POPULATION AND SETTLEMENTS IN ESFAHAN OSTAN (IRAN)
Mostafa Bazm
THES/S SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
O
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH 1978 T1918
CEICSEP 1595-97 CONTENTS
Page
List of Tables i List of Maps and Figures iii List of Plates v
INTRODUCTION
(I) Importance of Study vi (II) Methods of Approach ix (III)Administrative Set up x
PART I
PHYSICAL FRAMEWORK
Chapter I GEOLOGY AIvD STRUCTURE
1. Geology 2 2. Drainage 6 3. Geographical Regions 22
Chapter II CLIMATE
1. General 31 2. Pressure 37 3. Temperature 41 4. Cloudiness and Humidity 48 (II)
5. Rainfall 6. Climatic Effects on the Life of Man 7. Seasons
Chapter III V3GETATI0N AND SOIL
1 . Natural Vegetation 2. The Influence of Natural Vegetation on Human Life 3. Soils
PART II
POPULATION
Chapter IV POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
1. General 2. Rural and Urban Population
Chapter V MIGRATION
Chapter VI GROWTH AND DENSITY
1 . Growth of Population 2, Population and Agricultural Density
Chapter VII POPULATION COMPOSITION
1 . Age 2. Sex Ratio 3. Religion and Sect 4. Occupationals: Workers and Non-rworkers (Ill)
Page
Chapter VIII SOCIAL SET UP 1 . Marriage 129 2. Divorce 133 3. Literacy 137
Chapter IX POPULATION POLICIES
1. Official and Un-official 141 2. Government Effects 143 3. Popular Attitudes 144 4. The Success of the Government Policies 145
PART III RURAL AND URBAN SETTLEMENTS
Chapter X AKHOREH VILLAGE
1. Location 148 2. Population 150 3. Settlements 154
Chapter XI ALIABAD VILLAGE
1 . Location 161 2. Population 161 3. Ingredients Settlements 166 (IV) Page
Chapter XII DIDERAN VILLAGE
1. Location 173 2. Population 174 3. Settlements 176
Chapter XIII HASANABAD VILLAGE
1 . Location 184 2. Population 185 3. Settlements 188
Chapter XIV SEMIROM
1. Location 196 2. Population 197 3. Settlements 199 4. Building Materials 204
Chapter XV 3HAHREZA
1 . General and Human Geography 209 2. Population 211 3. Settlements 214 4. Building Materials 218 (V)
Page
Chapter XVI ESFAHAN 1. Natural and Human Geography 224 2. Natural Attraction 228 3. Architectural Designs 235 4. Building Materials 246 5. Comparision Between Old and New Houses 247 6. Structure and Style of Buildings in 252 Jizisting Settlements
Chapter XVII NAIN
1 . Natural and Human Geography 265 2. Population 269 3. Settlements 272 4. Building Materials 275
CONCLUSION 282
BIBLIOGRAPHY 288 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to Professor Mohammad Anas, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for his inspiring and most valuable guidance in the preparation of this work which is being submitted as a Ph.D. Thesis (1978) at the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P. (INDIA).
As a Ph.D. student at the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, I was immensely helped by a number of teachers and fellow students, but before all I must thank the Head of the Department, Professor Mohammad Shafi, for his extreme kindness and generous help at several stages.
I am greatly indebted to Professor S.M.Rafiullah, who was good enough to let me benefit by his critical suggestions.
I cannot sufficiently thank my original source of inspiration, Professor M.H. Ganji, my old teacher and guide, for the training he given gave me has made me equal to the task. The encouragement I have received from him all along has given me the strength to complete the present work. My other teachers, especially Professor All Mohammad Varqa and Professor Kazim Vadiei, have been my mentors and to them I shall always be obliged.
I should thank Mr.Mazhar Ali, Technical Assistant in the Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, who did the cartographic work and photostated the drawings, and also Mr.Khowaja Mobin Ahmad, who typed out my manuscript. Finally, I would like to thank all my Iranian and Indian friends, too numerous to be mentioned individually, whose valuable cooperation is a memory I shall always cherish.
K. Bazmi LIST OF TABLES
I. Average Monthly Discharge of the Rainfall Station Zaman Khan, 1949-1972 II. Monthly Pressure, 1951-1971 III. Average Monthly Maximum Winds (km. per hour) 1961-1970 IV. Monthly Maximum Absolute Temperature, 1962-1972 V. Minimum Absolute Temperature in Centigrade VI. Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature 1960-1972 VII. Average Monthly Cloudiness with YQ of the Sky as the unit 1960-1972 VIII. Mean Percentage Relative Humidity (6.30 A.M. and 0.30 P.M.) IX. Rainfall Monthly and Annual Averages X. Population Distribution, 1966 XI. Urban and Rural Population in Esfahan Ostan, 1966 XII. Immigration in Esfahan Ostan, 1966 XIII. Changes in General Population 1956-1966 XIV. Changes in Urban Population 1956-1966 XV. Population and Agricultural Density 1966 XVI. Population Age Composition 1966 XVII. Population: Sex Composition 1966 XVIII. Religions and Sects of the Population 1966 XIX. Distribution of Economically Active and In-active Population 1966 XX. Distribution of Economically Active Population 1966 - ii -
XXI. Employed Population by Major Industrial Groups 1966 XXII. Marital Status by Regions 1966 XXIII. Un-married Population 1966 XXIV. Divorces per thousand of the Total Married 1966 XXV. Regional Distribution of Literacy by Sex 1966 XXVI. Age Groups of Population in Akhoreh 1966 XXVII. Number of Rooms Occupied by Households in Semirom XXVIII. Ownership and Kumber of Occupied Rooms XXIX. Building Materials and Old Structures XXX. Use of Electric Power and Source of water supply XXXI. Households Members and Number of Rooms Occupied XXXII. Ownership of the Residences in Shahreza XXXIII. Building Materials by Age of Buildings 1966 XXXIV. Distribution of Electricity and Water Supply 1966 XXXV. Building Materials and Age of Structure XXXVI. Household by Size and Number of Rooms Occupied 1966 XXXVII. Private House by Size of Households and Number of Rooms Occupied XXXVIII. Status of Tenure and Number of Rooms XXXIV. Housing Units by Age,Structure and Materials XXXX. Housing Units and Welfare Facilities LIST OP MAPS AND FIGURES
1 . Location: Esfahan Ostan in Iran 2. General Map of Esfahan Ostan Roads 3. Topography of Esfahan Ostan 4. Drainage in Esfahan Ostan 5. Geographical Regions 6. Monthly Absolute and Minimum Temperature 7. Cloudiness with 1/8 of the Sky as the Unit 8. Relative Humidity 0.30 P.M. 9. Relative Humidity 6.30 A.M. 10. Average and Maximum Monthly Precipitation 11. Monthly Number of Days with Freezing Temperature 12. Population Density 1 3. Distribution of Urban and Rural Population 14. Esfahan Ostan Ratio of Urban and Rural Population 15. Sex and Age Structure in Shahrestans of Mountainous Region 16. Sex and Age Structure in Shahrestans of Sub- Mountainous Region 17. Sex and Age Structure in Shahrestan of Esfahan Plain Region 18. Sex and Age Structure in Shahrestans of Arid and S emi-Arid Region 19. Economic Activities Status of the Population in Mountainous Region - IV -
Economic Activity Status of the Population in Sub-Mountainous Region Economic Activity Status of the Population in Esfahan Plain Economic Activity Status of the Population in Arid and Semi-Arid Region Location of Sample Villages and Cities Plan of a Typical House in Aliabad Village Plan of a Typical House in Aliabad Village Plan of a Typical House in Dideron Village Plan of a Typical House in Dideran Village Plan of a Typical House in Hasanabad Village Plan of a Typical House in Hasanabad Village Semirom City Plan of a Typical House in Semirom Shahreza City Plan of a Typical House in Shahreza Esfahan City Plan of a Typical House in Jolfa- Esfahan Plan of a Typical House in Jolfa- Esfahan Plan of a Typical House in Esfahan Building Materials in the Settlements of Esfahan Plan of a Typical House in Esfahan Plan of a Typical House in Esfahan Plan of a Typical House in Esfahan Nain City Plan of a Typical House in Nain LIST OP PLATS
1 . An Old House in Akhoreh Village 2. A Modern House The Akhoreh Village 3. A Water Tank in Pereidon Shahr (Akhoreh) 4. Portal of an Old House in Akhoreh Village 5. A Covered Old Lane in Aliabad Village 6. A New Housing Unit in the midst of the Old Houses in Aliabad Village
7. A Columbarium Outside Dideran Village
8. Dome-shaped Roofs of the Houses in Hasanabad Village
9. A New Portal Added to an Old House in Hasanabad Village
10. A view of the Ventilators of a House in Hasanabad V illage
1 1. An Old Portal of an Old House in Hasanabad Village
12. A view of Taq-o-Cheshmeh (Arch- shaped Roofs) in the Old Settlements of Shahreza
13* A view of Wooden Pillars with Plaster-moulding in Jolfa, a Residential Quarter of Esfahan
14. A Verenda supported by a Pillar made of Wood and Plastered with Chalk in a House of Nain INTRODUCTION
I. Importance of Study
Borrowing La Blachean phrase, Geography of human settlements and of human population may be considered as two recent sprouts from the venerable trunk of the Science, The two subfields are attracting over increasing attention of the geographers since the time when Meitzen published the first systematic work on geography of settlements in 1898 and Trewartha pleaded 'The case for Population Geography' in his presidential address in 1953. That the population and settlement studies are credited with great subjective and objective significance by the geographers is testified by the large number of works published in these subfields during the recent past. As majority of these works pertain mainly to principles and world patterns there is still much scope and need for specific area studies. As such this study is an attempt to present a systematic geography of population and settlements of a specific region of Iran.
Ssfahan Ostan is selected for this purpose as it happens to be the native Ostan of the author. Besides, the region does also possess some distinct geographical characteristics. It has a central location in the country - vii -
and has served as a strong and important area of convergence of economic, cultural, religious and political forces from the very early times of Iranian history. The region is also characterized by great diversity of climate and topography. A cross-culture with a classical and traditional base adopting to the forces of geographical diversity and historical trends has resulted in the developm© of some distinctive features of the geographic personality of the region and in the emergence of some typical problems in the area which deserve a thorough investigation.
( i) Sample Studies
The investigations carried out under this doctoral project are based on the field studies of some sample villages and urban centres selected in such a way that they represent the rural and the urban landscapes of the entire region with acceptable level of significance. The following villages and cities have been selected as stratified random samples of the two segments of human population and settlements:
( a) Rural Centres
1 . Akhoreh village from mountainous region
2. Ali Abad- from the sub-mountainous region viii -
3. Dideran- from Esfahan plain
4. Hasan Abad- from Arid and Semi-Arid region
( b) Urban Centres
1 • Semirom- from mountainous region
2. Shahreza- from sub-mountainous region 3. Esfahan- from Esfahan plain 4. Kain- from arid and semi-arid region (ii) Field Investigation
Field investigations were made chiefly in connection with the size and growth of population, the living conditions of the people, the housing problems of the past and the present and the present rate of construction of new housing units in the areas of field study. Attempt has also been made to explore the reasons for the densities of population, type and location of cottage industries and handicrafts, specific systems of land resource utilizations and the requirements and facilities of transport and communication services. The information and data collection was supplemented with the acquisition of certain relevant plans and charts wherever available. - ix -
(iii) Map Work
The settlement maps of all the new and old settlements Included in the present study have been prepared on the respective spots during the field work; whereas the maps pertaining to general aspects of the geography and population of the area on the survey maps and the census maps of 1966. Some help has also been taken from geological survey maps of Iran.
II. Methods of Approach
As the official and published data, especially for rural areas, are not only scanty but they are also highly selective in their coverage of the geographic feature of the Ostan, a substantial portion of the work is based on the findings of the field investigations carried out by the writer. In order to collect comparable and unbiased data from all over the Ostan, the investigations were carried out on the basis of comprehensive questlonnaries and, occasionally, on the basis of oral interviews with the members of the households or the families of the villages. For this purpose the writer prepared a detailed questionnaire for the villages incorporating queries about all the main aspects of the life and economy of the people and the related problems. The copies of the village - X -
questionnaire were given to educated youngmen who were taking a compulsory short period milirary training in the villages.
These persons were adequatly briefed about the procedure of the work and were requested to fill in the relevant details accordingly. However, the writer took up sub-samples of the sample villages and filled in the questionnaire himself. It is under such limitations of the availability of published statistics and the collection of data through field investigations that the present work has been undertaken and accomplished. However, in obtaining necessary data from official records and through field work the help of the government officers has always been easily forthcoming and deserves full acknowledgement. For field works the Governor General of Esfahan Ostan issued some letters to all government officers concerned to provide as much facilities for the pursuit of the project as possible and, to be very frank, the work would have not been accomplished without their help.
III. Administrative Setup
The Ostan of Esfahan, with an area of 94750 sqr.km., accounts for about 6.8 per cent of the total area of Iran, - xi - and as such is comparatively an extensive internal Ostan of the country.
The Bsfahan Ostan is situated between 50o48'N and 34°28,N latitude and 49° to 56°33,B longitude. This Ostan is bounded on the north by the central Ostan and Ostan of Semnan, on the west by the Ostan of Lorestan, Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiyari and Kuh Kiluyeh, on the south by the Ostan of Fars and on the east by the Khorasan and Yazd Ostans. (Fig.1).
The Ostan of Bsfahan consists of nine Shahrestans, 21 Bakhshes and 2559 Dehs (village). Primarilly the inter-Ostan boundaries of Bsfahan Ostan are based on geographical factors whereas politico-economic situations have played only a secondary role. For instance, on the west and southwest side this Ostan is separated from Lorestan, Khozestan, Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiyari and Kuh Kiluyeh Ostans by the Zagros range. On the north side the Central Mountains and the salt desert separate it from Semnan and central Ostans. Then on the east and southeast side the dry lands with very sparse population,
1. Shahrestan is a township. It is divided into a number of Bakhshes and a Bakhsh is further sub-divided into Dens or villages. cat5EK,ji£;.«te
00 rsi «M O
.-r
z CO ^^ O J— <£ z O < o X < > Li. o o c/> LU
e O art
>» > s S? V -->*«. < J / ) "Z>\ i«° o V o z O > O a. o z ^ MI /^' z z o o ?? U i i i 2L - xiii - demarcate it from Khorasan and Yazd, and on the south and southwest side the arid land and the Dena Mountain define the boundary between this Ostan and the Ostan of Fars. The internal administrative divisons of the Ostan are made chiefly on the basis of geographical features and traditional characteristics of the localities. For example, Befanan- the central Shahrestan - is separated from Shahrestan-e-Shahreza by the Kuh-e-Ghazi and Kuh-e-Sufeh mountains, and the area under the Zaiandeh Bud river irrigation is isolated from Najafabad, by Viny and Panjy mountains. Then Karkas, Jabal, Fesara and Molla-Ahmad mountains separate Esfahan from Natanz, Ardestan and Nain. Fereidan on the west of Esfahan Ostan seperate from the Golpayegan by Dareh-bid and Khonsar mountains. The tributaries of the Zaiandeh Rud river namely, Plasgan and Morghab from the dividing line between this Shahrestan and Najafabad. Similarly lax mountains demarcate Shahreza from Semirom. The biggest Shahrestan of Esfahan Ostan is Nain with an area of 35,500 sqr. km. and the smallest of them is the Shahrestan of Golpayegan with an area of 2,420 sqr.km. - XIV - The location of the administrative headquarters of the Shahrestans are due to many factors such as geographical* politico-economic, cultural and commercial. For instance Nain and Daran owe their administrative for their positions to cross-roads; Shahreza and Najafabad to population and commercial activities; Golpayegan to its central location; and the metropolitan city of Bsfahan to its geographical position, traditions and important communications with other cities, as well as to the presence of Zayandeh Rud* s fertile plains with dense population, numerous commercial activities of great importance, high level of industrialization, traditional finesse of craftsmanship, development of scientific education and historical sites of great attraction for both the national and foreign tourists. All these factors combinadly made it an important place worthy of being selected as the centre of administration of the whole Ostan. PAST I PHYSICAL FRAMB WORK CHAPTER I GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURE Host of the underground surveys and geological explorations in Iran have been conducted during the last 150 years and these have been made mainly by foreign experts. The first survey was conducted in 1840 by a German geologist, C.M.Bell. The latest geological explorations were made by the Iranian Institute of Geology in collaboration with the Ministry of Industries and Mines, which was established in 1959. Further more, the United Nations is helping the Institute in conducting surveys and in the preparation of geological maps on the scale 1;250,000. This work is still continuing. A brief history of the geological evolution of Esfahan Ostan, given below, is largely based on the report of the Geological Institute. The geological evolution of Esfahan Ostan is believed to have gone through four phases. The geologists are of the opinion that during the first phase, from Proterozoic to Cretaceous, the whole of Iran was under the ancient sea named Tethys. The northern and the southern limits of the Tethys, so far as the Iranian area is concerned, lay in the area now occupied by the 3 Elburz and the Zagros. The Pre-Cambrian land surface was submerged in the Cambrian period and limestone and shale with rock salt and gypsum beds were laid down in the Zagros and in central Iran. During the Palaeozoic period the geological evolution entered the second phase when the Iranian Plateau was gradually raised up and the Tethys Sea, due to condensation and solidification, gradually shrinked both in depth and extent. The alluvial deposits of the Iranian highlands were mostly laid down in this period. However, these strata were buried under the Mesozoic alluvium and at places were folded and raised up. But because of the consequent development of the strong processes of denudation and erosion the tops of the highlands were denuded and the Palaeozoic strata were exposed. There are geological evidences to believe that the central and western part of Bsfahan Ostan was gradually raised during the Jurassic period. The Mesozoic period marked the third phase. Throughout this period the Tethys sea continued to subside and provide space for deposition of sediments. During the Jurrasic times the country witnessed considerable physical 4 and structural changes. Under the immense pressure from northeast the alluvial strata deposited in the northern margin of Tethys Sea were pressed against the Iranian plateau and were subjected to folding and faulting which resulted in the appearance of the Alburz mountain chains. The Zogros range which lies to the west and southwest of Esfahan Ostan is the result of a large scale uplifting and folding. It also experienced considerable volcanic activity as evidenced by the presence, at a number of places, of the deposits of volcanic material. During the second half of the Mesozoic era Zagros mountains were subjected to considerable erosion, producing longitudinal valleys which ran parallel to the direction of the main ranges. The Zagros mountains can be compared to the Jurra mountains of Prance because both are very similar in their structure. The only difference between the two is that while the Jura mountain has a large central plateau, the Zogros have no such plateau in the central part, instead, they have highlands in the east and the west. According to Gaunsers Report there was much volcanic activity in the central Iran during the Eocene period. As a result large portions of this region were covered with lava and volcanic deposits. The areas in 5 central Iran covered with volcanic deposits include Ardestan, Nain and Yazd. The lowlying areas, however, remained largely unaffected, and it can be assumed that the Befahan region was built up by sedimentation during the geological periods from cambrian to Pliocene. It is also suggested that the central plateau of Iran experienced five large and seven smaller Orogenic movements. These movements were most pronounced during Jurassic and cretaceous periods. At the end of the creteceous period Esfahan Ostan took its present shape. It was covered with huge amount of lava which resulted from active vulcanism. The hollows which were produced by the regression of the sea, were also filled up with volcanic and sedimentary materials. The fourth phase beginning with the Cenozoic period was marked with rapid shrinking of the Tethys Sea. The process of shrinkage got particularly intensified in the late Quarternary period and the Tethys Sea ultimately shrank into a closed lake and because of low rainfall and intense evoporation the whole region gradually dried up. Probably the central desert and swamps of Gavkhuni are the remnants of the dry sea. The volcanic activity of this period covered large areas with volcanic material. 6 On the whole it may be said that the present shape of the Iranian Plateau and Esfahan Ostan was finally made in Pleistocene period. From the Pleistocene to the present there has been little change in the geological structure of the area though the landforms and topography have changed considerably under the work of the agents of weathering and denudation (Pig.3). 2. DRAINAGE The principal river of Esfahan Ostan is Zaiandeh Rud. It is an inland river. Rising in the heights of the high Zagros it traverses through the low Zagros and central plateau to enter the eastern plain and finally get lost in the salt flats and the marsh of Gavkhuni. In the course it takes a number of big and small tributaries on each of its banks. Among the chief tributaries which drain into it are Kuhrang, Niakan, Khorbeh, Dimeh, Khersand and Pelasgan. Thus the whole drainage of Esfahan Ostan is composed of Zaiandeh Rud and its tributaries which may be divided into the following three systems: (i) The upper Zaiandeh Rud system (ii) The middle Zaiandeh Rud system ( iii)The Jarqueh Desert system. 8 In addition to these three main systems. There are two other system also, namely, the Golpaiegan system in the northwest and the Karan system in the southwest which drain the northwest, southwest and the western margin of the Ostan. (i) The Upper Zaiandeh Bud System The main tributaries of the Zaiandeh Rud lie in the southern part of the western mountainous Ostan (i.e. Dehestans of Shurab and Tanggazi). The important tributaries are given below: The Kuhrang River This is one of the main tributaries of Zaiandeh Rud. It rises from the eastern slope of the central Zardkuh mountain and joins Zaiandeh Rud through a dam and tunnel at Kuhrang. The river Kuhrang originates from a pond 10 km. west of the village Chelgard. Near the Kuhrang dam* this river joins another river known as Sheikh-Ali Khan. The average supply of Kuhrang river itself is about 15 cubic metres per second. 1. This part lies outside of the Esfahan Ostan. 9 Aab-e-Zardeh It Is one of the tributaries of Kuhrang river. It joins Kuhrang at a distance of 6 km. south of its source in the Zardkhu mountain. The average water supply of this tributary is 2.5 cusecs, which is quite low. Aab-e-Sheikh Ali Khan It rises from the slopes of the mountain of Haft Tanan (one of the ranges of Zard Kuh). After traversing a distance of 10 km. to the south, it joins Kuhrang at about 2 km. west of the Kuhrang dam. This is a torrential stream. Near its head it receives three small tributaries which pass through a number of water-falls, some of them being as high as 50 metres, before joining it. Aab-e-Sheikh Ali Khan then, ladden with the water of its tributaries, passes through a narrow plain, 20-30 metres wide, to join the Kuhrang river. Sheikh Ali Khan and its tributaries drain the area which is the domain of the Bakhtiari transhumants for summer grazings. The combined water discharge of Sheikh Ali Khan and Kuhrang is 40-50 cubic metres per second in the spring season. But the flow is regulated by the Kuhrang dam so that about 27-30 cusecs are allowed to drain into the Zaiandeh Eud while the rest is diverted to the tributaries of Karun in the southwest. 10 Tributaries of Tanggazi Dehestan Kuhrang and Sheikh Ali Khan after passing the tunnel of Kuhrang in the eastern margin of the village Chehelgard on the foothills of the mountain of Kar Konan enters the main course of Zaiandeh Rud. In fact the tunnel may be considered as the Fountain-head of Zaiandeh Rud, Here the basin of Zaiandeh Rud is about 300 metres wide and the course of the river is flanked with swamps and meadows. About 8 km. north of Chehelgard, three medium size tributaries join the river: Cham-e-Dar tributary from west, Aab-e-Deh Nav tributary from northeast and Aub-e-Nal-Eshkanan in the east. Aab-e- Cham-e-Dar This tributary rises from the slopes of Behesht mountain about 18 km. west of the Zaiandeh Rud basin. Plowing in a deep valley, it enters Zaiandeh Rud near the village Rudan. Though the supply of this tributary is permanent but its discharge fluctuates between ten and one cubic metres in April and October respectively. 11 Aab-e-Dehnoy This stream comprises a number of small streamlets and rises from the Foothills of Rokh mountain, 12 km. southeast of the Zaiandeh Rud basin. It is a seasonal stream and often over flows in the months of April and May with a maximum discharge of 7 cusecs, but in the month of September it becomes nearly dry. This tributary joins Zaiandeh Rud at the village Raziabad. Aab-e-Nalesh Kanan This tributary is, in fact, a large branch of the Zaiandeh Rud. It rises from the foothills of Zard Kuh. After passing through a narrow valley in an eastwest direction, it joins Zaiandeh Rud at the village of Qela-e-Ali Hosain. It is a perennial stream with an average maximum flow of 10 cusecs in the months of April and May and average minimum flow of 5 to 2,5 cusecs in the months of October and November. The Springs of Dimeh The Zaiandeh Rud between the villages of Chehelgard and Dimeh runs in a more or less gentle and straight course. In the neighbourhood of Dimeh a number of large and small 1 2 streams join it. However, only three of them are of some importance. The notable point about these streams of Dimeh is that they rise from the ponds about 5 to 10 metres wide and after traversing about 10 to 20 metres they acquire the form of well defined streams as these tributaries start from the Zaiandeh Rud basin. A number of writers have mistakenly supposed them to be the source of Zaiandeh Rud. These springs are permanent and are an important source of water supply to Zaiandeh Rud especially during the dry seasons of the years. Aab-e-Khorbeh This tributary is one of the permanent tributaries of Zaiandeh Rud. It rises in the mountains near the western side of Khorbeh village. The maximum supply of this tributary averages about 10 to 12 cusecs in the month of April with a minimum of 3 to 4 cusecs in the month of October. It joins Zaiandeh Rud at the Khorbeh village. Tributaries of Fereidan Shahrestan Zaiandeh Rud enters Feriedan Shahrestan at the village of Khersanak-e-Mugiio about 25 km. north of Chehelgard. The streams of Aab-e-Khersanak, Aab-e-Naikan 13 and Pelasgan are the three main tributaries which Zaiandeh Rud receives in Feriedan Shahrestan. 1 . Aub-e-Khersanak It is a seasonal stream with a discharge of 3 to 4 cusecs during the rainy season. The source of the stream lies in the area known as Dasht-e-Kabud and Dar-Alucheh. This tributary joins the Zaiandeh Rud at the village Khersanak. After receiving this tributary, Zaiandeh Rud takes its main course and flows in a relatively wide valley. 2. Aab-e -N i akun This tributary starts from the eastern slopes of the Poshtkuh and Dareh-tuth. It joins Zaiandeh Rud at the village of Niakan. Being a seasonal stream, it shrinks to a more thread of water in the dry months but swells to considerable dimensions during rainy season. 3. Aab-e-Pelasgan The Zaiandeh Rud, after receiving Niakan tributary, veers north to the village of Qela-Shahrokh (25 km. north of Chehelgard) and runs in the northsouth direction in a 14 narrow bed. Between Niakan and Qela-Shahhrokh, a distance of 15 km., it does not receive any important tributary. But when it reaches the village of Qela-Shah.rokh it receives Pelasgan which is one of its major and perennial tributaries. The river Pelasgan is also known by two other names, i.e. P las an and Sskandary. In some of the maps, it is also given as Nahr-e-Khalaj, but it appears that this last name is a cartographic mistake as there is a village in the area known as Nahr-e-Khalaj. The name of the river used in this work, i.e. Pelasgan, is that by which it is commonly known in the main areas of this tributary. The river Plasgan is fed by one main tributary which in its turn receives two minor streams as its tributaries. The Plasgan drains northeastern, northern and the northwestern areas of central Fereidan Shahrestan. The main tributary comes from the eastern part of the Daran town and, after draining the eastern and southeastern areas of this town, runs through the south of the villages of Gharghan and Savaran. It is joined by a small stream, which comes from the north, at the village Savaran. 15 The second tributary starts from the Akhoreh-e-Sofla situated on the western side of Fere id an Shahrestan and drains the area of the villages of Milagerd, Dehagh and Chigan. This tributary joins the northern one near the village Chargan and the latter, thereafter, flows into the southeastern one near the southern side of the village Savaran, and thus the whole Pelasgan drainage system is formed. The river Plasgan, after passing the village Eskandary, becomes about 30 to 40 metres wide and develops sharp meanders before joining the Zaiandeh Rud. Besides being a significant tributary, the Pelasgan also marks the beginning of the drier section of the Zaiandeh Rud basin. The aridity of the basin gradually increases eastwards with the distance from the point of confluence of Zaiandeh Rud and Plasgan. (ii) The Middle Zaiandeh Rud System Beyond Qela-Shahrokh (the confluence of Pelasgan and Zaiandeh Rud). The Zaiandeh Rud traverses through a mountainous area developing only a very narrow basin which extends from the Shah Abbas-e-Kabir dam to Pot-e-Kalleh 16 across the Dehestans of east Chadegan, Lar and Aydogmesh and a part of the Dehestan of 0 shy an. As the valley In this section is deep and narrow the river is not suitable for irrigation purposes. In its middle section the Zaiandeh Bud receives only one tributary, namely, Rud-e-Shur. It is formed by two rivulets - one rising in the mountain of Doha and other in the mountain of Astane and Dashtak near the village Budengan. These two streams meet near the small town of Dehaghan and give rise to Rud-e-Shur which, thereafter, flows by the villages of Karch, Pudeh, Qombaran, Jombezeh, Alibad Talkhonched and Shah Kuchek. It joins Zaiandeh Rud near the small town of Mobarakeh at the edge of Pol-e-Mazarach. The discharge of Rud-e-Shur depends upon the amount of rainfall at its source area. The discharge is maximum from early March to late May and in humid years it is liable to floods during the period. Prom the month of April the river, in any case, starts gradually drying up and withering. Nevertheless, it is an important source of water supply for the cultivation of wheat and barley in the area. After confluence with Rud-e-Shur at Mobarakeh, Zaiandeh Rud enters in a somewhat plain stage of its course 17 and loses much of its velocity. Flowing rather sluggishly, it makes a loop projecting northwestwards before reaching the Esfahan city. It regains some of its velocity in the eastern part of Baraan Dehestan where it traces a somewhat hyperbolic course with the apex pointing to the southwest. From Baraan Dehestan down to Gavkhuni marsh, it flows almost due east, carves out a wider basin and becomes sluggish, and beyond the small town of Var Zaneh (18 km. west of Gavkhuni) the speed becomes nil. In the entire course, from Mobarakeh to the mount of Gavkhuni, Zaiandeh Bud receives no tributary, seasonal or perennial) worth the name (Table I). (iii) The Jaroueh Desert System The eastern part of Esfahan Ostan, which lies in the Jarqueh desert, is drained by lower Zaiandeh Rud and a number of small and capricously seasonal streams which flow into the Gavkhuni marsh and the surrounding salt waste from almost all the directions of the compass. In this part the Zaiandeh Sad, as noted earlier, flows extremely sluggishly in the southeastern direction for about 17 km. before finally disappearing in the Gavkhuni marsh. co tn vo tn c- t-- cr< cr> in <- i— *- •xtcvc-t- «- T- tn O IO t- t* C» ^ in ^> t- "fr Ch 0 •H Oi tO K> t^KN lO «- ^- m »- T-LfNtO^OOlTvCNJt^-i-T-tOv -P O p^*-»t* o ft t- tn f- C- *- u** •<*• C- r-ffl^iA0O^»-5fir\ cr» *- woto c-- in •**- in *- cr> »- i^ oi oo in «- in •^•MDinot--M3r"-to •otntntnco • 0'*i-M3*-ooot--c*-^omm 5 comTi-voc^crivo f- »5 i*- xj- m m •*i-vomM3««t-cO'«-T-v£> [—•**- O vx> t^*>oCM *- in CM m in MDoo*-»-cr»c--M3t<*\ in u • •••••••••••••••••• • cd 0'-»critn^c^-M3 • co c— to co •«*• • MDt-t-c^mm-'a-mcMMDt"- «* * • w K> in 5j- cvi rtcvcMCMtn mni'tininini-m«t'J-N CM co cx> tn t— CM •**- in *- cr> «- to cr> t^- in •«- CD (0'-»o0'-^*,om • o co cr> MD m ^o o\ m in CMMOCMo-Nvovom^ •**- co ^•.-•CMCMOOCO * •«*• CM vo m r- • O'-tMm^-in^ot-coc^O'-CMKN^-mMa r- oo d o »- w inmmininminmmmMDMDMJvo^oMDvoMDMJvo c- c-- r- cd I I I I I I I • I- I I I ! I I I I I I I I I I 5 3 cd crvo,-CVJic*'**"mM3 c--co cr« o *- Gavkhuni is a long marsh which is surrounded by Sharaz Khu mountain in the north and by the southern ridges of Nain and Hendiiun in the east. In the south the desert of Jarquieh-ye-Sofla and in the west the area of the Rudasht Denestan separate it form the neighbouring areas. It is lowland area situated between 52°47' to 52058lE. long, and 32°13* to 32°20'N. latitude. The approximate height is 1,440 metres above the sea level at the foothill of Siahkuh on the northern margin of Gavkhuni. About 50 years back the Gavkhuni contained a triangular water surface covering an area of 50 sq. km. But during the last 50 years its water surface has shrunk to about 30 sq. km. This is a strong indication of the gradual drying up of the Govkhuni lake (Daryacheh Govkhuni). It may, therefore, be inferred that the time is not far away when the whole lake will, by all probability, be converted into an expanse of soft saline alluvials which, at present, a re found around it. On the whole, therefore, this part of Esfahan Ostan is an area of highly erratic and inland drainnage and suffers not only from acute paucity 1. Moiin, M.Farhang-e-fcioiin, (Tehran, 1345), lettering. 20 of water but also from high rate of evaporation which is causing rapid withering of the existing water bodies of the area. Golpayegan - River After Zayandeh Rud river, the second river in Esfahan Ostan is Golpayegan. In the beginning it is a formation of several streams that come down from the mountains of Golpayegan, Abbas Abad, Takhtani and Gul-e-Zard in the west of Golpayegan. One of the most important streams among them is Ab-e-Anar-Bar. After coming down from the Bakhtiyari mountain, it joins with other streams i.e. Cheshmeh - Garm, Rud-e-Hendeh and Rud-e-Dehlak at the place called Kharghab. Therefrom it takes the shape of a river which is known as Golpayegan river. It irrigates the villages of Abbas Abad, Kucher-ri and Quleh Darreh and entres into the Golpayegan Shahrestan. Finally it discharges into the lake of Qom. (Fig.4). The maximum flow of water in this river is during the months of February and March and the minimum flow is in the month of August. In the west of Golpayegan a dam is 1 . Lake of Qom is located in the Central Ostan. "X.. . ..:jta»2a»u^"™ .„a *aE533sn.:i z ^ •— o AINAGE <* ^ Q ^^^L u. 4/> UJ 22 built across this river at Okht-Khun which is 24 km. away from this place. The construction of this dam was taken up in the year 1946 by the Irrigation Joint-Stock Company and completed in the year 1957. It was put to use in the same year. Specifications of this dam are as follows: 1 . Length of the dam is 320 metres 2. Height of the dam is 52 metres 3. The thickness of foundation is 219 metres 4. The length of road on the dam is 15 metres 5. Storage capacity of the dam is 28 millions cub. metres. 6. The length of lake at the near of the dam is 12 km. 7. The depth of lake near the dam is 42 metres. 3. GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS Esfahan Ostan can be divided into four geographical regions. The four regions are recognized on the basis of similarity in geographical environment. 23 From west to east the four regions are: I. The mountainous region II. Sub-mountainous region III.The Esfahan Plain IV. The arid and semi-arid region (Fig.5). I • The Mountainous Region This region covers a total area of 14,100 sq. km. (14.8 per cent of the total area of the Ostan) and comprises the Dehestan of Shorab Tanghazi, Poshtkuh, Pishkub, Karchambu, Chemarud and Gorjy. The region includes the three Shahrestans of Semirom, Fereidan, Golpayegan. The region in the south and southwest is separated from the neighbouring Ostan by the ranges of Dena. The northwestern and wester pa rts of this region is separated from Lorestan, Khozestan and Chaharmohal-va-Bakhtyari Ostan by the ranges of Bakhtiyari mountains. In other words it may be said that this region covers the eastern slopes of Bakhtiyari mountains and also eastern and central highlands of Fareidan as well as the eastern slopes of Dena range and central mountains of the Semiron. On the whole this part of the region is mountainous, nevertheless in the eastern and ** 25 central Fariudan there are places where wide flat lands are found, Narrow elongated valleys and uneven lands are found between the high ranges of the mountains. This region is described as the cold region with heavy snowfall and long winter season. But as compared to the main range of Zagros it receives a lesser amount of rainfall. In this region the isolated mountains have greatly restricted the accessibility to the area and consequently the transport and communication facilities are least developed here. The valleys of this region are neither too narrow, nor too wide; they generally range between 2 and 3 km. in width and it is in these valleys that the human settlements are established. A the lower terraces of the valleys some important pastures are found which help the economy of the region by providing rich grazing grounds. Some wheat and barley are cultivated both on irrigated and un-irrigated lands in these valleys. On the elevated and gravelly slopes the natural pastures are common. The natural plants of this region are of the semi-forest type though at places some grasslands are also met with. If these pastures are improved they might help agriculture and animal husbandry and benifit the people of the region. 26 II. Sub-mountainous Region This region covers an area of 11f550 sq. km or 12.2 per cent of the total area of the Ostan. It is situated in the southern and northern parts of Esfahan Ostan (Shahrestan-e-Shahreza, Najafahad and Natanz). This region is separated from the neighbouring Fars Ostan and Central Ostan by Mount Dena in the south and Karkas mount in the north. The climate of this region is of an extreme type. The winters are long and cold. In winter season temperature drops down to a minimum of -22 C in December. The maximum temperature reaches 40 C in September. The region therefore has a long range of temperature of 62 C. Snowfall is common in this zone. The weather here is not as cold as in the mountainous region, and also it is not as hot as in arid and semi-arid region. This region is provided with irrigation water usually from deep wells and also from the 1 qanats. This region is fertile but due to the inadequacy of irrigation water, agriculture is facing some problems in its full and intense development. Unirrigated crops are commonly cultivated in the western part of this region. The 1 . Kan-made underground water supply channels. 27 main crops of this region are wheat and barley. The main occupation of the inhabitants is orchard raising and animal husbandry whereas carpet weaving is the principal occupation of the ladies. The natural vegetation, because of the relatively dry climate, is rather stunted and, in most of the parts it is quite thin. This region is less thickly populated than the Esfahan plains but the population is more than that of the mountainous and semi-mountainous regions. The southern part of the region is accessible to transport, and the trading communities belonging to Qashquai tribes move freely from place to place. The Shahrestan of Shahreza, Naien and Natanz are three main administrative, commercial and industrial headquarters of the region. III. The Esfahan Plains This region lies in the central part of Esfahan Ostan and includes Shahrestan-e-Esfahan except Bakhsh-e- Jarqueh. The total area of this region is 16,400 eq. km. or 17.4 per cent of the total area of Esfahan Ostan. This region is bounded by the Shah-Kuh, Colah Qazi mountains in the south and southeast, and the semi-arid region of Esfahan Ostan in the north and east. The region is situated in the alluvial plain of Zaiandeh Bud river. The relative humidity and rainfall in this region, though lesser than 28 that experienced in the mountainous region, is greater than that found in any other region of the Ostan. The average annual rainfall of this region is about 80 mm. The relative humidity in the region ranges between 40 and 60 per cent. The maximum temperature here does not rise above 41 C and minimum temperate does not usually fall below -15 C. It may, however, be noted that the humidity records are obtained from the stations which are located along the river and are therefore considerably affected by the micro-climatic condition. This is one of the most populated regions of the Esfahan Ostan, and the summer and winter seasons here are moderate. However, sufficient irrigation water is available to support large scale agriculture and provide considerable scope for further extention of cultivation. The natural vegetation of this region is poor and consists mostly of thorny bushes, particularly goat thorns. Due to fertility of soil and adequacy of irrigation facilities, the cultivation of corns, vegetables, fruits and sugar beat is commonly done. The standard of life here is higher than that found in any other region of the Esfahan Ostan. All the land of this region with the exception of only a limited area of the higher slopes where the irrigation possibilities 29 are meager or the soils are not cultivable, is occupied and used. Owing to the historical and industrial city of Esfahan this region has acquired central position in administrative, commercial, scientific, tourist and economic activities in the Ostan. IV. The Arid and Semi-Arid Region This region occupies the eastern portion of Esfahan Ostan. The total area of this region is 52,700 sq. km. or 55.6 per cent of the total area of the Ostan. The area of this region includes the northeastern, northern and the southeastern parts of Esfahan Ostan (Shahrestan-e- Ardestan, Nain and Bakhsh-e-Jarqueh). Semnan, Khorasan and Yazd are the neighbouring Ostans which surround this region. The region is rather a flat expanse and both the flatness and the width increase from west to east, so that in Nain it reaches the maximum. This region is the driest of all the regions of Esfahan Ostan. The summer season is dry and the average annual rainfall is about 50 mm. Rain comes in early winter and spring season - in the spring season generally in the form of light showers. Human settlements are located at some distances to each other in the east of the region. Isolated pattern 30 is the main feature of human settlements in this area. It is swept with strong winds and storms which often cover the qanats with sand. The natural vegetation is thin. The land is charged with salinity. The salinity is found especially in the southeastern part and it increases southwards. In this region also the cultivation is dependent upon fairly deep and sometimes very deep tube-wells but qanats are poor in water. Animal husbandry is very precarious and the economy of the area is based on handicrafts, especially carpet weaving. CHAPTER II CLIMATE GENERAL Climatically Esfahan Ostan may be considered as consisting of different and distinct sectors. These sectors have considerable atmospheric variations, which exert inevitable effects both upon the cultural and economic landscape and the natural landscope. The Ostan as a whole experiences a large diversity of climatic conditions. If on the one hand the western, southwestern, and the northwestern mountains, viz. Dena, Zardberg (Zard Kauh) and Alvand Mountains are covered with snow for most of the time of the year, the extreme eastern part suffers from extreme heat and aridity on the other. In the marginal areas of the northeast, due to the excessive paucity of rainfall, the life is somewhat impossible. In the highland or upland region of this state, especially on the fountain-head of Zaiandeh Rud, winter season is longer, having a duration of about 5-6 months with temperature generally remaining below freezing point; whereas in the eastern and northeastern section the cold season is not more than of 5 or 4 months. Thus the climate of the Ostan as a whole is characterized by great regional contrasts and diversities. Latitudinal positions and altitudinal differences are the most important factors responsible for these climatic variations. Besides these, the incidence of Cyclones and anti-cyclones does also play a substantial role in causing the distinctive variations in the climate of the Ostan. In the winter season a strong current of northerly condenced polar air blows towards Iran passing through the valleys of Elburz mountains and goes upto the shores of the Persian Gulf. This cold current visits the country in the form of regular spells. Normally a winter season experiences about 9 to 12 such spells of which 3 or 4 sweep the area with abnormally high speeds. They cause great the damage to the farms which come in their way. These cold spells bring about heavy snowfalls in the Elburz region of northern Iran. Atmospheric disturbances and depressions of the Mediterranean sea move towards Iran and, though they are checked by chain of Zagros mountains, they, nevertheless, help raise considerably the prevailing high humidity of the winter season. 33 The temperature of this wind coming from sea is within 8 C - 10 C. at the time of entrance. V.Gorgio, is of the view that, in addition to the afore-said effective factors on the regional climatic condition, the local mountain and valley winds are an important factor which could be considered here. Though the mountain climates and weather conditions could not be extended to the surrounding low lying areas, however, they exert a great deal of effect on the atmospheric conditions in these areas. For instance under very high local pressure which develops on the heights of the Zagros strong cold winds blow down through and along the valleys, resulting in a severs cold weather. It is, therefore, believed that Zagros Mountains are also one of the chief sources of the cold winds that regularly blow in this region. Side by side with these cold currents the country is visited by a relatively warm current that comes from the south. The temperature of these southerly winds generally ranges between 20°C. and 25°C. It causes the humidity to come down to about 60 to 80 per cent in the morning and 30 to 60 per cent during the day time. In this 34 way, it causes a rise in temperature and sets in conditions favourable for causing rainfall in the central part of Iran, that is the state of Esfahan. Thus Iran is visited by different types of wind in winter, namely the cold massive winds from north, and warm ones from the south. But these different winds get weaker as they reach the central sector of Iran i.e. Esfahan. In the summer, the norther cold massive winds stop blowing in the central state and the Asiatic southern hot weather prevails throughout the southeast of Iran. Instead of the cold winds of winter, the hot desert massive currents from Turkey and the U.S.S.R., with temperatures as high as 48 C. to 50°C, visit the central area and bring with them heavy dust storms. Europian atmospheric current from the North- Atlantic Ocean blows towards the northwest part of Iran. This current may reach the southeast of Iran, but because it has to travel a long distance from west and central Europe it loses most of its humidity and reaches Esfahan Ostan as a relatively dry and warm wind. However, this current gives some rainfall to the western part of Iran i.e. the Zagros mountain chain. The 35 weather conditions prevailing in the Indian Ocean have a limited influence on the southeast of Iran, and fail to extend their influence upto the high grounds of the state of Befahan. Therefore, the aforesaid different atmospheric disturbances and winds which come from different directions and condition the climates of the northern, western and southern perepheral parts of Iran have but a very little and limited role to play in the climate of Esfahan Ostan. The following two are the main determinents of the climatic conditions that prevail over Esfahan, Ostan and its constituent Shahrestans: (i) The presence of a desert in the northeast and east with a very low average rainfall (100 mm. per annum). The part of the desert that lies within the Ostan comprises Gav-Khuni, Jarqueh, Naien and Ardestan. (ii) The presence of mountain ranges of the western and southern parts of the Ostan such as those of the Periedan and Semirom regions, and also those of northwest sections such as Goolpayegan with high pressures and freezing cold temperatures. 36 In order to make observations and records of the climatic conditions in the various climatic regions of the Ostan there have been set up five Meterological centres. Each one of them observes, records and publishes data on atmospheric condition of the locality. (a) Kuhrang Station of Climatology, in the far west region of the state of Esfahan at the foot of Zardkuh and Bakhtiary Mountain is situated at an altitude of 2650 m. and in longitude 50 7 E. and latitude 32° 27N. and was established in 1953. ( b) Pol-e-Zaman Khan climatological centre situated at 1660 m. altitude, and in 50° 0 6*E. longitude and 32° 26'N. latitude, in the Faridan territory. It was established in 1953. (c) Najaf Abad climatological centre situated in the vicinity of Zaiandeh Rud on the west of Esfahan, stands at an altitude of 1765 m. in 51°41'E. longitude and 32°43'N. latitude. (d) The Esfahan- Synoptic Centre is located on the highland of Zaiandeh Rud at 1560 m. above sea level in SI^O'E. longitude and 32°37'N. longitude. It was established in 1951 on the bank of Zaiandeh Rud. 37 (e) Nain Climatological center, situated in the east of Esfahan Ostan. Pressure And Winds In the Esfahan Ostan there is one meteorological station in Esfahan city which regularly records data on climatic conditions. Therefore, no proper records covering all centres of the Ostan are available. The following figures show the average maximum, mean and minimum monthly pressure during 20 years in Esfahan Ostan. The average atmospheric pressure at Esfahan Ostan varies from 865.20 mb. in January to 838.50 mb. in July. From January to August the pressure falls due to increase in temperature, while in September the development of anti-cyclones in the area lowers the pressure, though the temperature does not fall suddenly. The highest maximum pressure of 885.20 mb. in January and the lowest pressure of 831.20 m. in April were recorded in 1958 (Table II). Out of the five meteorological stations in the Esfahan Ostan the only Esfahan station records data about winds. It is observed that a close relationship exists between the pressure condition and circulation of winds. The direction of winds in several parts of the Ostan o o o CM o cr> o • • • 00 en o "<*• «* Tj- o (Q s o 8 • • • CM a\ to <<*• tO tO 3 00 co CO o o o in in c» • • • 00 VD to to to to 3 00 CO CO o o o to CM 00 • • • CO t- tO in tO tO to en 03 I CO CO 00 w o o o »— VO CM £ • • • en & CM o co CO Tf "d- tO 00 OS £ 00 00 co to H R a o o o o •H 00 o xfr to• UD• "«•t .a <5 •<* to to +» 00 CO oo o a o o o O CM o 00 • • • S CM cr> i- •«* to to 00 00 00 o o o VO o xfr • • • tO CM <* •* "* to 00 00 00 o o 8 o o • • » in to "«*- •-3 v£> •<*- to CO oo 00 43 a 0 u Q> 9 03 a ra U •H a> •rl In Esfahan plain, the direction of winds is from southeast to northwest. In this region the replacement of air masses all through the year encourages fast winds, but the maximum speed appears in the months of April, May, July and August. The records of 10 years (1961-1971) indicate a maximum 90 to 100 km. per hour, whereas slow winds blow in November when the maximum speed is about 70 km. per hour (Table III). ©. a) as O CD O O ~- o fl o o O O O o vo o CM vo in tn. £ ° o in vo VO in in o o o O o o o o o • • o tn O S3 CM o in tn in o o in c— O O • • VO o VO O o VO O CO VO O o »n ON o CM 8 t- m m c- O O U Pi • • a> CM vO o o vO vo in •*fr CM o o «3- tn tn VO vo VO VO in CM in © o o §> o o o VO CM O o vo o in R tn CM in vo in in W M I M O o o o O O o o O • • O • • • • • »-3 8 70. 0 o O 8 o in o tn in o o in •a J25 o CM H c in •H vo O o VO a oo O CO o VO CO o • • vo VO •"3 in VO in in in in 3 *4- o o •H CO C- a O o o o o O a? o o o O in CO >» -<3- o o vo CO CO 8 8 H in C- CO H o •H o o ft O o o VO o o o • • VO s cr\ vo O o o CM • .a VO VO o o O • • o in f*4 o in 8 in in in vO in o o in t— O O aS o o VO O O in in O "3 8 •«3- vo E' ear s 5 ag e T— CM m <«*- in vo c- CO er* o >> u 2 VO VO vo vo vo VO VO vo vo t^ © o\ In the eastern and northeastern zone of the Esfahan Ostan the maximum wind relocity is reached in the summer and autumn months when the direction is from north to south. But in the late winter and early months of spring it moves from west to southeast. Temperature There is considerable regional variation in temperature in the Esfahan Ostan. The summer season in the western area is cool and pleasant with a maximum of 35 C. but it is quite hot in the eastern part where the maximum for July is 41 C. In other portions the maximum temperature ranges between 35 and 41 C. At Esfahan maximum temperatures occur in August and average to about 41 C. Generally speaking, in the whole Ostan the temperature starts rising from January and with some oscillations, continues to rise upto the month of August. Thereafter it starts decreasing and reaches the minimum in December. Though the rise in temperature after January is generally steady but there is a sudden increase in the temperature from mid- April to late August. Prom late August it gradually starts decreasing. The temperature drops suddenly from early October and continues to fall 42 upto December. It is to be stated that even in the high mountainous area of this region the maximum temperature is always above 10°C. (Table IV). As regards the absolute minimum temperature in the Esfahan Ostan, it drops below freezing point in the western part and remains below 0 C. for a period of 9 months (early October to early May). The lowest absolute minimum in the coldest month of the year is recorded to be -26 C. for January. In the hilly area of sub-mountainous region the minimum temperature continues to remain below 0°C. for 7 months from November to May. At Pol-e-Zaman Khan, in this region the lowest minimum temperature occurs in the month of March when it touches -24 oG . *wherea s the average minimum for February and March is -12 C, In Esfahan plain the minimum absolute temperature remains below 0 C. for five months when the lowest minimum of -15 C. and 16 C. is experienced in the months of January and February respectively. In the eastern parts of Esfahan Ostan the minimum absolute temperature falls below 0°C. for 5 months from December to March. In this period the lowest temperatures . ; O O o O o o in C\J -*-\ e- (D • • o• • • Q eg o in O in •*~ eg eg eg *~ • o O O O o > o *ST O O «* JZJ C\J ^~ C"~ eg *~ tO too eg eg « o o O O O +3 T- O CO o o• • o• • • cr\ 03 tO T- o Cg to cto- to to • o O o O O p< in in ai o• o• o• • • ca in "<*• vo to "«*o • to cCT-i to -p CQ O o o o O o 8) o o o • o to• CT• . cr•« ,— CO• H o o O O o •H O o• o• • o• o« -3- >sD *— CO oa{ "o-~* eg eg to eg 43 o O O o o O O O eg eg fc o• « • • • cd • o O O O O O s to CD o• • • • • •-D -*i- c- CM •«- eg CM c- *c-- ma n Kha •Ki CQ to 4a5 o 1 § •H CD It will be seen that the average minimum monthly temperature in the Esfahan Ostan differs from place to place, i.e. in the western region of the Ostan, it is cold in general and the average minimum comes below 0°C. for a period of 4 months from December (with an average of -9°C) to March (with an average of -4.40C). The lowest average minimum is recorded in August (-13.10°C). In sub-mountainous part also the average minimum remains below 0 C. for 4 months from December (-6 .000) to March (-2 .OC). The average minimum temperature increases from west to east so that in Esfahan the below 0?C. average minimum lasts for 3 months from December (-7.00) to January (-3.60 C). But there is little variation in the eastern part of the Ostan and the below O.C. average starts from December (-6.20°C.) and lasts upto the month of February (-2.90 C). Generally speaking, the plain areas of the Ostan remain warm and the mountainous areas cool throughout the year. Table VI and Fig.6. O o o O O o in CvJ o o o C\J • 00* • PI I C\J eg I I o o o O in o o O o in • sz; I r- in I I o O O o O +» o 00 o o • o • r- o c\j o o a i I u o O o o CM o o in 8 in •H O o o P4 o O o o CVJ 4> 09 o O o o O m o 8) VO • 00 T CO tn. si o o CVJ O o o o o in C\J VO *- CO C\J • • a •-3 T- en +> CVJ *- O o o at a> o tn in o to O CVJ (D 00 CVJ VO a VO 03 H O O o a 8 tn in o cd I? • o c- i £ in in O O ITS o o o CVJ •«- CVJ VO vo VO +> a o O O o o O o o cr> u CVJ CVJ a • tn. CVJ I 0) I o 00 o ,0 8 VO o a> CVJ I o o 0o0 o o 8 in • o• a) in in »"3 ^o» I I I 0) «Q at C NJ ,a o I at s © •H as at •a +> as OQ at GO 2} .' ?* A M Cloudiness and Hiimid.ity Table VII shows that there is considerable difference in the distribution of rainfall and the amount of cloudiness at a given period of time in the whole of Esfahan Ostan. It will be seen that in the western part of the Ostan, the maximum cloudiness for the month of April is 4.5/8. and the sky remains clear in the months of August, September and October. The table also shows that in the middle of Esfahan Ostan the cloudiness starts increasing from the month of October and reaches a maximum in April. But in the months of June, July, August and September the sky is clear. In the western part of Esfahan Ostan, the sky is clear for greater number of days than it is in other parts of the Ostan. The average 12 years record shows that the cloudiness in this part begins from September, and lasts upto the month of May. In June, July and August the sky remains almost clear. From this part to the east of the Esfahan Ostan both the number of cloudy months and the thickness of clouds increase. This is so because the area is a passage for the air masses from the Black sea to the east. The eastern stations of the Ostan, therefore, record more cloudy days. At Esfahan, which is located in the western half of the Ostan, the •M'J 0£'0 00'£ 09 *£ 02/0 or 'Z 'W'V 0£'9 02'£ 00*£ OL'O 08' 'I > 'H'J 0£'0 00'£ 00'£ 09*0 or •o o *W'V 0£'9 00'£ OS'2 09*0 OL'• o -p 02*0 OS'' 0 o •wa o£'o 00*2 06'2 o # 02'0 § •wv ot*9 0SU 0£ l 09' •o ft 00*1 09*1 02'0 OS •o •P •wa o£*o 00 'H'V OS*9 Of I 0£'0 02*0 OL'• o >» •p CQ CD 09*1 00'2 OO'O 09 •o a> 3> •wa o£*o si OO'O •p 4 *M'V 0£'9 OS'I Of 0 OL'• o «H O 'M'cl 0£'0 OS'I OS't OO'O OL •o CO 3 •W? 0£'9 00'I 0£'0 00*0 08' •o -S3 M •P 'M'cT 0£'0 1 CM OS'I OS'I OO'O OL •o 3 'H'T 0£*9 05*0 OO'O '£ CD ^- oro or H CQ I GQ o •M*3 0£'0 00'£ 00*£ 02*0 OL'• 2 00 (D s en 53 •M'V 0£*9 1~ a OS'2 00'2 02*0 OL'' I O H O 'M'd 0£*0 00'S 00'fr 00' I 06' '£ •M'T 0£*9 OS'2 00't 00' I 06 •2 J3 •P o *H* 9 CQ « O 6 tS3 •H I -P f-i CO cd •s -p H 3 CQ Najafaba d bo records show clouds for all the months of the year, but the increase in cloudiness starts from November and lasts upto the month of April. In the area surrounding the Gavkhuni Marsh the incidence and regime of cloudiness is not much different from that in Esfahan. In this region the cloud formation starts in the month of October and the sky remains cloudy till the month of March. The records show the most widespread clouds in this part during January (3.50/8), April (3.8/8) and May (3.00/8) at 6.30 a.m. Like cloud cover, the relative humidity also varies from place to place in the Ostan. As a general rule, in the hot and dry months of the year, the relative humidity is low, and in the cold and rainly months it is high. Moreover, in all the regions of the Ostan the relative humidity is high during the month of December being more than 60.1 per cent at 6.30 a.m. whereas it is low during the month of August being less than 60 per cent at 6.30 a.m. Table VIII, and Fig.7,8,9. Rainfall The analysis of the total annual rainfall of Esfahan Ostan shows that the western mountains with an o 'M' 'H'a o£*o O O 'H'd 0£'0 a) CO •M'V 0£'9 OQ •wa o£*o 4 'W'V 0£'9 'WM 0£'0 •-a •M'V 0£*9 'M'd 0£'0 I 'M'V 0£'9 & 'M'3 0£'0 *M*V 0£*9 H •M'J 0£'0 CM <«5 'M'V 0£'9 o *M' 43 'M'd 0£'0 'M'V 0£'9 'M' >"3 *WV 0£'9 CD a o •H -P 12 z z a. < O O ro ro o en o o r . i.fc'?i«!«.-;**-. 55 annual rainfall average 1257.70 mm, is twenty times more rainy than the eastern desert and semi desert region of the Ostan where the annual average is only 65.80 mm. Barring some exceptions the rainfall in the western mountainous region may be expected all the year round, but the heavy rains occur in winter and spring seasons. However, in this region, the sequence of fall is not uniform. In the west the rainfall starts in the month of October and with some fluctuations attains the maximum of 234.1 mm. in February. From this month it gradually decreases to 1.00 mm. in the month of May, June and July. In the sub-mountainous region of the Ostan, the rhythm of rainfall is more or less the same as in the western region, but with two differences. Firstly, there is no rain in the months of August and September. Secondly, the average annual rainfall is about a quarter of that of the western region. The precipitation in this region starts from October and lasts upto the month of July with heavy rainfall especially in the months of April (81. mm.), and May (60.40 mm.). During the cold season, which lasts for about 4 to 7 months, the region receives precipitation in the form of snowfall. In the Bsfahan plain the rainfall starts from November and lasts upto the month of July. The 56 average annual rainfall in this region is 127 mm. It is thus only one-tenth of that of the western region. Three months of August, September and October generally remain absolutely rainless. In this region the precipitation occurs both in the form of snow and rain. In the cold months snow falls and in the remaining months the rain falls. The amount of rainfall decreases and the number of dry months increases gradually as one proceeds from west to east. The rainfall in the eastern part of the Esfahan Ostan is very low averaging to about 65.8 mm. per annum. Relatively rainiest months in the region are December (12.20 mm.) and May (15.00 mm.). Here at Nain station the rainfall even in the cold months exceeds snowfall whereas in the warm months there is no snowfall. The months of July, August and September are absolutely dry at this station Table IX and Pig.10. Climatic Effects on The Life of Man Occupations of the people and agricultural production in the Ostan of Esfahan are, to some extent, under direct influence of the climatic conditions. Abundance of rainfall in the western region is the main a5 c- K\ B KT\ ^* co VO CM fn 'r~ *~ o O o o O -3- LTv in CM o t<~•\ VO• • • C\•J CD o o "3- •<*• "~ CM o O o tn O o o o in LTV o • • • • • S3 CO CM r- CO tn. cr> tn o o o O -P o o o • • a CM in o *- o •sf o o o o o -p O o o O o H o *~ o r- 8 •H • • in» • • *— 00 VoOo CO 8 r- a} *— S si o o O o o •H o in in 05 o o o aJ CM CTv CO in o O o T- O 8 So in • • • • • "«*- CT> in to "3- tO m ^~ CM m o o o o O CM o in *•" w~ as • • • • • »"3 § § CS be S3 ^3 s o 1 cO at •H 0 V) a) •3 a CO iHi BaJ t-> "H •H •P O^J a] 00 a$ PH M 25 w 25 ~s&s»*jaiamLi?%*&v*:J!aum mtrn 5 9 sources of water supply for the Ostan. The high humidity caused by the rainfall is very profitable and useful for agriculture. The direct benefits of this high humidity extend upto the western part of the Esfahan plains. In fact the rainfall of this section is the life blood of more than two-million inhabitants of the Ostan. The agriculture has flourished and developed grately under the guaranteed supply of adequate amount of water from the western section. As a result of great promise and prospects of agricultural occupations a large number of inhabitants are engaged in agriculture and in activities related with agriculture. In contradistinction to the western and plain regions the eastern region is conspicuous for lack of agricultural activity. The scarcity of water supply, rapid evaporation and saline soil are the main causes of the very insignificant position which agriculture holds in this region. Under the general absence of agriculture the people have taken up cottage industries, carpet weaving and other handicrafts as the main occupation. For a detailed study and clear understanding of the influence of climate on the life of the people of the Ostan it is necessary to examine closely the area! rhythm ^ and sequence of seasons in the Ostan. SEASONS Geographers recognize four seasons in this Ostan. The durations of these seasons are determined by the topograhic conditions of the various regions. These four seasons are based on Iranian solar calendar which is a little different from Gregorean calendar. The four seasons are: 1 . Spring season from 21st March to 21st June 2. Summer season from 22nd June to 22nd September 3. Autumn season from 23rd September to 21st December 4. Winter season from 22nd December to 20th March. 1 . Spring Season On the basis of International Calendar, spring starts from 21st of March and last upto the 21st of June. In terms of Iranian calendar this season starts from the first of "Farvardin and ends with the 31st of "Khurdad". As the season advances the days become longer and hotter gradually. At the close of the season the day becomes 61 longest with the length of 16 hours while the night reduces to 8- hour duration. The onset of spring is earlier in the East, North and Southeast than in other parts of the Ostan. The spring arrives in the towns of "Nain" and "Gavkhoni" about 30 to 40 days earlier than in the western mountainous parts of the Ostan. The early onset of the false hot weather in spring is sometimes followed by unexpected cold weather which causes a great loss to the farmers. The early beginning of the seasonal change leads to the return of the tribal people from their winter quarters to the summer quarters. At the advent of spring the heavy snow begins to melt and the roads of "Fereidan" and "Semirom", which remain blocked during the winter season, become open for traffic. These tribesmen travel through these roads to carry on their business, transactions and exploitations of land after spring harvest around "Zaiandeh Rudrt river. At other places the farmers get ready for rice cultivation for summer harvest. In the eastern and southeastern sections cotton cultivation begins, when the "Zaiandeh Rud" river overflows and it is also sufficient enough for irrigation of corn cultivation in villages. 62 2. Summer Season Summer starts from the first of the "Tir" to the thirty first of "Shahrivar" that is from twenty-first of June to the twentieth of September. In the summer season the temperature increases considerably in all parts of the Ostan. At the peak of this season, life becomes difficult as both the surface and under ground water supply become scarce. The summer season appears first in the eastern region and advances gradually westwards. During the summers the weather in and arround Gavkhuni becomes hot and dry. Consequently the qanats get withered and the villages have to bring water from quite distant places. During the summer drought and heat the male population, finding no occupation at home, migrates temporarily to the neighbouring areas. However, in the areas close to the channel of Zaiandeh Rud relatively sufficient supply of irrigation water allows the farmers to stay on and practise double cropping. The summer season is comparatively short and mild in the western mountainous and sub-mountainous regions. The Bakhtiyari transhuments, in this season, harvest the crops of wheat and barley cultivated in the previous year. 63 They then cultivate the autumn crops before the early signs of autumn appear. After sowing the autumn crops they move away to the lowlands of Zagros. 3. Autumn Season. Autumn season starts from first of "Mehr" the seventh month of the Iranian calendar and lasts upto the thirtieth of "Aaar" corresponding to the twenty-third of September to twenty-first of December. The days become Bhev%0» BA that> aJi the end of this season the night is the longest one named "Yalda". Heat reduces as the season approaches the winter. In some parts of the Ostan, particularly in Fereidan and Semirom and generally in the mountainous regions the Autumn lasts only for one month. Actually the last two months of this season transgress into the winter season. The rainfall and snow are the signs of the onset of winter in this region. Farther westwards this season becomes still shorter but in the central plains and Estern parts it is sufficiently long and lasts for about two to two-and-a-half months. During this seaon all the underground and other sources of water supply start recovering. 64 4. Winter Season Winter starts from the first of "DeyM and continues till the end of "Esfand", that is from twenty- second of December to twentieth of March. As stated above, winter in this region starts at different times in different places. On the western mountains winter begins earliest in the Ostan and lasts for six months, that is, from first of November to the end of April. In this area the snowfall is heavy enough to go up to seven or eight metres, in thickness cutting off all the commucations and contacts with the outside and thus imprisoning the inhabitants to their homes at least for a short period. But in some regions such as Fereidan, because of their situation on the main road, the communications are not blocked and the contacts are maintained. At the commencement of the winter season the farmers after harvesting the summer crops, prepare the land for winter crops. In the region arround the Zaiandeh Bad river they mostly cultivate beetroots and a variety of winter vegitables upto the time the temperature reaches freezing point. The winter crops such as beetroots, wheat etc. take only two to two-and-a-half months to ripen. 65 When the winter season reaches its peak and the temperatures fall down well below zero all the cultivation activities a come to/halt. On the central plains, on the other hand, the winter is not long so that the cultivation activities do not stop and continue for a long period. They however come to a stand still at the time of snowfall. The winter in the eastern and northeastern parts is mild and lasts for not more than two or two-and-a-half months and snowfalls occur in this region only for two or three days. In the Arid part of the southeast and northeast of the Ostan the inhabitants return home from their temporary summer residences to take up work of preparing the land for spring cultivation during the winter season (Pig.11). it• ts&e -IT ••ft i mi— HI CHAPTER III VEGETATION AND SOIL 1. NATURAL VEGETATION The chief determinents of the type and density of growth of natural vegitation here, as else where, are climate, topography, soil cover and water supply. As the Esfahan Ostan is characterised by a diversity of these elements of physical environment, the natural vegetation which this Ostan contains is also marked by considerable variety of type and intensity of growth. As a rule the sections which have adequate water supply and high altitudes generally contain a cover of forests of tall trees. On the contrary the parts which suffer from inadequacy of water supply and where the topography is subdued there are only sparse woodlands and bushes of dwarfed trees. In water surplus areas of high mountains considerable tracts of luxuriant grasslands and pastures are found whereas the woodlands and scrublands of water deficiency areas are interspersed with open spaces of withered vegetation - consisting, at best, of thorny desert bushes only. Thus the Ostan, taken as a whole* contains a wide variety of vegetation ranging from cool temperate forests, in the western section, to thorny xerophites of 68 the southeastern part. Detailed study of trees, plants and bushes of this state has revealed that there are about 2000 types of trees, herbs and plants, out of which 238 are tree varieties. Since the topography and climate are the two chief of the main determenents of natural vegetation and as the vegetation varies notably with the variation in these factors it seems logical to discuss the vegetation of this Ostan on the basis of the four natural divisions into which the region has been divided. (a) Mountainous Area of Semirom and Fereidan This region could be called, meadow cum forest tract of the Ostan. The vegetation of this region may be divided into two main strata of wild legumins and trees. Among trees (both cultured and wild) Oak, Apple, Pomegranate, different types of Tamarisk, and Juniper are important. There are also some tracts of dwarfed plants and bushes, such as Oleander, Ruharb, Thorny-shrub, found in the region. The region also contains certain herbs such as Bugloss or Ox-tongue herb, peony etc. Some of these herbs such as shallot, are used as foodstuff as well as for medical and industrial purposes. However, as we move from 69 western mountainous to the central and eastern part of the region, this meadow-forest landscape changes to woodlands with trees and bushes much wider apart. Nevertheless the area is still quite suitable for grazing or pasturing. ( b) Semi-Mountainous Region The vegetation of this region is basically same as that of the first region. One noticeable difference, however, is that tall and lofty trees are almost absent in the sub-mountainous region. This absence is probably a reflection of relatively warm temperate and less humid conditions which prevail in this region and which favour the growth of broadleaf trees and bushes. The vegetation here consists mainly of red bramble, pennyroyal, soda plant, liquorice and mole. Heavy and reekless grazing and unchecked soil erosion have, however, seriously damaged the vegetation cover of the higher slopes of the region. The hurbs found on the foothill zone of the mountains, have a typical mountainous character and consist of such plants as white mushroom, malodorous herbs, thorny-shurbs, amole, wild rue and all those thorny plants which are locally known as camel's thorn. These plants, in addition to their medical and industrial use, are also 70 an important item of export. ( c) Esfahan Plain The vegetation of the depressed portion of Esfahan on the other hand consists of plants, such as, pennyroyal, liquorice, red-bramble, plantain, endive flowers, ox-tungue, turkish spinach, purslane or autumnal fruits, wild onion, amylaceous root, wild nenuphar and wild lucerne, all of which are of great medical use. (d) Arid and Semi-Arid Region The fourth region, which consists of eastern, southern northeastern part of the Ostan contains plants which comprise saltish-balania, wild rue, thorny-shrubs and other bushes growing sparsely. 2. THB INFLUENCE OF NATURAL VEGETATION ON HUMAN LIFE The broad economic pattern of the life of the people of Esfahan Ostan is much influenced by the variety of plants and vegetation found in the region. In the mountainous region the natural vegetation cover occupies most of the area, which, in relative terms, is more than that found in any other region of the Ostan. The life of 71 the people in the mountainous region is, therefore, mainly pastoral and is based on animal husbandry. It is an active area of transhumance where Bakhtiyari and Qashqaei tribes bring their herds for summer grazings. The two Shahrestans of Fereidan and Semirom are especially remarkable for these transhumant activities. This region produces abundant quantities of charcoal which is the main item of fuel for the local people. This region normally produces charcoal in substantially surplus quantities and the surplus is sent to neighbouring districts. In sub-mountainous region the vegetation cover is thinner than that of the mountainous region. Consequently the pastoral activity in this region is less developed and is rather limited. But even then the region manages to support pastoral economy to some extent. Moreover, thorny shurbs on the slopes of the mountains are of considerable economic value because of the extraction of gum from tragacanth which is used in pharmacy and calico-printing and is one of the important items of export. Plants of the Esfahan plains and semi-desert and desert area are quite weak and of very little economic value. Nevertheless pastoral activity and production of 72 charcoal are not completely absent. In the recent years, natural plants are put under the care and management of Ministry of Natural Resources to preserve the natural vegetation and to check its wanton and wasteful utilization. 3. SOILS Soil surveys on scientific lines were started in 1954. The work, conducted in collaboration with the United Nations, was completed in 1964. The report was based on texture of soils, detection of strata and the classification of the Ostan of Esfahan according to the utility of lands and their topographical conditions. The Ostan of Esfahan has an area of 94,750 sq. km. Only one-sixth of this total area or 16,000 sq. km. is suitable for cultivation. But unfortunately only half of this available area is under cultivation, and the other half, due to the lack of water supply, is left as waste land. On the whole the soils are classified under three categories which are as follows: 1 . Fertile 73 2. Semi-fertile 3. Infertile 1. The Fertile Soil3 They are the fine textured brown alluvial soils and grey and red desert soils. The fine textured alluvial soils are found around the Zaiandeh Rud and are distributed uniformly over the area. These soils are fresh alluvial sediments of the river and are called fresh or young soils. They have fine texture and are very fertile and are of great economic value. The old terraces of Zaiandeh Rud are composed of old sediments and belong to the Meocene Age. They are suitable for cultivation of beet-roots, all kinds of vegetables, fruit trees, wheat, barley and rice etc. This type of soil covers an area of 170,00 hectares which is only 1.14 per cent of the state area. Its first layer contains organic matter and other calcarious deposits. (b) Brown soils contain brown sands and have medium fine texture. Generally, their deepest layers have fine texture. 1 . Hectare = 10000 sq. m. 74 These soils cover relatively small area. The area under these soils is 120 hectares which is equavalent to 0.013 per cent of the total area of the Ostan. The amount of organic matter at the higher levels is about 2 per cent. It contains lime powder in the 30-100 cm. deep layers. These soils contain 7 per cent of organic material. In semi-arid conditions of the summer they are, therefore, quite suitable for meadows. (c) Chernozem soils: Chernozem soils are found more in plateaus than in the other regions. They are of grey colour with heavy and light textures. In suitable climatic conditions and with adequate irrigation facilities they are found to be very useful for cultivation, but for increased production the land must be manured with nitrogineous and phosphorous fertilizers. In the soil profile can be observed some lime powders concentrated in the form of crystals of gypsum. Organic compounds are very rare, and the surface layer contains about 5 per cent of these compounds and therefore they support only poor vegetation. (d) Grey and red desert soils: Like the chernozems the grey and red desert soils are one of the chief types of 75 soils of the Ostan. They have relatively much less content of organic meterials ranging from 1 to 2 per cent. They are hard layered soils and are, therefore, very difficult and some times impossible to work for cultivation. Strata can not easily be recognized in its profile. Capillarity of the soils, under the supplied moisture, induces upward movement of the lower-level soluble salts, and this is unavoidable in the absence of any comprehensive agricultural planning. 2. Semi-fertile Soils They are fairly suitable for cultivation. They can be divided into four categories as follows: (a) Saline Alluvial Soils: Saline alluvial soils are of medium texture and contain some salts. Under well planned cultivation system and adequate irrigation facilities wheat and barley cultivation is possible. Besides the foodgrains, these soils may, and at many places actually do, support the cultivation of a variety of vegetables such as carrots and turnips as well as cotton and beets. Continued cultivation of these soils reduced their capillarity and consequently brings about reduction in the 76 amount of salt in the soil. Under such conditions these soils suit plantation of some fruit trees such as Pistachio tree. (b) Chernozem and Regur or Regochernozem soils: Regochernozem soils are the desert soils which are mixed with sand - dunes, quartz and other minerals and are found on the fringes of the deserts. They cover an area of about 500,000 hectares which is 30.8 per cent of the total cultivable area of the Ostan. At present cultivation on these soils is impossible. Unless developmental planning is done to check the menace of moving sand-dunes and to provide sufficient water supplies reclamiation of these soils would not be possible. High rates of evoporation and low humidity, which prevail in areas where these soils are found, further add to the difficulty in the agricultural utilization of these soils. Lack of trained labour and machine tools and implements is yet another problem which faces the proper utilization of these soils. (c) The Regochemozem soils with coarse texture, and Rego-Kalayals or the combination of Kalayal and Regosels have low capacity of holding water. With sufficient irrigation they can be utilized for cultivation. 77 (d) Alluvial-fan soils: They are fan shaped due to the alluvial sedimentations by mountainous torrential currents which flow into the valleys. The alluvial fan formation process is still continuing. In this type of soil powdered and sometimes solid lime pieces are frequently found. These soils cover an area of about 240,000 hectares equvalent to about 14.8 per cent of the total cultivable area of the Ostan. 3. Infertile Soils ( i) The moving sand-dunes and fixed dunes cover an area of about 389,600 hectares which is equivalent to the 4.00 per cent of the total area of the Ostan. This type of soil is not suitable for cultivation. (ii) The Solon-chak and Soentetz soils: This type is also unsuitable for cultivation unless provided with proper drainage. Desert soils and Soetetz soils have little moisture in their compounds which makes cultivation imposible. (iii) Lithocell: Lithocell are calcareous soils which also contain different salt compounds, marsh and chak. Salon-chak 78 and Soentetz soils due to the high salt contents, are not available for cultivation. This type covers an area of about 460,000 acres which is equivalent to 4.32 per cent of the total area of the Ostan, while saltish swamps have about 520,000 acres or 5.23 per cent of the total area. PAST II POPULATION CHAPTER IV POPULATION DISTRIBUTION I. GENERAL The total population of Esfahan Ostan was recorded to be 997,575 persons in 1956 or about 5.5 per cent of the total population of the country. By 1966 it rose to 1,424,558 persons and accounted for 5.7 per cent of the nation's total. According to the 1966 census there were 1 ,422,542 permanent residents and the remaining 2,015 persons were temporary. The distribution of population in the Ostan is not uniform. It varies, both in pattern and density, with variations in the local geographical environment. Climate is distinctly more effective than any other element of the geographic environment. This is amply revealed by the following regional study of population distribution in the Ostan Table X. 1. According to the 1966 census figures the total population of the mountainous region of Esfahan Ostan was 250,063 persons. This accounted for 17.5 per cent of the total population of the Ostan and gave the region a low density of 17.7 per sq. km. There were 249,825 permanent residents 81 whereas only 258 persons were temporary. Long cold winters and highly rugged nature of the terrain are the chief limiting and restricting factors in the growth, distribution and concentration of population. These factors in some sub-regions such as Semiros and west Fereidan force the people to adopt the transhumance way of life. The Bakhtiyari and Qashqaei tribes come to this area for summer grazing. 2. Total population in the sub-mountainous region of the Ostan was recorded to be 227,036 persons or about 15.9 per cent of the total population of the Ostan. Here the density is slightly higher being 19.6 persons per sq. km. Out of this population of the region 225,955 persons were recorded as the permanent residents and the remaining 1081 persons were returned as temporary. In this region the population distribution is more uneven as the main population poles Shahreza, Najafabad and Natanz are located in this area. 3. By far the most populous section of the Ostan in 1966 was the region of Isfahan plains. It had a total population of persons 839,329» which accounted for about 58 per cent 82 T able X Population Distribution, 1966 Regions Population Area sq.km. Persons per sq. km. Mountainous 1. Semirom 31,795 5,290 6.00 2. Fereidan 135,140 6,389 21.10 3. Golpayegan 83,178 2,421 34.30 Regional Total 250,063 14,100 17.70 Sub-Mountains 1. Shahreza 95,182 4,178 22.80 2. Najafabad 103,018 4,162 24.80 3. Natanz 28,836 3,210 9.00 4. B-Meymeh ...... Total 227,036 11,550 19.60 Esfahan Plains 1. Ssfahan 839,329 16,400 51.10 Total 839,329 16,400 51.10 Arid- and Semi-Arid 1. Ardestan 44,015 11,293 3.90 2. Nain 40,431 35,519 1.10 3. B-Jarquyeh 23,684 5,888 4.00 Total 108,130 52,700 2.00 Total Ostan 1,424,558 94,750 15.00 S3 of the total population of the Ostan. The density was also highest here being 51.1 persons per sq. km. As many as 838,639 persons were permanent residents whereas only 690 were temporary. The alluvial soils accompanied with sufficient water supply and moderate temparature are the main factors which have made this region most populated part of the Ostan. Moreover, the development of modern technology and modernisation of cultivation as well as the establishment of historical, commercial, educational and industrial centres are the main factors of the cultural environment which have tended to augment the density of population in this region. 4. The total population of the Arid and Semi-arid region of Esfahan Ostan was recorded as 108,130 persons (2.0 persons per sq. km.) or about 7.5 per cent of the total Ostan population in 1966. In this region, a set of restrictive geographical- factors, namely, insufficiency of irrigation water, dryness, sand dunes, long hot summer season and lack of natural vegetation do not allow cultivation and animal husbandry on any substantial scale in the region. These factors 84 present combinedly very exacting conditions for human establishments. However, dryness and moving sands are the two most effective factors restricting human activities. As a result of the above mentioned conditions the population units of certain areas of this region are located at distances of 100 km. from each other, with an isolated oasis type all over the region (Pig.12). II. RURAL AND URBAN POPULATION The proportion of urban population in the Ostan, as a whole is higher than that of the rural population. According to the 1966 census the urban population was 751,811 which accounted for about 53 per cent of the total for the Ostan; whereas the rural population was 670,732 persons or about 47 per cent of the total. Out of the total urban population there were 388,074 (27.3 per cent) males and 363,737 (25.6 per cent) females. Among the rural population there were 343,837 (24.1 per cent) males and the rest, i.e., 326,859 (23.0 per cent) females. The urban population consisted of Bsfahan city The Head Quarters of the Ostan - and thirty-one other urban centres of different size. ZH ST A ENS I O^ Z o TA N < v- ^n I «* U_l j: -> CC < -^ ZT vO ^ CL. ^ o - j SH A oo The mountainous region stands in sharp contrast with the Ostan in the urban/rural composition of the population. In this region 56,219 persons (22.6 per cent) were recorded as urban and the rest, that is, 193»606 (77.4 per cent) rural. At the time of 1966 census the region contained six urban centres. A sub-regional study shows that in the south the percentage of urban population is comparatively less than in the north. It may be due to the isolation and uneveness of the region in the south, and the wider smooth plains in the north of the region. The urban population of the region is, for the most part, confined to the towns of Semirom, Daran, Fereidon Shahr, Golpayegan and Khunsar. Urban population tends to increase from the west to the central part of Ostan, for example, in sub-mountainous region the proportion of urban population rises to 47.7 per cent from 22.6 per cent in mountainous region in the west. Though the number of towns in this region is eight but more than half of the urban population of the region is concentrated in Najafabad Shahrestan which had a population of 58,907 persons in 1966. Najafabad city is the largest town of the region. In 1966 the population of the city was 43,384 (Table XI). 03 P pq (\J to VO to — I CO VO VO ^- T- I CM CM to vo VO 13 0) o ao en co CO cn to en to to *r* VO • • • 1 • • d u VO CM CM •<* 1 CM m o 00 c- d s en in in "t CO in to to oo oo o p o oo "fr PH 00 •H P o Cd § O •*t T- VO oo ir\ «r- CO VO in 0^ o^ en T— "«t CM to T"» tO CM K\ CO to in to to O to oo y— »d- latio n P CM T"c~»- VO H VO O CO ^- Cn co 1 c^ VO vo o •"* CO in a) 2 T— in to -* CM 00 1 in 00 CO ^i- o to o CM p ft tO to CO •>c*n CTi O CM CM to to •«t CM T- CM CM •*• o o T- CM 00 CO •«»• EH PH •H to d d 3 d I o o o o o •H •H a •rl a to OQ hQ •5 •H 0) a> 3 •d CD H CO P4 p T3 CtJ Q) 9 o •rl PH p d d no a cd (ti ,d "2 d H 9 OQ •H a a * N .Q © H d od cd EH a) o T* o © cd N a cd % 3 cd cd •p P M -p u •H & s: U VI d £> P p 00 U o O •H 0) ft* H i CO cd 0) o •3 •a o x< 0) d EH •8 § 3 u 43 •3 •r-» P EH «H 6H •H TJ •rl a © The highest percentage of urban population is found in the Irrigation Region of Zaiandeh Rud in Esfahan where it is as high as 68.6 per cent. The region contains sixteen towns, that is, just half of the total number of towns in the Ostan. Besides having the largest number of towns, the region has the privilege of having Esfahan - the biggest city and the head quarters of the Ostan. Eastwards from the Irrigation Region of Zaiandeh Rud the distance between settlement centres increases and the size of the cities decreases. Consequently the Arid Region is the least urbanized section of the Ostan. The number of urban areas in this region is two, namely, Ardestan and Kain cities with a combined total of 12,570 urban inhabitants constituting 11.07 per cent of the total population of the region. Generally speaking, the highest number of urban population of the Ostan is in the Irrigation Region of Esfahan (68.6 per cent) and the lowest is in the Arid and Semi-arid Region (11.7 per cent) (Fig.13,14). 1 . The minimum population of a centre to qualify for recognition as an urban area is 5,000 persons. < o H u. {/) o ^ o z 2 TA N z TI O ^^ CO < CD a. UJ I ^« i flj < AC ^ ac*> u. ^~ a: « ^U - —<* :o? J^L ^ U cr CL. v^ •-. CHAPTER V MIGRATIONS The available data regarding migrations in Esfahan Ostan are related to the number of persons born in (i) Shahrestans of this Ostan, ( ii) other Ostan of Iran and (iii) other countries, as it is stated in the 1966 census. Thus, in a total population of 1,422,543 inhabitants in the Ostan, 63,700 persons or about 4.5 per cent were recorded as migrants. Among these immigrants 33,263 persons (52.2 per cent) were internal. In respect of internal migrations the Ostan is divided distinctly into areas of dispersion and reception. The western Mountainous and Sub-mountainous Regions and the eastern Arid and Semi-arid Region are predominantly out-migration areas whereas the Esfahan Plain region is mainly in-migration area. It is mainly due to the dryness of their areas and the shortage of vocations in their own Shahrestans that the people migrate to other regions of the Ostan, especially to the Esfahan city and its surrounding area. Transfers of the Government staff to several Shahrestans of the Ostan constitute a distinctly different 92 type of migration. People involved in these two types of movements are recorded as the in-migrants and their total number in 1966 was registered to be 33,263 persons (52.2 per cent of the total immigrants). A third type of movement may also be noticed in the Ostan. It is of those tribal people who make seasonal migrations to Esfahan Ostan and are recorded as seasonal immigrants. Among them Bakhtiyari and Qashqaei transhumants are especially notable. These tribes come to the southwestern and eastern parts of the Ostan for their summer grazings. The writer could not obtain the exact number of these seasonal immigrants because the records are defective and as such do not show correct figures. Besides the transhumants of Qashqaei and Bakhtiyari, there are some other seasonal migrants moving between various Shahrestans of the Ostan in the winter and summer seasons. During the cold winter season the western parts of the Ostan suffer from severe coldness and thus a substantial number of persons is forced to come down to Esfahan area. They go back to their own villages in the early summer season. In the eastern region the seasonal migrations begin from early spring and when the hot and dry summer of their own area ends they come back to have a rest in their moderate winters. These immigrants come to 93 the Esfahan area mostly as labouers but there is no official agency for recording these types of seasonal migration in the Ostan. No accurate data is, therefore, available on these seasonal migrations. The immigrants from other Ostans or foreign countries are found in Esfahan city and it is mostly because of the abundant economic opportunities found in this city, but in other regions of the Ostan they are either the government officials or the technicians. Table XII shows the distribution of immigrants among the Shahrestans and regions in Esfahan Ostan. CvJ CM C\J in in Cvl VO in « . • . . » • 1. 6 0. 9 0. 0 OJ a> 0. 3 o o O .-• o P4 O o o © •p I h-P a> 03 o C\J CvJ Cvj Q> 0. 0 in in to oo to cvl 00 I o o -p »- in 00 tn GO to to CvJ O t- CvJ a) a, * • • « . 1 . • P^ o • . vo o C\J in c~- c- CVJ in 1 c- CM VO K\ 00 t- •«t -sl- VO in m in •r- in in aS •P (D OB fl -P a> 3 3 oJro oo E- CM c- VO f~ vo m 00 in in VO CO >«t to A au -p 03 Ko in .— vo in »— in in CvJ VO as vo cr> to CM +>,£} m CO,Q «* 0"> 00 CM cn •* in o vo vo in r~ o co £lo a> +> o a) t> to as as Q vo oo «* in in 00 •**- CvJ o CTv co -p Ko CvJ c- 00 oo vO tO 00 co to to as O rQ O 00 in in as CT> in to oo in in 00 •**- CM t- OJ *- ^ _ a) a> ti ^ ^ T- oo cn t- CM co O ITv cr> in -p • . « . • • CQ 00 vo • * in in in CO vo t- in as en CTi o> CT« as as •sl- o as cr> o> cr> cr> en cr> CTi o •H •P H I O aJ «$ 3 -H *— VO oo in r- OO vo in cn o> as *- -**- >* to U •P P«-P CM »— to t- C\J tn CO to in to to O K> 00 CM •* OO It VO O T— 00 T- CTi 00 u W) PI (3D H CO 43 tt) CO QM) a> a 0J GROWTH AND DENSITY I. Population Growth Growth of population in Esfahan Ostan could he examined for a limited period of one decade only because data is not available for any period earlier then 1956. And even for this decade (1956-1966) the assessment of growth is rendered difficult by changes in administrative divisions.- The administrative division of the state in 1966 was quite different from what it was in 1956; for instance, the administrative divisions of Shahrestans of Semirom, Golpayegan, Shahreza and Natanz in the year 1966 were no^v the same as they were in 1956, Moreover there was no separate issue of records for each of these aforesaid Shahrestans in 1956. The comparative study of the growth of population is, therefores, confined to those administrative divisions which had no change during 1956-1966. The Shahrestans of Fereidan, Najafabad, Esfahan, Ardestan and Nain were the only ones which retained their 1956 administrative divisions without any change. 96 Table XIII shows that the total population of the afore-said Shahrestans rose from in 1956 to in 1966 recording an increase of 32.8 per cent. The highest growth of population was recorded in the Shahrestan of Esfahan which experienced an absolute increase of 228,118 persons or 35.9 per cent over the 1956 figure. The second highest increase of 27.4 per cent or (22,107 persons) was registered in Najafabad Shahrestan. The big increase of population in these two townships is due mainly to the migration from rural areas of the adjoining Shahrestans of this Ostan as well as from other Ostans. The main attraction of these towns lies in the fast developing industries at these centres. Table XIV shows increase in the urban population of the Esfahan Ostan during the decade 1956-1966. Urban population of Esfahan Ostan in the 1956 was 493,045 but it increased to 751,811 in 1966, thus gaining by 258,766 persons or by 52.4 per cent in a period of ten years. The high rate of the urban population growth the Ostan is infact, the result of the abnormally high increase of 65.2 per cent (or about 227t056 persons) in the Esfahan plain. In this region, due to the presence of the industri to c*- to in 1 1 1 1 { I LO LO U3 e r cen t CM to to 03 PH a> M3 cd VO A vo > o 9u 1 & v£> s 00 1 1 CO CO LO "* 1 00 3 a i o •H d •d a H 091 GQ 1 P*4 to 3 3 •p •a 09 al S3 t*> OJ as 43 •p •p 3 a OS • H § H 3 3 H •B 3 o 00 •H XJ 09 at « I at Ctf •p 6H EH 5 >H at I <& 2 •H & +» s O t- CD O •* ^ -*• f- CM CM tn ^o V— *3- in • • • • • • • o • • . • I • • f-i ITS tn O CO « in in tn vo 1 cr« CM 0) CM CM t<"\ CM T- 1- a> VO ,- CM in f CJ T- cri vo vO a> vo vo CVI VO C- vo o vo VO T- vo CTt s *— cr> in VO CO CD I tn in in CM vo 0 0 tn «* in tn CM I CM 0 0 e>- CM O C- 1 CM CVI CO CM •«d- o cvj e' t- CM co cCM- CM in VO CM CM CM in o0 VO K\ CO <<* tn in «— O VO t> r- 00 ^~ en in 00 VO O U a> a f a h r e •p U H Xt T-> •P a CD •H •H •-s o 1 O 0 Xi as as 1 Ma u ti ai I 00 DO fc d> co to » a PP <4 PQ •H • • • • a> T~ CNJ K\ CM tn ^j- *~ > •«- CM tn M 99 and educational town of Bsfahan, the establishment of small industrial towns around Esfahan and the availability of all sorts of comforts people are attracted towards this area and the resultant large influx of the people naturally brought about substantial increase in the urban population of the area. Mountainous region with an increase of 12,456 persons or 28.4 per cent occupies second position on the growth scale. In this region due to the migration of rural inhabitants to the urban areas to take up industrial jobs there the urban population is on rapid increase. Amongst the Shahrestans of the region the urban population of that of Natanz doubled itself in the short period of ten years: infact it recorded an increase of 109.1 per cent between 1956 and 1966. In this Shahrestan due to the periodical droughts most of the rural people used to migrate to the urban area and, as a result, the urban population in this Shahrestan increased more rapidly as compared to the other Shahrestans of Esfahan Ostan. II. Population and Agricultural Density Density of population per unit area sown is an important index of population pressure though it may, however, not give any idea of general population density 100 in this Ostan, because here the annual sown area forms a very small proportion of the total area. Here, as elsewhere, it provides an index for measuring the carrying capacity of the land. Table XV shows the population density per unit area sown. The average population density in the Ostan taken as a whole was 565 persons per unit area sown in 1966. This clearly shows that the presure of population on the sown area was heavy. The Esfahan Plain with 1686.2 persons per sq. km. on the sown area was the most densely populated. The arid and semi-arid region, where the soils are poor and the sources of irrigation weak, stood second with a density of 336.37 per sq. km. of the sown area. The submountainous region and the mountainous region, where the land is mostly un-irrigated occupied third and fourth places with densities of 297.6 and 277.37 persons per sq. km. respectively. A better index of population pressure is provided by agricultural density, which considers the total agricultural population to the total cultivated area. As the agricultural population constituted only 11.2 per cent of the total population the average agricultural density in the Ostan was as low as 63.6 persons per sq. km. in 1966. Esfahan plain carried the highest density (155.7) and the mountainous region (47.7) stood second, followed by the arid and semi-arid region (38.5) and the sub-mountainous region (35.4). a m • Pi <* O M av CO CVJ c- VO co -3- T— ^ C- t^ to o LO vo ia ko SH Pt CVJ co CVJ r- co VO vo "tf- LfV irv LfV o CVJ to oo to VO §§ vo H -p 3 05 iW CVJ c- VO IfN «*- av vo o av IT\ LfV o 00 o CO c- OH CO O VO IfV CVJ o -- ITv OV o O "* to CO •*!- c~ co •sJ- o d cd P! o g Oj in •"tf- en POPULATION COMPOSITION 1. Age Structure In the total population of Esfahan Ostan 33.8 per cent were below 10 years, 21.9 per cent in the 10 to 19 year age group, 36.8 per cent in the group 20 to 59 and 7.5 per cent were of 60 years or over. According to the records of 1966, the distribution of the age groups among various regions and Shahrestans of the Ostan was not uniform. Among the regions of the Ostan the mountainous region had the highest percentage under the below 10 - year group. This highest percentage (35 per cent), however, did not differ much from the lowest percentage of 31.9 returned by the semi-arid and arid region of the Ostan. The percentages of the population under this age-group in the remaining two regions were almost equal: in the sub-mountainous region it was 33.6 while in the region of Esfahan plain it was 34 per cent. The regional differences seem to bejfclue to the developments in the social and health services that have taken place in the western mountainous areas of the Ostan. The percentage of persons under the 10 to 19 year age group was almost uniform all over the Ostan. The 103 minor regional variations ranged between 20.5 and 21.5 per cent. The highest percentage of 21.5 in this age group was reported in the region of Esfahan plain. The percentages of these groups when combined give the proportion of the under- twenties in the population. The fact that the under- twenties accounted for as high a percentage as 55.7 indicated that the population of the Ostan was very young. The population of 20 to 59 years of age accounted for 36.8 per cent of the total population of the Ostan. The semi-arid and arid region had the highest percentage (38.0 per cent) under this age group while the lowest percentage of 36 was returned by the sub-mountainous region of the Ostan. Analysis of the age pyramid of the population shows the fact that this region had a relatively high number of population in the age group of 40 and over. It was mainly due to the fact that quite a substantial number of persons after their retirement or after collecting sufficient money for the rest of their life used to come back to their native areas (Pig. 15» 16). It may, however, be noted here that age figures suffer from certain errors of reporting. For instance, < Q r LU LU •—i ^n r -r i i i J i u •<- o> •*• o> •*- o - -Hi Mil IIIII I I I IIM tnO^OwtOtno^O""1 O u-» O >o o »/-> o to «NI rvi -I I _1—I— •«r cr «r r-- r- 4_ , 1 1 1 W» O wiOw-lO^Ou-.Oino^OkOc CO OO r- r-~ 2 < O UJ < Q. _J O o r i *? 2 CC CC o ft? / ^ to Q: ^r 0E 2 1— < I— OJ V/t c/> O ^ C Z LLJ u_ ^ O UJ CD I o£ O SH A (I n Tho u SE X & A SUB- MO UN o 00 2 x •< o -«- o •*- o>^- 2. Sex Ratio Out of total population of Esfahan Ostan in 1966, there were 731,947 (51.40 per cent) males and 690,596 (48.60 per cent) females i.e., the sex ration in the Ostan population showed that there were 1059 males for each 1000 females. But the male - female ration varied from region to region and even from locality to locality. The highest sex-ration of 109.0 prevailed in the Semirom Shahrestan, while the lowest ratio of 99.4 was found in Jarquyeh Bakhsh. A regional investigation in the sex ratio is concerned with the understanding of the geographical factors effecting the ratio. For example, among the four regions in Esfahan Ostan, the Esfahan region shows the highest 4* f) « O VO UN 00 O VO vO vo vo in to in in • • • • • u c- in t- VO co c- to i oo ON ON ON © c- PM © (0 j> 4) fc O-P OS^J S « OJH 00 to •*• in ON "«* O to in in o o» CM in >» O ON c- o **- CM l> T- tO I CM CM CM CM «t 1 VO to •O © to vo in in VO 00 ON I to to CM C- I ON CM CM t> vo vo t- f- to ON vo vo •<*- to s vo VO r- To~ •p r- j^ vo 00 ON in oo to ON ON CM 00 o 00 h • • • * • • i • • © a© oo vo ON in in vo vo I VO VO VO • • VO PH o CM tO KN to to to to to to to oo t- cto to to to ON © in -p OQ & o Urt O N H I O •r- vo CO in «- 00 VO in to to ON T- to OJ d-H r- tO C— CM to oo to in CM CM o to CM T- ON oo ON to to in -P Pi-P VO O *- 00 O O Ctf ON •* Cvl 00 in CM CM CM •«- in to ON O W VO VO oo CM :HPMH CM to to oo >*- CM 00 00 CM © I* I o •51 a m H © •si P4 CO A o at © •P to +» a) a) A H H H © a 9 © a) © aS I 3 a) 3 a) 9 © +> 9 © at •P -p at •p g. +» EH -p •H «J o o •3 o m u o CO © Pi as at © 0 o en EH « as fl U H •3 •«-> -p g © m •rt •H •-» o o © 0) O A u I CO p4 Ci as as 7 m u T- CM tO CMO *- CM tO <^- M •> *~ CM tO H I H M 0 108 ratio of 1069 males for each thousand females. The reasons can be traced in the socio-economic features of the region. The Bsfahan metropolitan centre and its surrounding area is the most active and developed area of both the central Iran and of this Ostan. Therefore, the unmarried youngmen migrate to the region for the educational and vocational purposes. The lowest sex ratio in Bsfahan Ostan is found in the Arid and Semi-arid region. As discussed in connection with the pattern of migration in the region, the main factor is the shortage of occupation opportunities for males in this dry, deserty region of the Ostan. Hence, the young males are forced to migrate out of the region either for higher studies or for better employments. These youths, after the conclusion of their studies or else after finding a permanent job outside the region do not come back to their native region (Table XVII). The reason for the low male - female ratio in sub-mountainous region of the Ostan is more or less the same as that discussed in connection with the arid and semi-arid region. The Shahrestans of Semirom and Fereidan are two notable exceptions. Their respective sex-ratios 73 O O t- KM •*i- ar\ to ON CM vO •«*• CM ON *Td • • • • • • fl) • • • vo CM ^- •<*• vO vol CMl ft s a> o o H 03 9 § •I a) 03 XX 9 9 t* a CO 9 a n Plai 0) S o, 3. Religion and Sect Out of the total population of Esfahan Ostan (1,422,543) in 1966, there were 1,309,496 or 98.3 per cent Muslims (the Athna Ashari Sect of Shiahs) and 1.3 per cent or 19,065 were Sunnis, 16,051 or 1.1 per cent were Christians, 2,661 Jews, 353 Parsis and 3,982 or 0.3 per cent belonged to unclassified sects. The Muslims, who constitute the overwhelming majority are the followers of the 12 Imams and are, therefore, known as Athna Ashari sect. The Christians, who constitute the biggest minority community of the Ostan, were brought by Shah Abbas-e-Kabir about 350 years ago. They came from Armanestan (now one of the Eepulics of the U.S.S.R. in the southeast of the Black Sea), and while one section settled in the central part of Fereidan Shahrestan, the other section found home in Jolfa (the southern quarters of Esfahan city). 1 . Athna Ashara is an Arabic word meaning twelve. SEX & AGE STRUCTURE IN SHAHRESTAN OF ESFAHAN f>LA/N FEMALE MALE 80 60 40 20 20 40 60 80 (In Thousands) ESFAHAN FIG 17 SEX & AGE STRUCTURE NAIN IN SHAHRESTANS OF ART. ' SFMIAR/n Rf G l 0\ IE FEMALE MALE =1 I (In Thousands ) e5 + ARTSS^AN *C-G4 J 7 5-7$ —1 70-74 J J 65-69 i 60- 64 4 55-59 i \ 50-54 L 45-49 FEMA ^ 1 MALE r 1 4C-44 35-39 •q 3C-J4 t" 25-29 - 20- 24 r' • 5 - 19 r 10 - 14 i i 5-9 IL 1 1 0—4 r r—= i 1 ? =^ 2 3 4 (In Thcusar Js) FIG IP 113 At present, there are three sects of Christians in the Ostan. 1 . Armenians with a population of 15,580 2. Asorians numbering 81 and, 3. Others comprising 390 persons. Out of the total population of the Christians about 59 per cent live in Pereidan Shahrestan and practise agriculture in the villages and have been the owners of agricultural lands from the time of settlement. The other 41 per cent reside in the quarters of Jolfa in Esfahan city. While these Armenians mainly deal in machines and automobiles or take up transport and commercial services, some of them are also engaged in official services. Recently some of the Armenians migrated to the Republic of Armanestan (the U.S.S.R.) and the people who were forced to vacate their villages due to the construction of Shah Abbas-e-Kabir Dam are now replacing them. The history of Jews, who form the second biggest minority community, goes back to the times of the king of Syros the Great (559-529 B.C.). He settled them in the northeastern quarter of the city of Esfahan, which is 114 known as Jubareh. In 1966, the total population of Jews in the Ostan was 2661, more than 99 per cent of this total lived in Esfahan city, 108 in Golpayegan city and 46 person were settled in other Shahrestans of the Ostan. Before, the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine under the name of Israel, the number of Jews was much larger than what it was in 1966 or what it is at the present time. The reduction is caused by mass migration of Jews to the so called sovereign state of Israel. The main occupation of this community in the Ostan is trading in antiques. The Parsi religion is one of the oldest religions of Iran. It was founded by the Iranian prophet Zardosht about 3000 years ago. In 1966 the total number of Parsis or Zorostrians in Esfahan Ostan was only 353 of which 288 persons lived in Esfahan Shahrestan, 27 in Fereidan Shahrestan and 38 in other Shahrestans of the Ostan. The main occupation of Parsis in this Ostan is bussiness though some of them also hold government Jobs. 1. Habib Abadi, M.F.Yahudian-e-Esfahan, B.A. Thesis, Esfahan University, 1349, p.10. 115 These four are the main religions communities that are officially recognized in Iran. Besides, there are some other rather undefined religious faiths whose followers refused to specify their religion in response to enquiries under 1966 census. The number of such persons was 3982 or 0.3 per cent of the total population of Isfahan Ostan. Out of them 1533 were settled in Esfahan Shahrestan, 1144 in Najafabad Shahrestan, 692 in Fereidan Shahrestan, 363 in Ardestan Shahrestan and the remaining 250 person lived in other Shahrestans of the Ostan. Table XVIII shows the distribution of these people. 4. Occupational Structure; Workers and Nonworkers Out of the total population of Esfahan Ostan, 939f179 persons, or about 66 per cent, were above 10-year age in 1966. In the Ostan, taken as whole, 359,697 males, accounting for 75.1 per cent of the male population of over 10 years, were reported as economically active whereas only 74,442 females, or 16.2 per cent of the female population of over 10 years were returned as economically active. 1 . This term includes all persons who were employed at any time during the 7 days preceding the enumerator's visit. •p I vo O CM CM lO to to CTi »- ITv to u a I • • • . • I » 0) Q) o o o o *- o i o O o o> I o o O w ft-P (1) O o CM Ti VO in •<*- en 00 to to to CM in CM tf£H er* ON to in to to VO tO I en CO vo VO to in in to cn -P-d to | to O CO SZ«-P H H CQ i CQ d o 3 O fc * K\ CO in CM CM 00 I CM c- o 1 00 CM CM o 1 vo -- o vo in 250 7 CM 9 CM •H CQ +» ft CQ O io vo «* tO ON I vO CO •<* t- 1 oo CM «- I o 1 in •*• in CT> en vo 650 8 VO e> oo s en a •p o 4> V .O •r- O CM oo O O O O •H PM O • • • • • • I o o o •P tO O O O I • • 0) o c- o o H CQ o o ft a o •H (^ H CQH t*- o ^ O to to to in a) *- «- oo vo to l en S-P in »- tO IP * CM t- oo o O CM vo ,d ITS *- VO to to o •p Cn J. ° cr> en •H In CQ > E-i O a> a N o x o +» I o CO OS U -H OJ U In the 1966 census the mountainous region returned the highest percentage (78.7 per cent) of economically active persons whereas the lowest proportion of economically active men was reported to be in the arid and semi-arid region which was about 73.4 per cent. The small difference between the highest and the lowest percentages, namely 5.2, is suggestive of high degree of uniformity in the distribution of economically active persons in the Ostan. The accumulation of economically active people in the mountainous region is due to the continued trend of overcrowding in the villages surrounding the Shahrestans of Semirom and Fereidan. In this region, most of the people are busy in agriculture, whereas in arid and semi-arid region i.e. (Shahrestan of Nain and Ardestan) due to excessive heat and aridity and paucity of agricultural resources substantial number of persons belonging to the work-force migrate to other regions of the Ssfahan Ostan or to other Ostans of Iran. The proportions of economically active people in the sub-mountainous region and Esfahan Plain were almost equal as they were reported to be 75.7 per cent and 74.6 per cent respectively. 1 18 The highest rate of female participation in economic activities was in the arid and semi-arid region. It was 33.4 per cent in 1966. In this region females are engaged mainly in carpet weaving, which is the most profitable and specialized activity of the region, and also in official jobs both in the public and private sectors. Lowest female participation rate of 11.5 per cent was reported in the Esfahan plain at the time of 1966 census (Table XIX). In the year 1966 out of the total work force of the Esfahan Ostan about 346,139 males (79.6 per cent) and 74t071 females (17.0 per cent) were employed whereas 14,435 males or 3.4 per cent of the rest were either seeking employment or were seasonally employed. Esfahan Plain region had the highest percentage (84.3 per cent) of employed males and was closely followed by the mountainous region having about 79.7 per cent employment among males. The arid and semi-arid region had the lowest percentage of employed males which was reported to be about 66.7 per cent. The position of employed females was almost the reverse. The highest percentage of employment among females, which was about 30.8 per cent was recorded in the arid and semi-arid region while the lowest proportion (12.5 per cent) I fl cr» VO a> in CM r» CM CM tO VO CO in in in o © CM • • • • • 1 • C- CO VO • to en 1 VO 00 oo VO VO VO a> a) co en CO f- vo VO 00 CM -P 00 > •H -P H I O cs5 o fl) CM o co O CM CO "tf- "<*- VO O a) •* -sr ** en CM in 1 00 "Sf 1 to *- to in to CO in r- 1 to VO 1 O O CM VO to CTi CO CO O f- to VO vo en cn to CM CM CM in VO CM CM to fl (0 o U\ 00 tO CO oo c- -* CM in in in •«*• •H ,' +> oo • • • • • • * • • 1 • U fl CM *- tO VO -P i 3 © H m-p in r~ cn 00 vo to en CTv en vo m a> H ai VO O "<* oo VO to to VO to *- en s oo 1 en tr- 8 8 1 a> vo in TJ- vo •uH < fl i •H 9 01 H a •P H as H H Q> A H CO O a) •p n a at CO a> cs 0) fl •p at a) a •p -p •p •H S al D o 3 ^a ® o 4 3 o o fH O -ci >% as N 3 aS EH o EH EH 3 •p o* EH •p u -H a Out of whole employed population, viz, 420,210 in the Esfahan Ostan 168,880 persons i.e., 40.2 per cent were engaged in industries, mining and related occupations. Furthermore, 160,147 or 38.1 per cent were busy in agriculture and 3,328 or 10.3 per cent were engaged in commerce and transport. The number of persons in official and civil services was about 41,836 or 9.9 per cent, and the remaining 6,019 persons or 1.5 per cent were entered under unclassified jobs. Neither the rates of participation in economic work nor the percentages of the persons employed in various groups of occupations were uniformly distributed amongst the regions and the Shahrestans of the Ostan. Industrial activity in arid and semi-arid region accounted for 5 2 per cent. Due to the lack of sufficient sources of water-supply agricultural activities and pursuits were very much restricted and did not have high or significant share in the occupational structure of the population of the region. But in the Mountainous region agricultural activities on a large scale are adequately supported and favoured by the availability of sources of water supply. The percentage I (4 0 o *— *- CM T- CM to to to to u • • • ... . • © o o o o o o O o o PM4» o -d © 0> in CM o 00 in in CO to to 00 *- CM CM 00 oo in •«*• to in in 0 O I £© 5 CM ^ T- to in in oo in 03 ... I • • • I 0] 9. 9 *t 00 CM CM cr\ 1 14. 8 12 . •P 26. 7 16. 2 CM CM tO CM to CM © P vO to in t- CM CM R 00 CO I cr> m t- t- CM 1 128 9 524 6 147 9 420 1 414 8 VO CM o o to to CM to to c- o to I n a> o o u .0 co o VO o *~ «"• CJ^ ««t CT> in cr» ©•p • • • • • • • i • CM A ^ a VO tO **• *- in CM ,- I to CM CM T> CD PHVO o © - VO H-P P*3 ©cr> flH VO VO tO in to in *- cr> in in 0) O LPS VO in cr> «"• co co o I VO O O •r- in •P h I CO T- in CM CM VO CM *— •* oo CM I •«t CM O © to CM C- o p ""4 I H 1a ) a CD o © tO O vo t- vo cr> cr\ to to -^ to o • • • . ... . » CM © •H © © CO oo c- CO o> O CO to <7\ in oo H a • 00 VO t- vo VO 00 oo vo vo o c- t- VO a >d © EH a ©p 0 •H U 03 <4 2 I o •H a OH OQ •H H a > 03 •H 9 •P 3 N £> 0 •P 3 a •P a 3 © 0} o o 0 CO H o o cO p & •H & saAiAasnoH ki Q: k. JAIJOV A||VOIUJOUO93 sj»mo u s f— —r- sjuapnjs o O "5" s o O •0 try ? S CD s»AimosnoH O o «AIJOV ^ Co to A*||t3IUJ0U033 IP u_? c iO <£ -T— —r- IO N STA T ~3~ o o ~£ •S" O »— o CM < *— ^ ZH- ^^^ s»AiM»snoH UJ < ki »AU0V < X||*01UJ0U0D3 B ^^ m —r- ^ s S J © O CM S 6 s»AiM>snoH A|ieoiwouoD3 c fc^^^^^^^^ ^ « o —i 1 1 1_ 8AIJ0V A||?oiajouoo3 to o LL. VD ~ ^ O kj —I r— I- O in »- o ¥ O O o o 8 tO INI to .— sj»mo [ o x o sjuapms to ^ o i s»AiM»snoH LLI -I < JAI JOV -J to < A||eoiuijouoo3 Z ^^i •» r "TT" —i 1 T T 1 r g g> £ 6 C©M o— o 124 of people engaged in agriculture was 57.8 which was clearly the highest amongst the regions of the Ostan. Highest percentage in commerce and transport was found in the Esfahan plan region which was about 12,4 per cent. In this region the growth and development of the metropolitan area of Esfahan provided great impetus and attraction to the development of commercial activities and made the region the important centre of commerce, trade and transport of the Ostan (Table XXI and Figs.21,22). Economically Inactive Population In 1966 there were 119,199 males or 24.9 per cent of the male work force and about 385,335 females or 83.8 per cent of the female work force in the Ostan who were reported to be economically in active. The lowest proportion of economically inactive persons was in the mountainous region being 21.3 per cent, whereas the highest percentage of economically inactive persons was in the Esfahan plain being 88.5 per cent. In the economically inactive male population of Esfahan Ostan about 81,696 persons or 16.1 per cent were I Pi 4) 0\ 1. 6 . . • 1. 1 U 0. 5 0. 7 1 o 4> CO *- o o o o £< +» CD U CD CO to to to o I CD in 00 g O c- c- O O in •«- vo CT> tO ,- in CM CM CM CM 66 0 CTt CM in O O vo vo I CM to 165 0 a u 221 7 to 452 7 to CM vo O to co I CM O 4) to I o CD ffv CM CTv CM 0) O •H CM in r- n- O "tf- VO -5t" O VO to CM VO VO ^* 00 *- I o ra CD 87 0 VO CT> IT. -r- I oo 242 4 P< CO 232 8 •* CO vo CM o in CM CM o CM T- I O^ a vO « (O oo c- to to to to O CM H VO O CD • • . i . « COCTi U tQ CM vo CM CM to I o O cr» in 19. 9 20. 9 27. 5 o 4) at 42. 8 ^j- in in *r CM -P •^- in •<* •P I M . Pi > t- oo Q0 tO 00 00 cr> cr> H O 3 9 in vo oo O I VO CM CM oo o PS***** t- c- in I VO vO cr» vo i 195 1 805 6 vo *H id •H Pi fl •r- 00 «* o r- t- §8 1056 4 O fl 2057 1 in cr> CT» in •o cO s COH to 00 cO VO I in ttf) PI CM CD >> cd H CD in oo vo A3 O CD in in in m t- Xi «H ... • • • CD CO CM • • CM 00 CO -^ in in to to in cr» 68. 5 62. 1 38. 7 6H ao o P4 +> 57. 8 to ea 't to to to to •H to to CM •P I c6 cd H H CD ft •<*• as vo in in o co CO o o IO CM O •«- oo co in - ^H-r- 578 2 •s-p 946 6 00 M ^ vo in <«t o>» o 2780 7 4305 5 CM 00 CO 0) vo >s O •a H «P ft 930 1 CM cr\ in vo to to CM VO tO I o 4056 7 2471 0 e-i i 7457 8 •>* CM t- in o CM CM CM CM ta t- co PI I o •H PI CO •H H a 3 cd CD o H H •p CO •a m PI * CO CO A CO CO PI >> CO CD N •P T3 •H fit CD 3 cO •p EH U O o O PI +> a1 CO CO CD co N a CO o o Tota l U •P f-4 EH •3 EH CO EH O •9 PI f ro a CD CD a a •3 CO CO p« ^ PI GO o si a co i cO i Semlro m Pereida n o Golpayega n 00 CO 125 a ffl <} jz; PP •H • • CD CM to r- OJ K\ ^j- CM tn « H M ECONOMIC ACTIVITY STATUS OF THE POPULATION IN SHAHRESTAN OF ESFAHAN PLAIN REGION Per cent 60-7 70- TTT] 60- 50' v > o > 40- c < o o 30- A u 20- 10- 0 ill ESFAHAN TF MALE FEMALE mam. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY STATUS OF THE Parctnt POPULATION IN SHAHRESTANS OF ARID 3 SEM/AR/D REG ION TO- 50- •• 40- Is* > 30- 10- ^2 _^ 0-- MU 1 *4 //V Percent I 80 70-1 60 50- I- o < u 40- 5 30- © 10- 0 ^TTD VA, f ARDESTAN FIG.2? 128 students and 37,503 persons or 7.5 per cent were physically unfit to take up any work. As regards the hreak up of the inactive females there were 353*284 persons or 70 per cent of the total home-maker, who were confined to their homes and were socially avers© take up any work while 32,051 persons were students. CHAPTER VIII SOCIAL SETUP 1 . Marriage Though the numerical and temporal distribution of marital status in a population is quite important in governing the social life of the society but in Esfahan Ostan the problem of finding out the exact number and the time of the marriages that have taken place in the Ostan is a very difficult one. The dates of marriages obtained from official records do not tally with the actual dates of the marriages as gathered from field investigations. It is especially true of the marriages which have taken place outside of, and at places away from the city. Obviously and naturally, the prime factor that determines marriage is maturity. Besides, there are certain conditions and qualifications which are prescribed by the government to be fulfilled before a marriage could take place. The prescribed minimum age for males is 18 years and for females 15 years. The marriages are celebrated according to religious practices and local traditions and customs. After the wedding ceremony the pairs are to inform the record office. However, it happens 130 quite often that the information to the recording office is delayed for months and occasionally, even for years. In the area of transhumance and semi-transhumance the marriages may take place without being even reported to the record office. The official records do not show the standards of life and social status of the couples. The influence of the geographical factors determing the seasons of marriages is notable. In the rural areas most of the marriages take place when the annual agricultural activities come to on end. In both the rural and urban areas a comfortable season with moderate temperature condition is an important consideration for fixing the date and consequently the marriages are usually celebrated in spring and early autumn and only a few marriages take place in the cold winter season. Some religious traditions are sometimes also taken into consideration for the fixation of dates. For example, amongst the Muslim families no marriages are held in the months of •Moharram' and 'Safar1 as these two months are the months of mourning for martyrdom of the holy prophet's grandsons. 1 • These two months are the lunar month of Islamic Calendar which in 1974 occurred between 15th January and 15th March and in 1973 between 25th January and 25th March. 131 The official date regarding marriages in Esfahan Ostan are based on 1966 census and can be analysed as follows: Out of the total population (939,179) of 10 years of age and over, 57.9 per cent or 277»406 males and 283,572 or 61.6 per cent of the females were married. More specifically in the age group of 25 to 29 years 11.3 P©r cent of the males and 93.5 per cent of the females were married. Table XXII shows that the highest percentage of married males and females was enjoyed by the mountainous region. The percentages of married males and females in this region worked out to be 58.8 and 61.9 respectively. Probably it is due to the preponderance of agricultural occupations and relative lack of education amongst the males that the rate of marriage is higher in this region. In the Esfahan plains, on the other hand, since people here more and varied entertainments to enjoy and the youngmen have to keep themselves busy in education, the rate of married men was less, it was about 57.5 per cent. In arid and semi-arid region i,e., Shahrestan of 'Nain' the rate of married females was lesser than that found in any other region. From the 1966 census data it was obtained to be about 59.5 per cent. It was usual among the girls to take l o © c- r- O •«* in VO in VO 00 C^ 00 in to, © tn. O C- T~ o> ^— CTt 1 s 00 © *-• in VO ro VO VO *•* 1 in KN tn CTt VO I VO c- in CT 03 o vO in ^— T— O CM *r— "«* *-• CM t- e- CTt 00 *• 3 © I © o © CO in in oo •**- CTt VO in in CTt VO t-t bi-O • • • • • • • 1 • • • • • I o CD a} 00 ITv 00 r- 00 CT\ 1 co t- c- GO 00 I LTi s in in m in in in in in in in 2 CD © © H CVJ c- 00 c- >«*- tn CM en in in co CO ir\ C\J t<-\ VO CM in 1 CT o O K ^w tn *•" "* f S CM ^~ in c~ CTt *— 1 <"- VO t— in 00 c~ CTt VO tn CO 00 CTt Q I CM ,r~ ">* VO VO 00 00 a *•» ^* © CO Pi H o VO o -"*- o vO tn K\ 00 CO CO a) tn *" CTt "* 8 S CT t- c- oo co en •H VO in Tf VO CTt CTt ^r*» 1 CTt CTt vo 00 © CTt CM C- cn O CM o o t- c- ^- tn •«*- CM e- KN K> ^~ u 3 "A o CO a a H © H •H PA H CO o 3 CO CD •a CO CD •P -P -P CO CD •p +> PI JO >> a a a 3 © o ta (0 o 3 3 o •H x) >> SH O co CO ta EH &H 3 -P a 00 1. 113,908 females or 64.4 per cent virgins; II. 57,475 females or 32.6 per cent widows; III. 3»070 females or 1.7 per cent divorced; and IV. 2,258 females or 1.3 per cent unspecified. 2. Divo rce The study of divorce is important as it affects the fertility of a population. In the Esfahan Ostan divorce is mainly governed by religious practices, traditional customs and social status of women in various •p to to o VO in cr> vo to tr\ in to "* b rt in • • • • • • • I • • • • • 1 • • 4> H 0(S •P <«*• CM in CO in <* o 1 £ rl o 1A vo CM to ^~ VO VO 1 to Divorce is not of common occurrance in most of the Esfahan Ostan and especially in the rural areas of the Ostan. Table XXIV shows that 1041 individuals out of 284,261 married males divorced their wives. In other words, in every ten thousand married males 36 persons were divorcers. The proportion of females who sought and secured separation was relatively high being 99 per o (0 •«*• © VO vo cr> in VO CM to *- vo VO KM 4) •H 03 05 VO O a> to in lO •**- 00 <- 00 a> O fcol VO CM Ta CM CO 00 CM I 00 tOf- CM *r» vo H CM CM CM in CTi in in CM i vo 03 In *~ "^ VO © VO o o 0) •H CM to CO in vo c- CM CM OMO t CT» CJ\ O CTi in o o to op 1 Cd CM 00 co 1 vo The highest divorce rate amongst males was found in mountainous and Esfahan Plain regions. This rate was 3.8 per thousand. Probably the main cause was rapid growth of urban population in these regions (Esfahan and Grolpayegan Cities). On the other hand the rate of securing separation by women was about 9.9 per thousand in Esfahan Plain region. In this region the number of the ladies bussy in offices or factories is substantially greater than that found in any other part of Esfahan Ostan. Thus their income is sufficient to manage their independent life that is why divorced ladies would not show interest in getting remarried. 3. Literacy According to the census of the year 1966 the total population of above seven-year old was estimated at 138 about 1,069,551 or 75.1 per cent. This total comprised 546,608 males and 522,943 females. Among the males 258,686 persons or 47.3 per cent were reported as literate that is 2 capable of reading and writing. But among females 96,531 persons or 18.4 per cent were literate whereas 422,458 or 80.7 per cent were illiterate. In other words, out of the total population given above, 355,217 persons or 33.2 per cent were literates as against 706,671 or 66 per cent reported to be illiterate. When calculated on the basis of the total population (all ages) the literacy index of the Ostan as a whole works out to be as low as 25 per cent. Table XXV shows that the sub-mountainous region with about 49.9 per cent had the highest literacy rate in the Ostan. The main probable factors which are responsible for the high rate are large urban population and rapid rate of urbanization in the Shahrestans of Shahreza and Kajafabad, better opportunities of school and university education and a complex economy with increasing dominance of secondary and tertiary occupations. 1 • The Official age for beginning primary school is six year in Iran. 2. In the Iranian census a literate person is that who can read and write. to * co co vo VO 00 to t- to to -a- in CM • • • • • • • • ON in to in VO vo "^ T~ *- ON CO ON ON co CO co co 00 s r- tO ON CM to ON ON 00 *«*• «<*• in co T- ^ t>~ o C- in CM o in * in in CM tO VO •«* O »- m T- ON O "* vo co to in to *- •«* CM R CM CM in co to in to • • • • • • o o •>* t- "* 0> tO IfN tO CM CM ON lf\ CM CM ON o ON CO «— «~ ON to to in •«a- ON CM CM r> vo tO CM CM I 00 to to «- to CO vo ON in I o in to in CO in T- CM CO •<*- in •«- CM to *t ^ in w CM to vo to to •*• 00 • • • vo cen t lut e T- tO Pe r Abso - CO VO O o O •*- to c-- 10 in in in in vO vo ^»- in in 99 6 erat e Literat Illiterat T— i O 9 li t CO +> «-««*• VO co in vo vo «h H fit 0 10 t- *- CM m 8 *•• ON ON M c- in CM 1 VO CM CM in CM aS ** cr> tn c- oo GO tO 1 o CM CM *- c- +> O •«*- t- CM o tn O in CM CM in tn as a "Sf CM oo CTt CT» -p tn tn CM CM o •H H •P , a) CO cr* ^- "<*- r- CO m <* in <* -sl CM ,- in -p HH CM at •«*- c*- tn •«*- C*- 1 CTt ot ^* -r- I CM o •>* oo m 00 00 ^f 1 ^— ^" CO ^> I aS g o r- •**- CM VO CT O o CTt t- a) CM 00 m VO VO VO c- c- CM CM o o 8 in in