FORESTS AND THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO OPPORTUNITY IN A TIME OF CRISIS
DEANNA M. WOLFIRE, JAKE BRUNNER & NIGEL SIZER
With Catherine J. Karr and Daniel Nielsen
A Contribution to the Forest Frontiers Initiative
June 1998
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE CAROL ROSEN Publications Director
HYACINTH BILLINGS Production Manager
Each World Resources Institute report represents a timely, scholarly treatment of a subject of public concern. WRI takes responsibility for choosing the study topics and guaranteeing its authors and researchers freedom of inquiry. It also solicits and responds to the guidance of advisory panels and expert reviewers. Unless otherwise stated, however, all the interpretation and findings set forth in WRI publications are those of the authors.
Copyright © 1998 World Resources Institute. All rights reserved. ISBN 1-56973-232-9 Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 97-81349 Printed in the United States of America on Recycled Paper. CONTENTS
Acknowledgments ...... 4 Foreword ...... 5 Summary ...... 6 Opportunity in a Time of Crisis ...... 7 Threats to the Forest’s Survival ...... 10 Recommendations ...... 19 Conclusion ...... 24 Notes ...... 25
BOXES Box 1: Priorities for Development Assistance ...... 6 Box 2: Lessons from Uganda ...... 20
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 1 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Maurice F. Strong Manuel Arango Jane Lubchenco Jonathan Lash Chairman President Frances G. Beinecke C. Payne Lucas John Firor J. Alan Brewster Vice Chairman Robert O. Blake William F. Martin Senior Vice President Derek Bok Julia Marton-Lefèvre Walter V. Reid Bert Bolin Matthew Nimetz Vice President for Program
Robert N. Burt Paulo Nogueira-Neto Donna W. Wise Vice President for Policy David T. Buzzelli Ronald L. Olson Affairs Deb Callahan Peter H. Raven Kenton R. Miller Michael Deland Florence T. Robinson Vice President and Director of Program in Biological Sylvia A. Earle Roger W. Sant Resources
José María Figueres Stephan Schmidheiny Marjorie Beane Secretary-Treasurer Shinji Fukukawa Bruce Smart William M. Haney, III James Gustave Speth Calestous Juma Meg Taylor Yolanda Kakabadse Mostafa K. Tolba Jonathan Lash Alvaro Umaña Jeffrey T. Leeds Victor L. Urquidi Pieter Winsemius
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 2 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE
he World Resources Institute (WRI) is an independent center for policy research and technical assistance on global environmental and development Tissues. WRI’s mission is to move human society to live in ways that protect Earth’s environment and its capacity to provide for the needs and aspirations of current and future generations.
Because people are inspired by ideas, empowered by knowledge, and moved to change by greater understanding, WRI provides—and helps other institutions provide—objective information and practical proposals for policy and institutional change that will foster environmentally sound, socially equitable development. WRI’s particular concerns are with globally significant environmental problems and their interaction with economic development and social equity at all levels.
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WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 3 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
he authors would like to thank the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) funded by the U.S. Agency for International TDevelopment, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), and the AVINA Foundation for supporting this study. Special thanks also go to the following who reviewed the manuscript and provided valuable input: Ambassador Robert Blake, David Wilkie of Associates in Forest Research and Development, Jim Graham of USAID, Robert Winterbottom and Juan Sève of the International Resource Group, Amy Vedder of the Wildlife Conservation Society, and Jeffrey Gray of Africare as well as to WRI colleagues Paige Brown, Rob Day, Roger-Mark De Souza, Laura Lee Dooley, Marta Miranda, and Walt Reid. And, to our publications staff, Carol Rosen, Carollyne Hutter, Hyacinth Billings, Maggie Powell, and Valerie Schwartz, we are most grateful.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 4 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE FOREWORD
n early 1997, the world DRC harbors half of But there are oppor- More data on DRC’s looked on as the Africa’s, and an eighth of the tunities to lessen the risk forests should be collected IDemocratic Republic of world’s, remaining dense posed by development within and disseminated. Local non- Congo (DRC, formerly Zaire) moist forest. DRC’s forests, and increase governmental organizations underwent an immense As vital as the forests are the likelihood for better- should also help to increase political change. It was, and to the people and government managed forests and better the scope of existing research, continues to be, a tragic war of DRC, if the forest resource living conditions for the such as the forest inventories story of ravaged communities is poorly managed it will pose people. conducted in 1982 and 1989. and devastated people. The great environmental risk and This publication, Forests This publication also makes smoke in DRC is just imperil the country’s long- and the Democratic Republic pointed suggestions to the beginning to clear, and the term economic security. of Congo: Opportunity in a development assistance world continues to watch with Commercial logging, an Time of Crisis, highlights community about how hope for signs of stability and activity known to threaten three promising opportunities support should be channeled justice. Even as DRC forest biodiversity and the for DRC’s development. to meet these objectives. struggles to recover, its regrowth of certain timber First, DRC’s new government Forests and the neighbors in the west and species, is not currently can take advantage of Democratic Republic of north—the Republic of causing excessive opportunities for long-term Congo: Opportunity in a Congo and Central Africa degradation in DRC. But, it conservation and sustainable Time of Crisis is part of the Republic, respectively—were is considered a major threat use of forests. Second, the World Resources Institute’s recently enmeshed in armed as increased numbers of development assistance five-year Forest Frontiers conflict. On DRC’s eastern transnational logging community can play an Initiative—a multi- flank, Rwanda and Burundi companies seek to operate in important role in support of disciplinary effort to promote pick up the pieces from the the Congo Basin. Roads built measures to conserve forests. stewardship in and around the ruinous unrest that left by loggers and miners are Third, the government and world’s last major frontier hundreds of thousands dead, used by commercial hunters the development assistance forests. By working with an enormous population of with high-powered guns and community can collaborate to governments, citizens’ refugees crossing and snares to supply growing get forest policy high on groups, and the private sector recrossing borders, and markets with bushmeat. DRC’s development agenda. in Amazonia, Central Africa, scattered outbreaks of These roads are also traveled This publication juxta- Indonesia, North America, violence. by migrants who carve poses DRC’s opportunities and Russia, the initiative Most people in and agricultural plots along the with possible threats to its seeks to influence investment, around DRC, whether they borders of the forest frontiers. forests. It recommends nine policy, and public opinion. were profoundly or People’s dependence on specific measures that could We sincerely thank the marginally affected by the bushmeat for protein depletes be realistically undertaken by USAID funded Central recent devastation, continue populations of seed- DRC’s new government. African Regional Program for to turn to the dense moist disbursing animals, so that For example, the the Environment (CARPE), forests that engulf this country the regrowth of forests is government should assess the the German Federal Ministry for shelter, food, fuelwood threatened. Reliance on existing logging and mining for Economic Cooperation and other support. The fuelwood for energy creates licenses for irregularities. If and Development (BMZ), government also continues to halos of fragmented forest found to be irregular as a and the AVINA Foundation rely on forest products: around urban areas and result of coercion and for supporting this revenue from commercial mandates ever longer corruption, licenses should be publication. logging helps to fill the excursions to supply a never- revoked. An environmentally national coffers as it did ending demand. sound national infrastructure Jonathan Lash before the war. plan should be developed to President increase the likelihood that World Resources Institute investment in infrastructure will promote sustained economic benefits with minimal environmental effects.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 5 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE SUMMARY
he Democratic The advent of the new The report concludes that By demonstrating that it is Republic of Congo government, and the potential DRC has alternatives to the serious about managing its T(formerly Zaire) houses for foreign aid and private development path it is taking, forests and other resources a wealth of biological investment, represent an and that forests, as a stimulant responsibly, the new diversity within large tracts of opportunity to explore fresh of economic growth, play a government will be better “frontier” forest—relatively policy options and priorities. role. Various institutions also positioned to solicit, undisturbed, original forest Forests and the Democratic have roles. International negotiate, and obtain cover.1 Yet, this country still Republic of Congo: organizations in particular international funding and struggles to recover from five Opportunity in a Time of must assist the government of investment for both resource centuries of ruthless and Crisis was written primarily DRC to implement these conservation and exploitation. bloody colonial exploitation for senior policy-makers in alternatives. International By involving its citizens in followed by three decades of the Democratic Republic of investment is necessary to the design and implementa- corrupt dictatorship under Congo (DRC) and the encourage DRC’s tion of environmental Mobutu Sese Seko, an era so development assistance population—its government policies, DRC can also show extreme that it led to the community. The publication and citizens—to adopt its respect for democratic coining of the term highlights the significance of policies and practices that principles, which will win “kleptocracy.” Against this the forests and the major will lead to development broad international support, backdrop, the country faces emerging threats to them, and without putting its natural including potential access to the enormous challenge to suggests ways to address resources at risk. concessional funding and debt achieve short-term economic these issues. (See Box 1.) forgiveness from the World growth and alleviate poverty Bank and the International while preserving natural Monetary Fund. resources for future generations. This task is especially daunting in a country that focusses development on its primary natural resources: timber, minerals, and hydropower potential.
OPPORTUNITY IN A TIME OF CRISIS
1 PRIORITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE
Strategic priorities for devel- Channel support to Forestier (SPIAF), through Place forest policy higher on opment assistance agencies strengthen the capacities of non- monetary and technical support. the policy agenda and, where include the following steps: governmental organizations Overhaul ineffective appropriate, link it with (NGO). agencies. economic planning. Encourage effective Promote administrative Bolster research and a government agencies, such as rehabilitation at both the national consultative process for the national mapping agency, national and local levels so that land-use planning, including the Service Permanent d’Inven- authority, rights, and collection of remote sensing taire et d’Aménagement responsibilities are matched. data.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 6 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE n May 12, 1997, the ADFL promises to rebuild A WEALTH OF FOREST armed forces of the the country’s destroyed RESOURCES OAlliance of transport infrastructure and Democratic Forces for the social services. To help raise The majority of DRC’s Liberation of Congo (ADFL), “The Democratic the necessary capital, the population depends directly led by Laurent Kabila, government has closed deals Republic of Congo or indirectly on forest entered Zaire’s crumbling with several foreign resources. DRC contains half capital, Kinshasa, and is the country in companies to redevelop the of Africa’s, and one eighth of overthrew ailing President Africa where the lucrative mining sector. DRC the world’s remaining dense Mobutu Sese Seko, who fled holds huge deposits of cobalt, moist forest—the most the country. ADFL took over gap between what’s copper, gold, and diamonds. being produced and biologically rich terrestrial a country in ruins, renaming it There is also vast hydropower ecosystem3—which covers the Democratic Republic of what could be potential. According to one half of the country’s territory. Congo (DRC). produced is the mining company executive, (See Map.) The rate of Thirty-two years of “The Democratic Republic of greatest.” deforestation in DRC—less kleptocratic misrule, fed by Congo is the country in Africa than 1 percent annually—has foreign assistance during the – Mining Company where the gap between Executive been low for three primary Cold War from the United what’s being produced and reasons: the gradual States, Europe, and the World what could be produced is the 2 disintegration of the road Bank, drove the vast majority greatest.” network; agricultural of Zaire’s population into According to the United expansion outside of forest conditions of extreme Nations Human Develop- areas; and political and poverty. Under Mobutu, the ment Index, which combines regulatory disincentives to economy shrank to 1958 life expectancy, adult literacy, invest in the country. As a levels, with a population three and income, DRC is ranked result, 86 percent of Congo’s times larger. 141 out of 174 countries. original forest cover remains. 4 The government strains under (See Table 2.) a US$13.1 billion debt load, including $1.4 billion in loans from the World Bank. (See Table 1.)
But DRC’s forest are not limitless. On a per dense moist forest cover than Republic of Congo 6 or resources, while substantial, capita basis it has much less either the neighboring Gabon. Outside of the
TABLE 1 Key Economic and Social Indicators
Population (million, 1995) 45
Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births) 120
Real GDP growth (%, average annual 1990-94) -8.9
Inflation (%, annual average 1990-95) 3,558
Source: United Nations Department of Public Information. 5
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 7 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE seasonally flooded central Many people depend on This report focusses on Potential short-term basin (the cuvette), where the forests for their basic the choices DRC’s solvency may be less most of DRC’s intact forests livelihoods. Approximately government must make attractive than it appears at are located, pressure to clear 70 percent of DRC’s related to its forests. ADFL first glance. Most of the forest is growing. population—31.5 million out must choose between selling country’s forests are currently Properly managed, of a total population of 45 Congo’s forests for short- inaccessible and of very low DRC’s forests can contribute million in 1995—live outside term economic gain, or commercial value, so the to sustained economic growth of urban centers; many of sustainably managing them opportunity cost involved in over the long term. But this these people use timber and for the use of future conservation and in taking can be achieved only if sound nontimber forest products for generations. Though history time to plan carefully for forestry policies are instituted food, shelter, and artisanal clearly shows that simply development, is small. The soon. ADFL has expressed products.7 In 1994, both mining trees and minerals new government has the its desire to generate more urban and nonurban dwellers does not bring wealth to a chance to invest in the forest, revenue from forest assets, collected fuelwood and nation, ADFL seems poised agriculture, transport, and which is a valid need. But charcoal from the forest at a to continue the pattern of other related sectors to ensure forests are valuable for other rate of 42.6 million cubic resource exploitation that will that resources are exploited reasons besides filling meters annually. 8 Wildlife is only lead to further economic sustainably and protected national coffers. a large part of the national stagnation for the country. areas remain unencroached. diet.
TABLE 2 Dense Moist Forest Cover and Deforestation Rates in Central Africa
DENSE MOIST FOREST AVERAGE ANNUAL DEFORESTATION RATE
1993 1993 1980-90 1990-95 REGION thousand km2 ha/capita (% of Total) (% of Total)
Cameroon 180 (39%) 1.44 0.6 0.6
Republic of Congo 237 (69%) 9.88 0.2 0.2
Democratic Republic of Congo 1,108 (47%) 2.69 0.7 0.7
Equitorial Guinea 100 (60%) 5.54 0.4 0.5
Gabon 214 (81%) 17.83 0.6 0.5
Sources: Deforestation rates from World Resources Institute. 9 Forest cover data from Tropical Ecosystem Environment Observations by Satellite Project (TREES). 10 Note: The figures in parentheses give the percent of forest cover in each country.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 8 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE A BRIEF HISTORY OF In 1965, military In the logging sector, COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS strongman Mobutu Sese Seko many concessions—none seized power. The country considered examples of DRC’s history of declined economically as responsible forest commercial operations with ADFL must choose corruption and mismanage- management—are still ment took hold. Agricultural operating as they did during Europe began in the late between selling fifteenth century when commodities decreased to 15 the Mobutu period, including Portugal established relations Congo’s forests percent of total exports. By the German-owned with what was then the for short-term the mid-1970s, mining was SIFORZAL, a subsidiary of coastal Kongo Kingdom to the pillar of the economy, Danzer. This concession economic gain, or accounting for 75 percent of covers some of the most export slaves, ivory, and sustainably copper. In the 1600s, the export earnings and close to isolated rainforest in the region was the principal managing them for 45 percent of government world and is one of the largest source for slave markets in the use of future revenues. The lack of trained in Africa, with a huge 2.7 staff forced the central million hectares of the Middle East and the New generations. World. government to settle for operations. It is interesting to In 1885, the Conference indirect management of note that it contains the best- of Berlin granted King resource exploitation through maintained roads in DRC, Leopold of Belgium the area International outcry over European mining and logging expanded 120 km per year, and established the Congo Leopold’s brutality led companies. for improved logging 14 Free State. Africans were Belgium in 1908 to assume Today, commercial operations. forced into labor to provide direct control of the colony, operations follow the same ivory and rubber to the henceforth called the pattern as they did under colonial monopolies. “Belgian Congo.” The Mobutu. In the mining Construction of transportation colonial government shared sector, the U.S.-based networks and more intensive administrative responsibility American Mineral Fields exploitation of mineral and business interests in (AMF) vies with South resources then began. The mining and plantations with Africa’s Anglo-American for Belgian king seized all so- the Roman Catholic Church. a majority stake in a copper called “vacant lands” and Continued exploitation of and cobalt retreatment project declared his government to be natural resources was a and zinc mine in the Shaba the owner of all forest priority and agricultural province, with an estimated 11 products. exports grew. At value of U.S.$8-13 billion. independence in 1960, Evidence suggests that AMF minerals and agricultural has financial connections to commodities (including forest the most expensive mining products) made up 60 percent disaster in U.S. history, in and 40 percent of total which cyanide was used to exports respectively. extract sulphide ores in southwestern Colorado. 12 Anglo-American’s dealings are also questionable; foreign news reports indicate that a nephew of DRC’s Minister of the Economy is on the payroll of both Anglo-American and the ministry.13
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 9 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE THREATS TO THE FOREST’S SURVIVAL
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE Most of these protected FOREST areas are located in the eastern forests, which cover 2 s indicated in Table 2, about 175,000 km and stretch from the Zaire River DRC contains more DRC’s rainforests make up about half that Arainforests than all of to the volcanic chain that the other five countries in found in the whole of Africa and one borders Uganda, Rwanda, Central Africa. DRC’s eighth of all tropical forests on and Burundi. These forests rainforests make up about Earth—only Brazil and Indonesia have contain fauna and flora of significant conservation half that found in the whole of larger areas of rainforests. Africa and one eighth of all concern, including many large tropical forests on mammals restricted to the 17 Earth—only Brazil and region. Currently, there are Indonesia have larger areas of DRC also harbors Although forests have the four major protected areas 2 rainforests. strategic mineral resources, potential to play a role in the covering about 38,300 km in As a result of its size and including most of the world’s economic development of the east: the Virungas, the physical and climatic cobalt (an essential DRC, a variety of internal and Kahuzi-Biega, the Maiko variability, DRC harbors an ingredient of jet engines), external pressures could build national parks, and the unique unusually wide range of and large deposits of rapidly in the coming years. Okapi Wildlife Reserve. (See habitats, including tropical uranium, zinc, and copper, as These pressures— including Map.) moist forest, woodland well as diamonds, gold, and weak protected area systems, Most of DRC is sparsely savannas, grassland savannas, silver. Most of the mines are commercial logging, and settled. At its eastern limit, and, to a lesser extent, in the eastern part of the expanding infrastructure—are however, are some of the montane forests, seasonally country; gold mines, in reviewed in the sections most fertile and densely inundated savannas, dry particular, border the forest below. populated areas in Central evergreen forests, and dry frontier. (See Map.) Africa. Over the last ten woodlands. In terms of DRC’s 45 million people WEAK PROTECTED AREAS years, the availability of open species diversity, the country depend upon the forests for land and gold panning is ranked first among African food, energy, housing In 1925, the Belgian opportunities have attracted 16 countries for several materials, and income. The colonial government migration into the eastern taxonomic groups. It houses forests also house genetic established a system of forests at an unprecedented 409 species of mammals, material that could lead to national parks and reserves to rate. This trend accelerated 1,086 species of birds, 216 advances in medicines and protect the region’s unique during the past two years species of amphibians, 280 agricultural breeding, biodiversity. Protected areas when ADFL’s military species of reptiles, 48 species although not much screening now cover 180,000 km 2, or offensive broke up Rwandan of butterflies, and 10,000 has taken place. Moreover, 7.69 percent of the country, a refugee camps and drove species of angiosperms of the forests serve as a carbon higher percentage than most hundreds of thousands of which 3,000 are endemic. 15 store, helping to ward off countries have achieved. refugees into the forest. global climate change by Human populations in the mitigating increasing forest have always been temperatures, changes in dynamic, but current local and global precipitation population growth differs patterns, and associated from earlier expansions in environmental changes, such that it is politically motivated. as rising sea levels.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 10 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 11 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE In the face of this massive Tourism can be successful A new model for migration, the reserves have only if wildlife populations conservation projects is little protection. Currently, are maintained. Elephant needed. Long-term support less than 150 active guards poaching is common in the to DRC’s protected areas will are assigned to the Okapi Kahuzi-Biega National Park still require foreign Reserve and the Maiko and and has resumed in the Okapi Urgent assistance. An analysis by the Kahuzi-Biega national parks Wildlife Reserve and Maiko interventions to Wildlife Conservation Society in eastern DRC, with an National Park after having protect DRC’s (WCS) of four World average guard density of less ceased following the national parks and Heritage Sites in eastern than 1 guard per 200 km 2. Convention on International DRC (Virunga National Park, Official pay is low and is Trade in Endangered Species wildlife reserves Kahuzi-Biega National Park, often not delivered. In some (CITES) ban on ivory in are not enough. A Garamba National Park, and cases, park rangers and 1989. Both gorillas and major review of the Okapi Wildlife Reserve) wardens depend on kickbacks chimpanzees are hunted in showed that the boldest and from illegal hunting and the Kahuzi-Biega National conservation most creative conservation mining to survive. In terms Park. However, an legislation and efforts were undertaken by of providing revenue, tourism assessment of the impact of forest management trained national staff based is an option, but it is likely to current human activity in the both within and on-site. generate income in only three area showed that densities of This study, conducted areas: Virunga (mountain large mammals are much outside protected after the sites were seriously gorillas), Kahuzi-Biega higher in the protected areas areas is needed. damaged by the looting (elephants), and Garamba than in their hinterlands, Zairian army as it fled before (white rhinoceros). In 1989, indicating that, despite illegal the rebel advance, suggested tourism accounted for occupation and exploitation, At a development that the morale of local staff $820,000 in government the legal status of the assistance round table in depended to a great extent receipts, an increase of 40 protected areas is important. 19 Kinshasa in July 1997, it was upon financial and technical percent from 1988. 18 proposed that the Okapi assistance from international Wildlife Reserve be upgraded non-governmental to a national park as a show organizations. of government commitment to biodiversity conservation. Urgent interventions to protect DRC’s national parks and wildlife reserves, such as Okapi, are necessary, but not enough. A major review of conservation legislation and forest management both within and outside protected areas is needed. Without this review, the country’s protected areas, as well as a large portion of its forest domain, risk being stripped and degraded before their long-term value can be secured.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 12 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE The objective of the In 1995, DRC produced proposed project is to about 300,000 m 3 of logs and strengthen institutional ranked twenty-first in the capacities for decentralized world, far behind neighboring 3 Although logging is currently not causing management of natural Cameroon (2.7 million m ) resources. Because it will be and Gabon (2.1 million m 3), excessive degradation in DRC, it is difficult for ICCN to absorb ranked sixth and eighth considered a major threat as increased such a large sum of money in respectively.22 One third of numbers of transnational logging companies a short time, UNDP-GEF DRC’s logs were exported must pay close attention so and two thirds consumed seek to operate in the Congo Basin. that the funds are not used to domestically.23 reinforce the existing The most recent centralized approach to assessment of DRC’s logging The best way to conserve A 1991 World Bank protected-areas management. potential was carried out in the country’s natural assessment of the Congolese 1987. It reported an annual resources is to train the Institute for Nature GROWTH OF LOGGING logged area of 100,000 national staff and develop Conservation (ICCN), the ACTIVITIES hectares yielding an average strong site-based agency that manages DRC’s of 5 m3 per hectare. Such conservation programs. protected area system, Commercial logging is an selective logging can be WCS recommends showed that 75 to 85 percent activity that puts forests at relatively benign. It typically “establishment of a fund that of its budget is spent in risk. Although logging is involves extraction of no provides for continued Kinshasa and that decisions currently not causing more than one to two high- 21 professional development and are highly centralized. In excessive degradation in value trees per hectare and support for field activities by July 1997, the United Nations DRC, it is considered a major can damage less than 10 20 protected areas staff.” Development Programme threat as increased numbers percent of the canopy as a (UNDP) submitted a two- of transnational logging result of felling sites, drag year $20 million proposal to companies seek to operate in strips, log parks, and the road 24 the Global Environment the Congo Basin. network. Species with lower Facility (GEF) to restructure market value are not cut and strengthen DRC’s because their export price is protected-areas management. not high enough to cover the cutting and transport costs.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 13 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE Although selective Because of the poor state Exports to Asia from logging does not destroy the of the transport network, log Gabon of okoume and ozigo, forest, it is a leading cause of exports cannot grow rapidly; two of the most popular forest degradation, because this could change. In DRC, timber species, grew from 2.2 the roads built to extract the logs are often carried from the ...industrial logging percent to 52 percent and timber open the area to interior of the country either from 1.5 percent to 60 commercial hunting and by river on privately owned has provided little percent of total exports agricultural encroachment. boats and ferries to the net government respectively between 1990 In 1988, more than 21 Kinshasa-Matadi railway line, revenue and and 1995. It is anticipated million hectares of the or by road. The Kinshasa- that Asian loggers will seek country were designated for Matadi railway is the greatest contributed only logging rights in DRC as timber production. 25 If transport bottleneck marginally to rural well. 29 Asian logging logging proceeded on only the restricting log exports. development. Most companies operating in 12 million hectares that have Together, this railway and the foreign logging Central Africa often cut a been inventoried, this could Republic of Congo’s greater range of species than produce 2.4 million cubic Brazzaville-Pointe Noire companies that European operators. Some meters a year, worth about railway used to carry the have operated in European firms, such as $422 million.26 It has been majority of the region’s the Congo Basin Danzer, are also starting to estimated that timber exports to ocean ports. The market to Asia and could production could increase collapse of the railways have gone increase their range of species 20-fold by the year 2000 (50 greatly reduced this trade. bankrupt. cut.30 This method of logging million hectares producing 10 Until the civil war in the clears large tracts of land, million cubic meters). 27 On Republic of Congo erupted in DRC and its neighbors potentially causing greater the basis of these figures, a June, the Brazzaville-Pointe have viewed their forests as impact on forests than substantial increase in timber Noire railway was in the inexhaustible resources to be selective cutting. production in DRC over the process of being privatized. exploited in an effort to boost Artisanal logging for local next few years is predicted. Once privatized, the World economic growth. But, furniture-making and Bank believes that the service almost without exception, construction, which is poorly could be operating at full industrial logging has monitored, consumes three capacity within 2 to 3 years. provided little net times more timber than A similar prognosis applies to government revenue and industrial logging for export. the Kinshasa-Matadi link. 28 contributed only marginally to Most artisanal loggers rural development. Most operate at the edge of forests foreign logging companies and therefore do not increase that have operated in the access to forests. However, Congo Basin have gone farmers often clear these bankrupt. areas once artisanal loggers European logging have removed the largest concerns have operated in the trees. Traces of forest Congo Basin region since degradation are noticeable in colonial times. Recently, lower DRC, where artisanal logging companies from Asia logging has occurred. 31 (See have also acquired Map.) concession areas in neighboring Cameroon, Congo, and Equatorial Guinea.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 14 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE EXPANDING Road construction is both By concentrating INFRASTRUCTURE good and bad; although it investment in agricultural often reinforces market links areas, such as the highlands The second largest for development, it also puts of eastern DRC and Kasai, country in sub-Saharan pressure on forests as loggers, Road construction the government will farmers, and developers move maximize the economic Africa, DRC has a dilapidated is both good and transportation network. In into the frontiers. In the opportunities and incentives 1987, the Congo River and its Amazon Basin, for instance, bad; although it for small farmers to invest in tributaries were supplement- roads have played a large role often reinforces more intensive and more ed by 41,000 km (2,400 km in opening up vast areas of market links, it also profitable agroforestry-based paved) of roads, but more intact forest to a wide range farming systems, while than half of this limited of economic activities and puts pressure on minimizing the negative network is still in disrepair or deforestation. Similarly, forests as loggers, environmental effects passable only in the dry during the construction of the farmers, and associated with building new Transgabonais railway across roads through frontier forests. season. Road systems are developers move almost nonexistent in most the sparsely populated center areas of the country. 32 of Gabon, it was estimated into the frontiers. The infrastructure that 8 to 10 hectares were network must be improved, deforested for every kilometer 34 upgraded, and expanded to of railway. Within DRC, the collapse encourage economic of infrastructure and development in DRC and the government services in rural region. ADFL has areas at the end of colonial recognized this need and has rule contributed to the dire targeted road building as a conditions facing many priority. In July 1997, the farmers. They were pushed government announced a $2.5 to clear and cultivate larger billion project to rebuild areas on marginal lands 28,000 km of road. A part of because it was difficult to the plan is to rebuild the 500- migrate to more fertile 35 kilometer Goma-Kisangani areas. route, which will link two major markets.33
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 15 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE DEFORESTATION FROM Seventy percent of the Industrial-scale In 1988, at least 40 AGRICULTURE population relies on plantations for export of cash percent of the 300 non- subsistence farming, clearing crops (such as coffee, tea, governmental organizations An effective forest policy about 2 million hectares of rubber, and palm oil), and (NGOs) operating in DRC in DRC must be linked to land annually, much of it land livestock ranches occupy provided training and efforts to increase agricultural that had been fallow with about one third of the land technical assistance in productivity. secondary regrowth forest. used for cultivation, but only improved natural resource The heavily forested Although this is 20 times the about 20 percent of this land management, encompassing 38 Central Basin generally area that is logged each year, is actually cultivated. Few soil and water conservation, 39 contains poor soils, which are only a small fraction of the plantations are now livestock, and agroforestry. characteristic of tropical cleared land is permanently operating, and palm oil and A lack of international 37 rainforest. Nevertheless, deforested. rubber exports—important assistance has likely roughly one third of DRC’s In areas of the country commodities—declined contributed to a decrease in land is considered suitable for with denser populations, significantly between 1961 the number of local NGOs. agriculture. Of the country’s decreasing availability of and 1995. Not all Compared to the scale of the total area of 234 million fertile lands has resulted in commodities experienced problem, NGOs are not a hectares, 4.5 percent is shortened fallow periods and such dramatic reductions; significant force. Given cultivated annually, with a greater cutting of primary coffee exports peaked at adequate support, however, further 13 percent lying forest areas. 130,000 metric tons in 1986 they could play a much more fallow.36 Most agricultural before falling to 61,000 active role in agricultural production takes place in metric tons in 1995. (See extension, providing a real savannah lands in the Table 3.) alternative to the government southern part of the country, The economic collapse bureaucracy. but the richest soils are found has driven more of the rural in the upper DRC and Kivu population into subsistence provinces. agriculture characterized by shifting cultivation and low productivity, often in areas that were forested.
TABLE 3 Decline of Key Exports, 1961-95
Exports in Metric Export Earnings Exports in Metric Export Earnings Tons 1961 1961 US$ (thousands) Tons 1995 1995 US$ (thousands)
Palm Oil 154,000 35,000 700 140
Rubber 38,000 21,000 7,000 8,000
Coffee 34,000 14,000 61,000 100,000
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization. FAOSTAT. Rome: 1997. Available from < http://www.fao.org>.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 16 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE PRESSURE FROM FUELWOOD MINING AND ENERGY HUNTING COLLECTION DEVELOPMENT
Commercial poaching has Almost 80 percent of Mining is an important become a thriving business energy consumption is from Commercial source of revenue for DRC, throughout the Congo Basin, fuelwood. Electricity and poaching has accounting for 75 to 80 because wildlife provides an other energy sources are percent of export earnings. 44 astonishing 80 percent of the expensive, scarce, and usually become a thriving Most of the significant mining protein consumed in DRC. 40 available only in urban areas. business throughout areas form a crescent around Although poaching does not Fuelwood harvests amount to the Congo Basin, the largest forest areas. directly lead to deforestation, as much as 30 times that of because wildlife However, certain mining sites it does disrupt basic forest industrial wood production. 42 in the east (portions of the ecology through local Despite huge potential wood provides an Kivu and upper DRC extinction of the larger supplies, many households do astonishing 80 regions) and south (part of the species, such as primates, not have access to, or cannot percent of the Shaba region) overlap with that serve as the seed- afford, adequate supplies of biologically rich areas so that dispersal agents for most tree charcoal and fuelwood. A protein consumed industrial activities are species. Poaching has recent report from Cameroon in DRC. affecting the forests. For increased because of the on periurban fuelwood example, mine wastes are availability of powerful collection shows that the contaminating rivers and firearms and snares. majority of the fuelwood In areas of higher lakes in the Shaba region. 45 Poachers move along mining collected comes from fields population density, however, Artisanal mining is also a and logging roads, selling being cleared for crop demand for fuelwood may concern in some areas; in the smoked or fresh meat in production.43 It may be that a outstrip supply as a result of a Ituri forest, gold prospecting markets and villages and to small amount of fuelwood lack of land. In 1988, the has led to some degradation. 46 laborers working in mining comes from natural forests market for charcoal in and logging camps. In more that are not being cleared for Kinshasa alone was estimated sparsely populated areas, other purposes. at $70 million per year. such as protected areas, Fuelwood demand in urban poaching is the greatest threat areas has surpassed the level to forest health.41 that can be sustainably supplied from the immediate surrounding areas under current conditions. Encroachment and deforestation, driven by this demand, threaten many protected areas. Potentially, small farmers with fast- growing woodlots could earn income from selling fuelwood near urban areas.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 17 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE Any increase in mining The history of dam activities would result in the building in those regions is construction of new replete with horror stories of infrastructure. It is likely that massive environmental existing companies and any The Congo River and its tributaries carry a destruction through the new endeavors will pressure volume of water second only to the Amazon flooding of pristine habitats, the government to improve large-scale resettlement of roads and railways, which River. The potential of the river is estimated local communities, and could increase access to at 100,000 megawatts—half the hydroelectric disappointing returns on the forest frontiers. potential of the entire African continent—but investments because of poor 48 In addition to mineral and only 1 percent of this potential has been planning and management. forest resources, DRC has vast hydropower potential. tapped thus far. The Congo River and its tributaries carry a volume of water second only to the Amazon River.The potential potential has been tapped of the river is estimated at thus far.47 Before any major 100,000 megawatts—half the investments in hydropower hydroelectric potential of the are approved, ADFL should entire African continent—but consider experiences in other only 1 percent of this tropical regions.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 18 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS
RC’s valuable frontier Beyond this minimal forests face pressures approach to protection, Dfrom population longer-term, more growth, industry, sophisticated efforts should infrastructure, a lack of be developed—with support energy alternatives, and To promote forest stewardship and sound from international institutional needs. ADFL’s environmental management, certain mechanisms such as the challenge is to manage these elements of democracy are key: clear Global Environment pressures so that forests will Facility—to design linkages continually contribute to provisions for civic participation; between the protected areas economic growth. To do this, strengthening human resource capacity, and to integrate conservation many issues that reach particularly at the NGO and local and development outside of beyond the forests need to be government levels; and greater the core reserves. The addressed. NGOs can assist UNDP-GEF proposal for ADFL in identifying and transparency in decision-making. strengthening protected areas implementing policies that should be carefully reviewed address these issues. The to reduce its tendency to foreign assistance community Placing the environment Below, nine promote a highly centralized could make a difference by and natural resources in a recommendations for the approach. supporting policies that are priority position on its policy foreign assistance community based on lessons learned from agenda, and linking them to and DRC policy-makers are 2. ENCOURAGE THE the field and experiences of broad-based development, highlighted. These DEVELOPMENT AND neighboring countries. The provides the government recommendations do not PARTICIPATION OF NON - case of Uganda is an apt with opportunities to present a prescriptive plan of GOVERNMENTAL promote democratization, action, but rather point to the illustration. (See Box 2.) ORGANIZATIONS TO HELP boost government revenues, scope of issues that need to CONSERVE FORESTS foster long-term economic be addressed and why. security, and assume regional To promote forest and global leadership. 1. REINFORCE THE NATIONAL stewardship and sound Decisions as to who controls SYSTEM OF PROTECTED AREAS environmental management, the valuable natural certain elements of resources, how they should A fundamental first step democracy are key: clear be used, and who will benefit in national development provisions for civic from their use are priorities planning is to ensure that participation; strengthening in sustainable forest representative types of human resource capacity, management.49 ecosystems are protected at particularly at the NGO and the national level. This local government levels; and serves as a basic “insurance greater transparency in policy” for biological decision-making. diversity, and the traditional approach is to forbid people to enter protected areas.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 19 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE 2 LESSONS FROM UGANDA
Uganda has adopted departments were rife with through investment, trade, uselessness and corruption, major reforms to address the corruption and ineptitude. and tourism. His are now actively supporting environmental damage After Museveni took government has the conservation and resulting from 15 years of office, sustained reforms implemented national sustainable use of forests. political chaos. When reversed the country’s policies that encourage co- Increased participation in the President Museveni came to fortunes. Kampala and management of protected political process, including power in 1986 following a other major towns are now areas, with authority and discussion of contentious war-torn period involving thriving with an emerging responsibility given to local issues such as land tenure, six presidents, including middle class. Government governments. Participation has resulted in a flourishing ruinous despots Milton offices and ministries have in decision-making is NGO sector. Obote and Idi Amin, been physically rebuilt and explicitly mandated in such Uganda’s economy was at a competently staffed. Game documents as the 1996 standstill. Government reserves, such as the Kibale Wildlife Statute. Protected services, including roads, Forest, have been upgraded areas are monitored for Sources: Uganda Ministry hospitals, schools, and to national parks. unauthorized activities, such of Natural Resources, State power supplies, had fallen Ecotourism—with mountain as poaching and the of the Environment Report into utter disarray. The most gorillas a particular collection of fuelwood. for Uganda. (Kampala, basic of manufactured attraction—is picking up and What can President Uganda: 1994); Albert goods, such as salt, sugar, is expected to rise to Kabila’s government learn Mumma, “A Review of and soap, were luxury items, 100,000 tourists by the end from Uganda? The Emerging Trends in the and there was a chronic of the century. government must Laws on Community shortage of gasoline. Forests What caused this turn- acknowledge the importance Management of Natural had been heavily exploited. around in the country’s of sound environmental Resources in East Africa” Both black and white rhinos situation? Museveni policies integrated with (World Resources Institute: were poached to extinction, acknowledged that sound economic development 1996); Speech by President and the elephant population management of natural objectives. Environmental Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, was reduced by 80 to 90 resources and economic ministries in Uganda, once 1997. percent. Government development are linked maligned for their
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 20 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE Effective environmental Communities can also 4.COLLECT AND SHARE MORE management requires that benefit from the linkages that INFORMATION ABOUT FOREST government understand the NGOs provide to RESOURCES AND BIODIVERSITY needs of local inhabitants and government agencies, businesses. The NGOs can international groups, and Effective A key plank in help in this endeavor. Ten other NGOs. Funding, environmental strengthening civil years ago, there were more technical support, and participation is more effective than 300 NGOs in DRC, training from development management information collection and almost half of which focussed assistance programs can requires that sharing. Some information on rural development and allow NGOs to improve their about forest resources and 50 government natural resources. It is not own resources and contribute biodiversity already exists, as clear how many remain today, more actively to rural understand the does some capacity to probably very few. But, with development and needs of local disseminate it. Two forest some encouragement and environmental programs. inhabitants and inventories for the whole small grants from businesses. The country were carried out in development assistance 3. MOVE TOWARD MORE the 1980s. The 1982 programs, the number would DECENTRALIZED CONTROL OF NGOs can help in assessment produced a Carte grow quickly. In policy NATURAL RESOURCE USE AND this endeavor. Synthèse Forestière du Zaire implementation, NGOs can CONSERVATION at scales of 1:400,000 and increase the reach of 1:250,000.51 The 1989 government initiatives by DRC is a vast country assessment produced a land- promoting them in local with distinct regional At the same time, there use database at 1:1 million, communities. They can often identities and characteristics. should be a balance between which has since been updated provide services more The colonial government and local and central decision- using data for 1993 and more directly and efficiently than Mobutu’s administration making, with the national sophisticated data processing public agencies. were highly centralized and government working to techniques.52 The U.S. multi- permitted little input by ensure that national needs agency Landsat Pathfinder regional or local continue to be met, perhaps project is processing satellite governments and citizens. through a representative data for the Congo Basin Decentralization can aid the national network of protected acquired in the 1970s, 1980s, design and implementation areas. and 1990s to produce a of resource management. forest-cover database at each The provision of services point in time. The results should build on local should be available in 1998 initiatives, which are arising and will be used to generate spontaneously in response to the first reliable estimates of the almost complete deforestation in the Basin. breakdown of government services under Mobutu.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 21 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE Persistent cloud cover in 5. DEVELOP AN ENVIRON- 6. STRENGTHEN LOCAL the Congo Basin has MENTALLY SOUND NATIONAL AND TRADITIONAL PROPERTY hampered forest inventories INFRASTRUCTURE PLAN RIGHTS that use remotely sensed data acquired in optical A sound The new government has Local community wavelengths, but longer infrastructure plan a broad mandate and wide development is the key to wavelengths in the radar latitude to initiate reforms to national economic growth. portion of the electromagnetic should ensure that strengthen the country’s Although rural households spectrum can penetrate the roads constructed physical infrastructure. are dependent on forest cloud cover to provide large by logging and Foreign assistance and products, there are no legally area coverage on a regular private funds are likely to recognized gathering rights, basis. The first space-borne mining companies become available to upgrade and traditional land radar system suitable for are compatible roads, ports, hydroelectric ownership is not recognized terrestrial applications was with protected area facilities, and railways. With by the state.54 This has the Japanese Environmental boundaries and more complete data, resulted in expulsion and Resources Satellite (JERS-1). economic and environmental migration to neighboring By downloading data to a coincide with assessments, and forest lands, including satellite-receiving station in routes to markets comprehensive land-use protected areas.55 Evidence Libreville, JERS-1 acquired and distant planning, infrastructure suggests that community complete coverage for the investment can promote ownership of lands Congo Basin in the wet and villages. sustained economic benefits encourages conservation of 53 dry seasons in 1996. Radar with minimal environmental wildlife.56 Property rights that allows for distinguishing effects. A sound allow users to receive roads, clear-cut areas, closed Forest and land cover infrastructure plan should medium- and long-term forest, agricultural fields, and data should be made ensure that roads constructed economic benefits would other landscape features available to the Service by logging and mining encourage local groups to relevant to land-use Permanent d’Inventaire et companies are compatible conserve and improve land monitoring in DRC. d’Aménagement Forestier with protected area and resources. (SPIAF) and other analysts, boundaries and coincide with both in DRC and cooperating routes to markets and distant countries, as soon as villages. The plan should be possible. Analysts will be based on international able to use these data to standards, including full produce information to environmental and social support policy research and impact assessments and local development issues. SPIAF, consultation, with special which managed to maintain a care given to avoiding high quality of analysis of biologically and socially environmental data in sensitive areas. difficult times, should also be strengthened.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 22 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE 7. ASSESS THE STATUS OF In the near future, the 9. PROMOTE REGIONAL MINING AND LOGGING forests of DRC are not going INITIATIVES CONTRACTS AND PROMOTE to be an engine of national RESPONSIBLE INVESTMENT development because of DRC is a forest and Until forest inaccessibility, low investor biodiversity superpower that confidence in the country, and Many industrial-scale management should play a leadership role natural resource extraction poorly developed markets for in African forest agreements in DRC may have improves, foreign forest products. Recognizing conservation. It is a signatory been awarded on the basis of assistance could this situation, however, to major international coercion and corruption. fund conservation reveals an opportunity to agreements on biological conserve the country’s forests resource conservation, Licences should be reviewed activities. and, if found to be irregular, at a low cost until the capacity including CITES, the African revoked. They should then be and confidence have been Convention for the auctioned in a transparent 8. HAVE REALISTIC GOALS FOR created to allow responsible Conservation of Nature, and fashion, with some REVENUE COLLECTION FROM expansion of extraction the World Heritage prequalification of eligible FOREST-BASED ACTIVITIES activities to occur. Until Convention. bidders based on a proven forest management improves, By being more active in track record of responsibility. Properly managed, DRC’s foreign assistance could fund implementing existing This system would encourage forests can contribute to conservation activities. agreements and promoting more responsible investment long-term, sustained Investments in logging regional cooperation in these in those sectors. Such a economic growth. In and other activities will areas, DRC can demonstrate review, as well as addition to industrial logging, continue to grow and, to its commitment. It should clarification of property greater attention is needed assure that resource build on existing national rights, tax reform, and general for community and artisanal exploitation benefits DRC efforts, such as the abandoned modernization of the forestry. Tourism also has and its citizens, ADFL should National Forestry Action economy, may enable DRC to potential. During the 1980s, reform the resource allocation Plan, as well as continue to attract responsible investors the number of visitors to process and tax structure. develop a National who currently perceive the national parks in DRC rose, This reform might include Environmental Action Plan country as an unfriendly place but further growth was simplifying the tax structure, and implement other to do business. slowed by poor infrastruc- making auction processes international commitments. ture, limited access, transparent, and elevating Consideration should be encroachment and poaching, taxes on resource extraction given to building upon the and a lack of well-trained industries. World Conservation Union’s staff.57 Other African (IUCN) Conference on countries, such as Zimbabwe Ecosystems of Dense Humid and South Africa, are earning Forests in Central Africa substantial income from (CEFDHAC), a regional foreign visitors. In DRC, ministerial level initiative to hunting reserves and sport address environmental trophy hunting may have opportunities and concerns significant tourism appeal. within the Congo Basin. Movement toward a Congo Basin Treaty for forest and biodiversity conservation should also be considered.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 23 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE CONCLUSION
he causes of forest The debate over what ADFL has the opportunity clearance and poor constitutes sound forest to update and build on these Tnatural resource policy in DRC is not starting early initiatives. The foreign management in DRC lie in from scratch. The development community’s uncertain land tenure, a development of a Tropical The onus is on interest in DRC’s economic massive influx of refugees, Forest Action Plan (TFAP) growth is high, as is that of the government’s lack of was begun in 1987. It was ADFL to take steps neighboring countries. ADFL solvency, and the nation’s approved in 1990 and towards moving the should look to its neighbors, need for economic followed by foreign pledges country to such as Uganda, for examples development. These totaling $160 million. on how to approach priority problems do not have quick However, in 1991, assistance economic stability issues. The onus is on ADFL and simple solutions, so to the TFAP was cut, through sound to take steps towards moving policies that promote sound creating a lull in forest policy environmental the country to economic forest management are development and management. stability through sound challenging to develop and implementation. environmental management. implement.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 24 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE NOTES
1 Dirk Bryant et al., The Last 10 P. Mayaux, E. Janodet, C. (Baltimore, MD: The Johns 24 David S. Wilkie, et al., Frontier Forests: Ecosystems M. Blair-Myers, and P. Legeay- Hopkins University Press, 1996). “Mechanized Logging, Market and Economies on the Edge, Janvier, 1997, Vegetation Map Hunting, and a Bank Loan in (Washington, D.C.: World of Central Africa at 1:5,000,000, 17 John A. Hart and Jefferson Congo,” 1992. Resources Institute, 1997). Tropical Ecosystem; and, S. Hall, “Status of Eastern Environment Observations by Zaire’s Forest Parks and 25 Department of Land Affairs, 2 James C. McKinley, Jr., Satellite (TREES) Project, Reserves,” Conservation Environment, and Nature “Zairian Rebels’ New Allies: Publication Series D, EUR Biology, Vol. 10, No. 2, April Conservation (Zaire) and the Men Armed With Briefcases,” 17322, European Commission, 1996, pp. 316-23. International Institute for The New York Times, April 17, Luxembourg. Derived using 1 Environment and Development 1997. km AVHRR-LAC data acquired 18 Ned Seligman, ed., An (Washington, D.C.), Zaire in 1992/93, available from Overview of Zaire for Strategic Forest Policy Review, draft 3 Dirk Bryant et al., The Last
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 25 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE 32 Steve Carapetis et al., “The Environment and Development, 44 Department of Land Affairs, Canadian International Road Maintenance Initiative: Zaire Forest Policy Review, Environment, and Nature Development Agency. This was Building Capacity for Policy 1988, p. iii. Conservation (Zaire) and the based on the interpretation of Reform,” (Washington, D.C.: International Institute for Landsat MSS images for the World Bank, 1991) p. 76; John 38 Department of Land Affairs, Environment and Development, period 1976-84, supplemented Witte, “Deforestation in Zaire,” Environment, and Nature Zaire Forest Policy Review, by aerial photography and limited 1993, pp. 190-91; Ned Conservation (Zaire) and the 1988, p. 9. field work. Seligman, An Overview of Zaire, International Institute for 1991, pp. 87-8; Federal Environment and Development, 45 World Conservation Union 52 Prepared by the European Research Division, Zaire: A 1988, pp. 9, 14. (IUCN), Environmental Profile: Union’s Joint Research Center Country Study (Washington, Zaire, (Switzerland: IUCN, using NOAA/AVHRR data for D.C.: American University, 39 Department of Land Affairs, 1993), p. 14. 1988-90. 1993) p. 189. Environment, and Nature Conservation (Zaire) and the 46 John Witte, “Deforestation 53 These data are currently 33 Helen Vesperini, “Kabila International Institute for in Zaire,” 1993, p. 195. being processed, and a 100m Road Plan to Open Up Environment and Development, resolution Basin-wide land cover Democratic Congo,” Reuters 1988, p. 20. 47 Department of Land Affairs, database should be available in News Service, August 13, 1997. Environment, and Nature January 1998. 40 Department of Land Affairs, Conservation (Zaire) and the 34 Biodiversity Support Environment, and Nature International Institute for 54 John Witte, “Deforestation Program, Central Africa: Global Conservation (Zaire) and the Environment and Development, in Zaire,” 1993, p. 185. Climate Change, (Washington, International Institute for Zaire Forest Policy Review, D.C.: Biodiversity Support Environment and Development, 1988, p. 46. 55 United Nations Development Program, 1993). 1988, p. 73. Programme, Global 48 William Ascher and Robert Environment Facility Project 35 Department of Land Affairs, 41 Department of Land Affairs, Healy, Natural Resource Brief, 1997, p. 3. Environment, and Nature Environment, and Nature Policymaking in Developing Conservation (Zaire) and the Conservation (Zaire) and the Countries: Environment, 56 Simon Metcalfe, “The International Institute for International Institute for Economic Growth, and Income Zimbabwe Communal Areas Environment and Development, Environment and Development, Distribution. (Durham, NC: Management Programme for Zaire Forest Policy Review, 1988, p. 34. Duke University Press, 1990). Indigenous Resources 1988, p. 57. (CAMPFIRE),” in David 42 Department of Land Affairs, 49 Ned Seligman, An Overview Western and R. Michael Wright, 36 Department of Land Affairs, Environment, and Nature of Zaire, 1991, p. 140. eds., Natural Connections: Environment, and Nature Conservation (Zaire) and the Perspectives in Community- Conservation (Zaire) and the International Institute for 50 Department of Land Affairs, based Conservation, International Institute for Environment and Development, Environment, and Nature (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, Environment and Development, 1988, p. iv. Conservation (Zaire) and the 1994) p. 190. Zaire Forest Policy Review, International Institute for 1988, p.7, Table 1. 43 Adrienne Déménou, La Environment and Development, 57 Department of Land Affairs, Place du Bois de Feu dans un Zaire Forest Policy Review, Environment, and Nature 37 John Witte, “Deforestation Système Agroforestier 1988, p. iv. Conservation (Zaire) and the in Zaire,” 1993, p. 181; (Yaoundé, Cameroon: International Institute for Department of Land Affairs, IITA/CIFOR, 1997). This report 51 Executed by Zaire’s Service Environment and Development, Environment, and Nature is based on a survey of 250 rural Permanent d’Inventaire et Zaire Forest Policy Review, Conservation (Zaire) and the households in nine villages in the d’Aménagement Forestier 1988, p. 31. International Institute for outskirts of Yaoundé, Cameroon. (SPIAF) with the support of the
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 26 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Deanna M. Wolfire is a WRI Associate and coordinates activities in Central Africa. Prior to joining WRI, she was a consultant and Peace Corps volunteer focussing on business development in Africa and Russia.
Jake Brunner is a Senior Associate at WRI in the Natural Resources Information Management Program. A specialist in geographic information systems and remote sensing, he was previously affiliated with Oxford University and London’s Imperial College.
Nigel Sizer is a WRI Senior Associate and Team Leader of the Forest Frontiers Initiative. He also coordinates work in the Amazon countries and on global forest policy. Prior to joining WRI, Dr. Sizer was affiliated with the National Institute of Amazon Studies (INPA) in Brazil and with King’s College, University of Cambridge.
Daniel Nielsen is a Geographic Information Systems Analyst at WRI and manages the Institute’s GIS lab.
Catherine J. Karr is a doctoral candidate at Duke University. She specializes in political economy of the environment.
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 27 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE
he World Resources Institute Forest Frontiers Initiative (FFI) is a multi-disciplinary effort to promote stewardship in and around the world’s Tlast major frontier forests by influencing investment, policy, and public opinion. The FFI team is working with governments, citizens’ groups, and the private sector in Amazonia, Central Africa, Indonesia, North America, and Russia. We also take part in pressing international discussions on forest policy.
We are motivated by the belief that there is a responsible way to use forests. We also see growing interest in finding alternatives to forest destruction that take advantage of the full economic potential of forests, not just immediate revenue from logging and forest clearing.
For each frontier forest region, FFI builds a network of policy-makers, activists, investors, and researchers to promote policy reform. Efforts to minimize the negative impacts of road-building and forest-clearing for agriculture, and to stop illegal logging are part of this work.
In collaboration with a variety of partners, WRI is creating Global Forest Watch—an independent, decentralized, global forest monitoring network—which will facilitate the collection of all relevant information on forests and how they are being used as well as provide mechanisms for making this information available to anyone with a stake in the forest.
Business has a leading role to play. WRI is working with the forest products industry and others to create greater production and demand for goods from well- managed forests. We are developing case studies with innovative firms to demonstrate to others the business impacts and opportunities that sustainability presents.
To get access to information about FFI findings and activities and to find out how to participate, contact:
Forest Frontiers Initiative World Resources Institute 1709 New York Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20006 Telephone: 202/638-6300 Fax: 202/638-0036 Email: [email protected] World Wide Web: http://www.wri.org/wri/ffi/
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE 28 FOREST FRONTIERS INITIATIVE