THE SUBTERRANEAN SANCTUARY AT HAL SAFLIENI

Anton Mifsud and Simon Mifsud

Place is space with meaning . . . To According to Zammit, "it is most probable understand a place one must know its that this underground was memories originally dug out by a religious (Richard England 1987) community to serve the purpose of a Sanctuary in honour of a divine power Introduction they worshipped and in which devotees The Hypogeum at Hal Saflieni is a unique were able to consult an oracle under the structure on planet Earth; it is the only direction of a numerous priesthood, who known megalithic monument which has among other things practiced been carved underground, and no oneiromancy, that is they interpreted parallels can be drawn with similar dreams provoked in the faithful that slept structures elsewhere. It not merely in cubicles still to be seen in the Hypogeum testifies to the precocious civilization of The hypogeum served also very the Maltese, but is a surviving probably for the training of the priests and model of the several Maltese megalithic for the initiation of the neophytes in the structures above ground. Unlike the open complicated magical rites. When the stone circles outside the Maltese islands, sanctuary, in the course of time, proved to such as , the Maltese be less attractive or unsuitable, the megalithic repertoire is characterized by a mysterious , that had acquired fame massive enclosure housing a sanctuary; as a holy temple, were considered by the unlike the megalithic enclosed and devout population to be a fitting ground buried in supporting soil, the Maltese for the of their dead" (Zammit 1935: structures are entirely self-supporting and 57-8). stand freely, without the surrounding matrix required elsewhere. They are An architectural assessment today reveals therefore rightly classed as the earliest that "these were a people who searched temples on the planet. with a sense of purpose and dedication, with a knowledge and awareness in tune The Hypogeum comprises a labyrinth of with the totality of darkness and light. caves and corridors with niches Theirs was a language of the distributed over three different levels. amalgamation of science and art . . . The The upper level is the most ancient; its cyclic time factor of the life-death-rebirth walls are rough, and it is not possible to pattern is reflected in these peoples' determine which portions of it are natural obsession with the mystic spiral pattern ... and which are cultural. It is located in an To think of the orbicular womb-like spaces area known as Tal-Gherien, literally 'of of the Hypogeum and the mystery that lies the caves' (Zammit 1926: 5); crude caves hidden within them is sufficient to entice lie near the entrance to the Hypogeum. the curiosity of all who have the ecstasy of The monument is hewn out of the soft transcendental knowledge close to globigerina, the ideal limestone medium their hearts" (England 1980: 43). which is both dissolved naturally through water action and is also readily worked by "Symbolically the Hypogeum at Hal human hand. Like all other natural caves Saflieni represents a labyrinthine womb, and fissures, it had been initialised and it is most unlikely that the early through the agencies of nature, but was Maltese were not conscious of this subsequently adapted by man symbolism" (Ferguson 1985: 156, 158). on an extensive scale over several centuries (Zammit 1926: 59). The Discovery technique of chamber formation becomes The Hal Saflieni Hypogeum was first more refined as one descends down the reported to the Museum authorities in storeys. 1903; according to Bartolo, it had been Facets of Maltese discovered four years earlier, in 1899 beads, pendants, and prehistoric . (Bartolo 1915: 17). A number of buildings In contrast to the alluvial nature of this were constructed above the site at the ancient deposit, rock-cut tombs still time, and have since caused leakage containing human skeletons were problems and damage to the monument. recorded by Zammit, lying at a distance of a few metres away from the Hypogeum Although the Hypogeum was officially entrance (M.A.R 1909-10: E2-3; Zammit discovered in 1903 by workmen digging at 1910: 32) [Figure I]. the site, it must have been known to the Knights, for a coin of the period (1741- "The top of the hill, in which the 1773) was found on the upper part of the Hypogeum is cut, was, to a great extent, surface material. A French cannon ball covered with megalithic buildings not was also picked up from this same unlike those now standing on Cordin Hill. material matrix (Zammit 1926: 6). . . . Remains of large slabs of stone were found in situ, so arranged as to form The Mail of 11 October 1844 refers chambers and enclosures . ... Human bones to the "discovery of some ancient were found in considerable quantities recently made at Tarshien. It among the material which filled the space was not, however, pursued but the between the standing pillars and slabs at aperture was immediately closed until the entrance to the Hypogeum. In this H.E. the Governor [Sir Patrick Stuart} materiaz' . . . old pottery, beads, stone had been informed of it, and it is supposed pendants like those met with in the caves" he will himself pay a visit to the spot (Annual Report 1909-10: ii). before any excavation be persevered in" (Zammit 1925: 5).

The d~~covery of the Hypogeum coincided with that of Knossos in Crete by Arthur Evans. The latter had subsequently extrapolated on his own discovery by identifying Crete as the cradle of civilization in and the Mediterranean. But Knossos was a civilization, whilst that of Hal Saflieni was a Neolithic one (Mayr 1908), and was therefore clearly an earlier civilization than Knossos.

Megalithic entrance and ancient deposit The Jesuit father Emanuel Magri The Hypogeum was originally entered through a megalithic assembly, today . The excavation facing Hal-Saflieni Street. Underneath In November of 1903 the Committee of the floor of one of the houses erected just Management of the Valletta Museum above the Hypogeum, and extending for a appointed one of its members, the Jesuit distance towards the north-west, several Father Emanuel Magri, to supervise the megalithic blocks which constituted this exploration and excavation of the structure just in front of the entrance monument (Zammit 1910: 4-5). Fr. Magri have been preserved in situ; some of these was involved for five years (1903-7) in the blocks were still standing when discovered laborious process, but his notes (Zammit 1910: 6). Around these disappeared with his sudden death in megalithic stones next to the Hypogeum Sfax; efforts to retrieve them have been entrance lay an ancient undisturbed consistently unsuccessful (Zammit 1910: deposit, of the same context and nature as 5; 1926: 7). that present throughout the Hypogeum labyrinth itself. This deposit comprised a The Hypogeum was initially cleared of all homogeneous admixture of human bones, the material and deposit which had

150 The Subterranean Sanctuary at Hal Saflieni

accumulated inside it, and four sets of entrance being excavated last. These last caves and galleries were identified. No phases of the excavation were reported in metal implements were discovered; the the Reports of the Museum of Archaeology used included stone, horn and antler. (M.A.R.) for 1909-10. The finds comprised flint and other stone tools, alabaster, clay and stone statuettes, In this report Zammit clearly laid out the personal ornaments, animal bones and nature of the ancient deposit inside the seashells. There were no signs of actual Hypogeum labyrinth. This ancient human habitation inside the Hypogeum deposit was comprised essentially of red (Zammit 1926: 59-63). earth, the same matrix surrounding the at the entrance, and which had Some chambers were smoothed off nicely, been washed down into the chambers of whilst others were not. The latter were the Hypogeum. In this red earth deposit, those which bore the decorations; the Holy which averaged one metre in height, a of Holies manifested the best homogeneous motley of human remains, workmanship in carving (Zammit 1910: implements and Neolithic pottery were to 15). Art forms prevailed in the two be found. lowermost storeys. In Room 17, painted discs averaging 0.25 m. appear on the In certain parts of the Hypogeum recent walls in groups of three, whilst Room 18 material covered the red earth deposit, bears three discs in red paint and an and this material was mainly the work of elaborately painted ceiling in red; these the builders who were developing the area comprise large red discs intermingled at the turn of the century. with loose spirals joined by lines. Close to Room 17 lies a large hall, chamber 20, The early Hypogeum photograph below which contains painted patterns and clearly shows the large amount of ancient carvings; it is painted red all over and an deposit which filled the Hypogeum elaborate pattern of red, branched and cavities. Several sieves and a skull are angular spirals and volutes adorns the visible on the surface of red earth. ceiling. Room 24 is a large hall which is also elaborately carved and painted. It too is painted in red, and bears a scroll of patterns which are more evident in subdued light conditions (Zammit 1910: 20).

Some form of illumination must have assisted the craftsmen as they carved out the Hypogeum and designed the various art forms on its walls. The majority of the sherds and vases retrieved from the A chamber with the ancient deposit Hypogeum deposit suggests evidence of lamps; these were neither domestic nor Zammit differentiated quite clearly funerary, but were best adapted to have between the material and the ancient served the function of lamps (Zammit deposit, and it is necessary to quote at 1910: 33-4). length in order to contrast the content with its subsequent misinterpretation by Zammit 1907 Evans (1971: 57-9). "In the upper stories, After Magri's demise, the Director of modern material was found, mostly Museums, T. Zammit, was entrusted with thrown in quite recent times; some of the the continuation of the excavations. These material, however, was undoubtedly over a included the lowermost storey and the century old as not far from the original area north of the platform leading to the entrance a coin of Grand Master Pinto original entrance. Mter two individual (1741-1773) was found very near the reports by Zammit and Tagliaferro in surface. The modern material was easily 1910, excavations continued for another recognized and of no interest whatever. year, with the area around the original Under this, a dark compact deposit was

151 Facets of Maltese Prehistory found which showed nowhere signs of hands were in anatomical position . . . this having been disturbed. In this old deposit work involved a great deal of attention no stratification was observed and in caves and could not be left in the hands of hired which were cleared inch by inch, the workmen." The assistance in the deposit was always of the same type and excavation by the Rev. A.W. Dawes C.F, contained objects of the same quality. The and medical students E. Vella, P. Xuereb deposit of the large caves, about a metre in and F. Borg is acknowledged (Annual depth, was made of red earth one finds in Report 1909-10: iii). In the alluvial deposit our fields and in this, bones and potsherds of the Hypogeum itself, "human bones were intimately mixed. This deposit was were found in great numbers, but not one wanting in the series of caves which were skeleton could be made out to have bee.n elaborately cut and finished, and in the whole and regularly laid out for burial. In small caves in the lower storey" (Zammit the new caves as as in those cleared 1910: 34). the years before, the impression one gets

Megalithic Entrance ~Limestone

~ Ancient red earth deposit

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the distribution of the ancient red earth deposit throughout the Hypogeum

Bones and skulls were thoroughly mixed from the distribution of the bones is that up in the deposit; and the one complete they were thrown in a haphazard way" skeleton which was reported by Zammit in (Annual Report 1908-9: iv). the red soil was neither buried in a trench, nor was it associated with flints or Zammit therefore considered the sherds; no mention of a ritual burial is Hypogeum as primarily a Neolithic made by Zammit. It lay on its right side, sanctuary which was later converted into whereas ritual in the late an ossuary (Zammit 1926: 62). Neolithic, such as those represented at Burmeghez, lay on their left (Zammit "The innermost part of the Hypogeum was 1910: 37, 42; Tagliaferro 1911). destined for some kind of worship, another part of it was surely used to bury the dead "Further investigations proved also that . . . the human bones found disjointed and the burial of whole bodies was an confusedly massed might also point to the exception, and not the common form of custom, prevalent in Neolithic ages, of disposing of the dead ... limbs were not as scraping the dead bodies off their soft a rule disjointed and the bones of feet and parts, before their final burial . . . the

152 The Subterranean Sanctuary at Hal Saflieni contents of the deposit point rather to a inhabitants of these islands had reached a burial place in which the bodies were laid degree of civilization not met with at that or heaped mostly as skeletons. Very few time in any of the islands of the bodies were found lying in a natural Mediterranean Sea" (Zammit 1925: 9-10; position and no special arrangements such 38). as trenches, sepulchres, stone enclosures etc. were met with, anywhere, intended to Although Zammit concluded that "the receive a body . . . not a single one Hypogeum was in part used as a [skeleton] was found lying with bones in sanctuary in which religious ceremonies position." One significant calculation by were conducted, and in part as a burial Zammit on the contents of the ancient place in which the bones of the dead were deposit was that "at least 120 skeletons deposited after being deprived of the flesh" were buried in a space of 3.17 by 1.2 by (Zammit 1910: 43), he made it clear that 1m. This is enough to show that a regular the original and primary function of the interment was out of the question as not Hypogeum was not a burial one. The more than 12 bodies could be laid in such sanctuary to sequence is evident a limited space." (Zammit 1910: 33, 34, from Zammit's remark that "it is clear 35, 36, 37). that, during the last phase, the Hypogeum was used as a burial place or, more Other evidence for the alluvial nature of correctly, as a deposit of human bones the deposit can be adduced from other taken from somewhere outside the observations made by Zammit, that place ... the human bones were everywhere "fragments of sherds in parts of the thrown in disorder ... more bones were met Hypogeum fitted other fragments with than it was consistent with normal deposited in other caves far away burials in a restricted place ... bones from (Zammit 1910: 37). "Nearly all the caves, 120 different individuals were identified passages and chambers contained old in a space ... which could not hold more deposit varying from a few centimetres to than six bodies if interred in the usual over one metre deep" (Zammit 1910: 34). manner" (Zammit 1935:11). "No difference whatever could be observed between the different strata of the deposit, The Hypogeum skulls and the same quality of sherds were found In 1912, Zammit, Peet and Bradley at the surface, at the bottom and in the published a report on the small finds at space between" (Zammit 1910: 37). the Hypogeum, and Zammit carried out a Slingstones were found neatly arranged at detailed anthropometric survey of ten Hal the Hypogeum entrance, and also in the Saflieni human skulls, in accordance with deposit inside the labyrinth (Zammit the European standards prevailing at the 1910: 39). time (Zammit et al. 1912). In the same year, Bradley surveyed the Maltese skulls "When all the red soil with its contents in an anthropological study of the were removed from the caves and the Mediterranean races. passages, it was observed that the hypogeum ... had more the appearance of The number of Maltese prehistoric skulls a sanctuary than of anything else. A large presently exhibited at the Museum of hall, where people must have assembled, Archaeology at V alletta is nil.l They an elaborate chapel in which holy rites numbered six in 1985, whereas a total of were celebrated, an oracular room, tiny eleven had been displayed in 1907 [Plate cubicles in which devotees could have slept 3]. Another three Hal Saflieni skulls were in expectation of inspired dreams, are all taken to the British Museum in 1948 and features specially adapted for a place of 1955, together with another from Ta' worship and for the initiation of the young Hagrat, one from Hagar Qim2 and several priests who had to learn the magical cranial fragments from Burmeghez. ceremonies and the sorceries of a primitive religion . . . It is obvious that the people who made it excelled in the craft of stone­ cutting and building; and as the art of a 1 The one displayed in the facsimile tomb is a Classical skull, and not a Neolithic one. people is an index of its culture, it is safe 2 The Hagar Qim and Ta' Hagrat skulls are not to surmise that, in the Stone Age, the featured in Evans 1971.

153 Facets of Maltese Prehistory

......

The twelve Hypogeum skulls in 1912

The six remaining skulls in 1985 Plate 3: The Hypogeum Skulls

154 The Subterranean Sanctuary at Hal Saflieni

In 1985, Emmanuel Anati and his on a couch, the interpretation rendered at archaeological team reviewed the six the time was quite feasible and Hypogeum skulls. Two of these were acceptable. The former represented "a considered to be so identical that they priestess dreaming near the sacred places might well represent the typical skull in the hope of obtaining inspiration to morphology of the Hypogeum people. declare the words of the holy oracle, while Another skull bore a scar probably related the second figure represents her in the act to a bone tumour, whilst another of worship." (Griffiths 1920: 467) The suggested anaemia caused possibly by original interpretation of the fish on a malaria. 3 One of the other skulls bore the plate is clearly more feasible than that of stigmata of a secondary burial, in that it a fish on a couch, as suggested by Evans had been exposed to and air before (1971: 59). being deposited in the Hypogeum (Anati & Anati 1988: 230). "Perhaps the most interesting piece of pottery found was a black polished plate, One of the skulls was probably trepanned, on which was drawn with flint the figures and thus provides the single possible of several horned bulls of mottled colour, example of such a procedure in the all instinct with life. The species of Maltese islands (Savona Ventura & animal was identical with that carved in Mifsud 1999: 59). high relief in the "bull sanctuary" of the latest and most wonderful discovery of all, W.A. Griffiths the Stone Age Temple of Tarxien" One of the students who excavated under (Griffiths 1920: 468-9). the supervision of Zammit was W.A. Griffiths (Griffiths 1920: 466). "Most of R.N. Bradley the rooms were found to be half-filled with Another student excavating under earth, human bones and broken pottery. It Zammit's supervision during 1910-1911 has been estimated that the ruins was R.N. Bradley, a young B.A. graduate. contained the bones of 33,000 persons, 4 His particular interest lay in human mostly adults. Practically all were found skulls, and he submitted a report on this in the greatest disorder, and there had particular theme; Bradley had excavated evidently been no regular burial of a the area immediately adjoining the complete body . . . with regard to the original entrance of the Hypogeum. His original use of the Hypogeum, opinions impressions at the time were that the vary. It may be that it was a temple human remains at Hal Saflieni were not carved underground for the use of spirits primary burials. "Under the guidance of who had left this world, providing them Professor Zammit I excavated at Hal with the same type of temple as that which Saflieni, between the 171" of September they had been accustomed to worship 1910 and the 23rd February 1911, working above ground; or it may have been a at room C29 and its entrance towards sacred college, wherein the priesthood were C28. No complete skeletons came to light, initiated into the mysterious beliefs of and the bones lay in confusion through the those days ... whatever may have been the soil as in the rest of the Hypogeum, except original use, there is no doubt that it was that occasionally an arm with fingers, and used in part as a burial place for the bones complete foot, and several vertebrae would of the dead after a previous burial above be found lying with the parts in situ. ground" (Griffiths 1920: 466-7). From the upright position of an isolated radius it might be judged that the filling Regarding the two figurines which were up of the was of a wholesale nature, found in the Hal Saflieni Hypogeum, one rather than that individual burials took lying asleep on her side, and the other place in it... unrelated bones and also facing downward, both lying lengthwise implements were found in the interior of skulls. The finding of six vertebrae in 3 The anaemia might also have been caused by a position, five of them without spinous Mediterranean Thalassaemia with an intermediate processes, suggests a case of re-burial, and form of severity, still common to this day. it is an open question how far most of the 4 This figure differs significantly from the oft quoted 7000; both figures are mere guesses, and were based interments may not have been of this on different criteria for calculation. character. Animal bones were found

155 Facets of Maltese Prehistory mingled with human" (Zammit, Peet & Brittany ... Stonehenge . . . the size of the Bradley 1912: 21). stones used does make these similar in some ways to the tombs, but Similarities with the temples above their function and indeed their appearance ground are quite different, so that the two groups "The Hypogeum near Hal Saflieni is a should be discussed quite separately" remarkable megalithic temple, where (Renfrew 1978: 134). "One enters the prehistoric man worshipped his deities discussion encumbered by traditions of and buried his dead. Long shafts descend interpretation that are no longer entirely 30 feet below the earth's surface, where, acceptable" (Renfrew 1979: 44). carved from solid sandstone, lie dozens of odd rooms, including an altar, a long The origin of the megalithic collective hallway, and a treasure vault" (W alter chamber tombs has been a major issue in 1940: 272). European prehistory. Whereas it was initially hypothesized, by Fergusson Both the Hypogeum and the Maltese (1872: 508) and Worsaae (1886: 25-6), that prehistoric temple repertoire above tribes had actually migrated across ground level are megalithic in nature, and Europe and introduced their culture into they share several similarities (Trump the lands they entered, it was Gordon 1972: 63-4; 1990: 66; Ferguson 1991: 289). Childe, Professor of Archaeology at the The main of the blocks found at Institute of Archaeology in Edinburgh, the hypogeum entrance was a number of and later in London, who introduced the window-like openings cut in the stone concept of "modified diffusionism", where slabs, such as were found at Mnajdra and a "cultural sweep" was possible without an Hagar Qim (Zammit 1910: 32). The actual movement of tribes across borders doorways in the Hypogeum were similar (Childe 1925; 1939; 1957: 70); thus, it was in architecture to those at Hagar Qim a religious influence, and not a tribal (Zammit 1910: 32); the stone cornices invasion, which occasioned the spread of were bevelled, smoothed and pitted in monumental burial in places, similarly to Hagar Qim, Mnajdra (Renfrew 1979: 7-8). At the turn of the and Ggantija (Zammit 1910: 33). century, Arthur Evans identified Crete as the cradle of civilization in the East. The black plate discovered in the Hypogeum deposit showed designs of Glyn Daniel concurred with both Arthur long-horned bulls (Zammit 1910: 38) Evans and Gordon Childe, and he outlined similar to the specimens at Tarxien. The his own hypothesis for the spread of bovid theme prevails. Horns of sheep and megalithic tombs from East to West young bulls were found in the Hypogeum (Daniel1941: fig. 2). deposit (Zammit 1910: 41). Other portable art forms include the naked and In the mid-fifties, Gordon Childe started steatopygous figurines, and the stone to retreat from his previous position, and disks found at the Hypogeum; all these tended to agree with the opmwns closely resemble those found at Hagar expressed earlier by Christopher Hawkes Qim (Zammit 1910: 39-40). in Oxford, basically in that the European Bronze Age had diverged from the The British archaeologists and the Oriental one (Childe 1958: 8). In the Maltese megaliths matter of the megalithic tombs, Childe Because of these similarities m contradicted Daniel directly. "There is no architecture and art, the incorrect evidence for Early Aegean practices attribution of a primary burial function to tending in that direction. Still less Aegean the Hypogeum has, since the fifties, also was the erection of temples that were not been extended to the megalithic temples tombs. This was done demonstrably only above the ground. However, "at this point on Malta and Gozo. The celebrated it is useful to distinguish between [the Maltese temples . . . remain an isolated European] tombs and the other phenomenon in . . . the monuments which are of 'megalithic' islands became neither trading posts nor construction, like the temples of Malta, ... centres of a Bronze Age economy. They remained Neolithic till occupied between

156 The Subterranean Sanctuary at Hal Saflieni

1600 and 1500 BC by parties of more mysteries" (Daniel 1958: 17, 79-83; 1963: warlike settlers who cremated their dead 80; Evans 1959: 84-134). and interred their ashes among the ruins of the temples" (Gordon Childe 1958: 119, Daniel quoted Evans in hypothesising 122). As early as 1950, Gordon Childe that the Maltese rock-cut tombs evolved had already indicated the absence of into the megalithic monuments megalithic collective tombs in the Maltese overground, "but it was not an isolated islands (Gordon Childe 1950: 111, fig. 86). development; the Maltese megalithic builders had contacts with the outside In his last edition of The Dawn of world, and the running spirals of Hal European Civilization (1957), Gordon Tarxien must surely, as Evans and others Childe considered the architecture of the have argued, be inspired by the spirals on temples of the "megalithic civilization of the shaft graves at Mycenae ... We have in Malta" as nearer to the western Malta small circular rock-cut tombs Mediterranean than the eastern one developing into surface megalithic tombs, (Gordon Childe 1957: 255). This change of becoming elaborated as monuments of the stance on the part of Childe may have led Hal Tarxien-Gigantija type ... the to his premature replacement as Professor of Malta are late in his [Evans] at the Institute of Archaeology in London. established sequence ofpottery ... The great structures like Hal Tarxien and Mnajdra At around the same time, Zammit's are always referred to as 'temples', and prehistory of Malta, as outlined in his there is no evidence of their sepulchral use. Malta (Zammit 1925), was temporarily Yet they developed out of rock-cut and crippled by a new prehistoric sequence for megalithic tombs" (Daniel 1963: 81-2). the Maltese islands. In the fifties, J.D. "The very evolution of tomb into temple in Evans, technical assistant to the Maltese Malta reminds us forcibly that all along Archaeological Survey, proposed such a these early tombs had a ritual and sequence based on the Sicilian one, but religious purpose ... let us turn from these this failed to measure up to his own minor mysteries to the major problems ... " radiocarbon dates when challenged by the (Daniel1963: 83). veteran Sicilian archaeologist, L. Bernabo Brea. Moreover, Evans' excavation This hypothesis was endorsed in 1961 by technique was eventually proved faulty by Blance, and re-iterated by Glyn Daniel Trump, when the sampling of a specimen and J.D. Evans six years later (1967: 50). for radiocarbon dating (B.M. lOO) was Colin Renfrew eventually rejected the incorrect. Two early prehistoric phases, entire hypothesis principally on the the Red and Grey Skorba, had been evidence of the calibrated radiocarbon missed · altogether, and another two, chronology (Renfrew 1979: 8-9). Mgarr and Zebbug had been reversed in order of chronology by J.D. Evans. The Although Daniel himself accepted the latter's prehistoric sequence has since radiocarbon dates (Daniel 1963: 134), and been superseded by that of Trump (1966). eventually retreated from his position (Daniel 1972: 7; 1978: 81), Evans Glyn Daniel and J.D. Evans had further maintained a status quo (Evans 1971: proposed a Maltese sequence of ritual 223-4; Renfrew 1978: 166). To complicate burial practices originating from Ghar matters further, allegations had appeared Dalam and the Zebbug rock-cut tombs, in print of "distortion of evidence" by both and evolving into the surface megalithic Daniel and Evans (Blouet 1964: 9). structures such as Ggantija, Tarxien, and the Hal Saflieni Hypogeum. The dating of On the other hand, David Trump clearly the latter two megalithic structures they defined the Hypogeum's primary role as fixed at 1600BC, through spiral analogies that of a temple- "The Hypogeum, the with the shaft graves of Mycenae. rock-cut temple at the heart of the site" Through this hypothesis Evans and (Trump 1981: 131, caption to plate 3, 133- Daniel were equating the Maltese 4). According to Trump, the Hypogeum megalithic monuments with the had been constructed in a manner megalithic tombs of Europe, and clearing identical to the temples. The burials there them out of the system as "minor were not ritual burials, and the decorated

157 Facets of Maltese Prehistory

The roof in a Hypogeum chamber Trilithon doorway 1960

158 The Subterranean Sanctuary at Hal Saflieni chambers certainly represented a temple the moon and star graffiti found at Tal­ theme (Trump 1972: 63-4, 1990: 66). Qadi is certainly a pointer towards a contemporary interest in celestial bodies The Maltese architects and the and their movements" (England 1980: 43, megaliths 44-5). The views expressed by the Maltese architectural profession strongly support The last decade of the millennium Trump. Mahoney equated the Hypogeum In 1992, the assistant curator of the Malta with the prehistoric temples above the Museum of Archaeology attempted to ground, and he rightly questioned the resuscitate Glyn Daniel's megalithic theory that the form of the temples diffusion hypothesis, which had been derived from that of rock-cut chambers. abandoned by Daniel himself more than "The temples did not serve as graves. Then twenty years earlier (Daniel 1978: 81). why should they be modelled on these Pace was suggesting that in the burial chambers?" (Mahoney 1996: 1). Hypogeum a process of decoration was Mahoney also adduced evidence that, like accompanied by the abandonment of the the Hypogeum, the temples were roofed, smaller burial sites and the "emergence even with heavy slabs, thus confirming and development of surface megalithic the Italian architect Ceschi. Moreover, structures," thus attributing, without recently concluded studies on Ceschi's evidence, a sepulchral function to the temple roof designs have confirmed the megalithic structures above ground (Pace viability of his plan, where the supporting 1997: 15). His reference to Zammit as beams were horizontally disposed; a span indicating that the "the Hypogeum served of several metres can be thus roofed with primarily as a cemetery" (Pace 1997 a: 27) globigerina without cracking · (Trump is totally unfounded. 5 1983: 67; Piovanelli 1988: 130; Mahoney 1996: 6, 10; Chalmers 1999). Over the following years, the theme was further developed and elaborated, with Other well-established Maltese architects the Hypogeum being made to assume a have maintained the same professional primary and original role of rock-cut opinion. In their structural assessment of tomb, whilst the megalithic structures the Hypogeum in April 1995, the three above ground were identified as architectural consultants involved in the intermediate stages between the rock-cut project, TEA Structural Engineers, tombs and the Hypogeum, the rock-cut identified the Hypogeum at Hal Saflieni tomb par excellence (Pace 1994: 41, 42; as a megalithic temple, and not as a tomb 1995: 27, 28). The Hypogeum is (Bonello 1995). Richard England linked thereafter transformed into a the subterranean Hypogeum with the "mausoleum" and "burial monument", temples above the ground through the developing from "formal collective burials "earth focussed, sky orientated" temple in rock-cut chamber tombs" (Pace 1995: concept. "The Maltese temple structures 81; 1996: 7; 1997a: 26), as it merges from are essentially concerned with the a "unique structural masterpiece" to a establishment of spatial modulations "monument", an "underground funerary expressed in carefully articulated womb­ monument for collective burial" to a like contained areas . . . the orbicular "prehistoric underground cemetery" and a womb-like spaces of the Hypogeum ... It is "mausoleum" representing the in this aspect that the vital differences "underworld of the living" (Pace 1997a: between megalithic circles such as those at passim). According to Pace, the Stonehenge and the Maltese temple buildings emerge: the former designed as a 5 "The hypogeum . . . had more the appearance of a series of standing stones defined in space; sanctuary than of anything else. A large hall, where the latter concerned and involved people must have assembled, an elaborate chapel in which holy rites were celebrated, an oracular room, essentially with the definition of internal tiny cubicles in which devotees could have slept in space ... it seems obvious that these people expectation of inspired dreams, are all features would have looked to the skies if only to specially adapted for a place of worship and for the establish some basic points of reference to initiation of the young priests who had to learn the magical ceremonies and the sorceries of a primitive the cyclic continuum upon which their religion" (Zammit 1925: 9-10; see also Zammit 1910: whole agrarian life system depended ... 35; 1926: 62).

159 Facets of Maltese Prehistory development of funerary sites was related magic, medicine or mythology. The to "site location patterning of megalithic Oracular room lies in the middle level; it temple structures," as the Hypogeum has a "highly arched ceiling richly becomes a "centralized" and "central decorated with a red scroll interspersed cemetery" (Pace 1997b: 14, 15). A three­ with painted discs of different sizes. This stage development was proposed, with the mysterious pattern undoubtedly had a first stage represented by the Zebbug symbolic meaning, for the decoration rock-cut tombs (4100-3800BC); the Mgarr adopted by primitive people was never phase is uncatered for, since the second casual but always had reference to their phase is the Ggantija phase (3600-3000 religion, magic or totemism" (Zammit BC), characterised by "the emergence of 1925: 19). Present research in prehistoric megalithic building complexes", whilst cave art includes the study of wall Tarxien is suggested as the third stage configuration and their adaptation to the (Pace 1997b: 17). Thus the echoes of the drawings, and to the significance of obsolete Daniel-Evans hypothesis still human voice resonance (Renfrew & Bahn reverberate at the end of the millennium. 1996: 377), a feature which immediately brings to mind this Oracle room in the Unfortunately this point of view has had Hypogeum. Both Stoddart (1999) and its repercussions upon the labeling at the Chalmers (1999) have carried out Malta Museum of Archaeology, where a practical fieldwork in Malta's history, and sequence of rock-cut tomb to megalithic they have enhanced, besides the visual, temple to Hypogeum is still being not merely the acoustic elements in suggested. The Hypogeum is referred to prehistoric sites such as the Hypogeum, as "a prehistoric rock-cut chamber tomb." but also the effects on the other senses, The relevant placard reads "ROCK-CUT such as those of smell and taste. TOMBS OF THE CENTRAL MEDITERRANEAN", whilst another It was realised in 1920 that a two-feet placard entitled "THE DEVELOPMENT wide hemispherical opening in the Oracle OF PREHISTORIC BURIAL cave, at the height of a man's mouth, MONUMENTS AND CEMETERIES" magnified sounds by about a hundredfold, reads "Once established in Malta and and these were then audible throughout Gozo, the practice of collective burial in the entire underground structure. "A rock-cut chamber tombs persisted for curved projection is specially carved out of hundreds of years (circa 4100- 2500 BC)" the back of the cave near this hole and acts i.e. including the temple period. "From as a sounding board, showing that the simple underground burial chambers, designers had a good practical knowledge burial tombs and cemeteries steadily led to of sound-wave motion. The impression the development of more complex upon the credulous can be imagined when monuments that gained more significance the oracle spoke and the words came as central social focal points." Despite the thundering forth through the dark and strong evidence to the contrary, this mysterious places with terrifying theme is bound to have its repercussions impressiveness" (Griffiths 1920: 465). "The also upon the interpretative labeling in Oracular chamber is remarkable for its the Hypogeum itself, once this is once acoustic properties. A deep, low note again open to the public. uttered or hummed in or near the small cave, or the oval niche, resounds and The Oracle vibrates in the chamber in a most One important piece of evidence pointing remarkable manner, and the human voice to the initial function of the Hypogeum is is so much magnified as to become audible to be found m what has been throughout the entire underground place" appropriately named the Oracular room (Zammit 1925: 18-19; 1935: 28). "I could by Zammit. The acoustics of this chamber hear his words in any room in the temple. in relation to the remainder of the The whole structure seemed to vibrate with Hypogeum prove beyond any doubt that the sounds. Most uncanny of all was the this subterranean megalithic structure fact that whereas low tones could be heard had been designed for a mystical function, everywhere distinctly, high-pitched notes whether this was religion, initiation, did not carry further than the chamber itself' (Waiter 1940: 272). "It reverberates

160 The Subterranean Sanctuary at Hal Saflieni

Figurines on couches- dreams and worship (Griffiths 1920)

Bull fresco pre-dating the red ochre wall paint (Agius 1959: 5-7; Rossiter 1968: 90; Ridley 1971: plate 14; Trump 1990: 61, fig. 11, 65; McGregor Eadie 1995: 104)

Engraved hand with polydactyly (See text, p. 162)

The Oracular Room (Inset- the human cochlea, the central organ of hearing; seep. 162)

SOME OF THE NON-SEPULCHRAL FEATURES IN THE HYPOGEUM

161 Facets of Maltese Prehistory from all parts of the spatial system and black and white chequered pattern not only energizes the space but returns to (Zammit 1928: 18); this simple geometric energize, to regenerate, the maker of the design is interpreted by several authors as sound" (Foster 1991: 6). a female symbol (Forbes et al. 1979: 362). The other significant ideograms include As in the megalithic temples above the "tree of life" itself and the polygonal ground, the Hal Saflieni Hypogeum is designs in red ochre which are considered exquisitely proportioned, an architectural by some authorities as representing ethnic refinement of the architects of prehistory markers in (Mifsud & (Joussaume 1985: 222). There is a spatial Mifsud 1997: 144). sequence in the entire structure, and as these "seemingly unrelated chambers An engraved hand at the entrance of the meander through the living rock, so does Decorating room in the Hypogeum (Agius reverberating sound as an organizing 1959: 5-7; 1978: 7) is a strong indicator of datum" (Foster 1991: 6). ritual initiation at the spot. The hand measures 20.5 by 10 cm (at the At this point an analogy requires to be metacarpus), which is significantly larger made between the configuration of the than a modern hand; it bears six digits human cochlea, the central organ of instead of the normal five (Mifsud & hearing, with the spirals which decorated Mifsud 1997: 144). The ancient the Hypogeum chambers so diffusely. This representation of polydactyly is typically organ measures 9 by 5 mm, and is located associated with cult ceremonies and the in the petrous bone of the human skull. worship of "divinized ancestors" (Barnett Its spiral shape which is repeated ad 1986-87: 5-12, 1990: 46-52; Driver 1956: nauseam in bright red colours all over the 66-71). Hypogeum interior cannot be considered as coincidental with the fact that Closure acoustics played such a central role in the A study of the microclimate in the Hal spatial system of the Hal Saflieni temple. Saflieni Hypogeum during the late eighties produced evidence of Other non-sepulchral features deterioration of artefacts occasioned by The large water at one end of the adverse environmental conditions site is more in keeping with a religious (Bonnici 1989), and the site has been function than one of ritual burial (Trump closed to visitors since 1991. An enclosing 1983: 70). wall was constructed in 1994, and a unit made of stainless steel and glass has The art forms in the Hypogeum have recently been set up in this new hall.l The recently been re-evaluated (Mifsud & final product will be far cry from the Mifsud 1997: 139-145). Once again, original monument discovered at the whether representing the bull, the tree of beginning of this century. The red ochre life, ethnic markers or engraved hands, designs of spirals and the geometric the theme of these forms mitigate against figures are but a fragment of their a sepulchral function. Besides the original glory; the hand engraving and the multitude of designs in red ochre at the bull fresco have been obliterated. The Hypogeum, there are also drawings in remarkable acoustic properties of the black manganese dioxide , and oracle chamber have been preserved; here one of these measures 1.15 by 0.95 Jennifer Berezan has recently recorded metres. It represents a bovid, "with a her soundtrack Returning in "one of the hunch on its back, with short horns and world's oldest temples in a chamber tail" and is situated on the left wall at the created for sound". The acoustics of the entrance of the Holy of Holies. Agius soundtrack reflect a truly remarkable compared it to the bas relief bulls beside · achievement in Neolithic sound the Tarxien temple complex (Agius 1959: engineering (pers. comm. Tonio Falzon). It 5-7; 1968: 7; Rossiter 1968: 90; McGregor Eadie 1995: 104). 1 Timely intervention prevented a major disaster in 1994, when tons of steel and glass threatened a Another design at the Hypogeum is in the collapse of the entire labyrinth (Mifsud & Mifsud form of an ideogram and comprises a 1997: 161, fn 191).

162 The Subterranean Sanctuary at Hal Saflieni was launched at the exhibition of earlier phases of Zebbug and Mgarr (4000 "Temples - Malta" in the National -1500 BC). Museum of Archaeology (28th October 1999). It was gratifying to hear Ugo It has been shown above that the Mifsud Bonnici refer to the Hypogeum as accumulation of human remains at the a temple and not as a tomb in his Hypogeum in Hal Saflieni were not inaugural address, and to hear the seven related to primary ritual burial, but were exhibiting artists unanimously registering brought down into the Hypogeum their experiences of the Hypogeum as a labyrinth through the action of floodwater place of comfort and protection, of peace in a matrix of red earth field soil. and security, a sanctuary, a womb, but definitely not a tomb (pers. comm. Julie The first radiocarbon dates for human Apap, Ebba von Fersen Balzan, Jeni remains at Burmeghez and the Hal Caruana, Sina Farrugia, Anna Grima, Saflieni Hypogeum clearly show that Caroline Hills and Olaug Vethal).2 during the early and middle phases of the Hypogeum, ritual burials were still being Radiocarbon dates and Neolithic performed in caves. The Hypogeum might burial sites only have served as an ossuary during its There are three major Maltese sites of terminal phases. prehistoric human remains, namely Burmeghez, Hal Saflieni and Xaghra. At the Brochtorff Circle, burial practices were of a different nature. Here, the In 1911, a considerable quantity of bones prehistoric periods represented are the including 39 skulls and 2250 teeth were Zebbug, in rock-cut cave tombs, and the found in close association with Cervus Tarxien, at a short distance away, close to remains at Burmeghez, limits of Mqabba. the megalithic assembly. The finds The skulls were all reported to be included the stick figurines, which have dolichocephalic. About 70 individuals been associated with shaman activity, and were probably buried at this site. The the double-fat lady and child. There are bodies were generally positioned on their no figures lying flat on couches. left side, and aligned roughly along the main axis of the cave. In several cases the Thus at the three excavated sites of major bodies were placed in a crouched position prehistoric human remains, namely, the and facing east. The upper part of each Hal Saflieni Hypogeum, Burmeghez and body was propped up with moderately the Brochtorff Circle, the distribution of sized pebbles, and was overlain with flat the human remains is different in each stones measuring 30-80 cm in length. case. At Burmeghez, there is a These flat stones were apparently placed predominance of anatomical relationship at a certain height in order to cover the between body parts, a left-sided flexed corpse, particularly the head, in order to position of the body, an orientation along protect it from the pressure of the the main axis of the cave, and, by way of a overlying material. This burial lithic assembly, a stony arrangement arrangement contrasts with the protecting the upper body parts. At the descriptions from other Late Neolithic Hypogeum, the nature of the human tombs, where no attempt had apparently remains is that of an alluvial deposit been made to cover the corpse. containing bones, flints and pottery in one (Tagliaferro 1911: 147-150; Zammit: 1925: homogeneous mix-up. The one, possibly 02-03). ritual, burial lay in the deposit itself and was unaccompanied by goods. At The ceramic repertoire at Burmeghez the Brochtorff Circle, ritual burial was indicates that it was utilized by evident in two phases, the Zebbug rock­ throughout the period lasting from the cut tomb and the Tarxien close to the Ggantija to the Tarxien Cemetery phases megalithic assembly; the intervening (3600 - 1500 BC), whereas that at the Hal Mgarr and Ggantija were not significantly Saflieni Hypogeum also included the represented here. In both Zebbug and Tarxien phases at the Brochtorff Circle, 2 The artists spent on average a total of twenty hours burial was collective but predominantly in the Hypogeum chambers to create their art forms. dissociated.

163 Facets of Maltese Prehistory

Tarxien raciocarbon dates

3050

3000

2950

<.)2000 ai !!! "'Q) ~2850 Q)

:!:!e ~2000

2750

2700

2650 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tarxien date sites

The first dates for Burmeghez and the Hal Saflieni Hypogeum insert themselves respectively at the start and end of the available repertoire of Maltese radiocarbon dates for the Tarxien phase (3100 - 2500 BC). The Burmeghez date precedes the first Brochtorff date, whilst the Hal Saflieni date precedes the last Brochtorff date.

Until further radiocarbon dates are available, it appears that the Burmeghez burial ritual was still being performed in the early phases of the Tarxien phase. This was substituted by the Brochtorffritual in the middle Tarxien phase, and eventually, in the final phase of the Tarxien phase, the Hal Saflieni Hypogeum was involved in a secondary burial process.

(Trump 1995-96: 173-7; Mifsud 1999: 422-3)

Figure 2: Maltese Radiocarbon Dates of the Tarxien phase

164 The Subterranean Sanctuary at Hal Saflieni

With the aid of these radiocarbon dates, a whilst the Hypogeum date (OxA-8197) is sequence can be laid out, where the contemporaneous with the last one (OxA- earliest burials were in Zebbug-phase 3571). At this stage, a series of another rock-cut tombs. Constant re-utilization of eight radiocarbon dates are planned for these sites, as at the Brochtorff, was human remains at Burmeghez and the responsible for the dissociated nature of Hypogeum; these will assist in the human remains. At Burmeghez, establishing the details of dating with burial was ritually performed in the greater precision. In the meantime, the manner indicated above, and the one available dates show that the Hal Saflieni radiocarbon date available places this Hypogeum was not initially, nor ritual at 4305 ± 65 uncalibrated radio­ primarily, a burial site; it maintains the carbon years (Mifsud 1999: 422). Finally, status initially proposed by Zammit, at the Hypogeum, the Zebbug sherds namely, that it served as a sanctuary around the original entrance, where rock­ first, and as an ossuary much later on in cut tombs were also present, indicate a time. similar set-up· to the Brochtorff Zebbug­ phase tombs. These human remains, in Acknowledgements the rock-cut tombs at ground level at Hal We are indebted for much assistance and Saflieni, eventually found their way into constant encouragement to Abigail, Jael, the Hypogeum through water action, Tabitha, Seana, Marika, Tonio, Pierre, together with the various artefacts which James and Simon. were also drawn into the ancient deposit, throughout the Hypogeum labyrinth itself References and at the megalithic entrance. The same Agius, A.J. 1959. The Hal Saflieni Hypogeum. Malta: red soil matrix was present at the Union Press. entrance and inside the Hypogeum itself Anati, A.F. and Anati, E. 1988. Missione a Malta. (MAR 1909-10). The one date for human Brescia: Centro Camuno di Studi Preistorici. remains at the latter site lies at the end of Annual Report 1908-9. Malta Government Gazette, the Tarxien phase, at 4130 ± 45 Supplement. No. 5181, sou, July 1909. uncalibrated radiocarbon years (Mifsud 1999: 422-3) [Figure 2]. Annual Report 1909-10. Malta Government Gazette, Supplement. No. 5290, 27th August 1910.

The site of Burmeghez represents a ritual Ashby, T., Zammit, T, and Despott, G. 1916. cave-burial site at the beginning of the Excavations in Malta in 1914. Man 1916, 1: 14. Tarxien phase (OxA-8165). Mter the London: The Royal Anthropological Institute. Ggantija phase, therefore, ritual burials Baldacchino, J.G. and Evans, J.D. 1954. Prehistoric were still being performed in caves, so Tombs near Zebbug. Papers of the British School at that the rock tomb to temple sequence is Rome 22: 1-21. not manifest. On the other hand, the radiocarbon date available for human Barnett, R.D. 1986-87. Six Fingers in Art and remains at the Hypogeum (OxA-8197) Archaeology. Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 6: 5-12. clearly places them towards the end of the Tarxieh phase. Both dates confirm that Barnett, R.D. 1990. Polydactylism in the Ancient during the Tarxien phase, ritual burial World. Biblical Archaeology Review 16 (3): 46-52. was carried out in caves, and it was only Bartolo, A. 1915. History of the Maltese Islands. In towards the end of the Tarxien phase that Macmi!lan, A. (ed.) Malta and Gibraltar Illustrated. the Hypogeum was utilized as an ossuary. London: W.H. & L. Collingridge. Whereas the Hypogeum was being Bernabo Brea, L. 1950a. The Prehistoric Culture­ utilized approximately four centuries Sequence in Sicily, Annual Report of the University before Burmeghez, the burials at the of London Institute ofArchaeology ofLondon 13 (6). latter preceded those at the former by approximately three centuries. Bernabo Brea, L. 1950b. I! neolitico a ceramica impressa e la diffusione ne! Mediterraneo. Rivista Internazionale di Studi Liguri 16 (1). In the present repertoire of radiocarbon dates for the Maltese islands (Trump Bernabo Brea, L. 1957. Sicily before the Greeks. 1995-6 (6): 173-7) the Burmeghez date London: Thames and Hudson. (OxA-8165) is contemporaneous with the Bernabo Brea, L. 1960, Malta and the first Tarxien date available (BM-143),

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