a long way to filling the impending gap in high- resolution visible imaging. Visible light AO is now part of NSFs AO Development Program roadmap.

Recommendations The EAB feels the meeting was very productive makes the following recommendations.

1. CfAO should give very serious thought and careful consideration in developing a plan to institutionalize ISEE. The most important aspect of the plan is where in the UC organizational structure the ISEE would have the greatest long-range benefit and impact.

2. CfAO should continue to develop a strategy to work out any issues with partners in Hawaii to insure that its educational programs continue beyond CfAO in some form or other.

3. An effort should be made to improve the CfAO website, mostly bringing up to date recent accomplishments in all theme areas. See the suggestions in the text above for an approach.

4. We recommend that the CfAO build several success stories for publication on the CfAO website and perhaps even a printed brochure based on real transitions of technology development into industry and academia and the education of students that are now in the workplace advancing AO.

5. It is also recommended that CfAO provide presentations and other restricted content (summary of discussions after papers for instance) on password-protected pages for those CfAO members unable to attend the retreats or who missed a presentation because of parallel session conflicts.

6. Consider using the GPI at Gemini North to complement ESO’s southern hemisphere instrument. Whether or not this is a good idea will become clear as the list of potential targets evolves over the next months.

7. We recommend that astronomy and vision science researchers jointly consider seeking private funding from organizations and foundations that would have an interest in astronomy AND

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8. CfAO should maintain close contact with LLNL to insure that a field ready laser will result from the remaining funding.

9. It is recommended that CfAO begin now to collaborate with ESO and others to organize specialty workshops and meetings perhaps held in conjunction with other AO conferences. Topics include wavefront sensing, sodium layer characterization, pulsed sodium laser technology development, MEMs.

10. It is recommended that CfAO look at possible upgrade paths for GPI (e.g. retrofitting a pyramid wavefront sensor) now and consider possible funding sources for conceptual designs.

11. It is recommended that CfAO reconsider expending the remaining resources on the LLNL laser to repackage the existing device for field use rather than continue laboratory the mesosphere. This laser was advertised originally to be THE technology that would support the needs of ELTs in the future. A final decision on what to do with the laser should be based on knowledge or evidence that the fiber laser defies too many laws of physics preventing its development as originally intended rather than an expedient means to obtain a low power sodium wavelength laser. If LLNL could demonstrate what they said they could originally, it would be a great legacy for them and CfAO. If, on the other hand, it is very clear that this approach has reached a dead end based on physics, the planned use may be the most beneficial.

Respectfully submitted by The External Advisory Board Dr. Robert Q. Fugate, NM Institute of Mining and Technology, Chairman Dr. Raymond A. Applegate, University of Houston Dr. David R. Burgess, Boston College Dr. Tom Cornsweet, Visual Pathways, Inc. Dr. Christopher Dainty, National University of Ireland Dr. Fiona Goodchild, UC Santa Barbara Dr. Norbert Hubin, European Southern Observatory

CfAO Response to Recommendations

1. Institute for Science and Engineering Educators (ISEE) The CfAO has undertaken an extensive effort to determine the organizational, intellectual, and programmatic fit for ISEE within UCSC. Director Max and Associate Director Hunter have met with department Chairs, Deans, and a wide range of relevant individuals. A proposal with very strong letters of support has been submitted to campus administration requesting funding for ISEE. The proposal outlines an organizational structure that includes ISEE becoming part of the Division of Social Sciences, with its physical location within the current CfAO building. Campus administrators and faculty have given their strong support for this plan.

2. Maintain ties with Maui Partners Work with Hawaii partners has continued and is progressing well. Hunter's recent joint appointment with UH Institute for Astronomy has opened new avenues for integrating CfAO work into a more local context. Funding from University of Hawaii has had a positive impact, as it has supported the transition of the program coordination to Maui, and includes a new Maui based program assistant. In addition, preparation for resubmitting of the Akamai

161 Workforce Initiative (AWI) proposal, has led to the clarification of AWI and the possible Maui Community College mitigation proposal. Our annual meetings with internship hosts made it clear that we have a great deal of support and buy-in from the scientific and technical communities on both Maui and the Big Island. They clearly value the program, and the competency and dedication of the CfAO education team.

3,4 and 5. CfAO web-page Improvements The web- page update is underway. Outdated material has been removed, a site map added, and Theme Leaders are updating their theme contents, including accomplishments etc. Links to the Lab. For Adaptive Optics page have been improved and CfAO presentations are available on the LAO WIKI pages.

6. Possible GPI use at Gemini North We recognize that there could be scientific advantages to deploying GPI at Gemini North (though there are also scientific advantages to a southern-hemisphere instrument.) Ultimately, the final decision will be made by the Gemini observatory director and the Gemini Board - the CfAO has very little influence on this.

7. Astronomy/Vision Science researchers collaborating in Joint Research Proposals The collaboration fostered by the CfAO between the astronomy and vision science communities is unique and has worked to the benefit of both communities. While recognizing the need to continue this collaboration, we have not managed to identify any Foundations or Organizations that bridge medical and astronomical imaging and would fund this collaborative effort.

8. LLNL laser The Theme 2 Leader meets weekly with the LLNL team – See item 11 for more details.

9. Collaborative Workshops between CfAO and other organizations eg. ESO This is a good idea and will be pursued.

10. Upgrade parts for GPI (e.g. retrofitting a pyramid wavefront sensor) The basic GPI architecture in principle has room for future upgrades, but the fixed-priced nature of the GPI contract encourages a low-risk design. However, we have reserved enough room in the region of the wavefront sensor to allow a possible upgrade path.

11. LLNL Laser – Laboratory development vs. “on sky” deployment Present CfAO funding for the LLNL laser is designated for work in the laboratory only. It is designed to bring the existing fiber technology up to 5 watts sodium line power output (the eventual goal is 10 watts) and to fully engineer the laser for stable operation. The future plans include a deadline for delivery to the telescope, primarily to provide a challenge for the LLNL team to complete the task and meet their goals; however no CfAO funds are committed for on-telescope commissioning at this time. In Year 10, CfAO will have three choices with respect to the LLNL laser: 1) Continue funding work at LLNL to optimize laser performance in the laboratory, e.g. if there is a chance at improving the power output for a given desirable pulse format, or to experiment with mixing crystals and conversion efficiency, etc. 2) Discontinue funding laser work and LLNL delivers the laser to Lick Observatory, 3) Funding transition work from laboratory to observatory.

162 Obviously the choice depends on the performance and robustness status of the laser at the end of Y9. The LLNL team is making definitive progress toward completing its present laboratory goals, with weekly oversight by the Theme 2 leader.

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The Program Advisory Committee Program Advisory Committee Report for 2008

The Program Advisory Committee met June 18, 2008 with members of the CfAO executive committee. The main purpose of this PAC meeting is to provide advice on the handling of the Year 10 proposals. Present were:

PAC: Mark Colavita, Stanley Klein, Carrol Moran and Malcolm Northcott. CfAO: Claire Max, Chris Le Maistre, Lisa Hunter, Austin Roorda, Don Gavel & Bruce Macintosh.

It is quite impressive how much the CFAO researchers have accomplished in the past eight and a half years. We were pleased to see how well the year 10 transition has worked out. In particular, it is really exciting to see the center continuing on as the UC CfAO. The center's legacy, and the center's existence beyond the end of NSF funding, has long been a consideration in the CfAO's strategic planning. Through hard work by the CfAO team, an excellent plan is being realized, and we congratulate them. The research will clearly impact the field for many years to come.

With respect to proposal funding for Y10, the process appeared very well planned, accommodating both the expected reduction in Y10 funding as well as the conclusion of funding in that year, in order to cleanly finish on-going activities and to not leave loose ends.

In her introductory comments Claire Max reminded us of the results last year's survey that asked CfAO participants what they felt was the main benefits of CfAO. There was full appreciation of the legacies that were left, of the impressive science achievements of showing the power of AO in astronomy and vision science. But Claire emphasized that even more than these factors it was establishment of an AO community that was felt to be the unique benefit of the Center. The continuation of a Center with UC support, and with UCSC allowing the Center to retain its building after NSF funding ends provides a physical nucleus for the community that CfAO members have said they value so highly. Without such a central facility, the community will likely collapse.

As has often been the case, the PAC has focused on Theme 1, the education component since its future funding is most fragile. Funding for astronomy and vision science seems to be doing quite nicely, so this year our comments will be restricted to Theme 1.

The education component of the CFAO has done an outstanding job creating new knowledge and advancing the work in several ways. Creating a professional development program for graduate students who are becoming faculty, is a unique niche they have developed and refined over the years. The use of inquiry based teaching as the basis for the professional development and the requirement of putting that learning to use immediately in a teaching experience has been transformative for the graduate students engaged in this. The short course development with the community college has also been an excellent modification of the original short course design. The preparation for internships is another area that this program has developed and excelled in. The communications course appears to have some very interesting implications for introducing students to the lab experience. The work force development component in Maui has also been impressive. The numbers of students born in Hawaii that have entered the workforce pipeline is significant.

Recommendations:

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Our recommendations to the CfAO are the following. Develop some good PR pieces to go out not only to the academic community, but also to the lay community. The Governor’s office as well as the legislature need to hear about the significant work being done at UC Santa Cruz, as does the public at large. If possible we would suggest bringing in a marketing consultant to help put together the press release and materials to ensure that CfAO becomes a branded name with excellence in research. It will help ensure its long term funding success. We would also recommend increasing the dollar amount to be requested from OP for this work. This is a unique interdisciplinary center that is exactly what UC should be funding. We further would recommend that the campus allow CfAO to keep the building and use indirect costs generated by CfAO grants to pay for the mortgage.

On the Education and Workforce component we recommend the following. Bring in someone to help write up and disseminate the results of the work. A “how to” book on the communications course would be very useful. Articles on the work force development component as well as the preparation for internships would be very useful. It would be useful to connect with other similar efforts in other departments such as the Kuttner/Rosenblum course in Physics. We also think a specific article on the professional development of graduate students becoming faculty would be quite useful. We would also like to see the ISEE program more clearly articulated and seed funding identified to ensure the success of this program.

We all have enjoyed being on the Program Advisory Committee. It has been a wonderful experience seeing the successful Center program evolve.

Mark Colavita, Carrol Moran, Malcolm Northcott, Stanley Klein (chair),

165 Appendix D: Media Publicity Materials

Two websites

Andrea Ghez http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-217835780363022047

Imke de Pater http://astro.berkeley.edu/~imke/JupiterSpots/Jup2008.htm

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