Species Conservation Plan: South African National Parks

1.4 SANP Conservation P f@~

Black Rhinoceros (Diceros blcornls)

MH Knight', AJ Hall-Martlns. D Plenaar'

Scientilic Services. South African National Parks, Kimberley, South Alrica

l Department of Conservation 8 Development, South Afrkan National Parks, Pretoria, South Alrlca Sdentilk Services. Kruger Natlorial Park, South Africa uuukl l nut 3MIYC oidLn nl 111 IU L,UIB~~V~LIUI I rlal I {uutua1eu uran) Species Conservation Plan: South African National Parks

Black Rhinoceros (Dlceros blcomls)

Introduction thus listed as endangered (Appmdix I of CITES). Evloreover, its systematics are in a quandary. The black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis was historically widely distributed in southern Africa (du Plessis 1969; Although the black rhinoceros had a virtually conrinu- Skead 1987; Rookmaaker 1989). They were found in ous distribution from southern Africa. bough East almost all l~abitatsexcept the central highveld and Africa into West Africa, taxonomic studies based upon grasslands of the Free State, Gauteng and tesotho, the rall~erinsufficient morphornetric samples have tended southern Kwa-Zulu Natal and Transkei coastal plain, to taxonomically split the species. Zukowsky (1964) the arid Kalahd and Namib desert However. by 1900 initially split the species into a ~nultitude of "sub- the black hinoceios was almost exterminated through- species" or "races", which Groves (1 967) later partial- out most of its range in southern Africa through hunt- ly lumped into seven subspecies. with three suggested ing activities. surviving'only in relatively small num- to occur in southern Africa Diceros bicornis cf bicor- bers in a few isolaled areas in the region. Elsewhere in nis, also known as the Cape rhinoceros, was thought CO Africa the black rhinoceros fared better and through have ranged throughout the former Cape Province and s&ict protectionist policies by conservation organisa- southern Namibia and was the only subspecies consid- tions throughout the continent the population recov- ered to be extinct in the si~bregon(Rookmaaker & ered to around 70 000 animals by the 1960s Groves 1978). Diceros b. ci minor which was suggest- (Qlrnming, du Toit Sr Stuart 1990). However. this ed to range from Natal, through bIgambique and deteriorated rapidly through an increase in poaching Zimbabwe and possibly into northern Narr~ibia sur- activities and the population declined to less than 2600 vived in reiauvely small isolated populations in these by late 1995 with the vast majority of these animals areas. The D. b. cf chobien~ispopulation was suggest- being restricted to southern Africa. ed to be very localised to soutliern Angola. the Caprivi in Namibia. and northern Botswana It is now tliougl~t As a result of Uiis crash and the consequent increased to be extinct. importance of the southern African populations, the conservation of black rhinoceros is a priority for most conservation organ$ations in the subregion. Tllis cul- Owing to lllz inadequate sample sizes these "sub- minated in &e acceptance of a regional black rhinocer- species" classifications were later discounted by du os conservation plan (Brooks 1989; Brooks & Adcack Toit (1 987). Although hrdier research using molecular 1997). The Soutb African wational Parks (SM)with and mitochondrial DNA analyses revealed that the its large number of parks of varying sizes in diverse "subspecies" were minimally distinct, will] differences habitats, and populaiions of three of the four recog- being trivial and in fact less than that expected within nised black rhinoceros ecotypes is in a unique situation any single large species population (Ashley, Melnick with respect to implementing this conservation strate- & Western 1990 ;O'Rya11. Flamand & Harley 1994). a gy. It is therefore essential that the SANP has its own 'minimum regret smkgy' was advocated until further conservation plan. This must cater for the diversity of support for lumping/splitting ecotypes emerges management requirements associated will] each of the (hato & Ryder 1992). Thus Ule African Rhino three ecotypes, the diversi6 of parks harbouring he Workshop (Cincinnati. October 1986) decision to rhinoceros and the expansion plans for a number of the recognise, for practical management prlrposes, four parks- "subspecies" or ecotypes within Africa still holds. These include:

a South-western ecotype (D. b. cf bicornis) from Black rhlnoceros systematics Namibia b. South-central ecotype (D. b. cf minor) from Naul, Systematics, witii all its problems, is central to the con- Zimbabwe through to soulhem Tanzania servation and management of any species. The impor- c. Eastern ecotype (D. b. cf michaeli) Fro111Kenya and tance' of this issue increases as the species comes under llo~thernTanzania threat through declining population sizes and fragmen- tation. Ilhe black rliinoceros is in this position and it is d. North-western ecotype (D. b. cf 1ongipe.s) of Camcroon and CAR.

I Diccm~brcornu The two southern Afiican emtypes were principally triated into Kruger and Marakele Natioaal Parks. The separated or1 their Mysize and aridity of their envi- population of the exdimital eastern ecotype (D. b. d ronments. With the surviving Namibian animals being rnickfi) in the elephant camp of the Addo Elephant generally larger iu body size (Joubert 1970) and with- National Park was established when no surplus D. b. cf in the same biogeographic region as the dry Northern minor could be obtained from Zululand well before and Westein Cape provinces of South Africa, Hall- d~edebate on genetic sub-populations came to the fore. Mnrtin (1986) suggested that the Namibian population would have shown closer affinities with the supposed- ly 'extinct' Cape rhinoceros (D. b. cf bicornu) than the southcentral ecotype D. b. cf minor) from the moister Conservation prlnclples eastern seaboard. These suggestions led to the rtcogni- tion of the arid-adapted south-western ecotype and kianagement and research collectively entails two hence re-emergence of the D. b. cf bicornis subspecies activities namely maintaining the existing populations description. which is still currently debated and establishing new populations. Both of these activ- (Rookmaaker 1995). Furthermore. Knight and Hall- ities have certain conservation principles and ncom- Martin (1993) proposed a policy that was accepted by mendations associated with then1 (Brooks & Adcock maintain the Rhino bianagemcnt Group WlO) to the 1997) as briefly discussed below: geographical separation of these two local ecotypes in southern Africa using tlie 500 mm dallisohyet as a rough sepambig Line (Fig. I). 1. Maintenance of exlstlng populatlons The survival of animals within their natural habitat is Illis reasonirig fonrled the cornerstone of the motiva- tend to tile conservation of he species. 'Xhis quires: tion to repatriate the ecologically appropriate ecotype illto national parks in South Africa The arid-adapted a Their protection through active anti-$aching oper- south-westem black rhinoceros ecotype was repatriat- ations. legal status, intelligence (Knight 1995). ed initially into Augrabies and Vaalbos National Parks Security staff levels should ideally be increased to and later into Karoo National Park and the Buffelskuil about one man per 10-20 km'. +L--0 section of Addo Elephant National Park. while the b. Maxinlizin,"! productivity by maintaining the .( south-central ecotype (D. b. cf minor) Iiu been repa- population size at their estimated potential mmi-

500 mm rdnfall Mafor river

2 AdddZuurberg NP

4 Vaalbos NP

B West Caast NP 7 Mountaln Zebra NP

Flg. 1. I~listodcaldisbibution of D. b. bibmls and D. b. minor In southern Alrlca In relaUon to some national parks

Spcciw Coriscrrntion Plrn: Nntional Parka Honrd a- l ntcluz. ~MIVTDI~L~ KIIIIIU ~orrsyervaoon rlan (uutaatea uratt) mum productive carrying capacity (EMPCC) which islands are colorlized but all the population3 are (roughly 75% of the estimated ecological carrying considered as islands interacting with eacli other, all capacity @CC)) (Emslie 19g3). This can be main- ,i& a probability of extinction and recolonization '*'gh the of the (Gilpin & Hanski 1991). "lie idea of a metapopulation population approach to managing biological resources is viewed I: c. The m+tenmce of genetic diversity through tbt as a means of tackling the conservation of fragmented establisfimht of populations with an effective POP- populations such as the black hino. By transferring ulation size me) >50. In the event that the size of individuals kween populations (at some predeer- U an area is not conducive to this single population mined rate) it may h possible to maintain the approach, the rnetapopulation strategy of managing population size of the metapopulatio~thatof a >;-:L-lL a number of populations as a single unit is advo- single panrniric population. It would also have the L cated in which animals are rotated between popula- I tions (Gilpin & Hanski 1991; Foose 1992). advantage of preserving (or limiting the loss of) the genetic heterozygosiry of the population. as well as d. Manipulation of the habitat to suit black rhinos. reducing the chances of camtrophic events This includes monitoring other competitors such as eliminating the entire population. elephant. eland and kudu, as well as altering the Y habitat direcgy (through Fie, provision of water) to enhance feeding opportunities for the rhinoceros Many isolated black rhinoceros populations are of (Emslie & Adcock 1994). such a size that they theoretically offer little long-term sustainability. Bur by transferring individuals between e. bionitoring the population size, and age and sex such populations the smaller ppulations mahtain an composition is essential to the entire management active role in the single larger metapopulation. This is process. being advocated for the conservation of the D. b. cf bicornis populations under the 'SANP's control. 2. Establishment of new populations AlU~ougllno hard and fast rules exist it is recommended that the transfer of a breeding individual once a gen- This activity forms a crucial element of the conserva- eration (7-10 years) between populatior~sshould suf- tion strategy as it not only extends the species range fice in maintaining the genetic heterozygosity of indi- and available habitat but it also has the advantage of vidual populations and the metapopulauon (Foose, spreading the population in the event of catastrophic Lacy, Brett & Seal 1992). However, managing black events such as disease, poaching or floods. However, rhinoceros in such a way has associated risks as about the cost-benefit of the population sizes, biological 20-3040 of translocated animals die during the capture importance and viability need to be measured against and post release pilass (Adcock 1995). It is therefore the management costs. Salient points needing attention imperative that these risks should be eliminated as far before establishing new populations include: as possible. a. Potential areas need to be assessed for their suitability based upon the quality and abundance of yegetation suitable for rhinoceros, the carrying capacity and tl~esecurity of the population. The following recommendations are b. Ideally the new.area should be large enough to have proposed: an ECC of over 200 animals but should not be less a That sub-adults (age class C-E: 2-6 years of age) than 20 animals. should be removed from populations at c. In order to maximize genetic heterozygosity the (Knight 19931) for s~~pplementingother founder population should be a minimum of 10 aai- dons or for the establishment of new ppulations mals and should not exceed 50% of the ECC. (although they should preferably be intrduced with adults for social reasons). d. The provision of animals for he captive breeding programmes should conform with the recornmen- b. The introduction of animals into established popu- dationa of the regional management plan (Brooks lntioos should be v? separate fenced-off introduc- & Adcock 1997). tiou areas (termed vacuum' areas), which after a certain period (few months to a year) are incorporated into the main rhinoceros area by the dropping 3. Metapopulatlon management of fences. The idea of a metapopulation was fin[ advocated by c. 'lhe adult sex ratio should ideally be 1 tnale:2 kvim (1969) who described a metapopulation "a ferndes, but adapted for each park's circumstar~ces ~pulationof populations". A metapopulation is linked (see wih. the Processes of population turnover, extinctiorl d. Breeding bulls should be transferred berwsen parks and colonization. Although of a similar vane to island- once every six or seven years and should also be biogeographic theory there is no 'mainland' From via the above introduction protocol in he event that

Spaiw Coowrratioo Plan: South acan National Ptlrlrs ' hother bulVs already exist in the establislled pop 2. Attempt to breed up as quickly as possible ar~dcon- ulation. serve genetically viable ppulations of at le ,-7.- 3500 D. b. cf minor. ZOO D. b. cf bicornk a!aJ D.b. cf michacli. 3. Maintain rhinoceros security as a priority in each Objec~ivesof rhinoceros conserva- park. tidn In the South African National 4. Support captive breeding programmes, provided Parks they play a positve contribution towards the conservation of in n'ru rhinoceros populations. h the SANP (Anon 1994) endorses the basic conser- 5. Conform to the South Aliican black rhinoceros vation objectives of the RJCN (Eidsvik 1990), the conservation plan. I conservation of rhinoceros d~eoretically becornes a

I sub-goal within this framework. However, the demise threatening the black rhinoceros has raised its overall Current and future proposed manage- importarice. where specific goals of establishing ment of each ecotype 'viable' populations of rhinoceros as quickly a.s possible in national parks within the former ranges of the ecotypes have been set-.The SANP has thus committed 1. South-central (D. b. cf mlnor) itself to: I. Tbe conservation of the three black rhinoceros eco- This ecot-yp is typically found in the mesic savannas types (D. b. cf minor, D. b. cf bicornis and D. b. cf of southern and eastern Africa Within South Africa it micltneli) as separate entities until s~~chtime that was historically restricted to the fonner northern and it is scientifically proven Uiat the ecotype distinc- eastern Transvaal and Nahl areas. tion is not valid or hat the integration of their sep arale gene pools would not be detrimental to the Populations were decimated by the 1900s with a mm- greater population. nant population left in Natal and the lowveld, with the

Table 1 Sex and age composition of black rhinoceros introduced to the Kruger National Park 1971-1998

Date Region Origin Adult Immature Mortalities Total in KNP Male Female Male Female

1971 South A 9 9 1 1 20 1972110 South B 4 6 (2) 2 lmm males 10 1977109 Scuth A 2 2 1979110 South C 1 1 1980/10 South A 5 3 8 1981105 Central D 1(2) 1 aduft male 1 l 1981107 Central A 8 5 2 1 16 l 1S81108 South A 2 4 6 1982107 Central A 3 3 1989105 Ceritral C 1 1 1989109 Central E 3 2 2 1 8 1989104 South E 1 1 7 4 1997112 Central A 2 3 1 6 Total South 20 25 1 2 49 $ /%l4 Central 18 10 4 3 35 $' Total KNP 38 35 5 5 84

A futher three males and Iwo females died soon after release In the KNP

Origin A HluliluweNrnfolozl Complex. KwaZulu-Natal B - Zambezi Valley. Zimbabwe C - Strays from Gonwe-Zhou (ex Zambezl Valley) or Mozambique I D P.ddo Elephant National Park (KwaZulu-Natal 1977) l E - Ndcrnio Game Reserve, Kwdulu-blatal

Species Conxrvt&m Plm. l Sortth African National Parks Figure 2. Black rhino distribution in Ihe Kruger National Park. latter disappearing in the Kruger National Park (KNP) Although plans had been made since Ihe early 1950s to in the 1930s. reintroduce black rhinoceros to the KNP, logistic and Fmancial problems prevented it until between 1971 Three national parks (Kruger. Marakele & and 1989 when a total of 8 1 animals were repatriated Vl~cmbdDongola)occur in the former range of this to the Southern and Central Districts of the KNP from ecotype, yei onIy Kruger and tvlarakele are presently Hluhluwe-Umfolozi, Mkuzi and Ndumu Game stocked with rhinoceros and will be covered by this Reserves in Natal. the Zambezi Valley in Zimbabwe, report Vhembe/Dongola is presently too small and in and born the Zimbabwe border area of northern KNP too early a stage of development to offer any immedi- (Table I) (Hall-Martin 1990). A further six animals, ate prospects for rhinoceros cotiservation although in originally from HluhluwdUmfolozi, were obtained conjuriction with the Tuli Block Game Reserve in from Thaba Tholo ranch in an exchange for six D. b. Botswana there is great potential for the introduction cf. michaeli from Addo in Deceniber 1997 (Table 1). of black rhinoceroses in the Future (Knight, Three of the introduced animals (2 males, l female) Bezuidenhout, Castley & Pienaar 1997). died in captivity and a further three males and two feniales died shortly after release. The population has increased to in excess of 250 animals. making it the A. Present populatlons second lvgesr population after Hluhiuwe-Umfolozi a. '17ie Kruger N.P. - Cumrlt status Complex Pienaar 1995). The original founder population is large enough to offer both genetic and deme 'Il~elast of the lowveld's indigenous stock of rhinos graphic viability and stability for the long-term (>200 was seen in 1936 in the Nwatimhiri bush in the KNP. years) (Foose et al. 1992). Moreover, with the

Table 2 Presenl (as of 1998) and short-lerm (1 0 yean) land acquisillon prospects and !heir expected black rhlno carrying capacity (ECC)In South African national parks

Ew~e Park* Rhlno slocklnq Short-t-tempark ~aiGnenl density (ECC)(hrr) 9- strategy b

W Rhlno Rh8-m h bn' Rhlno drnlslty Ih (km7

0. b.rrrk!cr KNP 0.18021 1941% 0.01 2.m 19.iBc 2500- Stand alone 3200

MNP 0.1 W. 13 (high) 380 0.02 8 800 60-75 Meh - KEIP O.lW.l8 55 022 12 110 14-20

D. b. bbomls VtJP 0.050.07 180 0.04 7 88 l 3348 Mela

AFNP O.Md.00 59 0.07 B IOB 47 Meta

AENP 0.51-0.70 121 0.C0 7 I85 88- 1 1 7 MeWs(and abne

MZrt P 0.05.0.07 % 0 232 12-18 Meta

WCNP 0.05-0.07 m o no 14-18 M

0. b. 1r1kfmnd AENP 051-0.7U l07 032 34 117 8082 Metn-m& Alrlce

Totals D. b.nalcr

' ~&d h KF(P - K,-,,~. MNP - M&L~ VNP - vul- m - KJZNP- KM~AENP - A& WP~C m - ModnZcbn; WCNP - Wac Corq 5 hluqemm tcrrrru rill bc ei* a tneqqddma rtrd-hlppovh C 'Ihh h ~ubjoato I -iddk ina~~~if Ihc mmfmnrkr plk with Mrnmbiquc mnn bra abtnrz 4 'IiigI~'- mounuin midm: 'Low' - bw lying tushreld .mu.

SpiuConservation Plan: Dicems bicornis Sollrli Africnn Nntionnl Park Y tl 30uu-1 HITICB: >ANY ulac~Khlno C;orw$rvat~on Plan (Outdated Draft) founders originating from four separate original popu- ed to a single sub-population it reflected a locally lation~.the KNP D. b. cf minor population is geneti- heulthy population sihlation which is probably uot cally the most diverse in South Africa found in tile Central District of the Kruger National Park owing to a distortzd sex ratio in favour of males The sex ratio of the released black rhinoceros was 43 among the re-introduced black rhino. mala pd 41 females (Table 1). Of these 22 males and 13 females were released in the Central district of the KNP and 21 males and 28 females were released in he Southern district. The sex ratio of the animals released Given the KNP's large size and relalivcly small rhi- in the Cennal district is sktwed towards males and this noceros population a combination of three monitoring situation will have to be addressed in future. The sex methods are to be used as follows: ratio of adult black rhinos recorded in the study area in l. Plans are afoot to implement the individual ID pro- the Southern KNP is at parity and the age structure of grammes that are currently being used successfully this sub-population is 60 % adults, 23 % sub-adults in a number of smaller game reserves. However, and 17 % juveniles (Pienaar 1995). the KNP is a very large national park and game gr~arddensity is cotupamtively low at about 1 game - Future expansion options guard1100 km'. The black rhinoceros population in (he KNP is still relatively small with only a few Besides the possible doubling in size of the protected tanger sections holding more than 30 black rhino. area available to rhino through a proposed transfrontier The bigger the black rhinoceros population grows the more dificult it will be to implernenr such an agreement with Mozambique, there are no plans to individual indentification programme. Staff mem- increase the size of the KNP. By virtue of its size and lxrs need to be trained and provided with binocu- low density of rhinoceros (0.09 rhindkml) the park lars before they will bz able to make accurate offers ideal prospects for rhinoceros conservation (Fig. observations oo black rhinos. 2). A rough estimate of the ECC density for the south- em KNP is 0.2 rhinokm1 which amounts to an esti- 2. A photographic method. as successii~llyused in Ethosha National Park could be sitnilarly imple- mated ECC of I JJO black rhinoceros in the area soi~lt~ mented in tile KNP. Animals are photographed at of the Sabie River. The overall ECC for black rhinoc- night at waterholes during the dry season (Ciiliers eros in the whole KNP would probably range from 2 1989). This method yields excellent results but 500 - 3 200 anin~als(Table 2). More introductions of specialized camera and flash equiplnent is aecrs- black rhinoceros into unoccupied areas of the KNP sary. Although the KNP has much more water than needto take place. These areas contribute greatly to Etosha. this mehod could still be useful in the the htential black rhinoceros carrying capacity of KNP. Individual water-points need to be invzsti- South Africa and must receive more black rhinoceros gated beforehand to determine where black rhinoc- if the conservation goal for the ecotype is to bc: eros drink. reached. 3. Another source of information is the annual buffa- KNP n-Ju.1-h. lo and elephant aerial surveys in the X.Black - Proposed populatio~imanagerrlent rhinoceros arc often encountered and it is possible 0-d c 10 photograph these animals from the air. nlese l_l;-+ Since their introduction the policy of non-interven~iori observations provide valuable inforrriation on black has been advocated, with the objective of allowing the rhinos outside the study area populaaon to increase as rapidly as possible. Because To inonitor che black rhinoceros population in the KNP of Kruger's large size and the wide range suiuble effectively a combinacon of the above three methods black rhinoceros habitats, it has the potential to is proposed. There is an urgent need to launch an bamme the largest ~o~ulatio~in South Africa with effective black rhinoceros monitoring programme in more than 3000 animals (Table 2). hence its impor- he KNP as soon as possible, given tlie clesperate posi- tance in the regional conservation plan (Brooks & tion of the black rhinoceros elsewhere in Africa Adcock 1997). The overall population has only been monitored through the annual aerial survey of the park. - Security This unfortunately, like sin~ilaraerial surveys of other savanna systems, has proved unsuccessful in effective- Poaching in the KNP is a problem that will probably ly estimating rt~inocerospopulation sizes (Goddard always exist. There are few areas in tl~eKM' where 1%7). However, more precise estirnates of population poachers would not encounter rhinoceros wirhin 10 to increase. intercaiving intervals and dispersion patterns 20 km From the boundary. To date. rl~irtocerospoach- not obtainable from the wider survey were estimated ers in the KNP have not concentrated their acrivities in throbgh monitoring a specific subpopulation (of which areas with high rhinoceros densities. Sirice 1990 a sorne of the animals were fitted with radio transmit- total of 34 white rhinoceros and one black r\linocsros ters) in the Skukuza area on a more regular basis over are known to have been poachcd, which probably a number of years. Alltiough rhe sample was restrict- underestimates the true situation. During 1995 only

Spcciw Conscrvatioo Plan: Soud~African Nntional Park South Afncz: SANP Black Rhino-Conservaiion Plan (Outdated-Draft) * Table 3 HMory of the D. b. minorpopuiatlon in Marakele National Park Abbreviations: bfemale; m-male; D-, Mv-moved: Bn-born

Section Nohe Sax Dame/ born Im. Years Nates

Waterval Theresa f 7 (20) 10193 (KNP) In Assl I (151 1OR3(KNP) In Mv To Mers Pan mw(2 I -hm.sa6/94 an W ~ntunesmmg Vuandleia m ?m 1(3/93(Umf) In mwll m Assl3/94 BnJDd Died frwn 7 Carcass nottocmd

Den. 023 0.38 023 0.15

Duikerspen Vaga f 7 m 1/94 (KNP) In f 7 (15) 9/94 (Watew) In Pumbi m 7 (1520) 1/94 (KNP) In

mdpl V m Vega W4 Bn

Den. W 021 021 028

Kwaggas- MO- - m 7 (MfJ 696 (Uml) In MvS-3310 vlakte Zode m ?(W 6196 (Urn0 In Mv Hugo plan W1 0 Catherim f ?(l51 WNP) In Nyani f Camefinal96 an Nyani to ARC Nicola f B/96(KNP) In Dd1711Ck90

Den. (km3 0.53

Zwarthoe)c Canssa ! ?(D) ?/96(KNP) In Kate f 7 (F) 7/96(KNP) In Puoyana I Kate(C) 7/96(KNP) In SBsana f ?('a ?/96(KNP) In Irwe f 7/96(KNP) In Hugo m 7 (4 ?/96(KNP) In Hlanguleni m ?('a ?/96(KNP) In hton m 7/91 (E) 7196(Um() In

pp Den. (PJTF)

Hugos Ri f 7/91 (Q ?/96(KNP) Rams m Iva)(F) ?M(Uml)

Den. 0.80

~otal 3 0.01 7 0.02 Den. (k-rf') 5 0.01 20 0.05

Umf - Urnfolod Game Reserve: Warm - Watervai secbon

one white rhinoceros was poad~edin the Dl'p but spo ii. Such an operation would bc very expensive 2nd radic poaching incidents are expeatd in future. these funds could be utiikd more effectively else-

lt has been suggested that black rhin-ros should be where. rhoved orrt of arras where poachmg is prcvaicnL This iii. Poachers ap, highiy mobilc. ale to shift their suggestion is not supponed- - for the following- reasons: are= of operaions before consemation authorities i. It would be a temporary mcasurc as other rbinoc- eras would quickiy ncoioniz= sucn vacvlr w:as. arc normally able to &=t such aitcrations.

Sp=cits rsmscMIQon P'i South Africwi Nnnouzl Paii It is therefore suggested that anti-padmg operations status and moderate incidence of frost that covm the should be concentrated in arras where rhinomos grcater portion of the park (ca 384 )cm2) is expected to poachmg is prevalent rather than moving rhinoceros have a relatively low ECC of between 0.10 - 0.125 out of problem anas. Anti-poaching pmormtl and rhindlrm2, while the much smaller (ca 55 Irm2) low- equipment could temporarily be reauited from other land bushveld artas with their rare hst and medium quieter stctjons to alleviate problems in high Mty rich soils arc expected to have a slightly higher ECC of rhinoceros are. The fast gmwing white rfiinocems between 0.13 - 0.18 rhindkm2 (Table 2). population in the KNP shields the smaller black hi- nmros population from poaching. Rhinomc3s poach- The intial inaoduction of three animals into the ers do not discern between the two rhinoceros species bushveld Warval section soon revealed that the ECC and shoot the frrst suitable animal. In 1993 a total of had been over estimated, which resulted in a shift of 1 876 white rhinoceros were counted in the KNP and one adult to bolster be Duikerspan section (Table 3). the popuiation rare of incrcase is estimated to be about Animals have also been established in other lowland 9 8 per mum (Vijocn et d 1994). Thus the I2 artas such as Kwagg,oalakte and Hugo's place at white rhinoceros that were poached in 1994 rcprcsmts slightly higher than recommended stocking rates with only 0.6 % of the population. If the number of white the plan of consolidating the separate sections through rhinoceros poached annually can be contained to less land purchases as a way of alleviating the high stock- than 1 % of the population, the white rhinoams popu- ing & in the found:r arcas. However. as this procrss lation in the KNP will continue to expand at a healthy has been delayed -er shifts in the animals have rate and scretn the smaller black rhinoceros popula- been made to address the unsatisfactorially high stock- tion. ing rate. Animals have also been introduced to the larger Zwarthoek highland =as at a density of 0.02 A big problem in some African countries where hi- dlindkm=. noceros populations were decimated was massive corruption in conservation org~oas.Poaching by - Future expansion options staff is the biggest threat to any park's rhinoceros pop ulation It has happened twice in the KNP that staff Hall-Martin er uf. (1995) proposed a further expansion members were involved in rhinoceros poaching. If of the park into the low lying bushveld areas to offer large scale corruption ever sets into the South Amcan the large herbivores the alticudinal and habitar variety conservation organizations, it will be impossible to necessary for seasonal natural movements (Fig. 2). protect minoctros populations in nature reserves. It Thus, the acquisition of farms separating the Waterval. would then be bear to move the animals onto private Geelhoutbos, Duikerspan and Hugos place need be land where the people have the ability to protect them undertaken as quickly as possible. This would effec- Corruption within staff can be Iimited by keeping tively double the size of this habitat to about 110 km'. morale high. crraring a pleasant working environment which could theoretically carry between 14 to 19 ani- and by paying staff decent saiaries. Corruption is at mals. present not a problem within the South African National Parks. - Proposed population management

b. Marakeie NP. The proposed ECC for the different habitats should not be exceedtd 'Ihus. the stocking of the small. fenced - Current status lowland arcas (Kwwasviaktc, Waterval & Hugo's arcas) needs to be given immediate attention. In order The park is presently 440 km' in six and is situatd ar to maximize breeding it is prcferabie to nock the park the western extreme of the Watehcrg Mountain range at recommended =CS of 0.08 - 0.10 and 0.10 - of the Northern Province. Sincc its beginnings in the 0.14 rhindlan2 for the hiaer lying and lowland areas mid 1980s. the acquisition of further pieces of land (in respectively. Thus for the lowland and mountain amas some cases apart kom the main segment of the park), a minimum of 700 and 1OOO ha should be allocated to in hewith the park's development plan (Hall-Martin, esch animal. respectively. NoveIiie & Knight 1995). has led to the need to mar,- age sepame units. W~ththe in~nrionof gecting the At kast thru anirnais (preferably all except the old park operational with a full quota of species as quick- bull) from Kwaggasviaktc and the adult female from ly as possible. there has been a concert4 drive to stock Hugo's piam should be removed, prcferabiy to anoth- the park and its isolated sections with the hope that er section of the larger mountain section. most of the separated areas would be incorporated into the gnater park in the near fum. Black rhinoceros The vacant bushveld sections of Geelhoutbos (3 km') have formed part of this introduction programme. Tne and Zandfontein (ca 4 bz) should not be used for mountain sourveld vegetation with irs low nument soil these animals owing to their small S&. Howeve:. U) V, Ttlble 4. tfistory of the D. b. bicortti~population in Augrablcr Palls Nattalal Park Abbrcvladonr: I-fcmnlc; m-male: W-dclul: hlv-rnovcd; Bn-born.

1; NdNanie Sex Damcl lam. Ycars Notu born date 2 R5 R6 R7 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 a! t 7 8/R5 (ENV Ih1 ~ud:CII~ 1.11 AU2 nlwnpt I 7 W85 (PNI') AlJ.4 I* AlJR f AlJl l I Awl2 r A1J14 1

AV3 PlwtJlu I 7 6/85 (WP) AUlO f W Dead: unknown QUUCS T)cc 92 g 5 ZT AU9 Shibuln I 7 U90 WP) La AU13f

AU4. f Dlol~lpt W Dud: capture Nov93. 6' Illommc~jic OctH7 P! 0) AIM Grhrina f Blou~pot Mv Movcd b KRNP 0~193. P OctB9 5 m AUIO Sattia r PIWI~IU Dd Dead: capture Aug94. n[U Apr9 1 X

AUllSpook r BIOUI~OI MV Movcd b KRNP lhcn 3 et91 AWP m W4. A1112 Nallap I Blon\pt Dn 90 0cr91 ' g 3 V) AU 13 .ntldc I Stlnbula l1 a (D ' .- l?toslia Platlonal Park 2 Scp94 a.2 3 AU14 KIIOIO r ~~oulpot Dn 2 Dcc9S [U -3 AU5 Mc m 7 8/85 (PNP) Mv Movcd lo AENI' Oct91 0 C-

AV6 Wlltlc~r~an 111 7 8/85 (PNP) Mv E[U 5 AV7 Stompic m 7 8/85 (WP) M v Movetl to VNP Mnr90. a 9 0 Ib~al 6 5 6 6 7 7 9 9 9.' 8 6 6 ;S 1

ii'a ' Animal cnr ma~kdwith this nurnbcr. 8. *' Rhho calmD inacard froll~55 lo R9 km', luld lornlr nr of blarcl~of cnrh year. ' - Etosha National I's~k these two sections could be used as temporary holding The above monitoring programme will form an inte- areas for surplus bulls. Although. Watervd is over- gal pm of the overall security operation around the stocked with WO animals. the calves produced from rhinoceros population. Paramilitary mining must form the pair will need to be removed at weaning to reduce an imponant basis of the training of the ranger corps the pressure on the area or alternatively. expand he designated with this operation. In conjunction with this area as planned aspect there aiso has to be a concerted effort at establishing an mfomarion network in he surrounding - Monltodng & security communities so as to preempt any potential poacher activity Wgbt 1995). The confinement of animals to fenced off sections in tbe begking facilitates monitoring, however once he park is consolidated. this task will become more difi- 2. Southwestern (D. b. cf bicomls) cult given the hiliy terrain. small population sizr. ad Tne repatriation of D. b. cf bicornir popularions into small ranger corps. The ranger density will also drop two arid South Aincan national parks (Au,pbies & From the ideal l man/ l 3km2 well within the bounds of . Vaalbos) in 1985 and 1987 respectively. was the initial that recommended by Leader-Rllliams & Albon phase of a plan by the SWto repamate this ecorype (1993). IE may be therefore advisable to fir each animal with a radi+msmitter which would faciliate thelr to its former range in South Africa (Hall-Marun 1'986). monitoring from the ground, panicularly in the eariy The urgency of this was boosted by the possibility of innoduction phases. Failing that helicopter rnomtoring an increased poaching pressur= on the Namibian pop of th: popuiation should be pferabiy undertaken ulations at the time S a result of the mn of twice a ywin conjunction with regular ground moni- Zimbabwean rhinoceros populauons. Funhermore. toring (though crachg) where the following mfoma- with the bulk (95 Q) of the over 500 D. b. cf bicornis tion is recorded: date, time. position. number and in Namibia being =meted to two areas. it was argued agdsex composition, coodirion and general behaviour. that other sccure ppulations. prcferabiy in sanctuaries A veld computer that is in the pmess of being devel- or small manageable areas, needed to be established oped may prove an ideai tool ior this type of data outside Namibia yet in the ecotype's former dismbu- ~ordingparticularly by illiterarc rangers and could be tion. Furthrr justification for this comes fmm the fact in most parks. that no D. b. cf bicornir wee held in captivity and

Spa bOSNadm Plan: Sourn marn Natiooal P& Nd4amc Scn D~llidborn Inuo.

Pan1 f 8/87 In Ilenjl F?lc~ Vlcl

Ubcghan I W87 111 Ngnrall Ilnngn Vcrnon Dulu 'lil~ukotll~ f W87 In Ilorkn Krllgc Malckr 17 Nkhombe Kora

Elgara I Dd:Ilghtnlng norka To KRNP l W93 I(ulga 'Ib AENP 1W94 Kola Dled 11193 'P~loc' Ib AENI' V96 Vlci hlozib n 77 0

Chlpcnbere ~n 7 8/81 In M v TO KRNP IN93 3g V) (P Rccomhe m 7 4'89 lu/lW I)ld brukcn Jaw 7 Dlcd: Vdllclc aocldent 2 6' Dld Anaemla7 3 -U 0) 3 Mv To 496 - AENP 0 t\enji rn Pnr11 Jar1 91 hlvllM Moved AIWI', dlet1:bnl~dr 2 llnnga 111 Ubcghan Jun 91 ~i~d:N0lfng 3/93. % a Vcvnon 111 Ubeglinn Apr 93 Dd I)lccl: llghtlng 3/95.

f,fnlcka 111 1M11kud1:JM 9.1 nn h1 V To AW P 2/96 29 DIII~I 111 Ubcgt~sr~Jsli 95 D 11

0. 3. 'Ibml No. Dauiry Flu.') mere wcrc no plans LO mcorporak them into the cap the adjacent military training ground into the p& tive breeding programme (Foose 1992). increasing the section with rhinos to about 655 km2. It was thought that an area could carry about 30 ani- Given the reiatively small parks into which the rhinos mals @rooks 1989) at a conservative emlogical carry- were to be rrpaPiared it was decided from the outxt ing capacity (Emof about 0.03 hdLm2,that was that a ~tapotapo~lationapproach (Gilpin & IIanski later increased to about 0.075 rbinh' based upon 1991) t~ man&ng the D. b. bicorntr population would densities noted in other arid areas (Knight 1993b). be implemented This would reduct the chance of the entire population succumbing to some stochastic event Although one of the adult females did shortly after such as drough~the probability of which was consid- release as a result of a fall from a cliff, the population ered rather high given that most of the parks were in has bred exaptionany well, inamsing at a high l 15% arid areas prone to such events (Tyson 1986). Thus. the per annum (one of the highest in the subregion initial founding population of 12 animals (plus a fur- (Adcock 1995)). This was principally due to the phe- ther three later added) brought in from Etosha was sub- nomenal breeding pafonnana of the female Blompot divided between two satellite parks, Augrabies and who had a very short intercalving interval of 2 years. Vaalbos. with a plan to interchange individuals. pamc- With the addition of another adult female (Shibula) ularly bmding males, once the first generation from Lisbon Zoo m 1990 and birth of a further WO reached brteding age. The breeding history of each of calves. the popuiarion increased to 9 animals by 1992 these populations is disc;usscd below. and an unacixptably high density of 0.16 rhinodb2.

It was in this period that the adult female Plootjies died A. Present populatlons which may have from the high density. Owing to delays in fencing and changes in the polid- a. The Augrables Falls N.P. population cal status of Riemvmaak. the military ground was never incorporated into the hinoceros camp, which led - Current status to a potential crisis for he rhinoceros population. h a result the 58.03 km' Waterval farm was purchased. Six (33) animals were introduced into the 55 km: The southern section was added to the rhinoceros camp Bokvasmaak secdon of the park on the northern bank in 1991, increasing its size to 89 km? and lowering the (Table 4). AL thai stage negotiations were well density to 0.1 hinodan:, still above the rccomrnend- advanced towards incorporating a further 600 km' of ed stocking rate.

Spcciw Conscnatim Plan: Diccms bicorni. Swth Amon f46tioaal Parks South Afncs: SANP Black Rhino-Conservation Plan (Outdated Draft) Table 6 Fhtq of fhz D. b. hrnkpopakdm in Knm Nrriaail PPF Abtmvwanu f-female: mmalc: Mv-movd Bn-bom

N gma2 f Txhuhxb 1/94 m In G& Kaaina f B lom pot l293 (AW) Ln T5uar03 f B lom~m I(Y94 (AWN?) InlMv tnJmcd chmugh fighting. To m

Tod no. I a 4 4 -rv -3 0.01 0.06 0.06 0.s

To'reducz the stochg race five animais were removed the south of the public road to bemvasmaak. This in late 1993 and 1994, of which nvo unfo~lydied would expand the rhinoam camp to around 136 km: from capture relad problems (Table 4). This reduced which has a potential ECC of between 6 and 9 animals the density to 0.06 rhmdkm'. The captured animais These expansions as have knincorporated into the formed the nucleus for two new populadons in Karm 10 year senario flable 2) would account for most of and Addo Elephant National Parks. The innoduction the land between the Riemvasmaak road and the farm of Shibula was unique in that it was me finr E-inn land along the northern bank of the Orange River. duction of 2 ux, animal back into me in sim free-mg- Unless an alterative to the hernvasmaajc road could be ing situation. She was introduced into a xparatc (ca negotiated, or some conmrual agreement for addi- 1OOO ha) fenced-off section loca~~don the eastern tional land can be agreed upon with the hemvasmaak extreme of the park As part of her introducaon phase. community the size of the minoceros camp will be the old bull Arie was included in her camp in the hope very much at its maximum sk. Altrrnarive approach- that he would cover her. A.fter about a year the wpa- es could be to purchase further land (Keichenoep and raring fence was dropped and she was allowed to inte- Zwaar Draai) to the north of the Riemvasmaak road to grate with the remamaer of the popuiaaon. add m the Warerval and Omdraai sections already owned by the SANP, and run it as a separate unit from - Future expansion options the rcst of the park or consolidate it with the southern section and manage the MICalong the road. The . From an analysis of black rhinoceros stocking rates Waterva!, Omdraai and Kakamas Noord sections to the throughout the subrcgioo Adcock (1 995) recommend- north of the Ricmvasmaak road alrady amount to ed that the PLFNP ECC should be between 0.04 - 0.06 98.7 W and with their motz open, sparse vegetation rhinosrkm', below the 1993 recommendation. At the and lower ECC of ca 0.04 rbindun~could potentially parks present skit couid not carry more than 6 ani- carry a further 4 rhino, increasing the arcs for rhinoc- mals which in itself dou'not meet the minimum EEC ems to 234.7 W. Ideally. to accommodatr a minimum of 20 animals per population. But the SANl"s of 20 rhinoceros the park will need to be expanded to metapopuldon approach to managing these popula- about 330 W, ie. another 95 bn' would need to be tion~does in itself oar make this a critical W: purchased although the very siL- of the population opcns it to greater chances of carastrophe. There should therefom h an alternative to expanding the park north of the rcmain the commitment to iurther expand the park's pmcnt Riemvasmaak mad, the SANP should possibly size to accomm& a larger population of hinos. consider expanding the park along the southern bank of the Orange fiver to the wcsr in the nopc of Linking The park was Merexpanded by the m=of the to the proposed Gariep Transfmnticr Park (Jhe% 3401 km1 and 9 1.2 W Omdraai and Kakamas Noord Owen 1998). Expansion along the southern bank properties h 1996, of which 17 km' and 295 km2 would be wand of heZxtensive vidculhrr= along the retively are to be directly included in the present Blouputs arca and would be bisected by 2 number of iiIinoceros ramp by 1998 (Fig 4). Both sections lie to pubiic roads which wouid call for propsive mange- ment options.

14 Dicems bicornk Proposed populetlon management - of the Riemvasmaak road but rather wait until the Assuming the area of the park will not exceed the 10 political sihlation has settled. In the mean time high year sanario and that the EMPCC for the arca is no searicy awareness of the rhinoceros camp should be more than 7 animnln, its recommended that he age and maintained &mu@ the establishment of 2 permanent sex composition should be maintained as one breeding ranger station on the northern bank. upgraded para- bull (To armost). two adult females and their proge- military mining for these rangers and ~gularoven ny up to about three to four years of age. Thus each and clanciestinc p-IIing (Knight 1995). The need for female could have two calves (of Merent ages) sirnul- an efficient early warning system in the form of an tanmusly in the park for a yea.or two. Removal of the information nerwork is a necessity in this small park. 3 - 4 year olds would be in preference to the just At the slightest indidon of the rhinoceros being weaned two year olds owing to thci- larger siiz and exposed to any danger they should be moved forthwith wrsocial awareness. to the following pcsiible sitts (m order of prcfe~na): Any expansions of the parks area beyond present the Zuurbcrg sertion of AENP, KRNP, MZNP and . expectations would quire a rrarsessment of the hi- WCNP. nccerus population management strarrgy. b. The Vaalbos N.P. population - Monitoring & Security - Current status Monitoring should consist of at least weckly Sighdngs The six rhinoceros (15) introduced into the Sydney of all rhinoceros by ranger staff, with dam on date. section of Vadbos National Park in 1987 grew to a time. posinoc number and agdsex composition. con- maximum of 13 animals by 1993 but has been reduced dition and general behaviour being noted for each to 9 in 19% througb removals and deaths (Table 5). sighting. In addition every oppornrnity that a heli- an copur is available should be made use of ro k-p phe The growth over this period has averaged 6.4% with tographic records of each animal. .above average interxaiving interval of 2.9 yeus. Lr! spite of this there have unfortunately been a number of Although the park has not yet had its security tested, deaths. many beyond management control. Over the the fact that people known to be antagonisuc to con- 10 years, a total of eight animals have died (one to scrvariori and with previous expo- to illegal rhinoc- iighming, one to vehicle injuries. two to disease erus acnvities in Namibia have been repariared to (anaemia & babes~a).one to a broken jaw, and three to hemvasmaak. it may be advisable to not expand north fighting).

NcRiun= Sex Drmd born low. dae Years Notu (from) 93 94 95 % Kmgc f Tshukudu 691 1/95 (VhT) h M. From Kicinv'kk m Buffclsnt~l T!wucs f BlornpocI(Y91 IBS(AFN?'! h Mv From Klcmviai m Buffclskul!

Anc m ? I(Y94 MFNk'I hivl From Klc~nvlakto Buffclskuil. dlcd W old agt'

hiakka m TshuhKiu 1/94 5% WNP) in To Buffclskuii noay) Total no. i 3 6 .d

C South Afri~:SAN? Black Rhino_Conservation Plan (Outdated Draft) .l07 Sina introduction the rhhocrros density has varied join\ a greater Vaafbos park complex wouid raise the 3 from 0.03 to 0.072 hindhn2. with the lattn density arnstrvation area to in exass of 660 W which at the approaching that which was initially rtcommcndcd by proposed stocking of 0.04 0.06 hindkm2 could I - 7a Knight (1993~)based upon mnd densities from carry a mtal of 30 m 50 animals mle2). other anas. W~th only about 42% of the park mid- . . In the event that the options do not makmhsc a trtd to offer favdleblack habitat it was number of options remain open such as expanding the cshakd that'the park couid not- carry more than about park anws the Vad River towards he Ghaap ph 14 animals which led to he banslocation of two ani- which offers some ideal black rhoccms cm~. mals (Chipembere (the breeding bull) md 11 About 147 km2. enough to cany a further nine rhino, )Q male) to Rwo National Park However, the loss of lies dirstly opposite the park Besides offering addi- calves (all class C-D - 2-3-year olds) through -- -- tional land for rhinos it would also wide very much fighting and the injurics infictrd upon another sub- needed river frontage. adult bun (&nji3 raised conmns about t&c parks hi- noccros carrying capacity. During this period of Howcva, the fact the park has not met its initial goals injuries the population dmsity ranged betwun 0.06 - of including the Rooipoort and Pniel proees in 0.07 rhindhr9. At first it was reasoned that the some form of grtata national pa& (even undcr some injuries may have been idiicted by the mothers of the form of'mntractual agreement) has brought the very calves during the weaning stag as all the m@ ani- existence of the park into question. Ruxnt prcssu&&~ mals were in the 2-3 y+ age class However, the fact has called for a ruvaua-4 4 d. A, that Benji (a 5-year old bun) also sustained injuries tim of the situation (Hall-Martin1998). raised suspicions that the bull Kams may have been the h4 - Propas4 population management culprit as be was just coming into brzeding age at the --QL time and the previous breeding bull had been removed Assuming the status quo remains as is and in the light hrn the park shortly before. of past iighting, it is recommended that the ECC o&.k

should be maintained between 0.04 - 0.06 rhin&cm1 ~IIY,L - Future expansion options (Knight B Novellie 1995). and with the desire to max- 6 , The future potential for black rhinmros conservation imze breeding, the EMPCC should not exceed 9 ani- in the VNP area is good given the presence of mainly mals. The number of breeding bulls should be restrict- --l& game farming and to a hteddegree cde farming ed to one (and possibly two). with three or four breed- - - enterprises in surrounding propemes (Fig. S). ing females and their immedia progeny. Calves In Agreements with the owners of Rwipoon and Pniel to age classes C CO D should be wldto other pop

Fig. 5.Vaaibos National Part: and surrounding Land.

Specia -&cm PLac: South Afria; Natiod Parr: Psrk Pcdling Distasc hoaght %fq. . Smv. sfq Rcpr. SW. % fq. Rqx. Smv.

'm 5.0 1.0 m 1.0 1.0 0.95 10.0 . 03 0.9 VNP U 1.0 0.80 l .D 1.0 0.95 5.0 05 0.9 KRNP U 1.0 0.80 1-D 1.0 0.95 5.0 03 0.9 m 1.0 1.0 0.80 1.D 1.0 0.95 10 1.0 0.9

ulations as a mawr of poiicy to remove any chana of founder populafions. Knight & Novellie (1993a) sug-- -er coafiict gested that the animals should be introduced into the Doringhoek section ratber than the initially proposed - Monitoring & Security Sandrivia , section owing to greater altitudinal varia- Owing to the density of the bush in which the animals tion and diversity of vegetation commdties (Fig. 6). nodlyoccur.monitoring shouid consist of a number of approaches: Since the introduction of the three animals (12) RI the 7148 ha Dooringhoek section in late 1993 and early a. AIl sightings by ranger staff should be noted for in the date. time, position, number and ageisex corn- 1994, the population has settled well conanhating positios condition and general behaviour. Ranger predominantly in the river valley ind vegetation on staff should regularly back animals down to record the lower xrre slopes. An attempt to introduce anoth- their presence. This could be facilitated by the use er female (Tswaros - 4 yr old) from AWNP was of a number of well trained trackers. undertaken in October 1994. Using the same inaoduction protocol implemented in AW,the female b. Watemole watches over full moon noting same as above. was introduced into a ca 1900 ha fenced camp. located in the south western corner of the Doringhoek camp. c. Aerid surveys from the helicopter on an annual However, the female broke through the unelectrified basis (plus whenever available) wnich is also used fence separating the two rhinoceros areas and was sub- to maintain a photographic record of each animal sequently injured by one of the other hino. Field staff and calving records. were of the opinion that the adult ru'gara II female was d Regular (at least every two months) fixed wing sur. the aggressor and not Chipemben the adult male. vey noting same as the above. Tswaros was then capued and safely moved to The drysystem of the park has not 'keen tested and m. - with its isolation away Erurn any major roads. the By the end of 19% one calf (Gamka) had been born threat was considered to be moderate to poor Wght into the population. making it the first second genera- 1995). This grants no room for complaancy as the tion calf born into the D. b. bicornb population in park does border on a communal land area in the north, South Africa (Table 6). Tne birth of this c.has raised aIbiet on the other side of the Vaal Rrver. Security the stocking rate to 0.056 rhind)cm'which approaches al- should be improved with greater petrolling the rtcommended carrying capacity for this sections of armed, by well trained scwts in the rhinoceros con- the KRNF (Table2).. .{....whereby the ccnmtion areas and the stationing of personal wihn U transfer th e maiqntv of the D. b. cf m-r to a the park. AI1 efforts should be made to increase the Uunvate landowner (under cnntractl. while keeo- ranger component of the park as the 1 man136 W is not particularly ideal (Knight 1995). Paramilitary of T~Q rehher coursers should be a part of the annual pm the Thaba R==ne m gramme. An information network need also be estab -ern mvmawas oartiallv a sale and swo~for: Iished as a maner of urgency to pre-empt any auack on r from KwaZuiu-Natal that were free- the population. ?be re&& of a b- cf .m. rmurrts us ofD. b. michaelt th e KRNP. . the tram- C. Xaroo PIP population me ...... xhole ooemum 1s wed at makrne tne unmf-bar alable to the hisEoricaIlv rconus sooner U. xf . the SW Kamo Nationd Park formed the first satellite popula- j@ followed the ferable but no transfer of tion to be estabiished from the Augrabies and VaaIbos animals to East &%ca. uart of of=

Sptcit~Coascnndcm Plan: Soutn African Nacional contractual ameement drawn UD with Thaba Thoio in and the cats (to the recipient) asseciated with the cap which no D. b. cf michaeli are to be soldfloanedl and ~sfe:of be animals. For this reason, there m has been a shift in policy whereby the SANP has opted ual in South Ahica but that the animals will be refer- to transfer almost half of the D. b. cf michaeli popuia- ~blvmade available East African con- and =p [ion to a local private landowner (under contract), ytable mlodcal m&=. Moreover. the small breed- . . while keeping a smaller breeding nucleus of animals in me of cf mc& dcs~edfor KRNP trans- nucleus D. b. . . the the RRNP (Rught & Hall-Martin 1998a). The fer of rhinoctms to the Thaba Thoio Private Game -cularlv the newlv mtnxiuccd amxu& Rescrve in the Northern Province was partially a sale from Pon Lmand Tanzania to marentce their and swop for sir D. b. cf minor from KwaZulu-Natal breedine.) that werc free-released in the KNP. The retention of .a breeding nucleus of D. b. ci michaci!' in the KRNP D. Addo Elephant NP population - rcquks the nansfer of the mident D. b. cf bicornis to Zuurberg section AENP. This whole operation is aimed at making the important XENP valley bushveld availabie to the his- - Present status torically indigenous D. b. cf bicornis sooner than if the The reintrduction of this ecotype to the AENP formed SANP had followed the preferable but dragging trans- part of the SWsoverall policy to re-establish oniy fer of animals to East Xfrica This option remains p= indigenous speciedsubspecies/ecorypes in national of the contractual apment drawn up with Thaba parks. Notwithstanding the fact that black rhino, conti- Tholo in which no D. b. cf michaeii are to be sold 1 nent wide. are endangered, and that the valley loaned I swopped to any other organisation or private bushveld vegetation offen some of the best black hi- individual in South Africa but that he animals will be nocems habitat in Afriq the SANP felt the conserva- preferably made available to East African concerns tion of the regionally important D. b. d bitornis eco- and reputable zoological gardens. Moreover, the small type should take precedence over the East African D. bdngnucleus of D. b. cf michaeli destined for the b: cf michacli population already estabiished in the KRNP is pan of SAN? obii-dons to hold a segment park (Hall-Martin & Knight 1994). Howeve:, the of the population, particuiariy the newly induced removal of the D. b. cf miciraeli animals hu proved to animals hum PO~LLynpe arid Tanzania to guarank be a promacted affair. owing to the lack of in situ sites their breeding.

S&= Cmrvauon Plan: 18 Diccms bicornu Swh Af'ncan Natiord P& F:g. 7. Addo Elcpiwt Naaonal Park with clcp&nt camp and surrounds expanded.

Tne introduction of the D. b. cf bicornir ecocype to the were all m-sfemd to the 4.83 kmz large (density - AENF has gone through two stages (Table 7). Tne first 0.62 rhindkmz) northern camp in Buffelskuil fig. 7). inciuded the introduction of Arie (the oid bull from Owing to injuries sustained from fighting in VNP, the AFNP) and two young females into the 5.82 km2 subadult bull Benji was aansferrcd burn VNP bomas Kleinviak camp simad outside the main elephant in June 1995 and held in the Addo bomas until he camp which holds the D. b. c5 michnrZi popuiatioa unfortunately died of a Babcn'c infection in Aupt Oniy about 50% of this camp provided ideal rbinocer- 1995. Tne strain of Babesiu was thought to bave be=n OS habitat which'meant the stocking rate was at 1.03 inuoduced with the D. b. michaeli from Kenya PLS a rfiindkm2 (Fig. 7). and besides this high density their result of this the bomas are now thoroughly disinfected body' condition was considered excellent and bere prior to the innoduction of any further animals. Tnis were no overt si-gns of agrcssioL Tne three animaIs proved successful with the introduction of the moe remained in KieinvIak until the 14/6/96 wnen they rhinoceros (2.1) from VNP in Wn19%. who we=

Spodw &-ation PLan: 19 Dicms bicornir South Africa@NM~ Paiu South Am=: SANP Black RhinaConservation Plan (Outdated Draft) 113 X

Yeon Years

Fis 9. apaxai populrrian survival ancl hcemzygcnicy of Lhe D. b. bicornir populadons under a merapopulanon scmario in which supplemcnrarion and ham* of anunds m al&

l. The frequency of occurrence and effect (on the prob- 10. A total of 100 simulations over a 100 year period ability of reproduction and nwival) of three types was meamrd of catastrophies (poaching, disease and drought) were estimated for each population depending upon I l. Inbreeding depression was taken at the default rak. their expected susceptability (Krught 1995) to these From the simulation modeis it soon became obvious factors as listed in Table 8. tha: without any supplementaIion nor harves~g,the 2. Females and males bmd at 7 and 10 years of age, probability of a proportion of the popuiadons going respectively. extinct increased with time 9). However, with the 3. Age of senescence - 35 years. suppiementadon of breeding males on a 10 yeariy basis the proportion of extant populations increased from 4. Female reproductive rate - 0.286 binhsladul: 608 to 86%. and with harvesting also included it iemalei year. ina-eascd further to 90%. The overall heerozygosity of 5. 30% of adult males breed the population showed a similar response with an increase to 6. Calf (c 4yrs) mortality - SWyear. from 0.72 around 0.93 for the supplemcntarion and harvesting options. ?bus the larger the 7. Adult mortality - 286%/year. founder population the pater the chances of survival 8. Although four metapopulations werc consided and preservation of pnetic hetrrozygosiry. two and AFNP) wm used as the founder The SANP poiicy of replacing the extraiimital D. b. d populations fmm which the other populations were su>ck,d The probability of migration between pop michueii popuianon in AENP with the indignous D. ulations was assummed to be 0.056 and b. d birornir ecotype (H&-M& & Knight 1994) 0.065iadulVycar bum AFNP and W.respective- was hoped to be cornpiered within a few years with iy. Tnese are based upon the ram to be. From most of the animals being repatriated to East African AFN?. 10% were to go to VNP, 20% to KRNT and consmation areas. The SANP had pianntd to genere 70% to AENP. From W, 10% werc to go to suficient revenue from the mader of the D. b. cf AFNP, m to KRNP and 70% to m.Three rnichark' to suppon its own expansion plans to AENP sctnarios were used as follows: and purcbax of further animals from Namibia if - No supplemcntarion. nor harvesting. required to do so. However, as the became rather prouacted owing to few foreign donors prepared - cach with Supplement of the four populations to take the risk of taking the whole populafion, the - har- an adult male once every 10 years. and no SANP mdto &erring a number of animals to vesting. zoological gardens in exchange for donations to the - Supplern=nt and harvest an adult male frum mino conservation budgeL By November 1997 a total ezch population once every 10 y-a. of i2 D. b. cf michacli had ixen removed from the parir with six going to zoological gardens and the ai&e S3rhindlan' appearrd to have led to intense remainder to Mkomazi Game Reserve (22) and aggrrssive enmuntm and should therefore not be Ngomngm Conservation Area (0.2) in Tanimia. This exceeded Subsequently, the AENP was expanded in unfavourable piecemeal approach distorted the sex 1982-84 to 792 kmi and again in 1992 to 95 5 km2. ratios in favour of males and was considmd tmhealthy which resulted in a stocking rare of 034 rhindbn' for the -g population in the event he SANP (Table 8). was to be left &th a rcmnant population. This resulted From the small founder population skand early loss- in the SANP reconsidering its plans and options. The es. in& policy asepttd was one of sclhgl2 of the animais to the rhinoam population had to 35 (iciusive of a bull imported £mm England on bred- a private land owner (llaba 73010 Game Reserve) in ing loan) individuals by 19% at a high rate of increase South Afrim yet retaining a b&g nucleus of D. b. of 9.1% per mum, well above that no& for most cf michaeii (Knight & Hall-Martin 1998a). This nucle- other rhinoceros populations in southern Africa us which will be held to gum- the breeding of two (Adcock 1995). This phenomenal popdabon mucase males redmhccd into the population. It is planned to is more than Iikely atflitable to the availability of &amfa these animals to the KRNP so as to make the nutritious succulent vegetation year round. rain entire AENP available for the introduced D. b. cf throughout the year and lack of hxt biconrir ppuhon (Knight & Hall-Martin 1998b). The SAN? $licy of replacing the extdmital D. b. cf 3. Eastern (D. b. cf michaell) michaeli population in AENP with the indigenous D. b.. cf bicornir efotype (Hall-Martin h Knight 1994) was hoped to be completed with a few years with - Current status most of the animals being rcpamaatd to East African W~thno exass rhinoceros at that time available from conservation FA. The SANP had planned to generate the Natal reserves. seven D. b. cf michaeii were in- sufficient revenue from the &er of the D. b. cf duud into AENP from Kenya between 1% 1 and 1962 michncli to suppoti its own expansion plans to AENP (Hall-Martin & Penzhorn 1977). almost a decade and purchase of further animals from Namibia if before the induction began into the RNP. initial required to do so. However, as the process became poor management of the founders resulted in the death rather protracted owing to few foreign donors prepared of three animals from fighting. The animals were ~ni- to take the risk of dung the whole population. the tialiy confined at very high densities of up to 5.2 SANP resorted to selling a number of animals to ux>- rhindkm2 in a small camp apart from the elephants logical gardens. By November 1997 a total of 12 D. b. but in 1977 the rhinoceros wert released into the larg- cf michaeli had been removed from the park with six er (395 kmz) elephant camp which dropped the densi- going to zoological ,-dens and the remainder CO ty to 0.28 rhindkmz. It had been found thar densities Mkomazi (2.2) and Ngorongoro Conservation Area

Years Yearj

- No supplemcnmtios no bms - Suppiementation of 2 animais in 30 years --a-. Supplcrncnration cvcry 10 yean - -. Suppiemcaration & harvest cvcry 10 years

fig. 10. Expxd popuhtion survival and hdcmzygasity of rhe 0.6. michaeli popularion under diffcmnt s~~icmcnradonand har vadng rae.

S.&a Comavation Plan: South Ahicm Natioeal Fwks South Africa: SANP Black RhinaConservation Plan (Outdated Draft) \ 113

Yeas Years

Fig. 9. expected popularion survival and hc~mrygosiryof !he D. b. bicornis popularions under a metapopvlatioo scenario in which supplcmcntztion and harvesting of animals arc alkrcd.

1. Tne frequency of occurrence and effect (on the prob 10. A total of 100 simulations over a 100 year period ability of reproduction and survival) of three types was measured of catastrophies (poaching, disease and droughtj were estimated for each population depending upon l l. Inbreeding depression was taken ai the default rate. their expected susccptability (Knight 1995) to these From the simulation models it soon be-me obvious as factors listed in Table 8. that without any supplementation nor harvesting, the 2. Females and males breed at 7 and 10 years of age, probability of a propoftion of the populadons going respectively. extinct increased witb time mg. 9). However, with the 3. Age of senescence - 35 years. suppiementation of brtcding males on a 10 yearly basis the proportion of extant popularions increased from 4. Female reproductive rate - 0286 birthsladult 60% to 86%. and with harvesting also included it femalelyear. increased further to 90%. The overan hertrozygosity of 5. 30% of adult males breed. the popularion showed a similar response witb an from 6. Calf (< 4yrs) mortaliry - 35Wyear. increase 0.72 to around 0.93 for the supplementation and harvesting options. Thus the larger the 7. Adult mortality - 286%lyear. founder population the greater the chances of nwival 8. Although four metapopulations were considered. and pnservation of genetic hetnaygosity. two (VNP and AFNP) we= used as the founder ci populaticms h which the other ppulations were The SANP policy of repiaring the exdimtal D. b. stocked. The probability of mipration between pop midracfi population in AENP with the indigenous D. ulations was assummed to be 0.056 and b. cf bicornir -type (Hall-Martin h Knight 1994) 0.065ladultiyear £mm AFNP and VNP, rupective- was hoped to be compieted within a few years with ly. These are based upon the rates to date. From most of he animais being rtpatriatrd to East African M,10% were to go to VNP, 20% to KRNP and conservation areas. The SANP had planned to generate 70% to AENP. FmVNP, 10% were to go tc sufficient revenue from the -er of the D. b. ci AFNP. 20% to KRNP and 70% to AENP. Three midracii to support its own expansion plans to AENP scenarios were used as follows and purchase of further animals from Namibia if - No supplementation. nor harvesting. rrquirul to do so. However, as the process became derpro& owing to few foreign donon prepared - with Supplement each of the four popllations to take the risk of taking the whole population. the an adult male once every 10 years. and no har- SANP resorted to transfeITing a number of animals to vesting. zoological gardens in exchange for donations to the - Supplement and 'harvest an adult male From rhino conservation budget By Novtmber 1997 a total each population once every 10 years. of 12 D. b. cf michaeii had been removed from the pair with six going to -logical gadems and the abo;e 333 rhhdkd appcarcd to have led to intense remainder to Mkomazi Game Reserve (22) and aggressive encounters and should thenfore not be Ngomngoro Conservation Area (0.2) in TTamania 'Ihis exceeded Subsequently, the AENP was expanded in unfavourable piecemeal approach distorted the sex 1982-84 to 792 km2 and again in 1992 to 95 5 km'. ratios in favour of males and was consided unhealthy which resulted in a stocking mte of 034 rbhdkd for the maining-. population. in the went the SAN? (Table 8). was to k left &th a remnant populanon This resulted Fmthe small founder population size and early loss- in the SANP recansidering its plans and options. The es, the rhinoceros population had indto 35 poiicy accepted was one of selling12 of the animals to (inclusive of a bull imported from Engiand on breed- a land owner (Thaba IIholo Gazm Rtservej in mare ing loan) individuals by 19% at a hi& rate of inm South Africa, yet retaining a beeding nucleus of D. b. of 9.1% per annum. well above that noted for most cf midmdi (Knight & Hall-Manin 1998a). Tnis nucle- other rhinoceros populations in southern Africa us which wiIl be held to guarcn~the breeding of two (Adcock 1995). This phenomenal population increase males redmdud into the populatron. It is planned to is more than likely attributable to the availabiIity of Werthese animals to the KRNP so as to make the nutritious succulent vegetation year round, rain entire AENP available for the introduced D. b. cf throughout the year and lack of ht bicomis popuhlion (Knight & Hall-Martin 1998b). The SANP Policy of =placing the ex-tal D. b. cf 3. Eastern (D. b. cf mlchaeli) michaeli population in AENP with the indigenous D. b. cf bicornis ecotype (Hall-Martin & Knight 1994) was hoped to be completed within a few years with Current status - most of the animals being repatriated to East African W~thno excess rhinoceros at that time available from conservation areas. ?he SANP had planned to generate the Natal reserves, seven D. b. cf michaeli were inuo- suEcient revenue from the transfer of the D. b. cf dudinto AENP from Kenya betwen 1% 1 and 1962 rnichaeli to supper? its own expansion plans to AENP (Hall-Martin & Pemborn 1977), aimmt a decade and purchase of further animals hrn Namibia if before the innoduction began into the RNP. btial required to do so. However, as the process became poor management of the founders resulted in the death rather protracted owing to few foreign donors prepared of three animals from fighting. The anirnais wee ~ni- to take the risk of taking the whole population. the tially confined at very high densities of up to 5.7- SANP resorted to selling a number of animals to zoo- rhindlan2 in a small camp apart from the elephants logical gardens. By November 1997 a total of 12 D. b. but in 1977 the rhinoceros were released into the larg- cf michaeli had been removed from the park with six er (395 b2)elephant camp which dropped the densi- going to mlogicaI gardens and the remainder to ty to 0.28 rhindkrm2. It had been found that densities Mkornazi (2.2) and Ngorongoro Conservation Area

Yean Years

- No suppiementation, no harvest - Suppicmcntxtion of 2 nnimnis m 30 ym ..... Slrppicmmtation Nay l0 years - - . Slrppiemcntation & harvest cvay 10 years

Fig. 10. population survival and httmygcuiry of tk D.6. miciracli popuiation under different ~pplcmcncationand bar vating ram.

Species Conrervadoa Plan: Saulh ficsn Nadonsl Parks South Africa: SANP Black RhinoConservation Plan (Outdated Draft) 117 Mountain Zebm National hrk

I 1

Fig. 12. Mountain Zebra National Park and propmcd expansion

respectively. Droughts were considered to have a 8. With the Db cf michcii population being split in higher (2%)probability of occurring with a 0% and two and no further popularions to be established. ir 10% negative affect on reproduction and survival. was modelled as such. respectively. 9. Four different combinations of supplementation I Females and males bdat 7 and 10 yPaof age. and harvesting were measured: respectively. - No supplementation and barvcsdng (a situation 3. Age of senescence - 35 years. when the population is left entirely alone). 4. Female reproductive rate - 0314 births/adult - 2 30 female/year. - The supplementation of adult rnajes in years, with the first being introduced 35 years S! 30% of adult males breed. after introduction and the second 15 years later), something similar to it?: present D. &. C: 7. Adult monaiity - 3.75%/year. rnichaeii situation.

Sp=c~csConservation Piat: Sollth Amcan Rauonal Pmks V&TLY WIULIL U LI~ICSUIICU me W - LUG ~ppLGulGUUULVll VL I UUIL lIIii.IC =YCly 1u uu m nca amp years beginning only a.35 years after in- the sex ratio heavily skewed in favour of females. duction. With this rationale accepted the recummended ECC - The supplementation of 1 adult male every 10 for the park should be between 0.05-0.07 ~~~. years bepinning only afrer 35 years after in- The entire park could theoreticany cany between 14 - duction and the harvesting of adults of either sex 19 animals. As the park is not entkly fenced it was Afk7 35 years at the same frequency as the sup recommended that the rhinoceros should be introduced piementation. into separate fendmps (Krught h Bemidenhout in 10. A total of 100 simulations over a 100 year period prep.). This would be considered a temporary measure was measured until such time as the park is entireiy fenced and an 11. Inbnding depression was taken at the default rata agreement has ben made with respect to the provincial road From Figure 10 very little difference in the probability of the populadons surviving under the above four dif- The availability of -fresh drinking wa!.er and the need ferent suppIementation and harvesting scenarios were for security makes Abrahamsbal the best site for noted- Between 0.99 and 1.0 of the simulations m- such an introductionholding camps (F1g.11). It was vived. This probably arises from the very high calf and recommended that the camps should be about 400 ha which adult survival rates mmthan klyarises from each and $an across the dunes to provide the greatest the ideal habitat and environmental conditions on offer amount of habitat heterogeneity as possible. Food in Addo. However. the expected genetic hetcroygos- would need to be supplemented during this introduc- ity betwen between the scenario of no supplementation phase and their feeding behaviour and condition tion and harvesting and the introduction of two males produced similariy low heterozygosity values of closely monitored. between 0.75-0.77 after 100 years. Only with an In the event the provincial road can not be controlled it increase in the supplementation and harvesting rate did may be advisable to ience-off the southern hali of the the heteraygosity increase to 0.83. But this still fails park for the rhino. Tnis area on its own could carry short of the minimum desired heterozygosity value of about eight animals. Little is known of the behaviour- 0.90. ?his could only be increased by effectively al consequences oi srocking bulls on,thek own and will increasing the founder population skthrough greater need to be closely monitored supplementation. One point that emerges from thex simuiations is che importance of harvesting on inmeas- ing the genetic heteozygosity as it allows a greater 2. Mountain Zebra National Park number of maies to reproduce in this small popuiarion. Although this park with its karoid vegetation offers suitable habitat for black rhino. it is considered too small (65 km*) at this stage for any inucductions. Other parks capable of There arc however plans to expand the park to around carrying black rhino 2465 km2 through the purchase of the additional land (Fig.12). To date, the farms de Rust and Bossieskloof have been acquired and the municipal ground 1. West Coast National Park (Sondagshoek) has 'been donated bringing the extra An asesnent of the WCNP ability to carry black land to 143.1 km2. rhinoceros exposed a number of potential problems At the recommended ECC of 0.05-0.0? ~~2 the Wgbt B Novellie 1993b). Although the park is cla- pmposed park wouId be able to cam, a maximum of 12 tively lqe (270 km1) offering substantid browse it to 17 animals, with an FmCof benveen 9 to 12 ani- was felt that the food quality on offer (with the exap mals. This Like the Vaalbos and Auwies populations don of the guano-rich deposits on the Posberg penin- wouid not rcprescnt a viable population on its own but sula) may be &er wanting given the pm nument would have to fit into the metapopulation management stacus of the soils, characteristic of the western Cape strategy with the other parks. If a total of about 8-10 coastal piains. In addidon the unresolved legal status of the provincial mad through the cnnal section of animals (one adult male, three adult females and their the park was felt to create a problem with respect to immediate progeny) were considered ul appropriate managemen; in the light of these problems it was =c- size to work with. rhinceros shouid theoreticaliy not ammended that the WCNP could be intially tested for be introduced into the park until it approaches 193 km'. its suitability to carry rhinoceros through the inucduc- However, in the mean time the park could possibly k tion of surplus bulls h-urn the other subpopuiadons. A used as a bull sznctuary for any surplus bulls unabie to situation has arisen in the managemeart of smaIler be accommodated in Wt3F or the Zmrkq seeon af popuiadons hat there is definitely a bull carrjing m.

SpaConc=rvadw Plan: Sou& AfnxNational Parks South Africa: SANP Black RninoConservation Plan (Outdated Draft) Mountain Zebm National Park 117 I

fig. 1L Mouarain &bra National Park and pmposd expansion m.

respectively. Droughts were considered to have a 8. W~th(he 0.6 cf michaeii population being split in higher (2%)probability of occurring with a 0% and two and no further populations to be established, it 10% negative affect on reproduction and survival. was modelled as such. respectively. 9. Four different combinations of supplementation 2. Females and males breed at 7 and 10 years of age. and harvesting were m-sured: respectively. - No supplementation and harvesting (a situation 3. Age of senescence - 35 years. when the population is left entirely aione). 4. Female reproductive rate - 0.3 14 births/adult fernaidyear. - - The supplementation of 2 adult males in 30 years, with the first being induced 35 yean 5; 30% of adult malts breed after introduction and the second l5 years lam). 6. Calf (C 4yrs) mortality - +5%/yea.. something similar to the present D, b. cf 7. krdult mortality - 3.75%/year. mideii situation

26 Diccms oiconri. - lur supp~cmenwunUI I aamt male every lu capanty wmm m m nas resultea m tne neM to Kep years begirming only after 35 years aftH intro- the sex ratio heavily skewed in favour of females. With this rationale accepted the recommended ECC - The supplementation of 1 adult male every 10 for the park should be between 0.05-O.M rhindlcmz. years beginning only after 35 years after inim- The entire park could theoretically between 14 - dnction agd the harvesting of adults of either sex 19 animals. As the park is not entirely fenced it was ifkr 35 years at the same frequency as the sup recommended that the ~oc=rosshould be intduced piementation. into separate fenced mmps (Rnight & Beplidenhout in 10. A total of 100 simulations over a 100 year period prep.). This would be considered a temporary measure was measured. until such time as the park is entirely fenced and an 11. Inbrttding depression war taken at the default rate. agreement has been made with rrspect to the provin- From Figure 10 very little difference in the probability cial road of the popularions surviving under be above four dif- The availability of fresh drinking water and the need ferent snpplementahon and harvesting scenarios were for security makes AbrahamsIaaal the best site for noted Between 0.99 and 1.0 of the simulations sur- such an introduction5olding camps F1g.11). It was vived. 'Ibis probably arises from the very high calf and recommended that the camps should be about 400 ha adult survival rates which mm likely from than arises each and +an across the dunes to provide the greatest the ideal habitat and environmental conditions on oEer amount of habitat heterogeneity as possible. Food in Addo. However, the expected pnetic heteroygos- would need to be supplemented during this introduc- ity between betwen the scenario of no supplementation and harvesting and the introduction of two males tion phase and their feeding behaviour and condition produced similarly low heterozygosity values of closely monitored. between 0.75-0.77 after 100 years. Only with an in the event the provincial road can not be controlled it increase in the supplementation and hamesting rate did may be advisable to fence-off the southern half of the the heteroygosity increase to 0.83. But this still faIk park for the rhino. This area on its own could carry shon of the minimum desired heteroygosip value of about eight animals. Little is known of the beinaviour- be 0.90. Tnis could only increased by effectively a1 consequences of stccking bulls on, their own and will increasing the founder population sk through pater need to be closely monitored suppiementation. One pin: that emergs from these simulations is the importance of harvesting on increas- iilg the genetic heteozygosity as it allows a greater 2 Mountain Zebra National Park number of males to reproduce in this small popularion, Alti~oughthis park with its bidvegetation offers suitable habitat for black rhino. it is considered too small (65 lanz) at this stage for any inboductions. Other parks capable of There are however plans to expand the park to around carrying black rhino 2465 km2 through the purchase of the additional land (Fig. 12). To date. the farms de Rust and Bossieskloof have been acquired and the municipal ground l.West Caast National Park (Sondagshoek) hu be:n donated bringing the exm An assessment of the WCNP abiiity to cany black land to 143.1 W. rhinoceros exposed 2 number of potential problems At the recommended ECC of 0.054.07 rhindkml the (Knight & Novellie 1993b). Although the park is ~la- proposed park would be able to carry a maximum of 12 tively large (270 km') offering substantial browse it to 17 animals, with an EMPCC of 'between 9 to 12 ani- was felt that the idquality on oEer (with the exap mals. Tnis like the Vaalbos and An-pbir poguiafions tion of the guano-rich deposits on the Posberg penin- would not rcprtsent e viable population on its own but suLa) may be rather wanting given the poor nutrient wddhave to fit into the metaoopulauon management status of the soils, characteristic of the western Cape strategy with tbe other parks. If a rota1 of about 8-10 coastal piains. In addition the unrrsoiv=d ie,d status of the provincial road through the cnnal section of (one hltmale, haduit females and their the park wu felt to create a problem with respect to immediate progeny) were considered an appropriate management In the light of these problems it was RC- sizt to work wirh, rhinoceros should theoretically not wended that the WCNP could 'be intially tested for be introduced into the pwk until it approaches 190 b'. its suitability to carry rhinoceros through the inwduc- However, in the mean time the park could pussibiy be tion of surpius bulls from the other subpopulations. A used S a bull sanctuary for any surpius bulls unable to sitwtioo has arisen in the managemenmt of smalier be acconmMb WCNF or the Zuukrg section of papuiations that there is definitely 2 bull carrying m.

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- ,.. % - : < :_... i S) South Afnca: SANP Blxk Rhino ComnvxmPlan (.Gu:balw-~mm'. South Africa: SANP Slack Rhino Conservarion Plan (Ouidated Draft)