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Transport Reviews A Transnational Transdisciplinary Journal Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713766937 Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany John Pucher a; Ralph Buehler a a Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA

First Published: July 2008 To cite this Article: Pucher, John and Buehler, Ralph (2008) 'Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany', Transport Reviews, 28:4, 495 — 528 To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/01441640701806612 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01441640701806612

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Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 DOI: 10.1080/01441640701806612 0144-1647 print/1464-5327 online/08/040495-34 ©2008Taylor &Francis [email protected]; [email protected] University, Room363,33Livingston Avenue, NewBrunswick, NewJersey08901,USA. Email: Correspondence Address purposes butrarelyused forpractical,everydaytravelneeds.Moreover,the world isamarginalmode oftransport,occasionallyusedforrecreational Pucher andDijkstra,2003; Tolley,2003).Bicyclinginmuchoftheindustrialized anything butsafe,convenientandattractive(Pucher Cycling conditionsinmostcountries—including the UKandUSA—are quite resistibleindeed,sincetheymakeonlyabout 1%oftheirtripsbybike. as toseemabsurd.MostBritonsandAmericans,for example,mustfindcycling For readersinmanycountries,thetitleofthisarticle mightsoundsoimpossible Introduction cycling intheUKandUSA,whereonlyabout1%oftrips arebybike. countries inpromotingcycling.Forcomparison,thearticleportraysmarginalstatusof faceted, mutuallyreinforcingsetofpoliciesthatbestexplainsthesuccessthesethree shorter andthusmorebikeabletrips.Itisthecoordinatedimplementationofthismulti- Moreover, strictland-usepoliciesfostercompact,mixed-usedevelopmentsthatgenerate central citiesthroughahostoftaxesandrestrictionsoncarownership,useparking. Netherlands, DenmarkandGermanymakedrivingexpensiveaswellinconvenientin public supportforcycling.Inadditiontotheirmanypro-bikepoliciesandprogrammes,the ists, andawiderangeofpromotionaleventsintendedtogenerateenthusiasm public transport,comprehensivetrafficeducationandtrainingofbothcyclistsmotor- Denmark andGermanyarecomplementedbyamplebikeparking,fullintegrationwith of mostresidentialneighbourhoods.ExtensivecyclingrightswayintheNetherlands, facilities alongheavilytravelledroadsandatintersections,combinedwithtrafficcalming The keytoachievinghighlevelsofcyclingappearsbetheprovisionseparate on nationalaggregatedataaswellcasestudiesoflargeandsmallcitiesineachcountry. bicycling asafe,convenientandpracticalwaytogetaroundtheircities.Theanalysisrelies A 10.1080/01441640701806612 Transport Reviews0144-1647(print)/1464-5327(online)OriginalArticle2007Taylor&Francis0000000002007JohnPucherpucher@[email protected] (Received 9July2007;revised16Octoberaccepted11November2007) Taylor andFrancisTTRV_A_280715.sgm USA Bloustein SchoolofPlanningandPublicPolicy,RutgersUniversity,NewBrunswick,Jersey, JOHN PUCHERandRALPHBUEHLER The Netherlands,DenmarkandGermany Making CyclingIrresistible:Lessonsfrom Transport Reviews,Vol.28,No.4,495–528,July2008 BSTRACT This articleshowshowtheNetherlands,DenmarkandGermanyhavemade : JohnPucher, BlousteinSchoolofPlanningandPublicPolicy, Rutgers et al ., 1999;McClintock,2002; Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 the mostequitable ofalltransportmodes. Inshort,itishardtobeat cyclingwhen structure costs. Becauseitisaffordable byvirtuallyeveryone,cycling isamong the privatecarandpublic transport,bothindirectusercostsandpublicinfra- and parkingofcars.Moreover, cyclingiseconomical,costingfarlessthanboth exercise. Cyclingrequires only asmallfractionofthespaceneededforuse by thetraveller,andvery useofthatenergyoffersvaluablecardiovascular motorized transportmode. Theonlyenergycyclingrequiresisprovideddirectly noise orairpollutionandconsumesfarlessnon-renewable resourcesthanany sustainable thanAmericanandBritishcities. people-friendly ratherthancar-friendly,andthus moreliveableand German andDanishcitieshavefocusedonserving people,makingtheircities more motorvehiclesbyexpandingroadwaysand parkingfacilities,Dutch, or atleasttheyellowwarninglight,toprivatecars. Insteadofcateringtoever the pastthreedecadespreciselybecausethesecountries havegiventheredlight, contrast, cyclinghasprosperedintheNetherlands,Germany andDenmarkover almost regardlessofitseconomic,socialandenvironmental costs.Insharp many respects,theUKandUSAhavegivengreen lighttotheprivatecar, housing policies,environmentaltaxationpoliciesandparkingpolicies.In important: transportpolicies,land-useurbandevelopment necessarily determinethefateofcycling.Governmentpoliciesareatleastas of Transportation,2003;DepartmentforTransport,2007). only slightlyhigherthanthe0.9%bikeshareoftripsinUSA(U.S.Department cycling neverrecovered.Itcontinuedtofallitscurrentlevelof1.3%trips, these othercountries,cyclingintheUKplummetedfrom1950to1975,butBritish higher intheUKthantheyarenowGermany:almost15%ofalltrips.Justas cycling wasrevivedtoitscurrentsuccessfulstate.In1950,levelswere massive reversalintransportandurbanplanningpoliciesthemid-1970sthat from about1950to1975(DutchBicyclingCouncil,2006).Itwasonlythrougha lands, GermanyandDenmark.Cyclinglevelsplummetedinallthreecountries terrified bythemerethoughtofgettingonabike. can befoundcycling,unlikethemanymillionsofAmericansandBritonswhoare rarely usesafetyhelmets.Eventimid,risk-averseandsafety-consciousindividuals ride onsimple,inexpensivebikes,almostneverwearspecialcyclingoutfits,and separate bikelanesorpaths.Onthecontrary,Dutch,GermanandDanishcyclists forced tomusterthecourageandwillingnessbattlemotoristsonstreetswithout equipment, advancedtraining,orahighdegreeofphysicalfitness.Norarecyclists truly foreveryoneandalltrippurposes. across allincomegroups.IntheNetherlands,GermanyandDenmark,cyclingis rates ofcyclingfallonlyslightlywithage.Moreover,isdistributedevenly UK andtheUSA.Dutch,GermanDanishwomencycleasoftenmen, Germany andDenmark,cyclinglevelsaremorethantentimeshigherinthe mode oftransport,aperfectlynormalwaytogetaroundcities.IntheNetherlands, advanced, affluentcountriesthathavemanagedtomakecyclingamainstream most ofthecycling,whilewomencyclefarless,andelderlyhardlyatall. social distributionofcyclingtendstobeveryuneven,withyoungmendoing 496 There aremanygoodreasonstoencouragemorecycling. Itcausesvirtuallyno While history,culture,topographyandclimateareimportant,theydonot As documentedinthisarticle,cyclingwasnotalwaysthrivingtheNether- Moreover, cyclinginthosecountriesisnotviewedasrequiringexpensive Thus, itmaycomeasasurprisetoscepticalreadersthattherearetechnologically J. PucherandR.Buehler Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 0.2 kmofcyclingperpersonday,respectively. USA andtheUKarebothatlowendofspectrum, averaging0.1kmand km) immediatelyfollowtheNetherlandsindistance cycledperinhabitant.The to 2.5kmintheNetherlands(seeFigure2).Denmark (1.6km)andGermany(0.9 that percapitacyclingdayrangesfrom0.1kmin Spain,GreeceandPortugal country, theEuropeanConferenceofMinisters Transport(2004)estimated cycling levelsamongcountries.Averagingoverthe entirepopulationofeach cycled perpersonday,analternativewayof measuringandcomparing in thebikeshareoftripsroughlyparalleldifferences intheaveragedistance 1% inAustralia,theUKandUSAto27%Netherlands.Thesedifferences Canada andEuropeancountriesinthebikeshareoftrips,rangingfromalow As showninFigure1,therearelargedifferencesamongAustralia,theUSA, Variations amongCountriesinOverallCyclingLevels safer, moreconvenientandattractiveinothercountriesaswell. assessment ofthelessonsthatcanbelearnedfromthesecountriestomakecycling the sametimeimprovecyclingsafety.Thearticleconcludeswithanoverall Denmark andGermanytopromotecyclingbyabroadspectrumofsocietyat summarize therangeofpoliciesandprogrammesusedinNetherlands, sons ofcyclingfatalityandinjuryratestrendsovertime.Subsequentsections levels amongcountries;thus,thearticlecontainsanentiresectionwithcompari- cyclists. Differencesincyclingsafetyexplainsomeofthedifference of cycling,inbiketrippurposes,andthegender,ageincomelevels of gettingaroundcities. Denmark andGermanyhavemanagedtomakecyclingapopular,mainstreamway options toforcepeopleontobikes.ThisarticleshowshowtheNetherlands, not dependonpoverty,dictatorialregimesorthelackofmotorizedtransport affluent societieswithnearlyuniversalcarownership.Thesuccessofcyclingdoes cycling levelsareenlighteningbecauseallfiveofthemdemocratic,capitalist, UK andtheUSAhavelaggedfarbehind.Differencesbetweenthesecountriesin the forefrontofpoliciestomakecyclingsafe,convenientandattractive,while objectives havebeenmet.TheNetherlands,DenmarkandGermanyat of Transport,2004). Department ofTransportation,1994,2004;EuropeanConferencetheMinisters dual objectivesofraisingcyclinglevelswhileincreasingsafety(U.S. importance ofcyclingasapracticalmodeurbantransportandendorsethe both theEuropeanUnion(EU)andUSAhaveofficiallyrecognized it comestoenvironmental,socialandeconomicsustainability.Consequently, that low. Canadian, Australian andAmericancities, andmostBritishcities,have bikeshares cities. OnlyafewGerman citieshavebikemodeshareslowerthan5%,while all American cityevenapproaches thebikeshareoftripsinmostDutchandDanish the Netherlands,Denmark andGermany.NoBritish,Canadian,Australian or ally havebikesharesoftravel thatarelowerthantheleastbike-orientedcities in even themostbike-oriented citiesintheUK,Australia,CanadaandUSAgener- within eachcountry,asshowninFigure3.Withonly afewexceptions,however, Figure 1.2. Bicycle shareoftripsinEurope,NorthAmericaandAustralia(percentagetotalbybicycle).KilometrescycledperinhabitantdayEuropetheUSA. First, however,wedocumentdifferencesamongcountriesintheiroveralllevels As showninthisarticle,countriesvarygreatlythedegreetowhichthesestated These nationalaverageshidelargevariationsincycling levelsbetweencities Making CyclingIrresistible 497 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 498 and responserates(Kunert definitions, datacollectionmethodandfrequency,targetpopulation,samplesize entirely comparablebecausetravelsurveysvarysomewhataccordingtovariable central statisticalbureausandsupplementarycitytravelsurveys.Theyarenot Figure 3. Britons make just1%oftheirtripsbybike, comparedtomuchhigher bikemode shown inFigure 4.Fortripsbetween2.5 and4.4km,forexample, Americansand That patternalsoholdsfor theprogressivelylongertripdistancecategories compared to37%intheNetherlands, 27%inDenmarkand14%Germany. both AmericansandBritons cycleforonly2%oftheirtripsshorterthan2.5km, make amuchhigherpercentage oftheirlocaltripsbybike.AsshowninFigure 4, Germany (DepartmentforTransport,2007). due tomoreextensivesprawlinBritainthanthe Netherlands,Denmarkand 30% oftripsareshorterthan2.5km,muchcloserto the Americanlevel,perhaps Statistical OfficeofDenmark,2005;StatisticsNetherlands, 2007).IntheUK,only Ministry ofTransport,2003;U.S.DepartmentTransportation, 2003;National Denmark and41%inGermany,comparedto27% theUSA(GermanFederal trips inEuropeancitiesareshorterthan2.5km:44% intheNetherlands,37% trip lengthsinEuropeancities.Indeed,aconsiderably higherpercentageofall sources ofinformation. countries andcities,whatevertheirlimitations, theyarethebestavailable surveys facilitateapproximatecomparisonsofdifferentlevelscyclingamong Figure 1. Bike shareoftripsinselectedcitiestheNetherlands,Denmark,Germany,UK,Canada,USAandAustralia(2000Ð2005). These statisticsoncyclinglevelsreflectdatafromnationalministriesoftransport, Even controllingfortrip distance, however,theDutch,DanesandGermans One mightexpectthatEuropeanscyclemorethan Americans duetoshorter J. PucherandR.Buehler Bicycle shareoftripsinEurope,NorthAmericaandAustralia(percentagetotal

Note : UKdataareforcounties. et al ., 2002).Attheveryleast,however,suchtravel by bicycle). Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 Germany (11%). shares forthesametripdistanceinNetherlands(37%),Denmark(24%)and cycling inother countrieswithhighincomes andwidespreadcarownership. Denmark and Germanymayprovide especiallyusefullessons forincreasing tion ofthesuccessfulpro-cycling policiesandprogrammesintheNetherlands, Clearly, highlevelsofcar ownership donotprecludecycling.Thus,anexamina- share oftripsinGermany is almosttentimeshigherinGermanythantheUK. thy. Althoughithasamuch higherlevelofcarownershipthantheUK,bike are amongthehighestin world.ThecaseofGermanyisparticularlynotewor- expensive transportmodes.Indeed,levelsofcarownership inthethreecountries affluent, theirhighlevelsofcyclingarenotdueto aninabilitytoaffordmore countries atpromotingcyclingfordailytravel.Since allthreecountriesarequite only 10%inDenmark. ation, comparedto38%inGermany,35%theUK, 27%intheNetherlandsand Transport, 2007).Roughlythree-fourthsofallbiketrips intheUSAareforrecre- Ministry ofTransport,2006;Danish 2007;Departmentfor Transportation, 2003;GermanFederalMinistryofTransport, 2003;Netherlands Germany, 22%intheNetherlandsand25%Denmark (U.S.Departmentof trips accountforonly5%ofallbikeinthe USA, comparedto20%in 32% intheNetherlandsand35%Denmark.Evenmorestrikingly,shopping 11% ofallbiketripsintheUSA,comparedto28%Germany,30%UK, cycle forpractical,utilitarianpurposes.Traveltoworkorschoolaccountsonly Figure 4. Bicycling shareofshorttripsintheNetherlands,Denmark,Germany,UKandUSA(2000Ð2005). The Netherlands,DenmarkandGermanyhavebeen among themostsuccessful Northern Europeans—evenBritons—arefarmorelikelythanAmericansto Figure 2. Kilometres cycledperinhabitantdayinEuropeandtheUSA. Making CyclingIrresistible 499 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 500 reduces theneed forcarownership. most evident inDenmarkandtheNetherlands, safeandconvenient cycling and Germany,includingcycling aswellwalkingandpublictransport.As is also duetoexcellentalternatives totheprivatecarinNetherlands,Denmark due tohightaxesoncarownership anduseinmostEuropeancountries.Butit is over thepastfewdecadesbut remainsmuchlowerthanintheUSA.Thatispartly ownership percapitahas increased intheNetherlands,DenmarkandGermany One canviewthesameinformationinanotherlight. AsshowninFigure5,car Figure 3. J. PucherandR.Buehler Canada, theUSAandAustralia(2000–2005). Bike shareoftripsinselectedcitiestheNetherlands,Denmark, Germany, theUK, Note : UKdataareforcounties. Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 Figure 4. Figure 5. Bicycling shareofshorttripsintheNetherlands,Denmark,Germany,UKandUSA Trend incarand lighttruckownershipper1000population intheUSA,Germany, the UK, the Netherlands and Denmark(1970–2005). (2000–2005). Making CyclingIrresistible 501 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 level (52%). (13%), whilecyclingintheNetherlandswasatslightly morethanhalfofits1952 by 2006,thecyclinglevelinUKwaslessthan aseventhofits1952level cycling levelscontinuedtoincreaseintheNetherlands. Theoverallresultisthat years, however,cyclingresumeditslong-termdecline intheUK,whereas tries reboundedsomewhatduringthetenyearsfrom 1975to1985.Inthenext20 by 80%,comparedtoadropof62%intheNetherlands.Cyclingbothcoun- cycling trends(seeFigure6).Overtheperiod1952to1975,inUKfell over thepastthreedecades. capita income,carownershipandsuburbandevelopmentinallthreecountries travel behaviour.Itisespeciallyimpressivegivencontinuinggrowthinper- accomplishment andprovidesevidenceofthepowerfulimpactpolicyon offset thehugedeclinesfrom1950to1975.Nevertheless,itwasasignificant Berlin, 2003).Thereboundincyclingfrom1975onwardwasnotenoughto 2001 (increasingby275%),reaching45%ofthe1950bicyclinglevel(City 20–43%. InBerlin,thetotalnumberofbiketripsnearlyquadrupledfrom1975to and Germancitiesrosebyroughlyone-fourth,resultingin1995bikesharesof bicycling shareoftripsinthesame,previouslycitedsampleDutch,Danish led toturnaroundsinthepreviousdeclineofbikeuse.From19751995, ing restrictionsoncaruseandmakingitmoreexpensive.Thatpolicyreversal Council, 2006).Mostcitiesimprovedtheirbicyclinginfrastructurewhileimpos- European ConferenceoftheMinistersTransport,2004;DutchBicycling energy andsafetyimpactsofrisingcaruse(Hass-Klau,1990;Pucher,1997; car. Thepolicyreformwasareactiontotheincreasinglyharmfulenvironmental, dramatically tofavourwalking,cyclingandpublictransportovertheprivate cyclists (Hass-Klau,1990). capacity andparkingsupply,whilelargelyignoringtheneedsofpedestrians accommodating andfacilitatingincreasedcarusebyvastlyexpandingroadway period, citiesthroughouttheNetherlands,DenmarkandGermanyfocusedon the numberofbiketripstherefellby78%from1950to1975.Duringthat25-year Bicycling Council,2006).Similarly,astudybytheCityofBerlin(2003)foundthat cities, from50%–85%oftripsin1950toonly14–35%1975(Dutch share oftripsfellbyroughlytwo-thirdsinasampleDutch,DanishandGerman ownership surgedandcitiesstartedspreadingout.From1950to1975,thebike tently high.Infact,cyclingfellsharplyduringthe1950sand1960s,whencar Figure 5. 502 trips inDenmark, 49%inGermanyand 55%intheNetherlands.While cyclingis Figure 8).Women arejustaboutaslikely tocycleasmen,making 45%ofallbike levels ofcycling,buttheir cyclists comprisevirtuallyallsegmentsofsociety(see Figure 7. almost continuouslysince 1978, decliningbyathird:from0.3to0.2. 1990s. Bycomparison,average dailykilometrescycledintheUKhavefallen Denmark, thestrongestgrowth incyclingwasfromthemid-1970suntilearly Denmark andfrom1.7to2.5intheNetherlands.In boththeNetherlandsand three countriesfrom1978to2005:0.61.0in Germany,from1.3to 1.6 in As showninFigure7,averagedailykilometrescycled perinhabitantroseinall rebound incyclingtheNetherlands,Denmarkand Germanysincethe1970s. Figure 6. Trend incarandlighttruckownershipper1000populationtheUSA,Germany,UK,NetherlandsDenmark(1970Ð2005) Trend inkilometrescycledperinhabitantdaytheNetherlands,Denmark,GermanyandUK(1978Ð2005). Trend inkilometrescycledperinhabitantyeartheNetherlandsandUK(1952Ð2006)(percentrelativeto1950level). The NetherlandsandtheUKprovidestrikingcontrastsintheirlong-term In themid-1970s,transportandland-usepoliciesinallthreecountriesshifted Some readersmightassumethatbicyclinglevelsinEuropehavebeenconsis- Not onlydotheNetherlands, DenmarkandGermanyhavehighgrowing Analysis ofnationalaggregatedataforthepast few decadesconfirmsa J. PucherandR.Buehler . Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 Figure 7. Figure 6. Trend inkilometres cycledperinhabitantday intheNetherlands,Denmark,Germany Trend inkilometrescycledperinhabitantyeartheNetherlandsandUK (1952–2006) (percentrelativeto1950level). and theUK(1978–2005). Making CyclingIrresistible 503 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 bike. older. TheDutchelderlydoublethatpercentage,making24%ofalltheirtripsby cycling accountsfor12%ofalltrips,thesameasamongGermanswhoare65and declines withageinDenmark,butevenamongthoseaged70–74yearsold, among 18-to24-yearolds12%forthose65andolder.Thebikeshareoftrips even amongtheelderly.InGermany,bikeshareoftripsrisessteadilyfrom7% however, cyclinglevelsintheNetherlands,DenmarkandGermanyremainhigh the highestratesofcyclinginalmosteverycountry.AsshownFigure9, Germany istherepresentationofallagegroups.Childrenandadolescentshave Figure 8. USA, wheretheymake72%and76%ofallbiketrips,respectively. gender-neutral inthosethreecountries,mendominatecyclingtheUKand 504 Netherlands, 2007).IntheGermanyandUK,low-income Department forTransport,2006;DanishMinistryof2007;Statistics Federal MinistryofTransport,2003;U.S.DepartmentTransportation, Netherlands, DenmarkandGermany,butalsointheUKUSA(German American elderly. elderly is12timeshigherthanforBritishand30 for Americanelderly.ThebikeshareoftripsboththeGermanandDanish Dutch elderlyis24timeshigherthanforBritishand60 British childrento1%amongolderagegroups.Thebikeshareoftripsforthe and older(seeFigure9).Similarly,thebikeshareoftripsfallsfrom2%among age: from3.2%amongchildren5–15yearsoldtoonly0.4%oftripsforthose40 Figure 9. Women’s shareoftotalbiketripsinAustralia,theUSA,UK,Canada,Denmark,GermanyandNetherlands(2000–2005). Bicycling shareoftripsbyagegroupintheUSA,UK,Germany,DenmarkandNetherlands(2000Ð2002). Another dimensionofcycling’suniversalityintheNetherlands,Denmarkand Rates ofcyclingaresimilaracrossdifferentincomeclasses,notonlyinthe Cycling ratesarelowforallagegroupsintheUSA,buttheyalsodeclinewith Figure 8. J. PucherandR.Buehler Women’s shareof totalbiketripsinAustralia,the USA,theUK,Canada,Denmark, German y andtheNetherlands (2000–2005). Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 the Dutchdo notperceivecyclingasa dangerous waytogetaround. Cyclingin in theUSAand morethanthreetimesas safeasintheUK.Thatmight explainwhy lands (seeFigure10).Thus, cyclingisoverfivetimesassafeintheNetherlands as 3.6 intheUK,comparedto 1.7inGermany,1.5Denmark,and1.1theNether- the numberofbicyclistfatalities per100millionkmcycledwas5.8intheUSAand Germany, Denmarkandthe Netherlands.Averagedovertheyears2002to2005, ity andinjuryratesaremuch higherforcyclistsintheUSAandUKthan in elderly—is thatcyclingismuchsafertherethaninthe USAandtheUK.Bothfatal- lands, DenmarkandGermany—especiallyamong women,childrenandthe Perhaps themostimportantreasonforhigherlevels ofcyclingintheNether- Trends inCyclingSafety around theircities. Denmark havesucceededinmakingcyclingasafe andconvenientwaytoget income classes. the mostequitableofalltransportmodes,atleast intermsofusageacross ent, butthedifferenceisnegligible(0.8%vs.0.9%).Thus,cyclingappearstobe poor intheUSAcycleforaslightlylowerpercentageoftheirtripsthanafflu- groups cycleonlyslightlymorethanhigh-incomegroups.Bycomparison,the Figure 9. The remainderofthisarticleexamineshowGermany, theNetherlandsand Bicycling shareoftripsbyagegroupintheUSA,UK,Germany,Denmarkand Netherlands (2000–2002). Making CyclingIrresistible 505 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 statistics ofothercountriesalsounderestimatetotalcyclistinjuriestovarying by theOrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(2007),official 000 in2005),basedonreportsfromemergencyroomsofhospitals.Asdocumented U.S. Government,reportstentimesmorecyclinginjuriesperyear(479963vs.45 for DiseaseControlandPrevention(2007),theofficialpublichealthagencyof the police(U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,2007).Bycomparison,Center injuries resultingfromcrasheswithmotorvehiclesonroadwaysandreportedby countries. Yetitvastlyunderestimatestotalcyclinginjuries.Itonlyincludes lower thanintheUSA. Netherlands andDenmark.TheinjuryrateintheUKissecondhighest,butmuch about 8timeshigherthanforGermanyand30the well asthehighestfatalityrate.Indeed,non-fatalinjuryrateforUSAis as thelowestfatalityrate,whileUSAhashighestnon-fatalinjuryrate as forfatalities.Thus,theNetherlandshaslowestnon-fatalinjuryratewell Without exception,thecyclingsafetyrankingforcountriesissameinjuries 100 millionkmcycled.Forallfivecountries,thesestatisticsrelyonpolicereports. non-fatal injuryratesper10millionkmcycledsidebywithfatality Thus, itisimportanttoconsidernon-fatalinjuryratesaswell.Figure10compares countries (OrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment,2007). Figure 10. four timessaferthanintheUSAandtwiceassafeUK. Germany andDenmarkisnotquiteassafeintheNetherlands,butitthreeto 506 Figure 10. The cyclistinjuryratefortheUSAseemsextremelyhighrelativetoother Serious cyclinginjuriesoutnumberfatalitiesroughlyten-foldinmost Fatality ratesandnon-fatalinjuryintheNetherlands,Denmark,Germany,UKUSA(2004Ð2005). J. PucherandR.Buehler Fatality ratesand non-fatalinjuryratesintheNetherlands, Denmark,Germany,the UK and theUSA(2004–2005). Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 only 30%. least improvementincyclingsafetyhasbeentheUSA,wherefatalitiesfellby the UKoversameperiod,butamountofcyclingalsodecreased.The number ofcyclingfatalitieshasdeclinedbyover70%.Fatalitiesfell60%in all threecountriesoverthepast35years(asalreadyshowninFigure7),total improved cyclingsafetysince1970.Althoughlevelsofhaveincreasedin Germany inbetween. safer cyclingintheNetherlandsandDenmarkthanUKUSA,with than thecorrespondingfatalityrates.Nevertheless,bothmeasuresindicatemuch cycling injuryratesreportedinFigure10arelessaccurateandcomparable cycling injuriesareunderreported,asshownbytheAmericancase.Thus, visit. Many,ifnotmost,cyclinginjuriesarereportedatall.Evenserious motor vehicle,andwhetheritrequiresemergencymedicalassistanceorahospital statistics dependsonthetypeofinjury,whereitoccurs,whetherinvolvesa (Pucher andDijkstra,2000,2003).Whetheracyclinginjuryisreportedinofficial tries becauseofdifferencesindefinitionsandmethodologiesdatacollection and variablequalityofdataoncyclinginjuries. degrees. Thedocumentedten-foldunderreportingintheUSAhighlightspoor supply ofbothroadwaysandseparatecyclingfacilitiesgenerateddangerous During the1950sand1960s,caruseroserapidlyinNetherlands.Insufficient the strongrelationshipbetweencyclingsafetyandlevelsof(seeFigure12). Figure 11. Figure 11. As showninFigure11,Germany,DenmarkandtheNetherlandshavegreatly There arealwaysproblemscomparinginjurystatisticsacrossdifferentcoun- Longer termdataareavailablefortheNetherlands.Theydramaticallyportray Trend incyclingfatalitiestheUSA,UK,Denmark,GermanyandNetherlands(1970Ð2005)(percentagerelativeto1970l Trend incycling fatalities intheUSA,UK,Denmark, GermanyandtheNetherlands (1970–2005) (percentage relativeto1970level). evel). Making CyclingIrresistible 507 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 cycling (RietveldandDaniel,2004). there iseveryreasontobelievethatincreasedsafety isakeytopromotingmore inhabitant. Thisstatisticalrelationship,ofcourse,does notprovecausation,but fatality ratefrom1978to2006,thusencouraginga36% increaseinkmcycledper Ministry ofTransport,1999,2006).Theresulthasbeenan81%fallinthecyclist improvements tocyclinginfrastructureandrestrictedcaruse(Netherlands inhabitant fellby65%.Sincethemid-1970s,Dutchcitieshaveundertakenmassive per billionkmcycledroseby174%from1950to1978,theaverage Council, 2006;NetherlandsMinistryofTransport,2006).Asthecyclistfatalityrate traffic conflictsandanalarmingincreaseincyclingfatalities(DutchBicycling 508 women, theelderly andchildren. one ofthekeys toincreasingoverallcycling levelsintheUSA,particularly among dangerous incomparisonwith othercountries.Thus,makingcyclingsaferissurely to cycleforthesamereason. AsshowninFigure10,cyclingtheUSAisindeed danger (Garrard 2006). Womenandtheelderly appeartobeespeciallysensitivesuchtraffic deterrent tomorewidespread cycling(Noland,1994;DutchBicyclingCouncil, 2003). fatality ratesfallforanygivencountryorcityascycling levelsrise(Jacobsen, lower forcountriesandcitieswithhighbicycling sharesoftotaltravel,and time andacrosscitiescountries.Fatalityratesper tripandperkmaremuch phenomenon of‘safetyinnumbers’hasconsistently beenfoundtoholdover Figure 12. Figure 12. Most surveysshowthattheperceivedtrafficdanger ofcyclingisanimportant There isalsoreasontobelievethatmorecyclingfacilitates safercycling.The Inverse trendsincyclingfatalityratesandannualkilometrescycledperinhabitanttheNetherlands(1950Ð2005). J. PucherandR.Buehler Inverse trendsincyclingfatalityratesandannualkilometrescycledperinhabitantthe et al ., 2008).ManyAmericanparents donotallowtheirchildren Netherlands (1950–2005). Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 more andbetter bikeparking;coordination withpublictransport;and cyclingsafety strategies toachieve thesedualgoals:better designoflanes,pathsand intersections; cycling fordailytravelwhile improvingcyclingsafety.Theyalsoproposevarious Transport, 2002).Eachofthese planssetsforththeoverallgoalofraisinglevels of of of Transport,1999;DanishMinistry ofTransport,2000;GermanFederalMinistry Germany allhaveofficialNational BicyclingMasterPlans(NetherlandsMinistry support, modelprojects,coordination andfunding.TheNetherlands,Denmark ually sinceabout1980andprovidingoverallgoals, designguidelines,research provide linksbetweenmunicipalities. direct planningandconstructionofcyclingfacilities thatserveruralareasor provide additionalpolicyguidance,coordinationand funding,aswellsome levels. Attheintermediatelevel,states,counties and regionalgovernments out atthelocallevelaswell,eveniftheyaremandated andfundedbyhigher context. Cyclingtraining,safetyandpromotionalprogrammes areusuallycarried the specificplansthatreflectparticularconditions andneedsofthelocal 1970s butmuchearlierinsomecities.Municipalities areresponsibleformaking constructing andfundingbicyclingfacilitiesformany decades,atleastsincethe governments intheNetherlands,GermanyandDenmarkhavebeenplanning, municipal level(EuropeanConferenceoftheMinistersTransport,2004).Local programmes topromotesafeandconvenientcyclingareusuallycarriedoutatthe Due tothemostlylocal,short-distancetripsmadebybike,policiesand Programmes inTheNetherlands,DenmarkandGermany Government RolesinFundingandPlanningCyclingFacilities 5% amongadults. helmets, comparedto12%amongschoolchildren11yearsorolder,andlessthan Germans aged17orolder.In2006,66%ofDanishschoolchildren6–10wore wore helmetswhilecycling,comparedto9%ofadolescentsaged11–16and2% use, notevenforyoungchildren.In2002,33%ofGermanchildrenaged6–10years two countriestoencouragemorehelmetuse,buttherearenolawsrequiring 2005; Boehme,2005).Therehavebeenextensivepromotionalcampaignsinthese German FederalMinistryofTransport,2002;CityMuenster,2004;Andersen, helmet use,especiallyamongchildren(DanishMinistryofTransport,2000; vulnerable ifwearinghelmets(Walker,2007). reduce theconsiderationmotoristsgivecyclists,sincetheymightseemless thus encouragingriskierridingbehaviour.Atthesametime,helmetsmight would makecyclingmoredangerousbygivingcyclistsafalsesenseofsafetyand comfortable andlessfashionable.Theyalsomentionthepossibilitythathelmets claiming thathelmetsdiscouragecyclingbymakingitlessconvenient, interviewed forthisarticleadamantlyopposelawstorequiretheuseofhelmets, Netherlands MinistryofTransport,2006).TheDutchcyclingexpertsandplanners even amongchildren,only3–5%wearhelmets(DutchBicyclingCouncil,2006; safest cyclingofanycountry,lessthan1%adultcyclistswearhelmets,and widespread useofsafetyhelmets.Onthecontrary,inNetherlands,with emphasize thatthemuchsafercyclinginnorthernEuropeisdefinitely ing helmetuse,ifnecessarybylaw,especiallyforchildren.Thus,itisimportantto Central governmentinvolvementincyclinghasbeenmore recent,evolvinggrad- German andDanishcyclingplannersseemfarmoresupportiveofincreased In theUSA,muchofefforttoimprovecyclistsafetyhasfocusedonincreas- Making CyclingIrresistible not

due to 509 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 and Groningen; CopenhagenandOdense; BerlinandMuenster). Denmark and Germanyandintwocase studycitiesineachcountry (Amsterdam coordinators andplanners intheministriesoftransportNetherlands, the informationcitedbelow wasprovideddirectlytotheauthorsbybicycling German citieshavebeendoing toraisecyclinglevelsandmakeitsafer.Most of mainly toprovidesome representative examplesofwhatDutch,Danishand nature andextentoftheseven typesofmeasures.Thefollowingdiscussionserves learned: thenecessityofacoordinated,multi-faceted approach. each otherinpromotingcycling.Indeed,thatisperhaps thekeylessontobe nated implementationofallthesemeasures,sothat theyreinforcetheimpactof Their successinmakingcyclingsoappealingislargely attributabletothecoordi- measures thathavebeenwidelyadoptedinDutch, DanishandGermancities. for abroadspectrumofthepopulation.Table1summarizes sevencategoriesof Many policiesandprogrammesarenecessarytomake cyclingsafeandfeasible How toMakeCyclingSafeandConvenient within eachcountry. tice informationamongEUcountries,justasnationalgovernmentsdothis regions. TheEUalsofacilitatesbicyclingresearchandtheexchangeofbestprac- route connectionsbetweencountriesandofcyclingfacilitiesinunderdeveloped throughout Europe.TheEUcontributestowardsthefundingofmissingbike VeloEuro programmetoexpandandintegratelong-distancebicyclingroutes EU fundingfitsinnicelywiththeEuropeanCyclists’Federation’s(ECF) for example,helpsfinancetransnationalandcross-borderbikewayprojects.That (European ConferenceofMinistryTransport,2004).ItsInterregprogramme, year tovariousdemonstrationprojects. funding forcyclingprojectsbutsince2000hascontributedabout cycling facilities.Bycomparison,theDanishCentralGovernmenthasnoregular € parking attrainstations.Inaddition,theDutchCentralGovernmentprovides various cyclingprojects,including Dutch CentralGovernmentcontributedanaverageof (paths, lanes,bridges,trafficsignals,signs,parking,etc.).From1990to2006,the ing fundsforstateandlocalgovernmentswantingtobuildcyclingfacilities special urbantransportinvestmentfund,whichprovides70–85%federalmatch- about bikeway extensions,cyclingresearchanddemonstrationprojects.Inaddition, from 1980to2000,andisnowdevoting over Transport, 2004).InGermany,forexample,thefederalgovernmentcontributed cling routesthatcrossstateboundaries(EuropeanConferenceofMinisters national highwaysandcontributesignificantlytofinancinglong-distancebicy- range ofexperimental,innovativeprojects. dissemination ofbestpracticeinformation,andfundingevaluationawide another, theygenerallyfocusonthefederalgovernment’sroleinfosteringresearch, and promotioncampaigns.AlthoughtheMasterPlansvaryfromonecountryto 510 1.8 billionayearforprovincestospendontransportprojects,including Due tospacelimitations,wecanonlyprovideafew detailstodescribethe The EUhasbeenplayingamodestbutincreasingroleinpromotingcycling Federal governmentsusuallybearthecostofbicyclingfacilitiesbuiltalong € J. PucherandR.Buehler € 1.1 billiontodoublingtheextentofbikewaysalongfederalhighways 2 billionayearinrevenuesfromthemotorfueltaxareearmarkedfor € 25 millionperyearspecificallyforbike € 100 millionperyearforfurther € 60 millionperyearto € 2 milliona Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 of Odense,2007). Netherlands (181 000)(CityofMuenster, 2004;DutchBicyclingCouncil, 2006;City km inOdense,Denmark(185 000inhabitants),andover420kminGroningen,the km ofbikepathsandlanes inMuenster,Germany(278000inhabitants),over500 smaller cities,however,have extensivecyclingfacilities.Forexample,thereare320 and lanes(CityofAmsterdam, 2003a;CityofCopenhagen,2004).Evenmuch (504 000inhabitants)each have roughly400kmofcompletelyseparatebikepaths on streets(CityofBerlin,2007).Amsterdam(735000inhabitants) andCopenhagen 100 kmofmixed-usepedestrian-bikepathsand70 ofcombinedbus-bikelanes separate bikepaths,60kmoflanesonstreets,50 ofbikelanesonsidewalks, improve safety. now appearstobeonimprovingthespecificdesign ofcyclepathsandlanesto continued expansion,albeitatamuchslowerratethan previously.Themainfocus period sincethemid-1990sarenotavailable,butdata forindividualcitiessuggest Netherlands, 1999;PucherandDijkstra,2000).National, aggregatestatisticsforthe network doubledinlength,from9282km1978to 18948kmin1996(Statistics (German FederalMinistryofTransport,1998).Inthe Netherlands,thebikeway network morethandoubledinlength,from12911km1976to312361996 and lanesexpandedgreatlyinallthethreecountries.InGermany,bikeway Especially fromthemid-1970stomid-1990s,separatefacilitiessuchasbikepaths Bike PathsandLanes women, youngandold.Raisedkerbsseparatethebikepathfromcarlaneononeside Figure 13. In 2004,forexample,Berlin(3.4millioninhabitants) had 860kmofcompletely Separate cyclingfacilitiesinOdensearesosafeandconvenientthattheyattractmen Source: TroelsAndersen,CityofOdense footpath ontheotherside. Making CyclingIrresistible 511 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 Denmark andGermany Source • • • Traffic laws • • • Traffic educationandtraining • • • • Coordination withpublictransport • • Bike parking • • • Traffic calming • • • • • • Intersection modificationsandprioritytrafficsignals • • • Extensive systemsofseparatecyclingfacilities 512 the 1970s,but alsotheirdesign,quality andmaintenancehave continually lanes oronlightlytravelled, traffic-calmedresidentialstreets. permit cycliststocoveralmost anytripeitheroncompletelyseparatepathsand a widerangeoffacilitiesis acomplete,integratedsystemofbicyclingroutesthat to takethemostdirectpossible routefromorigintodestination.Theresultofsuch connections forcyclistsbetween streetsandtraversingcityblockstoenablethem Not onlyhas thenetworkofseparatecycling facilitiesgreatlyexpanded since The bicyclingnetworksinallthesecitiesincludenumerous off-streetshort-cut Strict enforcementofcyclistrightsbypoliceandcourts Motorists assumedbylawtoberesponsibleforalmostallcrashes with cyclists Special legalprotectionforchildrenandelderlycyclists Stringent trainingofmotoriststorespectpedestriansandcyclists avoidhittingthem Special cyclingtrainingtesttracksforchildren Comprehensive cyclingtrainingcoursesforvirtuallyallschoolchildrenwithtestbytraffic Deluxe bikeparkinggaragesatsometrainstations,withvideo-surveillance,speciallighting, Bike rentalsatmosttrainstations ‘Call aBike’programmes:bikescanberentedbycellphoneattransitstops,paidfortheminute Extensive bikeparkingatallmetro,suburbanandregionaltrainstations Improved lightingandsecurityofbikeparkingfacilitiesoftenfeaturingguards,video-surveillance Large supplyofgoodbikeparkingthroughoutthecity ‘Home Zones’with7km/hrspeedlimit,wherecarsmustyieldtopedestriansandcyclistsusing Bicycle streets,narrowroadswherebikeshaveabsolutepriorityovercars Traffic calmingofallresidentialneighbourhoodsviaspeedlimit(30km/hr)andphysical Bollards withflashinglightsalongbikeroutessignalcycliststherightspeedtoreachnext Traffic signalsaresynchronizedatcyclistspeedsassuringconsecutivegreenlightsforcyclists Bike pathsturnintobrightlycolouredbikelaneswhencrossingintersections Cyclist short-cutstomakeright-handturnsbeforeintersectionsandexemptionfromredtraffic Advanced cyclistwaitingpositions(aheadofcars)fedbyspecialbikelanesfacilitatesaferand Advance greenlightsforcyclistsatmostintersections Off-street short-cuts,suchasmid-blockconnectionsandpassagesthroughdead-endsforcars Fully coordinatedsystemofcolour-codeddirectionalsignsforbicyclists Well-maintained, fullyintegratedpaths,lanesandspecialbicyclestreetsincitiessurrounding police music, repairservicesandbikerentals and leftatanybusyintersectioninthecity and priorityparkingforwomen the road infrastructure deterrentsforcars intersection atagreenlight (green wave) signals atT-intersections,thusincreasingcyclistspeedandsafety quicker crossingsandturns regions T able 1. : Informationprovideddirectlytoauthorsbybicyclingcoordinators intheNetherlands, J. PucherandR.Buehler

Key policiesandinnovativemeasures usedinDutch,Danishand German citiestopromote safeandconvenientcycling

Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 a broadspectrumofthepopulation(Garrard not sufficientbuttheyarecertainlynecessarytoensurethatcyclingispossiblefor women aswellmen,andforalllevelsofcyclingability.Separatefacilitiesare designed tofeelsafe,comfortableandconvenientforbothyoungold, Dutch, DanishandGermanpoliciestomakecyclingsafeattractive.Theyare even possiblewhileenroute,usingtheLCDdisplayofamobilephone. speed, bikeparkingandpublictransportconnections.Thisrouteplanningis optimal routeonamapandprovidesallrelevantinformationabouttime,average etc. (Andersen,2005;CityofBerlin,2007).TheInternetprogrammeshowsthe as speed,on-streetoroff-streetfacility,avoidingintersectionsandheavytraffic, enter theiroriginanddestinationaswellarangeofpersonalpreferences,such route thatbestservestheirneeds.InBerlinandOdense,forexample,cyclistscan recently introducedInternetbikerouteplanningtoassistcyclistsinchoosingthe Germany providedetailedmapsoftheircyclingfacilities.Somecitieshave (City ofCopenhagen,2002;Andersen,2005;CityMuenster,2007). often extendstoentireregions,statesandevencountriesforlong-distanceroutes coded tocorresponddifferenttypesofbikeroutes.Thatsystemsignage have establishedafullyintegratedsystemofdirectionalsignsforcyclists,colour- passing year.Inaddition,manycitiesintheNetherlands,DenmarkandGermany improved toensuresafer,moreconvenientandattractivecyclingwitheach Figure 14. calmed, thusmaking themidealforcycling,even without anyspecialfacilitiessuch aslanesorpaths. cyclists andpedestrianspriorityover motorists.MostresidentialstreetsinGermancitiesaretraffic The provisionofseparatecyclingfacilitiesisundoubtedlythecornerstone All largecitiesandmostmedium-sizedintheNetherlands,Denmark This traffic-calmedstreetinFreiburg, Germanyrestrictscarspeedsto30km/hrandgives Source: JohnPucher et al ., 2008). Making CyclingIrresistible 513 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 home, traffic calming ofneighbourhood streetsiscrucialtoenabling biketripsto than streetsfilled withfast-movingmotor vehicles.Sincemostbike tripsstartat and Germancities.Mostimportantly, theyoffermuchsafer,lessstressfulcycling bicycle streetsallgreatlyenhance theoverallbicyclingnetworkinDutch,Danish Muenster, 2007). city has planstoaddanother10bicyclingstreets inthecomingyears(Cityof already 12bicyclingstreetsin2007,andtheyhave beensosuccessfulthatthe consideration toavoidendangeringthem.InMuenster, forexample,therewere they arelimitedto30km/hr(orless)andmustyield tocyclistsandgivespecial means obstructingcars.Carsareusuallypermittedto usethestreetsaswell,but bicycling streets,however,cyclistscanrideanywhere theywant,evenifthat parked cars)aspossible,sonottointerferewith motorvehicletraffic.On normal streets,cyclistsareusuallyexpectedtokeep as fartothekerb(orlaneof cyclists aregivenabsolutetrafficpriorityovertheentire widthofthestreet.On increasingly adoptedinDutchandGermancities.These arenarrowstreetswhere cause indensecitycentres. instead, thusmitigatingthecongestion,pollutionandsafetyproblemstheywould centre togettheotherside.Carsareforcedtakevariouscircumferentialroutes city centresmakesitvirtuallyimpossibleinsomecitiesforcarstotraversethe The combinationoftrafficcalmingresidentialstreetsandprohibitioncarsin cycling facilitiessuchasbikelanesandparking(DutchBicyclingCouncil,2006). of Muenster,2004).InsomeDutchcities,thesecar-freezonesspecificallyinclude during off-peakhours(CityofCopenhagen,2002;CityAmsterdam,2003b; in theircentres,mainlyintendedforpedestrianusebutgenerallypermittingcycling street toanother. arterial roadsdesignedtohandleitandnotsimplyshiftedfromoneresidential wide andnotforisolatedstreets.Thatensuresthatthru-trafficgetsdisplacedto motorized users. streets asmotorvehicles;indeed,vehiclesarerequiredtoyieldnon- trians, cyclistsandplayingchildrenhaveasmuchrighttousesuchresidential imposes evenmorerestrictions,requiringcarstotravelatwalkingspeed.Pedes- (Boehme, 2005;CityofBerlin,2007;Groningen,Odense,2007). one-way travelforcars.Thatfurtherenhancestheflexibilityofbike both directionsonallsuchtraffic-calmedstreets,evenwhentheyarerestrictedto ends createdbymid-blockstreetclosures.Cyclingisalmostalwaysallowedin traffic circles,extracurvesandzigzagroutes,speedhumpsartificialdead- streets themselves,suchasroadnarrowing,raisedintersectionsandcrosswalks, cities—especially intheNetherlands—introducedconsiderablealterationsto to 30km/hr(19mph)andoftenprohibitinganythroughtraffic.Inaddition,many calmed moststreetsinresidentialneighbourhoods,reducingthelegalspeedlimit overall cyclingroutenetwork.Thus,Dutch,DanishandGermancitieshavetraffic- lightly travelledresidentialstreets,buttheyconstituteanimportantpartofthe It isneitherpossiblenornecessarytoprovideseparatebikepathsandlaneson Traffic Calming 514 Traffic calmedresidential neighbourhoods,car-freecitycentres,andspecial Another kindoftrafficcalmingistheso-called‘bicycle street’,whichhasbeen Related totrafficcalming,almosteverycityhascreatedextensivecar-freezones In theNetherlands,DenmarkandGermany,trafficcalmingisusuallyarea- The mostadvancedformoftrafficcalming—the‘woonerf’or‘HomeZone’— J. PucherandR.Buehler Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 to city,butthey generallyincludemany ofthefollowing: extent andspecific designofintersection modificationsvary,ofcourse, fromcity Copenhagen, 2002;Cityof Berlin,2003;DutchBicyclingCouncil,2006).The perfecting thedesignsofintersections tofacilitatesafecyclistcrossings(City of tions. Thus,Dutch,Danish andGermanplannershaveworkedcontinuously on between intersections,they canposesafetyproblemswhencrossingintersec- While bikepathsandlanes helpprotectcyclistsfromexposuretotrafficdangers Intersection Modifications for London,2003;Morrison speeds onsecondaryroads(Herrstedt,1992;Webster andMackie,1996;Transport that trafficcalmingenhancesbothpedestrianand cyclistsafetybyreducing safety insomecircumstances.Overall,however,the evidenceisoverwhelming measure (perhapsroundaboutsorspeedhumps) might detractfromcycling calming. Itisconceivablethatoneoranotherspecific kindoftrafficcalming levels ofwalkingandcycling.Thereare,course,many differentkindsoftraffic injuries alsofallsharply.Moreover,moststudiesreport largeincreasesinoverall traffic safety.Thebenefitstendtobegreatestforpedestrians,butseriouscyclist lanes thatservetherestoftrip. start offinasafe,pleasantenvironmentonthewaytoseparatebikepathsand Figure 15. are restrictedtoonedirection.Theroadwayhasbeendeliberatelynarrowedthroughtheprovisionof The availableempiricalevidenceshowsthattrafficcalmingimprovesoverall bike parking.Ineffect,thesemodificationshaveturneditintoabicyclingstreet,wherecyclists This contra-flowlaneinCopenhagenenablescycliststoridebothdirections,whilecars et al ., 2004). outnumber motorists. Source: JenniferDill Making CyclingIrresistible 515 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 516 private developers andbuildingowners arerequiredbylocal ordinancesto themselves directly providealargenumber ofbikeparkingfacilities. Moreover, Danish andGermancities. Localgovernmentsandpublictransportsystems Extensive bikeparkingof varioussortsisavailablethroughoutmostDutch, Bike Parking German plannershavedoneasuperbjobofminimizing thesedangers. avoid allconflictsbetweenmotorvehiclesandcyclists, butDutch,Danishand ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Figure 16. path pulsateinawave-likeforwardmotionguidingcycliststothenextgreentrafficsignalat20km/ Given theverynatureofroadwayintersections,it is virtuallyimpossibleto they approachintersectionstohelpavoidcollisionswith right-turningcars. realigning bikepathwaysabitfurtherawayfromtheir parallelstreetswhen of carsandthusforcethemtoslowdownwhenturning right;and insertion oftrafficislandsandbollardsinroadway to sharpenturningradius generally assuming14–22km/hrbikespeed,depending ontypeofroute; timing trafficlightstoprovidea‘greenwave’forcyclists insteadofforcars, special cyclist-activatedtrafficlights; highly visible,distinctivelycolouredbikelanecrossingsatintersections; turn restrictionsforcars,whileallturnsallowedcyclists; cyclists atintersectionswithheavycyclingvolumes; advance greentrafficsignalsforcyclists,andextrasignalphases cyclists, faraheadofwaitingcars; special bikelanesleadinguptotheintersection,withadvancestoplinesfor hr. Ifcyclistskeeppacewiththegreenwave,theygettrafficsignalsatallintersections. J. PucherandR.Buehler Green waveforcyclistsinOdense,Denmark.Brightgreenlightsonthebollardsalong Source: TroelsAndersen,CityofOdense Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 has 15guarded bikeparkingfacilities in itsdowntownshopping area(Cityof that areguarded topreventbiketheft(Dutch BicyclingCouncil,2006). Amsterdam Groningen offers36majorbike parkingfacilitiesinitstowncentre,includingseven as wellastate-of-the-art automatic,secureparkingstation(Andersen,2005). for example,recentlyadded 400shelteredbikeracksnearitsmainshoppingarea Berlin, 2007). regional rail),with7000additionalbikeparkingspots plannedby2010(Cityof parking spotsattrainstationsin2005(including metro,suburbanrailand bike parkingofsomesort.IntheBerlinregion,there were24600bike-and-ride train stationthroughoutDutch,DanishandGerman metropolitanareasoffers 2000; CityofGroningen,2007;Odense,2007). Moreover,virtuallyevery high-capacity bikeparkingfacilitiesattheirmain train stations(Langenberg, train platforms(Boehme,2005).Amsterdam,Groningen andOdenseoffersimilar, repairs, washing,andcyclingtouringservices.Thestation hasdirectaccesstoall 1999) thatofferssecure,indoorparkingfor3300bikes aswellbicyclesales, main trainstation,forexample,thereisamodern,attractive ‘bikestation’(builtin of-the-art parkingfacilitiesattrainstations.Immediately adjacenttoMuenster’s visible andmostinnovativeaspectofbikeparkingpolicyistheprovisionstate- their buildings(CityofBerlin,2005;DutchBicyclingCouncil,2006). provide specifiedminimumlevelsofbikeparkingbothwithinandadjacentto down. Cyclistsgetanadvancegreenlightviathetwosetsoftrafficsignalsshownonposttofar Figure 17. crossing givesmotoristsandcyclistsmoretimetoseeeachotherthusavoidcollisions.Thetraffic island withtwobollardsforcesasharpturningradiusforright-turningcars,forcingthemtoslow Many citycentresalsooffer specialbikeparkingfacilities.TheCityofOdense, Aside fromthelargenumberofbikeracksthroughoutthesecities,most when crossingtheintersection.Theincreaseddistancebetweenmainroadandbikepath This bikepathinAmsterdamswervestotherightseveralmetersincreasecyclistsafety right, furtherincreasingtheirspeedandsafety. Source: LewisDijkstra Making CyclingIrresistible 517 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 transport. Public transportcompaniesand cityplannersinnorthern Europehave Most Dutch, Danish andGermancities haveintegratedcycling withpublic Integration withPublicTransport those arenotinracks(City ofMuenster,2004). over 10000bikesparkedin thenearbysidewalks,plazasandalleys,most of superb bikeparkingfacilityatthemaintrainstation, forexample,therearestill in theUSA,thereneverseemstobeenoughbikeparking. InspiteofMuenster’s deal withtheclutterofrandomlyparkedbikes.Somewhat similartocarparking parking isbeingexpandednotonlyforgreatercyclist conveniencebutalsoto walks andisconsideredbysometobeavisualeyesore. Thus,thesupplyofbike since biketheftisamajorproblem. in Dutch,DanishandGermancitiesistoincreasethe securityofbikeparking, to cyclists,justascardriversneedparkingfortheircars. Thecurrentpolicyfocus cycling forshoppingandentertainmenttrips(Cityof Copenhagen,2007). of Copenhageninstalled3300bikeparkingspacesinthetowncentretofacilitate 290 bikesadjacenttoitsmainshoppingdistrict(CityofMuenster,2007).TheCity Amsterdam, 2007).In2007,Muensteraddedasecured,indoorparkingfacilityfor 518 Germany. Thebikerampconnectsthestreetleveltoparkinglevel,fromwhichthereisdirect Figure 18. The randomparkingofbikesinpublicspacescanobstruct pedestriansonside- Clearly, theprovisionofconvenient,secure,sheltered bikeparkingisessential access forcycliststoalltrainplatforms.Allbusstopsareatgroundleveljusttheleftof J. PucherandR.Buehler Deluxe parkingfor3,300bikesatthemaintrainstationandbusterminalinMuenster, Source: the bikestation. PeterBerkeley Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 children areincluded, itmeansthatgirls aswellboysstartcycling atanearlyage. 2002). Butitalso getskidsofftoalifetime ofsafecyclingskills.And since allschool- considered essentialtoensure theirsafety(GermanFederalMinistryofTransport, pass thetest.Sincemanychildren gettoschoolbybike,traininginsafecycling is dren, whoreceiveofficialcertificates, pennantsandstickersfortheirbikesifthey on regularcyclingfacilities throughoutthecity.Realpoliceofficerstestchil- and ‘ontheroad’lessons,first onacyclingtrainingtrackjustforchildrenandthen complete suchacoursebythefourthgrade.Itincludes bothclassroominstruction cycling techniquesaspartoftheirregularschool curriculum.Mostchildren Dutch, DanishandGermanchildrenreceiveextensive traininginsafeandeffective Training andEducation membership card(OV-Fiets,2007). account linkedtoaseasonticketforpublictransport oraspecialOV-Fiets easy discountbikerentals,operatedbyOV-Fiets.Payment ismadeviaaspecial Netherlands. In2007,overahundredDutchrailway stationsprovidedquickand Frankfurt andMunich,withatotalofover10000suchrentalbikes. is offeredbyGermanRailwaysinothermajorcitiessuchasHamburg,Cologne, city insteadofbeingreturnedtothepointorigin.Thesame‘CallaBike’service Railways, 2007).Thebikecanbeleftatmanydifferentlocationsthroughoutthe of bikeuse),andthenreceivestheaccesscodeusedtounlock(German up the‘CallaBike’number,providescreditcardinformation(chargedperminute one ofmorethan3000GermanRailbikesplacedalloverthecity.Onesimplycalls cially innovative.Itpermitsanyonewithamobilephoneandcreditcardtorent stations aswell.TheGermanRailways’‘CallaBike’programmeinBerlinisespe- ally everymajorDutch,DanishandGermantrainstationmanysuburban at railstations,buttheyhelpoffsetthelackofbikeracksonbuses. facilities atbusstopsarenotnearlyasextensive,secureandcomfortablethose nals, busrouteinterchangesandevensomesuburbanstops.Bike-and-ride northern Europeanapproachistoprovidebikeparkingfacilitiesatmajorbustermi- American transitsystemsdoabetterjobofcoordinatingcyclingwithtransit.The Public TransportationAssociation,2007).Itappearstobetheoneareawhere 50 000urbantransitbusesin2007hadbikerackstofacilitateandride(American racks (CityofAmsterdam,2007).ThatcontrastsstarklywiththeUSA,whereover taken onboardregularcitybuses,andmostbusesdonotcomeequippedwithbike nient thankeepingbikesatparkingfacilitiesbothendsofthetrip. vehicles duringrushhours,andevenifpermitted,itcansometimesbelessconve- suburban trains,metrosandtrams.Moreover,manysystemsprohibitbikeson 2004). Mostrailsystemschargeanadditionalfeeforcycliststotaketheirbikeson with anotherbiketheyhaveparkedatthemaintrainstation(CityofMuenster, it there,andthentakethetraintocitycentre,wheretheycontinuetheirtrip many suburbanresidentsuseabiketoreachthenearestrailstation,park (North-Rhine WestphaliaMinistryofTransport,2004).IncitiessuchasMuenster, stations inthecitycentreaswellatoutlyingalongrailnetwork service forpublictransport.Thus,copiousbikeparkingisprovidedattrain increasingly recognizedthekeyrolethatbicyclingplaysasafeederanddistributor There isanevenmoreextensivepublictransport bikeprogrammeinthe Another formofbike-transitintegrationistheprovisionbikerentalsatvirtu- Most Dutch,DanishandGermancitieswesurveyeddonotpermitbikestobe Making CyclingIrresistible 519 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 Several different categoriesofsuchcomplementary policiesarelisted inTable3. nient. Many other importantgovernment policiesencouragecycling indirectly. Most oftheabovepoliciesrefer tomeasuresthatmakecyclingsaferandmoreconve- Complementary Taxation, ParkingandLand-UsePolicies as notedearlier. more onsafercyclingthancycling,although thetwoaredirectlyrelated, than intheNetherlands,wherecyclinglevelsarealready sohighthatthefocusis conveys thesortsofpromotionalmeasuresundertaken. were manyothercreativeandinterestingprogrammes aswell,butTable2 Copenhagen andOdense(Denmark),Berlin Muenster(Germany).There six citieswespecificallysurveyed:Amsterdamand Groningen(Netherlands), groups. Table2includesapartiallistingoftypicalpromotional measuresusedby have variousprogrammestostimulateinterestandenthusiasm forcyclingbyall approach topromotingcycling,virtuallyallDutch, DanishandGermancities Although theprovisionofsafeandconvenientcycling facilitiesisthekey Promotional Events by motoristsandsafercyclingcyclists. the strictenforcementoftrafficlawssurelycontributestosaferdrivingbehaviour combination withcomprehensiveandrigoroustrainingofmotoristscyclists, disobeying trafficlawsarealsomorelikelytobeticketedthanintheUSA.In Netherlands, DenmarkandGermanythanintheUSA.Moreover,cyclists motor vehiclesarefarmorestrictlyenforcedbythepoliceandcourtsin especially childrenandelderlycyclists. Having therightofwaybylawdoesnotexcusemotoristsfromhittingcyclists, with cyclistsunlessitcanbeproventhatthecyclistdeliberatelycausedcrash. over, motoristsaregenerallyassumedtobelegallyresponsibleformostcollisions potentially dangeroussituationsandpro-activelyavoidhittingcyclists.More- Thus, theygenerallyrequirethemotoristtomakespecialeffortsanticipate cyclists vis-à-vismotorvehicles(GermanFederalMinistryofTransport,2006). and Germanygivespecialconsiderationtotheespeciallyvulnerablesituationof As suggestedbytheprevioussection,trafficlawsinNetherlands,Denmark Traffic Laws endangering cyclistsandpedestrians. ists onthedefensiveandforcesthemtodrivewithspecialattentionavoiding Ministry ofTransport,2006).Theprioritylegalstatusnon-motoristsputsmotor- traffic regulations(GermanFederalMinistryofTransport,2002;Netherlands in thewrongdirection,ignoringtrafficsignals,orotherwisebehavingcontraryto for collisionswithchildrenandelderlycyclists,eveniftheyarejaywalking,cycling thorough, andmoreexpensivethanintheUSA.Motoristsarelegallyresponsible training intheNetherlands,DenmarkandGermanyisfarmoreextensive, cyclists ontheroadwayandtoavoidendangeringthem.Ingeneral,motorist 520 Promotional activitiestendtobemoreextensivein DenmarkandGermany For themostpart,trafficlawsintendedtoprotectcyclistsandpedestriansfrom Another crucialelementincyclistsafetyistrainingmotoriststobeawareof J. PucherandR.Buehler Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 Denmark andGermany Source • • Public participationinbikeplanning • • • • • • Public awarenesscampaigns • • • Bike tripplanning • • • • • • Access tobikes and usetwoto threetimeshigherinEurope. Thathighercostdiscourages caruse Board, 2001;European Union,2006).That resultsinoverallcostsof carownership in EuropethantheUSA (Pucher,1995;Nivola,1999;TransportationResearch fees, licensedrivertraining feesandparkingaregenerallymuchhigher compared tocycling(Rietveld andDaniel,2004). and parkingreducetherelative speed,convenienceandflexibilityofcartravel in thecitycentre(DutchBicyclingCouncil,2006).The manyrestrictionsoncaruse Danish andGermancitiesoverthepastfewdecadesin ordertodiscouragecaruse roadway andparkingsupplyhavebeendeliberately reducedinmanyDutch, (Newman andKenworthy,1999;TransportationResearch Board,2001).Indeed, of roadcapacityandparkingfacilitiesisfarlessgenerous thaninAmericancities cases prohibitcarusealtogether,suchasincar-freezones. Similarly,theprovision tions oncaruse,includinglimitsspeeds,turns,direction oftravel,andinsome Moreover, salestaxesonpetrol andnewcarpurchases,importtariffs,registration For example,manyDutch,DanishandGermancities imposearangeofrestric- Bike councilsthatprovideaplatformforopinionexchangeamongstakeholdersfrombusinesses, Regular surveysofcycliststoassesstheirsatisfactionwithcyclingfacilitiesandprogrammes Special guidedbiketoursforseniors Wide rangeofcyclingcompetitionsfordifferentagesandskilllevels Annual bicyclingfestivalsandcar-freedaysthatpromotetheenvironmentaladvantagesof Cycling ambassadorprogrammesthatsendwell-trainedcycliststoresidentialneighbourhoods Special funprogrammesforyoungchildren,suchasthe‘CyclingDuckie’inOdense,which Focus onhealthbenefitsofcycling,suchasthe‘GetRidSack’programmeinOdense Comprehensive bikemapsformostcitiesaswellregionsandstates Flexible Internetbiketripplanningtoolallowsfindingthemostcomfortableorquickestrouteby Bicycling websiteswithextensiveinformationforcyclistsonbicyclingroutes,activities,special ‘Park andBike’:discountbikerentalsformotoristswhoparktheircarstherestof Convenient airpumpsforbikesincitycentre Tax breakstopurchaseabikeintheNetherlands Company bikesloanedforfreetoemployeeswhocanusethemduringthedayshortbusiness Easy, convenientandinexpensivebikerentalsattrainstationsthroughoutthecity,suchas Free useofdistinctive,simpleCityBikesparkedthroughoutthecity,asinCopenhagen advocacy groups,suchasthe‘Fahrrat’inBerlin the bikeindustry,cityadministration,researchinstitutes,universities,expertsandcitizen to gatherspecificsuggestionsforimprovement information forbikeenthusiasts bicycling, displaythelatestbikemodelsandaccessories,disseminatevariousotherrelevant information serve asrolemodelsofsafecyclingandhelpwithpromotion,distributingnewsletters distributes candy,balloons,freebikeaccessoriesandothergiftstochildrenlearningcycle targeted atoverweightmiddle-agedmenwithpot-bellieswhoneedmoreexercise bike tailoredtothespecificpreferencesandneedsofeachperson programmes, healthbenefitsofcycling,bikesandbikeaccessories,etc. journey trips ‘OV-Fiets’ and‘CallaBike’programmesintheNetherlandsGermany,respectively T : Informationprovideddirectlytoauthorsbybicyclingcoordinators intheNetherlands, able 2.

Cycling promotion intheNetherlands,DenmarkandGermany

Making CyclingIrresistible 521 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 522 those intheUSA. services. The resultingtripdistancesare shorterandthusmore bikeablethan residential areastocommercial establishments,schools,churchesandarange of developments havealong historyinEurope.Theyfacilitatetheproximity of Schmidt andBuehler,2007). Moreover,mixed-usezoningandtransit-oriented ates (Nivola,1999;Alterman, 2001;TransportationResearchBoard, controls onlow-densitysprawl andthelong-tripdistancesthatusuallygener- cities aregenerallymuchstricterthanintheUSAand providemoregovernment cycling, whichissurelyoneofthecheapesttransport modes. to someextentandthuspromotesalternativeways of gettingaround,including Buehler (2007) (2005); DutchBicyclingCouncil(2006);NetherlandsMinistry of Transport(2006);Schmidtand (2001); PucherandDijkstra(2003);EuropeanConferenceoftheMinisters ofTransport(2004);Banister Sources • • • • • • Strict landuseplanningpolicies • • • • Taxation ofautomobileownershipanduse • • • • • • Road andparkingcapacitylimitations • • • • • • • • Automobile speedlimitationsincities Finally, land-useandurban-designpoliciesinDutch, DanishandGerman Less strictseparationoflandusesthanintheUSA,thusenablingnaturaldevelopmentmixed- Mixed-use zoningkeepstripdistancesshortandfeasiblebybicycleonfoot Many localgovernmentsspecificallyrequirecyclingandwalkingfacilitiesfornewsuburban Transport andland-useplanningareintegratedatseverallevelsofgovernment,withregional Most newdevelopmentoccursadjacenttoalreadybuilt-upareas,whichkeepsoverallpopulation Most landbeyondalreadybuilt-upareasisoff-limitsfornewdevelopment High feesandstricttrainingrequirementsforobtainingadriver’slicence(over High hourlyparkingratesincitycentre,evenmedium-sizecities Especially highexciseandsalestaxesonpetrol High taxesandfeesoncarpurchase,ownershipuse Special bicyclestreetsthatsharplylimitcarspeedsandgivecyclistspriorityinroadwayuseover Deliberately narrowedroadsincitycentresforcecarstodriveslowly Combined bus-bikelanesthatpermitbikeusebutprohibitcar Replacing carparkingfacilitieswithbikeinstead Parking managementschemeslimiteasycaraccesstourbanneighbourhoods,oftenwithresident- Limited numberofcarparkingplacesincitycentres Advance stoplinesandtrafficsignalpriorityforcyclists Frequent randomspeedlimitenforcementchecksbythepolice Strictly enforcedspeedlimitsandtrafficrulesincities(suchaspolicecamerasatintersections) Almost nolimitedaccesshighways(motorways)incitycentres Turn restrictionsforcarsbutnotcyclists Car-free zones,one-waystreetsandartificialdead-endsmakecartravelthroughthecitycentre ‘Home Zones’inmanyneighbourhoodsgivecyclistsandpedestriansequalrightstoroaduse Traffic calmingofresidentialneighbourhoodslimitscarstospeeds30km/hrorless use neighbourhoods developments, thusreducingtheneedforcaruse coordination thatfosterscooperationbetweenadjacentcommunities densities highcomparedtotheUSA the entirewidthofroad only parkingorstricttimelimits slow andinconvenient limit carsto T J. PucherandR.Buehler able 3. : Pucher(1995);Nivola(1999);BratzelAlterman(2001);Transportation ResearchBoard walking speed T axation, parkingandland-usepoliciesthatencouragecycling (about7km/hr)

indirectly € 1500 inGermany) Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 largest U.S.cities (ThunderheadAlliance, 2007).Bikeparkingatrail stationshas lanes, 3483km ofmulti-usebike-pedpaths and36195bikeparking racksinthe50 expansion planned.Generous federalfundinghashelpedfinance6165kmofbike been considerableexpansion ofsuchmeasuresinrecentyears,withevenmore lesser extent,inmanyAmerican cities(Pucher a countryliketheUSA?Some ofthesamepoliciesarealreadyused,buttoamuch enthusiasm andwidepublicsupportforcycling. and motorists,awiderangeofpromotionalevents intendedtogenerate public transport,comprehensivetrafficeducationand trainingofbothcyclists excellent cyclingrightsofwaywithextensivebike parking,integrationwith Danish andGermancitiesreinforcethesafety,convenience andattractivenessof lakes orinruralareas. the USA,wheremostseparatecyclingfacilitiesarealong urbanparks,riversand work, schoolandshoppingtrips,asopposedtothemainly recreationalcyclingin connect practical,utilitarianoriginsanddestinations alsopromotescyclingfor special needsduetoanysortofdisability.Providing suchseparatefacilitiesto are especiallyimportantforchildren,theelderly,womenandanyonewith ing ofresidentialneighbourhoods.Safeandrelativelystress-freecyclingroutes heavily travelledroadsandatintersections,combinedwithextensivetrafficcalm- Danish andGermancitiesistheprovisionofseparatecyclingfacilitiesalong The mostimportantapproachtomakingcyclingsafeandconvenientinDutch, Conclusions: PoliciestoMakeCyclingIrresistible facilities. car usebutalsobythesimultaneousprovisionofexpandedandimprovedcycling London, 2007a,b).CyclinginLondonhasgrownnotonlyduetotherestrictionof since 2003,whichhashelpedincreasecyclinglevelsby30%(Transportfor slightly morethan1%oftrips(1.3%)intheUKweremadebybike2005. most Britishcities,theseunfavourableconditionsmighthelpexplainwhyonly cycling. Combinedwiththelesserextentandinferiorqualityofcyclingfacilitiesin British cities(Banister,2005).Clearly,noneoftheabovefactorsisconduciveto sprawl, oftenstrewnalongtheextensivemotorwaysystemsurroundingmany nation betweenland-useandtransporthasresultedinmorelow-densitysuburban tend tobelessstrictthanintherestofnorthernEurope.Thelackgoodcoordi- cial incentivestobuycarsanddrivethemwork.Moreover,land-usecontrols less widespread,speedlimitsaregenerallyhigher,andmanyfirmsprovidefinan- are lesscommonintheUK,trafficcalmingofresidentialneighbourhoodsisfar than istypicaloftheNetherlands,DenmarkandGermany.Car-freecitycentres British metropolitanareashaveagreatersupplyofmotorwaysandcarparking 2007 withawiderangeoftransportspecialiststhroughouttheUKsuggestthat 2003; Banister,2005;Banister Netherlands, DenmarkandGermany(Goodwin,1999;McClintock,2002;Tolley, dramatically morefavourablepre-conditionsforcyclingthanintheUSA. are notspecificallyintendedtopromotecycling.Nevertheless,theyprovide Would suchpro-cyclingpolicies asthoselistedinTables1and2bepossible As notedinthisarticle,separatefacilitiesareonlypart ofthesolution.Dutch, One interestingexceptionintheUKiscongestionpricingschemeLondon The situationintheUKappearstobefarlessfavourablecyclingthan For themostpart,thesecomplementarytaxation,parkingandland-usepolicies et al ., 2007).Interviewsconductedbytheauthorsin et al Making CyclingIrresistible ., 1999).Moreover,therehas 523 Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 approaches that wouldencouragecycling. be onlyverylimited potentialforimplementation intheUSAofthese crucial‘stick’ cars throughcitycentresand residentialneighbourhoods.Thus,thereappears to larly, thereislittlesupport forrestrictionsoncarparking,speedsandpassage of discourage politiciansfrom evenconsideringincreasedtaxationoncaruse.Simi- vigorously opposeevenslight increasesinthepetroltax,forexample,andthus American cities(Pucher measures norstringentland-usecontrolshaveyetbeen politicallyacceptablein provide importantincentivesandsupportiveconditions forcycling. Promoting cyclingissurelynotthemainpurposeofsuch policies,buttheyclearly compact, mixed-usedevelopmentsthatgeneratemore bikeable,shortertrips. ownership, useandparking.Moreover,strictland-use policiesfosterrelatively much lessconvenientthanintheUSAduetoahostof taxesandrestrictionsoncar Denmark andGermany.Inthosethreecountries,caruse isfarmoreexpensiveand policies listedinTable3thatindirectlyencourage cycling intheNetherlands, in theUSAforadoptingandimplementingsorts ofcar-restrictive‘stick’ oriented countryliketheUSA.Bycomparison,there is almostnopoliticalsupport 2000 and2007(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation,2007b). Manhattan indicatethatcyclinglevelsmorethandoubled(116%increase)between counts conductedbytheCityofNewYorkatawiderangelocationsthroughout levels inbothChicagoandNewYorkhaveincreasedconsiderably.Annualcordon network of2880kmbikelanesandmixed-usegreenwaypathsby2030.Cycling 2007, NewYorkinstalledover3000newbikeracks.Officialcityplanscallfora ten years(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation,2007a).From2001to past tenyearsandplansanadditional900kmofbikepathslanesinthecoming (City ofChicago,2007).NewYorkhasadded392kmbikepathsandlanesinthe bicycling plancallsforfurtherexpansiontocreatean800kmbikewaynetwork 2000 buseswithrackstoencouragebikeandride.Moreover,thelatestofficial wide cyclingnetwork,installed7000racksforbikeparkingandequippedover years Chicagohasaddedover160kmofbikelanesandpaths,establishedacity- megacities whichfordecadeshadbeenextremelyhostiletocycling.Inthepastten some impressiveexamplesofwhatcanbedonetopromotecyclingevenintwo cities canboastofsuchanintegratedrangepoliciestopromotecycling. in thecitycentrewhileimprovingpublictransportservices.VeryfewAmerican to shorter,morebikeabletrips.Portlandhasalsoreducedthesupplyofcarparking frog suburbansprawlandencouragedcompact,mixed-usedevelopmentconducive the country’smostfamousland-useplanningreforms,whichhaverestrictedleap- cycling withbusandrailsystems.Inaddition,bicyclinginPortlandbenefitsfrom vastly expandingitsbikewaynetwork,increasingbikeparkingandintegrating bike tripssince1991.Thatispartlyduetoarangeofpro-bikemeasuressuchas Portland, 2007a,b,c).Portlandhasmorethantripledthetotalannualnumberof Oregon, probablyhasthecountry’smostsuccessfulbicyclingprogramme(Cityof walk orbiketoschool. federally fundedSafeRoutestoSchoolprogrammesdesignedhelpchildren equipped withbikerackstofacilitateandride.Moreover,allstatesnowhave been increasing,andasnotedearlier,over50000busesintheUSAalreadycome 524 With veryfewexceptions,suchasPortland,Oregon, neithercar-restrictive In short,suchpro-bike‘carrot’policiesareindeedpossibleeveninacar- While Portlandhasbeenamodelbicyclingcity,ChicagoandNewYorkprovide With thehighestbikeshareofworktrips(4%)50largestU.S.cities,Portland, J. PucherandR.Buehler et al ., 1999;Banister et al ., 2007).Thepublicandthe media Downloaded By: [Rutgers University] At: 18:04 23 June 2008 References version ofthearticle. anonymous refereesfortheirhelpfulsuggestions on improvingtheoriginal Strang, SteveWeber,JohnWhitelegg,andBertZinn. Theauthorsalsothanktwo Piet Rietveld,HarryRutter,WarrenSalomon,BirgitSchmidt, KristenSteele,Peter Krag, PatrickLingwood,HughMcClintock,Randy Neufeld, WolfgangRichter, Roland Jannermann,NielsJensen,CorvanderKlaauw, JuttaKloas,Thomas Martina Guettler,SusanHandy,PeterHerwig,RiaHilshorst,Jacobsen, Dill, BernhardEnsink,BentFlyvbjerg,PerGarder,JanGarrard,RogerGeller, Budnick, LindaChristensen,AndyClarke,MarieDemers,LewisDijkstra,Jennifer alphabetically: PeterBerkeley,MiaBirk,StefanBoehme,FrankBorgman,Noah experts, departmentoftransportofficialsandpublichealthlistedhere cycling coordinators,cityplanners,transportresearchers,nationalstatistical assistance andadviceinwritingthisarticle.Theyincludenationallocal The authorsaredeeplyindebtedtoahostofcolleaguesaroundtheworldfortheir Acknowledgements ‘carrot’ and‘stick’policiesthatmakecyclingsoirresistible. well asmoreexpensive.Itispreciselythatdouble-barrelledcombinationof overall impactwithhighlyrestrictivepoliciesthatmakecaruselessconvenientas tries implementfarmoreofthepro-bikemeasures,buttheygreatlyreinforcetheir reinforcing setofpoliciessummarizedinTables1,2and3.Notonlydothesecoun- Germany isthecoordinatedimplementationofmulti-faceted,mutually to greatlyexpanditscyclingfacilitiesatthesametime. pricing inNewYorkwouldincreasecyclinglevels,especiallysincethecityplans implementation. 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