FROM ISLAMISM TO POST-ISLAMISM A Study of a New Intellectual Discourse on Islam and Modernity in Pakistan Husnul Amin This dissertation is part of the research programme of CERES, Research School for Resource Studies for Development. This thesis was funded by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan. © Husnul Amin 2010 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. FROM ISLAMISM TO POST-ISLAMISM A Study of a New Intellectual Discourse on Islam and Modernity in Pakistan Van islamisme naar post-islamisme Een onderzoek naar een nieuw intellectueel debat over islam en moderniteit in Pakistan Thesis to obtain the degree of Doctor from the Erasmus University Rotterdam by command of the Rector Magnificus Professor dr. H.G. Schmidt and in accordance with the decision of the Doctorate Board The public defence shall be held on Monday 26 April 2010 at 16.00 hrs International Institute of Social Studies The Hague, The Netherlands by Husnul Amin Born in Mardan, Pakistan Doctoral Committee Promotors: Prof.dr. G. ter Haar Prof.dr. Muhammad Khalid Masud Other Members: Prof.dr. Asef Bayat Prof.dr. S.M. Murshed Prof.dr. M.A.R.M. Salih Copromotor Dr. L. Herrera Dedication This work is lovingly dedicated to my late father Bahramand Khan Who Despite being part of a small, insular tribal community always pushed me to transcend all barriers. His loving guidance helped free my mind to explore avenues of reason and learning, religion and beauty I never imagined. Contents Acknowledgements xi Preface xiii Acronyms xvii Abstract xviii Samenvatting xx 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Rationale for Selection of Cases 3 1.3 Background and Justification 5 1.3.1 Global context: Muslim societies and the process of change 5 1.3.2 Local context: the Jama’at and its trajectories of dissent 7 1.3.3 Introducing the new intellectual circle 9 1.4 Research Objectives and Questions 11 1.4.1 Conceptualising Islamism 14 1.4.2 Conceptualising Post-Islamism 17 1.5 Thesis Argument 19 1.6 Definition of Key Terms 22 1.6.1 Discourse, ideology, intellectual 22 1.6.2 Modernity and modernisation 24 1.6.3 Opportunity spaces 27 1.7 Methodological Perspectives 27 1.7.1 Dialogic model of interpretation 28 1.7.2 Data and sources of data 30 1.8 Organisation of the Thesis 30 vi Contents vii 2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES 33 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Modernisation, Secularisation and Religion 34 2.3 Theoretical Approaches to Islamic Movements 36 2.3.1 Essentialists: Islamic text and response to modernity 36 2.3.2 Contexualists 40 2.3.3 Marxist approaches: Islam as instrument 41 2.3.4 Historical-institutional approach 42 2.3.5 Social movement theory approach 43 2.4 Analysis of Theoretical Approaches 44 2.5 Post-Islamism: A Review 46 2.6 Profile of Islamic Movements in Pakistan 48 2.6.1 Society-oriented Islamic movements 49 2.6.2 State-oriented Islamic movements 50 2.7 Concluding Remarks 51 3 TOWARDS REVIVAL AND REFORM: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 53 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Pakistan: Some Basic Facts 54 3.2.1 The Pakistan movement 55 3.2.2 Pan-Islamism: the Caliphate movement 57 3.2.3 Islam, modernisation and the post-colonial state 59 3.4 The Enduring Legacy of 18th and 19th Century 69 3.4.1 Shah Waliullah 69 3.4.2 The First War of Independence (1857-58) 70 3.4.3 Western modernity and socioeconomic deprivations of Muslims in colonial India 72 3.5 Muslim Intellectual Responses 73 3.5.1 Sir Sayyid and Islamic Modernism 73 3.5.2 Ulama and preservation of classical Islamic heritage 79 3.5.3 The Shibli Naumani: the quest for middle path 82 3.6 Concluding Remarks 85 4 THE GENESIS AND CRISIS OF ISLAMISM 87 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 Intellectual Biography of Mawdudi and Emergence of the Jama’at 88 4.2.1 Mawdudi’s biography and intellectual development 88 viii FROM ISLAMISM TO POST-ISLAMISM 4.2.2 Four stages in evolution of Mawdudi’s thoughts and turn to Islamism 93 4.2.3 Emergence of the Jama’at 95 4.3 Master Ideological Framework 97 4.3.1 Revivalist epistemology and the question of authority 97 4.3.2 Response to positivists and modernists 101 4.3.3 Mawdudi, modernisation and encounter with the western civilisation 103 4.4 Mawdudi’s Political Reading of Islam 106 4.4.1 Conceptual basis 106 4.4.2 Political interpretation of the prophetic career 107 4.4.3 The Relevance of the prophetic method of change 109 4.5 The Jama’at in Politics: Issues and Trends 112 4.5.1 Quantification and classification 114 4.5.2 Data analysis 118 4.6 The Jama’at Network in a North-West Frontier Village 122 4.6.1 From primordial ties to active citizenship 123 4.6.3 The social network and in-group tensions 127 4.6.4 Developmental projects as a discursive field of dialogue 128 4.6.5 Celebrating the elections 130 4.6.6 Islamism and gender relations 132 4.6.7 Islamism as transformative force 132 4.7 The Nature of the Jama’at Transformation 134 4.8 Concluding Remarks 136 5 THE GENESIS OF POST-ISLAMISM 138 5.1 Introduction 138 5.2 Islamism between Ideology and Pragmatic Politics 139 5.3 Choosing an Appropriate Strategy: Top-Down or Bottom-Up 141 5.4 Intellectual Biography of Farahi and Islahi 145 5.5 From Islamism to Post-Islamism: Arrival of Ghamidi 150 5.6 Re-Reading of the Prophetic Career 157 5.7 Post-Islamists’ Theory of Social Change 161 5.8 Reformist Genealogy and the Shiblian Space 166 5.9 Scope and Constituency of Post-Islamism 170 Contents ix 5.10 Educational Reform, Social Reform and Encounter with the Western Civilisation 174 5.11 Conceptual Developments 180 5.12 The New Media, New Interpreters and Discourse Communities 183 5.13 Concluding Remarks 187 6 FROM ISLAMIC STATE TO DEMOCRATIC STATE 190 6.1 Introduction 190 6.2 Quest for New Hermeneutics 192 6.3 The Question of Sources: Re-visiting Multiplicity of Sources 194 6.4 Religion and Democracy: the Central Problem 203 6.5 Post-Islamists on (Theo) Democracy: Reformulation? 206 6.5.1 Divine sovereignty and vicegerency: reformulation? 206 6.5.2 Islam and Democracy: reformulation of shura 209 6.5.3 An Islamic opposition to Islamic state 216 6.6 Hermeneutics, Secular Space and Human Rights 221 6.7 Jihad as Armed Struggle: Reformulation? 227 6.8 Critiques on Post-Islamist Interpretative Approach 235 6.9 Concluding Remarks 236 7 CONCLUSIONS 239 7.1 Introduction 239 7.2 Crisis of Islamism 239 7.3 Nature and Scope of Post-Islamism in Pakistan 241 7.4 Are Islamism and Post-Islamism Modern? 252 7.5 Islamists-Post-Islamists inter-communication 255 7.6 Non-Linear Historical Continuity 256 7.7 Policy Implications 257 7.8 Future Research 259 Appendices 261 References 267 List of Tables and Figures Tables 2.1 Islamic Social Forces in Pakistan: A Typology 51 4.1 Domains and Sub-Domains 116 4.2 All Domains: Manifesto and News Content Data (1988-2006) 117 4.3 Transformation of the Jama’at-e-Islami 133 Tables in Appendix: A-1 External Relations 261 A-2 Freedom and Democracy 261 A-3 Political System 262 A-4 Economy 262 A-5 Welfare and Quality of Life 263 A-6 Fabric of Society 263 A-7 Social Groups 264 A-8 Islamic Ideology 264 Figures 6.1 Demonstration of tension between religion and democracy 204 6.2 Post-Islamists’ God-centric model of political and social organisation 213 A-2 Time Trend (1988-2006), News Content 265 x Acknowledgements The opportunity is finally here to write this section of my thesis, where I have the chance to thank all the people who were so helpful to me in completion of this work. No research output is the result of a single brain and so it is with the current study. My foremost thanks go to my supervisors, Professor Gerrie ter Haar (main promoter), Professor Kha- lid Masud (second promotor) and Dr Linda Herrera (co-promotor). These three figures have been constant source of inspiration, strength and guidance. Specifically, Professor Gerrie’s endless encouragement in exercising academic freedom nurtured my critical thinking skills. Profes- sor Khalid Masud and Dr Linda Herrera commented on the various drafts of chapters, which set the direction of the thesis. Their insightful critiques of my drafts enabled me to firm up my arguments and improve my paper. A learned scholar whose intellectual input was defining in this thesis is Professor Asef Bayat of Leiden University. My gratitude also goes to the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan, which sponsored my PhD studies in the Netherlands for four years and three months. It is time to recall a highly disciplined ex- officer at the HEC, Mr. Ishfaq Anwar, for his support and efficient man- agement of our fellowship issues. I am equally thankful to Ms. Loes Minkman and her institution—NUFFIC—that facilitated my stay by timely release of monthly stipend. Loes deserves my profound gratitude for her tenacity in many difficult times. Indeed, I cannot forget to acknowledge all the support I received from my wife Nazia and my lovely daughter Meshal without whose pres- ence with me in the Netherlands, completion of this thesis might have remained a dream.