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Home , Flysch, Helvetic (geology), Helvetic nappes, Molasse, Molasse Basin

Eva Görke RWTH Aachen SS 13 Univ.-Prof. Dr.rer.nat. R. Littke Univ.-Prof. Dr. J. Urai Field Trip „The “

The Basin:

Tectonics, sea level and basin

dynamics

Contents Abstract ...... 3 Introduction ...... 3 ...... 5 Stratigraphy...... 7 Basin Dynamics ...... 9 Permo-Carboniferous Basins (358,9 Ma – 252,2 Ma) ...... 10 Basin (252.2 Ma – 201.3 Ma) ...... 10 Jurassic Basin (201.3 Ma – 145 Ma) ...... 11 Cretaceous Basin (145 Ma – 66 Ma)...... 12 Cenozoic Basin Evolution (66 Ma - today)...... 12 Present-day ...... 14 Conclusion ...... 14 References ...... 16

List of figures Figure 1: Overview of the Alps and the : GeoMapApp ...... 4 Figure 2: A: Overview of the Swiss-German Molasse Basin with contour lines of the base Tertiary sediments and major structures, B: N-S profile through the German Molasse Basin: Heidelbach et.al...... 4 Figure 3: Overview of the classification of the Molasse Basin: Véron ...... 6 Figure 4: General Stratigraphy of the central NAFB: Kuhlemann et al...... 8 Figure 5: Overview of the geological era ...... 9 Figure 6: Overview of the in Permo-Carboniferous times, including main troughs: Bachmann et al...... 10 Figure 7: Overview of the basement in Middle Triassic times: Bachmann et al...... 11 Figure 8: Overview of the basement with isopachs in Late Jurassic time: Bachmann et al...... 12 Figure 9: Overview of the tertiary Transgression: Bachmann et al...... 13 Figure 10: Summary, showing the pattern of sediment discharge to the north, the stratigraphic architecture, the progradation of topographic axis, the palaeoclimate and geodynamic events: Schlunegger et al. 2007 ...... 15

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Abstract

The Molasse Basin is divided in the ‘Folded Molasse’ and the ‘Molasse Platform’. The evolution started with the Permo-Carboniferous Basin with his basement from the Variscan . In the Cenozoic Basin Evolution the last and dominant phase of the Molasse Basin-development occurred in the and times with two shallowing- and coarsening upward megasequences. The Lower Marine Molasse (UMM) - Lower Freshwater Molasse (USM) sequence and the Upper Marine Molasse (OMM) - Upper Freshwater Molasse (OSM) sequence. The distribution was driven by tectonic processes of the Alpine thrust front and the impact of the Alpine uplift coupled with and sedimentation. Sediments found in the Alpine Foreland are shallow marine overlain by turbiditic . Also marls and mudstones occured. Alluvial fan deltas developed in the Oligocene and conglomerates, the so called “Nagelfluh”, were transported in the northern Alpine foreland. Two imposing fans were the Napf- and the Hörnli-fan in . The todays uplift rate of the Alps is 1 mm/a and erosion is going on.

Introduction

The Molasse Basin represents the sediment charge formed as terrestrial northern Alpine and is or marine deposits in front of a rising located to the northern flank of the mountain –here the Alps-. The Alps. This Alpine foreland basin has a Molasse developed due to rapid width of max. 130 km and a length of erosion while emergence of the 1000 km. The Molasse Basin extends mountain. The word “Molasse” is a from west to the east about , word of Latin derivation “mollis” and Switzerland, and Lower means ‘weak and casual’. In 1779 the . The Lake Geneva (France) is swiss natural scientist Horace-Bénédict the western end of this foreland basin, de Saussure announced this definition where the basin has a width of about for the sandstones of the alpine 20 km. The width in the German part foreland basin. varies to the present-day maximum of The origin of the Alps began during the 130 km in and easterly from 10 Lower Cretaceous (145 Ma – 66 Ma) km to 40 km. In the east it is linked with with the continent-continent collision the Basin. The Molasse Basin between the European plate and the is a typical peripheral foreland basin , also called “Apulia”. The developed in Tertiary age at Late orogeny of the Alps is vergent (55 Ma) to Late Miocene compressional and consist of thin-and (5 Ma). The name of the Molasse thick-skinned mostly Basin is due to the sediments of unmetamorphosed thrust sheets and Tertiary age, the so-called “Molasse”. high-grade metamorphic rocks at the This Molasse is the debris of the rising external flanks (Schlunegger et al. Alps. The Molasse refers to the 1997).

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Germany

Bavaria

Austria

Switzerland France

Italy

Figure 1: Overview of the Alps and the Molasse Basin: GeoMapApp

Figure 2: A: Overview of the Swiss-German Molasse Basin with contour lines of the base Tertiary sediments and major structures, B: N-S profile through the German Molasse Basin: Heidelbach et.al.

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Geology

In the Molasse Basin there are two The Molasse Basin is restricted along different geological and the northern margin (Swiss territory) by geomorphological observed parts. The the Jura Mountains (Fig. 3). The main part, 90 % of the basin, refers to Molasse sediments resume, along the the ‘Unfolded Molasse’ in the north, transition from the foreland basin to the also called Molasse Plateau (Sinclair et Jura Mountains, the folding and al. 1991). The Molasse Plateau faulting of the Jura Belt. This represents the distal part of the basin, shows the young (Late Miocene) age which is flat dipping toward the Alpine of the fold belt deformation (Véron orogen (Schlunegger et al. 1997, 2005). Also to the east of the Jura Pfiffner et al. 2002).The other part Mountains in central and western refers to the ‘Folded and thrusted Switzerland the fold-and-thrust belt of (subalpine) Molasse’. The subalpine the Jura Mountains is tectonically Molasse, also known as linked to the basin. In the northern part “Molassezone” or “Faltenmolasse” is of Switzerland are remnants of off the northern margin of the Alps in Molasse sediments which are the southernmost parts of the Molasse preserved in its synclines. Adjoin to the Basin area (Véron 2005). This northeast of Switzerland, Molasse Subalpine Zone extends in a 10 km sediments onlap on the wide striation long of the northern platform in the Swabian and margin of the Alps. The zone is limited Franconian Jura (German territory). In by different tectonic units of the East Bavarian and Upper Austrian is mountain range (Véron 2005). During the Bohemian Massif (Fig. 3) which thrusting by Alpine tectonic the borders the Molasse basin along faults. todays Subalpine Molasse sediments Some faults are covered by Molasse became incorporated into these nappe sediments. In Lower Austria a direction tectonic (Reinecker et al. 2010). After change took place, a major fault with thrusting, the deposits are present in a SW-NE direction. This fault originated stack of southward dipping thrust in the Neogen (23,03 Ma – 2,588 Ma) sheets (Schlunegger et al. 1997, and is locally buried by Molasse Pfiffner et al. 2002). Thrusting in the sediments. In the east is the Subalpine Molasse was Waschberg Zone the overthrust of the contemporaneous with the Molasse zone and the Vienna Basin. sedimentation. The Subalpine Molasse This zone is also a part of the Folded build a thrust sheet. Molasse (Véron 2005).

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Figure 3: Overview of the classification of the Molasse Basin: Véron

The sediments of the Subalpine shales and carbonates (Sachsenhofer Molasse are of the north et al. 2006). During transition of covered around the Eocene to Oligocene (33,9 Ma – 23,03 uppermost Helvetic (Sinclair et Ma) a flexural down-bending of the al. 1991). Between the outward foreland resulted due to thrust loading Plateau Molasse in the north and the of the Alpine nappes. Together with a Folded Molasse in the south the coeval sea-level rise, subsidence of thickest deposits of this Foreland Basin the Molasse Basin and drowning of the are steeply tilted with in-imbricate former developed carbonate platform thrust blocks of the Subalpine Zone. In evolved from this (Sachsenhofer et al. the north, sediments of the Plateau 2006). In the Oligocene the southern Molasse are thin and pinch out into the margin of the Molasse basin was steep Table Jura (Tafeljura) (Sinclair et al. and the northern part was gently 1991). dipping. Near the southern margin, the The Table Jura is the opposite of tectonically active part, deposits of 2 the High Chain Jura (Faltenjura) km thickness were accumulated and and extends to France, on the northern part fine-grained Switzerland and Germany, but pelagic and hemipelagic rocks were mostly in Switzerland in Canton deposited (Sachsenhofer et al. 2006). Jura, Canton Basel-Land and The stratigraphic development of the Canton Aargau. It is a tabular North Alpine Foreland Basin began highlandscape with precipitous with the turbiditic deep-water valleys. While tertiary age (65 Ma sediments of the north Helvetic Flysch, – 2,6 Ma) the rocks broke-up in named as the underfilled Flysch stage. slabs due to subsidence of the After this stage the overfilled Molasse Upper Rhine Rift, resulting in NE- stage developed with shallow-water / ENE orientated breaks. continental sediments (Pfiffner et al. In Late Eocene (55 Ma) the deposition 2002). These developed Molasse of the Molasse sediments began with sediments have a traditionally fluvial and shallow-marine sandstones, lithostratigraphic division. 6

Stratigraphy

The lithostratigraphy of the North et al. 2002, Schlunegger et al. 1997, Alpine Foreland basin is divided in five Sinclair et al. 1991). The sedimentation groups. The five groups are listed in was a transition of marine turbidites to ascending order: coastal sediments (Jourdan et al. 2013). During time the 1. North Helvetic Flysch (NHF) marine environment became more 2. Lower Marine Molasse (UMM), shallower (Kuhlemann et al. 2002). 3. Lower Freshwater Molasse (USM) The next part is the late Oligocene to 4. Upper Marine Molasse (OMM) early Miocene (23,03 Ma – 5,332 Ma) 5. Upper Freshwater Molasse Lower Freshwater Molasse, the (OSM). and fluvial clastic rocks of the USM and alluvial The stratigraphic groups form two megafans of conglomerates shallowing- and coarsening upward (Nagelfluh) deposited at the tip of the megasequences (Pfiffner et al. 2002). Alpine wedge as well as marls The oldest sequence begins with the (Schlunegger et al. 1997, Sinclair et al. Lutetian to Priabonian (Eocene; 47,8 1991). At the boundary of the Rupelian Ma – 33,9 Ma) NHF (Schlunegger et to Chattian (28,1 Ma – 23,03 Ma) an al. 1997). It´s a classic flysch sequence eustatic induced regression took place marked by a marine transgression and with coupled basin subsidence at the deposition of shallow marine same rate. Also little transgression and limestones (10-50 m) overlain by regression sequences induced turbiditic sandstones (2000 m) in the thrusting of the marls about western part of the MB, for example in sandstones (Andeweg et al. 1998). France, the area around Annot The Subalpine Molasse evolved as (Provence-Alpes) (Jourdan et al. southward dipping thrust sheets and 2013). Sediments described as due to the tectonic movements in the allochthonous remnants in the Folded Central Alps, the thrust sheets were Molasse (Andeweg et al. 1998). exposed to erosion (Schlunegger et After this, one part of the first al.1997, Kuhlemann et al. 2002).In the megasequence comprises the early western NAFB was a climatic change Oligocene (33,9 Ma – 23,03 Ma) Lower from more humid to semiarid Marine Molasse, the Rupelian UMM. conditions during the Chattian time. The UMM is the transition from the A drainage system which had their “Flysch” to the “Molasse” stage. During sources in the rising Alps, were this time (Oligocene) the sea transverse during these times, but transgressed to the north. In the turned orogen-parallel into a NE southern part of the basin, which flowing axial submarine (UMM) or subsided rapidly, the sandstones terrestrial (USM) drainage (Pfiffner et reached thicknesses of 1200 m al. 2002). (Andeweg et al. 1998). Sediments were deposited in marine environment The second megasequence started in the east direction (Carpathians). with the (20,43 Ma – 15,97 These sediments were fine grained Ma) [Miocene] transgression and sandstones, turbidites, deep water consists of deposited wave- and tide marls and mudstones. First fan deltas dominated shallow marine sandstones developed in the UMM sea, which was of the Upper Marine Molasse group a narrow branch off the Tethys (Pfiffner (OMM). These deposits were 7 interfingered with major fan delta This part of the second megasequence sediments adjacent to the Alpine thrust is overlain by the Serravalian (13,60 front (Schlunegger et al. 1997, Pfiffner Ma – 11,608 Ma) accumulated fluvial et al. 2002). At this time width of clastic rocks of the Upper Freshwater deposition was 60 – 80 km. The Molasse (OSM). During this time the transition from the USM to OMM was sea regressed for the last time and indicating form overfilled to underfilled continental sedimentation started basin conditions and the again. While these sediments were accommodation space formation deposited the orogen-normal Alpine occurred at higher rates than the paleorivers drained into a sediment increased. The sediment southwestward flowing orogeny decrease was accompanied by a parallel drainage. The Napf- and reduction of the relief at the northern Hörnli-fan formed forward and drained margin of the northwards into river systems (Sinclair (Kuhlemann et al. 2002). Two deltaic et al. 1991). Sediments were derived fans were the Napf- and the Hörnli-fan from the Eastern Alps and transported in Switzerland. Glauconitic sandstones, in western direction (Kuhlemann et al. limestones and marls were deposited, 2002). During the times a underlain by a transgressive sediment decrease happened and in conglomerate in the area of Serravalian time the sediment Switzerland (Sinclair et al. 1991). discharge increased in northern and western direction. Also a slowdown of subsidence occurred.

Figure 4: General Stratigraphy of the central NAFB: Kuhlemann et al.

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Basin Dynamics

Figure 5: Overview of the geological era

The Molasse Basin went through four Entlebuch troughs. In the Triassic major evolutionary stages: Syn-rift (252,2 Ma – 201,3 Ma) and Middle phase, Epicontinental phase, Passive Jurassic (201,3 Ma –145 Ma) the Margin phase and Alpine Foredeep Epicontinental deposits overstep the phase (Véron 2005). The Syn-Rift Variscan basement. In the Passive phase were during the Carboniferous Margin phase in Middle Jurassic and (358,9 Ma – 298,9 Ma) and Permian Early Cretaceous (145 Ma – 66 Ma) (298,9 Ma – 252,2 Ma ). During these transtensional and transpressional period narrow troughs formed along movements taken place correlated with the ENE-WSW and WNW-ESE trends Jurassic extensional events (Véron of the Variscan wrench faults, evincible 2005, Burkhard et al. 1998). in the Giftthal, Bodensee and 9

Permo-Carboniferous Basins (358,9 Ma – 252,2 Ma)

One part of the Variscan orogeny Two troughs, containing Late underlies the Molasse Basin. This part Carboniferous sediments, are exposed became uplifted and was subjected to in the Aar Massif. One of the troughs, erosion in Late Carboniferous. During the Giftthal trough, strikes NW-SE. The Westphalian (315 Ma – 303,9 Ma) and basement around the troughs was Stephanian (303,9 Ma – 299 Ma) times exposed to weathering and erosion the Variscides joined to a system of during Permo-Carboniferous times. SW-NE striking grabens and troughs. Rocks of this basement top zone are This system began to subside in the reddish and 1 to 10 m thick. This Molasse Basin area (Bachmann et al. weathered zone has also Late 1986). The subsidence is the result of Paleozoic clastics and red terrestrial the development of the Late Hercynian cherts of the Late Permian age wrench-fault system with the Variscan (Bachmann et al. 1986, Véron 2005). fold belt and its European foreland.

Figure 6: Overview of the basement in Permo-Carboniferous times, including main troughs: Bachmann et al.

Triassic Basin (252.2 Ma – 201.3 Ma)

In the area of the Aar Massif Muschelkalk with thicknesses lower carbonates, evaporates and marls of and thicker as 50 m – 100 m. In the the Middle Muschelkalk time transgressive margin of the MB the transgressed the basement. The Muschelkalk was built up of Muschelkalk appears in three sandstones overlain by dolomites. formations: Lower-, Middle- and Upper During deposition in the Late Keuper

10 time the margin moved further in SE overlaying the Muschelkalk (Bachmann direction and the Keuper was et al. 1986).

Figure 7: Overview of the basement in Middle Triassic times: Bachmann et al.

Jurassic Basin (201.3 Ma – 145 Ma)

The change over of the basement to transgression the Aar Massif was the Jurassic time is well documented in flooded and the connection between northeastern Bavaria. In the area of the German Basin and the Tethys Lake Constance the isopachs tend to Ocean became enlarged. During the the SE and a possible opening for the Late Jurassic (Malm) the Franconian newly formed South Ocean Platform and the North German Basin was reached. Transgression of the were separated during the uplifted basin edges in S- and SE-direction Rhenish-Bohemian Massif (Bachmann took place in the Middle Jurassic et al. 1986). (Dogger). In addition to the

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Figure 8: Overview of the basement with isopachs in Late Jurassic time: Bachmann et al.

Cretaceous Basin (145 Ma – 66 Ma)

At the beginning of the Cretaceous a the glauconitic Gault of rapid shallowing of South German basement blocks from the Bohemian Shelf areas were caused due to Massif due to uplift and erosion. In eustatically regression. Continuing addition to the carbonates also eustatically rising sea levels induced predominant lithologies are limestones, marine sedimentation and marls and during Late Cretaceous transgression from the south. series, sandstones (Bachmann et al. Further regression caused deposition 1986). In the Lower Cretaceous the of carbonates, carbonate breccias and Alpine Orogenesis began. anhydrites as well as accumulation of

Cenozoic Basin Evolution (66 Ma - today)

The intersection to the earliest During the Oligocene to Miocene Cenozoic was characterized by the subsidence of the Molasse Basin was uplift of the Bohemian Massif with active with inversion tectonics. In this resulted NW-SE striking wrench- and earliest tertiary stage wrench tectonics steep reverse faults (Bachmann et al. were present in the German part of the 1986). In the subsurface of the MB. Further in the Miocene last Molasse Basin are some similar 25 km deformations and thrust nappes NW striking reverse faults. happened with strong folding of the 12 southern margin of the MB, the along the northern margin of the basin. Subalpine Molasse. The center and the In the Jurassic, and northern margin of the basin displaced siliclastic sediments were deposited by continuous advance of the nappes (Grunert et al. 2010, Bachmann et al. in the north. In the Oligocene, 1986). especially in the Upper Rupelian (33,9 The Ottnangian is a part of Ma – 28,1 Ma), the transition from the regeressive / transgressive cycles underfilled flysch to the overfilled starting in the Late Eggenburgian molasse stage in the NAFB basin took by a transgressive reestablishing place (Sinclair 1997). This was of the Burdigalian Seaway, a effected in the area of the Paratethys marine pathway towards the and the first megasequence, the Lower Atlantic (Grunert et al. 2010). Marine Molasse, the Rupelian UMM Further sediments were marked by was evolved. After a regression of the brackish deposits due to completion of Paratethys and a contemporaneous the seaways towards the Atlantic backthrusting along the Insubric Line (Grunert et al. 2010). During the (Schmid et al. 1996) and advance of following Upper Freshwater Molasse the orogenic wedge the Lower (OSM) in the Late Miocene the sea Freshwater Molasse (USM) were finally retreated and the final filling deposited (Schlunegger et al. 1997). stage of the basin was completed. The The second megasequence started OSM is characterized by a fluvial with the Upper Marine Molasse (OMM) environment and build up of alluvial coupled with a global sea-level rise in fans along the southern basin margin the Miocene. The NAFB was flooded (Kuhlemann et al. 2001). Mostly and marine sediments were deposited. sandstones and marls are preserved in Also sands and clays were deposited the basin. The sedimentation of the basin wide. At the end of the Early Molasse ended and the erosion of the Miocene during the Ottnangian sea- deposits began since the end of the level highstand a beach-cliff developed Late Miocene.

Figure 9: Overview of the tertiary Transgression: Bachmann et al. 13

The Cenozoic sediments are divided Allochthonous Molasse, including the structurally into the Autochthonous Imbricated Molasse, is composed of Molasse and the Allochthonous Molasse sediments, which are included Molasse. The Autochthonous Molasse in the Alpine thrusts and which were rests relatively uninterrupted on the moved tectonically into and above the European basement. The southern Autochthonous Molasse.

Present-day Tectonics

The Molasse Basin underwent evenly spread in a depth range of the characteristic units and evolutionary upper crust at higher density above the steps of a foreland basin, which are brittle-ductile transition at 20 km explained in the title ‘Basin Dynamics’ (Mosar 1999). The reason for that is above. Two different approaches could the presence of high-pressure fluids. be the explanation to the development The compression changes from N-S- of the North Alpine Foreland Basin. orientation to NW-SE-orientation in the First approach refers to the Vuache-Fault-System. The resulted autochthonous folding of the Jura deformation is measured by sinsistral nappe due to thrusting of the basement and dextral movements along NNE- and wrench-faulting, and second SSW- and NW-SE-trending faults. The approach deals with the distant push Vuache Fault system is one of the folding (“Fernschub”). The deformation major tectonic fault zone that of the Alpine foreland was over a basal interconnects the Subalpine Chains to décollement horizon (Mosar 1999). the Jura Mountains across the Molasse The tectonically activities today are basin (Mosar 1999). reflected by earthquakes, ongoing Ongoing uplift is due to active thrusting uplift and out-of-sequence thrusts. The along a thrust front and leads in the Alps have an uplift rate of 1 mm/a foreland basin to asymmetric observed also in the Molasse basin subsidence, which results in a wedge- (Salève area, France). The Earthquake shaped basin-fill (Kuhlemann et al. hypocenters below the Foreland are 2001).

Conclusion

The sedimentary response in the continental climate conditions initiates Molasse Basin experienced three the second stage to the OMM. This stages in the geodynamic evolution. In stage is the transition from overfilled to the first stage / megasequence (UMM) underfilled basin condition. It was deep crustal processes led to crustal suggested that the erosional decrease thickening. Crustal growth introduces could be a possible deformation an increase of crustal accretion and change of the orogen. The climatic surface erosion. The transition from control plays an important role in the UMM to USM indicates a stratigraphic third stage. More erosive conditions change from marine to terrestrial lead to an increasing sediment flux conditions. Figure 10 shows the (Fig. 10) to the OSM. Two effects could increasing sediment discharge during be the reason for that: the active this transition, because of the high deformation shifts towards the subsidence rate of the Molasse Basin. orogenic central and a resulted flexural The change of humid climate to rebound of the foreland plate. 14

The evolution of the Molasse Basin conditions and geodynamic events depends on possible environmental play an important role. Today it will be effects. Weathering or other climate still discussed and new interpreted.

Figure 10: Summary, showing the pattern of sediment discharge to the north, the stratigraphic architecture, the progradation of topographic axis, the palaeoclimate and geodynamic events: Schlunegger et al. 2007

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References

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Bachmann, G.H., Müller, M., Weggen, K. 1986. Evolution of the Molasse Basin (Germany, Switzerland). Tectonophysics, 137. 77-92

Burkhard, M., Sommaruga, A. 1998. Evolution of the western Swiss Molasse basin: structural relations with the Alps and the Jura belt. Geological Society, London, Special Publications. vol. 134. 279-298

Grunert, P., Soliman, A., ´Cori´c, S., Scholger, R., Harzhauser, M., Piller, W.E. 2010. Stratigraphic re-evalutaion of the stratotype for the regional Ottnangian stage (Central Paratethys, middle Burdigalian). Gebrüder Borntraeger

Jourdan, S., Bernet, M., Tricart, P., Hardwick, E., Paquette, J.-L., Guillot, S., Dumont, T., Schwartz, S. 2013. Short-lived, fast erosional exhumation of the internal western Alps during the late early Oligocene: Constraints from geothermochronology of pro- and retro-side foreland basin sediments. Lithosphere. vol. 5. no. 2. p. 211-225

Kuhlemann, J., Kempf, O. 2001. Post-Eocene evolution of the North Alpine Foreland Basin and its response to Alpine tectonics. Sedimentary Geology 152. 45-78

Laubscher, H.P. 1978. Foreland Folding. Tectonophysics, 17. 325-337

Mosar J. 1999. Present-day and future tectonic underplating in the western : reconciliation of basement / wrench-faulting and décollement folding of the Jura and Molasse basin in the Alpine foreland. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 173. 143-155

Pfiffner, O.A., Kempf, O. 2004. Early tertiary evolution of the North Alpine Foreland Basin of the Swiss Alps and adjoining areas. Basin Research. vol. 16. 549-567

Pfiffner. O.A., Schlunegger, F., Buiter, S.J.H. 2002. The Swiss Alps and their peripheral foreland basin: Stratigraphic response to deep crustal processes. Tectonics. vol. 21. no. 2, 1009

Reinecker. J., Tingay, M., Müller, B., Heidelbach. 2010. Present-day stress orientation in the Molasse Basin. Tectonophysics. 482. 129-138

Sachsenhofer, R.F., Schulz, H.-M. 2006. Architecture of Lower Oligocene source rocks in the Alpine Foreland Basin: a model for syn- and post-depositional features in the Paratethyan realm. Petroleum Geoscience. vol. 12. 363-377

Schlunegger, F., Joradn, T.E., Klaper, E.M. 1997. Controls of erosional denudation in the orogen on foreland basin evolution: The Oligocene central Swiss Molasse Basin as an example. Tectonics. vol. 16. no. 5, 823-840

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Schlunegger, F., Matter, A., Burbank, D.W., Klaper, E.M. 1997. Magnetostratigraphic contraints on relationships between evolution of the central Swiss Molasse basin and Alpine orogenic events. GSA Bulletin. vol. 109. no. 2. 225- 241

Schlunegger, F., Rieke-Zapf, D., Ramseyer, K. 2007. Possible environmental effects on the evolution of the Alps-Molasse Basin system. Swiss j. geosci. vol. 100. 383- 405

Schmid, S.M., Fügenschuh, B., Kissling, E., Schuster, R. 2004. Tectonic Map and overall architecture of the Alpine orogen. Eclogae geol. Helv 97. 93-117

Sinclair, H.D., Coakley, B.J., Allen,P.A., Watts, A.B. 1991. Simulation of foreland basin stratigraphy using a diffusion model of mountain belt uplift and erosion: An example from the Central Alps, Switzerland. Tectonics. vol. 10. no. 3, 599-620

Sinclair, H.D. 1997. Flysch to molasse transition in peripheral foreland basin: The role of the passive margin versus slab breakoff. Geology. vol. 25. no. 12. 1123-1126

Véron, J. 2005. The Alpine Molasse Basin – Review of Petroleum Geology and Remaining Potential. Bull. angew. Geol. vol. 10/1. 75-86

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