Appendix 309

Appendix: List of symbols

This list includes the main symbols used in the text, but is not intended to be comprehensive. References to examples of usage are indicated in parentheses. See also Table 6.1 for additional symbols used in that chapter. A prime (') after a symbol denotes its effective value, i.e. with allowance for pore fluid pressure.

A area (equations 1.15, 2.1) Ko ratio for no lateral strain (equation Q( thermal compressibility (equation 6.5) 2.18) B constant relating and k permeability (equation 7.4) (equation 3.1) K (equation 7.4) y strain (equation 1.6) I length (equations 2.2, 7.8) Y shear strain rate (Figure 3.4) 4 rheological constant (equation 3.3) C compressibility (equation 2.3) A. pore fluid/total pressure ratio (equation Cm compressibility of mineral particles 1.14) (equation 2.12) Jl coefficient of viscosity (equations 1.6; 3.2) C. compressibility of particle framework v Poisson's ratio (equation 6.3) (equation 2.12) P pressure Cr compressibility of pore fluid (equation PHlO pore fluid pressure (equations 1.12, 2.8) 7.6) PHlOe overpressure (excess fluid pressure) Cv coefficient of consolidation (equation (equation 2.8) 2.13) PHlOh hydrostatic fluid pressure (equation 2.8) C cohesion (equation 1.5) p' mean (equation 2.17) Co cohesion at zero porosity (equation 3.1) tancf> coefficient of sliding (equation D diffusivity (equation 7.5) 1.5) E Young's modulus (equation 6.3) Q fluid flow rate (equations 7.3, 7.9) e void ratio (equations 1.2, 6.1) q differential (deviatoric) stress (equation B strain (equation 2.2) 2.16) Ii strain rate (equation 3.2) r resistance to deformation (section 2.11) rt porosity (equations 1.2, 6.2) rc strong-bonding resistance (equation 2.11) (J slope inclination (equation 1.15), or rj intergranular friction resistance (equation normal to slope (equation 2.5) 2.11) F force (equation 2.1) rm weak-bonding resistance (equation 2.11) angle of internal friction (equation 1.5) S. (equation 7.5) g gravitational acceleration (equation 2.4) ST tensile strength (equation 6.14) H hydraulic head (equation 7.1) 0'100'3 maximum and minimum principle h height (equation 1.19) stresses (equations 2.5, 2.6) J constant relating permeability to pore O'c consolidation stress (section 6.2.2) radius and tortuosity (equation 7.7) O'n stress normal to plane of shear stress K horizontal/vertical stress ratio (equation (equation 1.5) 1.1) O'v vertical stress (equation 6.1) 310 Appendix

O"h horizontal stress (equation 6.4) V volume (Figure 1.3) T temperature (equation 6.5) W weight (equation 1.15) t time equations 1.6, 2.10) W (equation 1.3) r tortuosity (equation 7.7) Wwet wet water content (equation 1.4) ! shear stress (equations 1.5, 5.1) x rheological constant (equation 1.11) !y yield stress (equations 3.2, 3.3) t/J mean pore radius (equation 7.7) U velocity (Figure 5.20) Z elevation head (equation 7.1) UW unit weight (equation 2.14) z depth (equation 2.4) References

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Aberfan flow, Wales 66 thermal 175 Burial Abnormal fluid pressure 13 Antarctica effects on sediment fabric 268 see also Overpressure examples of subglacial deformation pressure 6 Accretionary prism 73-88 stress 40, 48, 50 Barbados 16, 189-90, 192,236 Ice Stream B 73, 74, 76, 77, 80, 81, paths 60, 168-87 Kodiak, Alaska 16,245-56 82, 88 Nankai, Japan 189-203, 240-5 Appalachian orogen, lithologies and Cam-clay theory 10 Olympic Peninsula, Washington effective stresses 13 Carbonate minerals 256-9 Aquathermal pressuring 15 concretions 117, 119 Oyo complex, Nias 70 7, 26 fault crusts 215 Accretionary prisms (general) Autosuspension 133 as fracture-fill 306 Brittle deformation in toes 192 Avalanches septarian nodules 111 deformation structures in 31 debris 135 Carbonate sediments diffuse strain in toes 190-5 snow and ice 138 Cam-clay theory 10 ductile strain in toes 192-3 tracks of 139 compaction 68 experimental deformation 195-200 Axial-planar cleavage, see Axial• critical state 55 fluid flow in 211 planar foliations friction 8 protothrust zones 190 Axial-planar foliations 284 pressure solution 171 scaly clay in 275 as deformation criteria 305 stress paths 56 stress paths 187-204 in slump folds 305 see also Chalk stractural style of 31, 187 Carbonate veins 250, 259 taper angles 189, 211 Ball-and-pillow structure 108, 288 Carbowax 262 Accretionary wedges, see Accretionary Barbados accretionary prism 16, CAT scanning 262 prisms (general) 189-90, 192, 236 Cataclastic shear zones 295, 301 Active deformable bed, below glacier Bed thickness, below glaciers 77 Cell pressure 6 75 Bed types, below glaciers 74 Cementation Aeolian sediments 22, 101 Bedding-parallel fabrics 38, 67, 242, compaction resistance 67 Ageing of sediments 10 268 concretions 118, 120 Agricultural soils, sampling techniques Bedding-parallel faults 279 destruction effects 47 261 Beef structure 118 effect on deformation 60 Alaska Bingham fluid 11 fluid flow effects 215 examples of subglacial deformation Biogenic gas 15,25 Kodiak, Alaska 16 74-91 Bilogical communities, as seepage sites meaning of, 1 Kodiak accretionary prism 245-56 205 Olympic Peninsula, Washington 259 Trapridge glacier 74, 76, 78, 80, 83 Biopressuring 15 overconsolidation similarity 66 Alleghany Plateau, New York Bioturbation, effect on sediment fabric peak strength re-establishment 57 in situ stress 184 268 pore-filling effects 48 joints 186 Black River, New York 18 porosity preservation 59 Anelastic strain recovery 182 Black Yen landslip, Dorset 59 in shear zones 273 Angle of dilatancy 271 Boswell, P.G.H. 295-307 stiffness increase 56 Angle of internal friction 8, 9, 15,25, Boudinage 15 see also Diagenesis 271 diagenesis and 285 Central graben, North Sea 38 25 from nature 285 Chalk 38, 60 Anglesey, North Wales 34 Kodiak, Alaska 245 deformation behaviour of 56-9 Anisotropy in slumps 145 see also Carbonate sediments mechanical 171 Bouma sequence, in turbidites 134 Chaotic unit, in mass-movement slide permeability 224, 226 Breidamerkurjokull, Iceland 76, 88, 91 157 Poisson's ratio 175 Brittle deformation, in prism toes Chemical precipitation 1, 98, 118, 121 porosity 79 191-2 . Chemical sources of fluid 218-20 in subglacial sediments 81, 84, 87, 89 paths 60, 168-87 Chicken-wire texture 121 356 Index

China, Urumqui glacier 76 Climate, influence on rock falls 131 Constrained modulus 174 Chlorite-mica stacks, as deformation Coarse-tail 13 5 Contractive behaviour 10, 12 criteria 302 Coefficient of consolidation 49 Convolute bedding 101 Civil engineering, sampling techniques Coefficient of earth pressure at rest 7, Convolute lamination 101 261 61, Coring 261 Oastic sediments, microfabrics of 265 see also Ko Coulomb behaviour Oasts, fabric in rockslides etc. 277 Cohesion 8, 9, 13, 22, 25, 46, 80, 83, 84, in accretionary prisms 206 Clathrate decomposition, as 96, 129, 145 in debris flow 140 overpressure source 15 Cohesionless debris flows 131, 144 County Clare, Ireland 104, 114 Clays 98 Compaction Coupling, below glacier 76 angle of internal friction 9 around concretions 119 Cracks Cam-clay theory 10 definition of 6 desiccation 116 cohesion 96, 98 deformation related to 117 synaeresis 116 compaction 68 differential 67 Creep 10 concretions 120 effects of lithology 117 depth creep and folding 281 consolidation 50, 172 initial 40 downslope 10,27 fabrics 38 meaning of 37 gelifluction 163 contractive behaviour 10 Compaction curves 46 low strain 10 critical state 55 Complete coupling, below glaciers 76 rates 162 deformation microstructures 271 Complete decoupling, below glaciers rock 163 dehydration 218 76 rates 163 deposition 96 Compressibility 40, 47, 176 Goldau Switzerland example 165 diagenesis 16 Compression, as synonym for secondary consolidation 11, 50, diapirs 104 consolidation 37 48-51, 171, 177 dilative behaviour 10 Compressive stress, below glaciers 78 solifluction 162 dish-and-pillar structure 108 Computer-assisted tomography 262 subaerial effect on permeability 221 Concretions 118 physical 162 fabrics 67 as deformation criteria 303 rheological 162 fault gouge 217 see also Nodules subaqueous 163 fluid pressure dissipation 50 Cone-in-cone structure 120 Vaiont, Italy, example 165 glaciolacustrine consolidation 17 Confining pressure 6 varied usage of term 10 hydroplasticity 98 Consistency of sediments 7 Criteria for recognizing sediment in situ stress 184 Consolidation 6-8, 12 deformation 249, 301 influence on sediment strength 8 below glaciers 86 Critical state 10 Ko values 61, 173,231 clays 50, 172 lithology, role of 55 mass-movement slides in 26 coefficient of 49 meaning of 51, 195 microfabrics of 265 definition of 6 models 10 mud volcanoes 51 diagenesis effects 173-5 Nankai prism experiments 195-9 overconsolidated 65 differential 22 Critical state line 53 peak strength 9 due to igneous intrusion 33 Crosby, W.O. 19 permeability changes in faults 225 duration of 51 Cross-bedding, deformation of 105 permeability of 221 effect on permeability anisotropy Cross-bedding, overturned 105 plasticity 7 222 cr scanning 262 Poisson's ratio 175 experimental 172-5 Cubic law, of fluid flow 227 pressure solution 171 fabrics due to 268 Cyclic loading 21, 22, 25, 91, 147 quick 8, 15, 66 fluid behaviour 210 Cyclic mobility 21 reloading of overconsolidated 61 historical usage 5 Cylindrical structures 295 residual strength of 9 ice loading, due to 17 rheological creep 162 isotropic 51 Dana, James 28 rheology 12 meaning of 6, 37 Darcy's law 296 salinity effects on strength 9 natural 50 Darcy, Henry 27 scaly, see Scaly clay normal 7, 37, 55 Darwin, Charles 27 silty (Nankai) 195-200 over- 7 Debris avalanches 135 slides (mass movements) 156 primary 6, 48-51 Debris falls 131 subglacial 80 sand 172 Debris flows 84, 140 swelling, elasticity effect 46 secondary 6, 50, 171, 177 cohesionless 131, 144 synaeresis 116 self-weight 50 subaerial 142 temperature effect on permeability silts 50 subaqueous 142 209 stress paths 60 decollement turbidites 133 stress, meaning of 173 Barbados accretionary prism 16, veins 253 subglacial structures due to 87 190 see also London clay; Gault clay tectonic 31 fluid flow in prisms 190, 225 Cleavage, axial-planar, see Axial• under- 7 Nankai accretionary prism 190, 242 planar foliations Consolidometer, see Oedometer Decoupling, below glaciers 76 Index 357

Deformable bed, below glaciers 75 shale 69 195-200 Deformation Diatremes 206 consolidation 172-5 chalk, behaviour of 56-9 Differential consolidation 22 Extensional fracture 230-5 contraction during 12 Differential stress 7 Extruded sand sheets 113 dilation during 12 meaning of 51 see also Sedimentary intrusions due to coring 261 Diffusion mass transfer 1 effects on permeability 235-6 see also Pressure solution Falxics 295-307 elastic 9, 41 Diffusivity 213 ageing 10 glaciotectonic 87-91 Dilatancy, see Dilation axial planar to folds 305· meaning of 1 Dilatancy angle, see Angle of dilatancy bedding-parallel 268 organic traces 117 Dilation 10, 12 chalk 38, 56 tectonic 3 below glaciers 86 consolidation 10, 38 trace fossils 117 subglacial structures due to 88 glacially-deformed sediments 17 undrained 54 Dilative behaviour 10 influence of lithology 67 Deformation bands, see Shear zones see also Dilation Joe's River, Barbados 65 Deformation paths, see Stress paths Dish-and-pillar structures 108, 143 Kodiak, Alaska 247 Density inversion 99 Distribution grading 135 Nankai accretionary prism 193, 242 structures due to 99-105 Disturbance due to coring 261 permeability effects 226 Density modified grain flows 144 Diverticulation, in mass-movement permeability influence 222 Deposition slides 156 quantification in electron debris falls 132 Downslope creep 162-5 microscopy 264 density instabilities 21 Drainage 13, 45, 49 residual state 10 general 96 Drained test 9 sediment deformation effects 10 hindered settling 8 Drumlins 89 shear 44, 60 subglacial 82, 89, 91, 92 Drying techniques for samples 262 till 17 synchronous deformation 95 Ductile strain, in prism toes 193 tortuosity effects, 226 turbidity currents 134 Dykes, Neptunean 28 Factor of safety, in slope stability Depth creep 281 Dykes, sedimentary, see Sedimentary analysis 24 Desiccation cracks 116 dykes Falls (mass movements) 130-3 Detrital remnant magnetization, as Dynamic loading 21 Fault gouge 217 deformation criterion 302 Fault valving 206 Deviatoric stress 7 Earth pressure at rest, coefficient of 61 Faults meaning of 51 see also Ko bedding-parallel 279 dewatering 13 Effective stress 12, 13, 44-8, 209, 210, differential consolidation, due to 22 igneous intrusion, due to 33 222 examples from nature 295-307 . in nature 29 Ekofisk, North Sea 38, 67 extensional 233, 230-5 in subglacial sediments 85-6 Elastic deformation 9, 40, 41, 46, 169 extensional (Atlantic) 31 structures due to 29, 108-13, Elastic rheology 11 fluid sources arid sinks 212-18 295-307 Elastic swell line 46 imbricate 218 subglacial structures due to 87 Elastic volumetric strain 211 Kodiak, Alaska 247 tectonic 13, 31 Elasticity 40 load parallel 233 Diagenesis 1, 15, 37, 66, 118 see also Elastic deformation microfractures 233 as fluid source 218 Electron microscopy neotectonic 30 Barbados accretionary prism, effects of clay fabrics 265 normal, stress indicators 186 in 16 preparation techniques for 262 Olympic Peninsula, Washington boudinage and 284 Elevation head 13, 207 258 carbonate veins 250 Engineering geology 5 in slumps 145 carbonate, at Kodiak, Alaska 16 see also Soil mechanics strike-slip 30 clay 16 Enterolithic structure 121 syn-sedimentary 113, 186 consolidation interaction 173-5 Epoxy-resin, for sample impregnation thrust 233 deformation interaction 15 261 tortuosity effects 235 effects on sediment fabric 268 Equilibrium line, in subglacial valving mechanism 206 force of crystallization 16 transport 81 see also Shear zones in shear zones 271 Equivalent permeability 224 Fisherstreet slump, W. Ireland 148 Ko effects 178 Eulerian description of deformation 117 meaning of 1 188 Flame structures 99 overconsolidation, role in 8 Evaporites 23, 98, 121 Flow laws slope failure reduction 25 Excess fluid pressure 13 for sediment deformation 11, 12 timing and deformation 240 see also Overpressure for subglacial sediments 83 see also Cementation Excess pore pressure 13 Flows (mass movements) 133-44 Diapirs 28, 34, 35, 69, 103 see also Overpressure avalanches 138 Kodiak, Alaska 250 Experimental deformation 6, 16, 50, debris avalanches 135 mud 69, 206, 250 56-9,168 debris flows 140 serpentinite 206 accretionary prism sediments grain flows 143 358 Index

Flows (mass movements) contd. in liquefaction 22 Hutton, James 4 lahars 138 Gaspe, Quebec 18 H vorslev failure criterion 82 liquefied 142 Gault Clay 51 surface 55 plastic behaviour 27 Gela slide, Sicily 157 Hydraulic conductivity 13, 49, 208, 213 volcanic 135-8 Gelifluction 163 units of 208 Flowslides 142 Geopressure 13 Hydraulic head 207 Fluid flow, basic concepts 209 see also Overpressure Hydraulic processes, in subglacial Fluid movements 27-9 Geotechnics, see Soil mechanics sediments 85-6 channelized 29 Ghost Rocks Formation, Alaska 245, Hydraulics, see Hydrogeology historical aspects 27 260 Hydrocarbons structures due to 108-13 Ghost veins 293 as fluid sources 219 Fluid potential gradient 13 Glacial deformation 16-17 overpressure 219 Fluid pressure 12, 45, 47, 44-8, 176, structures resulting from 17 Hydrofracture 230, 233, 235 180--1 see also Glaciotectonics Hydrofracturing, stress measurement abnormal 13 Glaciers, rock 163 in borehole 182 excess 13 Glaciotectonics Hydrogeology, basic concepts 207-9 in subglacial sediments 85-6 deformation 87-91 Hydroplastic 3, 98 negative 13, 179 structures 87-91 Hydropressure 13 normal 13 preservation of 91 see also Overpressure sealed compartments 179 usage of term 3 Hydrostatic gradient 209 subnormal 13 Goldau, Switzerland, rock creep Hydrostatic pressure 7, 13, 45 supernormal 13 example 165 Fluid pressure ratio (A) 13 Gouge, glacial 17 Ice Fluid sinks 209 Gouge, fault 217, 228 as cause of sediment deformation transient 212 perlIleability of 229 16-17 Fluid sources 209 Grabau, Amadeus 20 in sediments 92 chemical 218-20 Grading, in turbidites 135 Iceland, examples of subglacial transient 212 coarse-tail 13 5 deformation 73-91 Fluidal flows (mass movements) distribution 135 Igneous activity, effect on sediments 133-40 Grain flows 143 247 Fluidization 22, 97 density modified 144 Igneous intrusion adjacent to igneous intrusions 32 modified 143 loading effect 21 Fluidized flows 140 Grain size effect on sediments 32-33 Fluids effect on thickness 270 structures in sediments due to 32 consolidation effects 210 in subglacial sediments 79 Ignimbrites 137 faults as sources and sinks 218 Gravitational instability 17 Illite role in sediment deformation 12-16 Gravitational loading, structures due angle of internal friction 9, two-phase 15 to 99-105 temperature effects on permeability Flutings, in subglacial sediments 89 Gravitational mass-movements, see 209 Folds Mass movements Imbricate faults 279 due to depth creep 281 Gravity, as body force 3 Impregnation of samples 261 from nature 285-8 Gravity spreading 156 In place deformation, see In place scales of 281 Greenly, Edward 34 disturbance styles of 281 GriffithjNavier-Coulomb criterion In place disturbance 21-3 kink-bands 282 230 structures due to 99-103 Kodiak, Alaska 245 Guaymas basin, Gulf of California 33 Independent particulate flow 2 neotectonic 30 Gulf Coast sedimentary basin 114, Inhomogeneity, in subglacial Olympic Peninsula, Washington 156, 211, 218, 232 sediments 84 258 in situ stress 182 Inter-grain friction 8 slump 105, 145 Intergranular friction 8 axial-planar foliations in 305 Hahn, Fritz 20 Intraformational structures, as from nature 284 Hall, James 4 deformation criteria 303 palaeoslope interpretation 284 Hard bed, below glaciers 75 Intrusions, sedimentary, see Force 39-42 Head 207 Sedimentary dykes seepage 15 elevation 207 Ionic diffusion, in pore fluids 15 Forms, in subglacial sediments 89-91 gradient 207 Isolated load balls 100 Fractures, see Faults, Joints hydraulic 207 Isotropic consolidation 51 Friction angle, see Angle of internal press ure 207 Isotropic stress 51 friction Head, of mass-movement slide 157 Frozen bed, below glacier 76, 92 Heim, Albert 20 Joe's River Formation, Barbados 65, 70 Frozen sediments 92 Helmsdale, NE Scotland 34 Joints 30, 131, 224, 235 Hindered settling 8 glacial sediments 17 Gas, biogenic 15 Hooke's Law 11 stress indicators 186 Gas hydrates 205 Horizontal burial stress 7, 169 Jones, D.T. 295-307 Index 359

K value 7 Loading in clastic sediments 265 Kaolinite, angle of internal friction 9 cyclic 21 in clays 265 Kelut, Java, lahar example 138 dynamic 21 Microfaults, see Shear zones Kidnappers Slide, New Zealand 159 gravitational 99 Microscaliness 275 Kink-bands 30 monotonic 21 Microstructures 268-71 from nature 282 shock 21 in deformed clays 271 in association with shear zones 271 static 21 in subglacial sediments 88 Nankai prism 191 see also Gravitational loading Middle America Trench, slope Kleszczow Graben, Poland 17 Logan, William 18 stability at 25 Ko 7, 60, 64, 231 London Clay 50, 51, 226 Miller, W.J. 19 for clays 231 Lowe divisions, of turbidities 135 Mineral dehydration condition 60 Lubrication 14 as fluid source 218 diagenesis 178 . as overpressure source 15 in nature 67 Magma Mineralization, as deformation stress path 64, 169, 172 effect of sediments 32-3 criterion 304-5 Kodiak accretionary prism, Alaska explosive mixing with sediment 32 Mineralized fractures, as deformation 16,245-56 Magnetic susceptibility 262 criteria 304-5 Mammal footsteps, loading effect 21 Mississippi Delta 103 Lagrangian description of deformation Mariana Trench 30 diapirism in 70 189 Mass movements 23-7, 53, 67, 105 mudlumps 17 Lahars 138 avalanches 138 overpressures and slopes 26 Landforms, glacial 17 classification 127 permeabilities and strengths 13 Landslides clast orientations 277 slumps 151 meaning of term 23 creep, 162-5 Mobility, cyclic 21 scaly clay in 275 debris avalanches 135 Modified grain flows 143 see also Rockslides debris flows 140 Mohr circles 10, 43, 51, 52, 53, 197 Lateral burial stress 7 falls 130-3 Mohr-Coulomb equation 8, 12, 24, 25, Lateral ramps, in mass-movement flows 133-44 96 slide 157 flowslides 142 Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion 82 Lesser Antilles accretionary prism, see fluidal flows 133-40 Mohr-Coulomb failure surface 55, 57, Barbados accretionary prism fluidized flows 140 63 Lineations grain flows 143 Monotonic loading 21 morphology of 274 historical aspects 23 Mont Pelee, Martinique, lahar due to shear 274 interpretation of physical conditions example 138 on slickensides 274 281 Montmorillonite, angle of internal in slump folds 284 lahars 138 friction 9 Liquefaction 15, 22, 26, 66, 97,103,112 liquefied flows 142 Mt Etna, Sicily 30 structures due to 295-307 mechanics of 24, 127 Mud Liquefaction structures melanges 156 permeability 221 as deformation criteria 304 mudflows 140, 151 permeability in faults 225 Liquefied flows 142 mudslide, Dorset 25 Mud diapirs, 206 Liquid limit 7 mudslides, 92 see also Clays Lithification 1-3, 37 Point of Relief, Ireland, example see also Diapirs; Mud volcanoes effect on igneous intrusion 32 158 Mud volcanoes 69, 206 fluid flow effects 214-18 periglacial 163 clays in 51 influence on consolidation 8 plastic flows 140-4 Mud-filled veins 291 meaning of 1, 2 pyroclastic flows 137 Mudflows 138, 140, 151 partial 2, 37, 245, 250 Mont Pelee example 138 Mudlumps 17,28, 103 usage of term 2 rheology 128 Muds Lithology slides 152-62 diapirs 28, 103, 113 critical state, effect on 55 slumps 144-52 flame structures 99 depositional aspects 96 turbidity currents 133-5 igneous intrusion into 32 fabric, influence on 67 see also Creep; Slides; Slumps Mississippi Delta 103 liquefaction, effect on 22 Mean effective stress, meaing of 45, 51 sands comparison 13 microfabric variations 265 Melanges shrinkage 114 permeability, effect on 220-2 as mass movements 156 slides (mass movements) 156 plasticity, influence on 7 historical aspects 34 turbidity currents 134 subglacial sediments, effect in 79-81 Kodiak, Alaska, example 249-56 volcanoes 29 rock falls, influence on 130 shale-matrix 35, 239 Mudslides 25, 92, 127, 153 strength, influence on 8 Metamorphic dehydration, as fluid Point of Relief, Ireland, example 158 see also Specific lithological names source 219 Lithostatic pressure 6 Meteorite impact, loading effect 21 Nankai accretionary prism, Japan Load balls, isolated 100 Microfabric, see Fabric 189-203,240-5 Load casts 99 Microfabrics experimental deformation 195-200 360 Index

Negative fluid pressure 13 lithology effects 220-2 techniques 261 Neotectonic deformation 17 measurement of 16 Quick clay 8, 15,66 Neotectonics 30 muddy faults 225 Neptunian dykes 28, 30, 59, 110 sandy faults 226 Raleigh-Taylor instabilities 22 Newtonian fluid 11 subglacial sediments 85-6 Ramsey Island, SW Wales 32 mass movements 128 temperature effects in illite 209 Ramps, lateral, in mass-movement Niger Delta 104, 114, 156 tortuosity effects 235 slides 157 Nodules, 118-21 units of 208 Ratchetting 79 septarian, 117, 120 Physical creep (mass movement) 162 Recognition of sediment deformation see also Concretions Piceance Basin, Colorado, in situ stress structures 295-307 Nomogram, for slope failure 279 183 Recrystallization, meaning of 1 Normal consolidation 7, 37, 55 Pipes (drainage conduits) 29 Remoulded sediments 8 Normal fluid pressure 12, 13 Plastic flows (mass movements) 140--4 Repose, angle of 25 Normal stress 42 Plastic limit 7 Residual strength 9, 26, 53 North Sea 38, 59, 66, 67, 70, 205 Plastic range 7,27 in gravitational slides 26 Nuees ardentes 137 Plastic rheology 11 Resin, for sample impregnation 261 Plasticity index 7, 27 Retrogressive failure, of slope 16, 26 Ocean Drilling Program 31 Pockmarks 29 Rheological creep 162 Leg 110 (Barbados) 31 Point of Relief slide, Ireland 158 Rheology, 98 Leg 131 (Nankai) 31, 192-7, 242 Poisson's ratio 11, 169, 174, 175, 232, mass movements 128 Leg 146 (Cascadia) 31 235 sediments 11, 26 Oedometer 40 Pore pressure 12 subglacial sediments 83 Olistoliths 156 see also Fluid pressure Rio Santa, Peru, flowslide example 142 Olistostrome 34 Pore pressure, excess 13 Rock, usage of term 1, 5 Olympic Peninsula, Washington, see also Overpressure Rock falls 130 accretionary sequence 256-9 Porosity 44, 45 Rock glaciers 163 Organic traces, deformation of 117 Barbados prism, 193 Rockslides, clast fabrics in 277 Organic creep 162 in consolidation 37, 168-87 Rocky Mountan arsenal, Denver, 6 definition of 7 fluid-induced earthquakes 206 Overconsolidation 7, 55, 64-6, 214 Nankai prism 192 Roscoe surface 55, 60, 63 Overpressure 13, 15,21,25,50,53,65, on initial deposition 96 Rotational slides 153 152,207,209,211,232 Potential gradient fluid 13, 15, 207 duration of 70 Pouisseille flow 227 Sacramento River, California 28 effect on burial stress 180--1 Pouisseille's law 222 Safety factor, in effect on sediment strength 13 Power law, for viscous flow 11 24 effects of 96 Pressure Salinity, effect on origins of 15, 70--1 burial 6 clay microfabric 265 see also Fluid pressure ce116 clay strength 9 Overturned cross-bedding 105 confining 6 Sampling of sediments 261 Oyo complex, Nias 70 fluid 12, 44-8 Sand fluid, subglacial 85-6 sheets, extruded 112 p--q diagrams 10 hydrostatic 7, 13 turbidites 133 Pacific Rim melange, Vancouver 35 ionic diffusion in pore fluid 15 volcanoes 112 Palaeoseismicity, interpretation of 289 lithostatic 6 Sand dunes Palaeoslope 284 normal fluid 12 deformation in 22 see also folds, slump overburden 6 loading effect 21 Partial decoupling, below glaciers 76 pore 12 Sand volcanoes 112 Partial lithification, see Lithification, Pressure head 13, 207 see also Sedimentary dykes partial Pressure ridges, in slumps 148 Sand-blows 30 Partially frozen bed, below glaciers 76 Pressure solution 51, 171 Sands 229 Peak strength 9, 53 meaning of 1 aeolian 101 in gravitational slides 26 Primary consolidation 6, 48-51 Cam-clay theory 10 Penecontemporaneous structures 95 Principal stress 42-4 channels 118 Periglacial mass movements 163 Proglacial deformation 92 cohesion 80 Permeability 12, 15,29,48,209 Propagation zone, in mass-movement compaction 68 active deformation effects 235-6 slide 157 consolidation 8, 50, 172, 179 anisotropy of 15,224,226 Protothrust zone, in accretionary contractive behaviour 10 anisotropy from consolidation 222 prisms 190, 194 critical state 55 definition of 208 Pseudonodules 100 cross-bedded 101 dilation, effect of 15 Pseudoplastics 128 cyclic loading 22 engineering hydrology 15 Pyroclastic flows 137 deltaic 103 equivalent 224 desiccation structures 110, 116 examples from Mississippi Delta 13 Quartz, as fracture-fill 306-7 dilative behaviour 10 inhomogeneities, effects of 15 Quaternary studies, sampling disaggregated 250 Index 361

dish-and-pillar structure 108 partial translational 153 dyke injection 28 Sensitivity translational zone 157 extrusion structures 112 in marine sediments 26 Slope failure flows 144 meaning of 8 causes of 25 in situ stress 183 Septarian nodules 117, 120 nomogram for 279 injection structures 110 Serpentinite diapirs 206 see also Mass movement intrusive, see Sedimentary dykes Shale diapirs, see Diapirs Slope stability Ko values 61, 173 Shale-matrix melanges 35, 239 analysis of 24 load-casts 99 Shear see also Mass movement loading structures 101 structures due to 105-8 Slump deformation, historical mud comparison 13 subglacial structures due to 88-9 controversy 301 oil wel1 invasion 59 Shear bands, see Shear zones Slump folds 105, 145 packing density 221 Shear modulus 175 see also Folds, slump peak strength 9 Shear strength 8, 53, 96 Slump sheet, loading effect 21 permeability in faults 226 examples from Mississippi Deta 13 Slumping, recognition of 302 permeability of 220 Shear stress 42-4, 51 Slumps (mass movements) 144-52 Poisson's ratio 175 below glacier 79 faults, 145 pressure solution 171 Shear surfaces, see Shear zones and Fisherstreet, Ireland example 148 sheet dewatering structures 109 Slickensides folds 105, 145 stress paths 56 Shear thickening 11 mechanics 145 volcanoes 29, 112 Shear thinning 11 Mississippi Delta example 151 wetting structures 117 Shear zones 268-71 origin 147 see also Sedimentary dykes cataclastic 295,301 pressure ridges 148 Sandstone dykes, see Sedimentary diagenetic effects 271 size 146 dykes fluid flow in 226 Storegga, Norway example 150 Sapping 26 glacial sediments 17 see also Folds, slump Sarawak 69 kink band association 271 Snout, of debris flows 141 Scaly clay 65, 239, 295-307 Kodiak, Alaska 250 Soft-sediment deformation, discussion in accretionary prisms 275 morphology of 270 of term 3 fabric of 275 Nankai prism 191-92 Soil mechanics 6, 10, 12, 29, 37, 41 in landslides 275 in nature 271 application to submarine Nankai decol1ement 242 orientation of 269 instal1ations 6 Scaly fabric, see Scaly clay origin of 269 application to submarine situation Scaly , see Scaly clay in sub-glacial sediments 88 15 Scotian shelf, in situ stress 183 thickness of 270 standard tests 16 Secondary consolidation 6, 50, 177 Sheet dewatering structures 109 see also Civil engineering; Sediment deformation Shimanto Belt, Japan 30 Geotechnics criteria for recognition of 301 Shock loading 21 Solifluction 162 diagnostic property of 1 Shrinkage, structures due to 114-17 Solution transfer, see Pressure solution influence of early thinking 4-5 Shrinkage cracks 116 Southern Uplands, Scotland 30 principles 9-12 Silts Specific storage 213 Sediment deformation structures, cohesion 80 State boundary surface 53 recognition of 295-307 consolidation 50 Static loading 21 Sediment transport, below glaciers deposition 98 Storegga slumps, Norway 150 81-2 Ko values 61 Storm waves Sedimentary basins, stress paths in 61 igneous intrusion into 32 overpressuring source 15 Sedimentary dykes 110--12 Nankai silty clays 195-200 slope instability 25 as deformation criteria 301 plasticity 7 Strain 39, 42-4 from nature 288 residual strength behaviour 9 diffuse in prism toes 195 historical aspects 27 Slickensides 295-307 horizontal elastic 180 uses of 28 Slides (mass movements) 105, 147, lateral 177 Sediment injection structures 110--12 152-62 meaning of 39 Sedimentary intrusions 28, 110--12 chaotic unit 157 rate, in subglacial sediments 83 Sediments component parts 154, 157 thermal 175 examination 261 diverticulation 156 uniaxial, see Ko techniques of 261 Gela, Sicily, example 157 volumetric 3, 6, 51 meaning of 1, 37, 41 head region 154 volumetric, during deformation 10 sampling of 261 Kidnappers, New Zealand, example Strait of Messina, Italy (extensional strength of 8-9 159 structures) 30 Seepage force 15 lateral ramps 157 Strangways, W.T.H.F. 27 Seeps, ocean floor 205 Point of Relief, Ireland, example 158 Strength Seismic waves, loading effect 21 propagational zone 157 of sediments 8-9 Self-weight consolidation 50 rotational 153 peak 9, 53 . Semi-lithification, see lithification, toe region 154 residual 9, 53 362 Index

Strength contd. 'Surge-type glaciers 91 Turbidity currents 133-5 shear 8, 53 Suspension sedimentation stage, of Two-phase fluids 15 Stress 39, 42-4 deposition 135 amplification of 234 Swell line, elastic 46 Underconsolidation 7, 64-6 below glacier 78 Swelling 210, 211 Underpressure 13, 179 burial 40, 48, 50 Synsedimentary faults 113 Undrained deformation 54 compressive, below glacier 78 Synaeresis cracks 116 Undrained test 9 deviatoric 7 Unfrozen bed, below glacier 76 meaning of 51 Taiwan 68, 70 Uniaxial strain, see Ko differential 7 Taper angle, of accretionary prisms Unlithified bed, below glacier 75 meaning of 51 189 Unloading stress paths 180 effective 12, 44-8 Techniques, of examining sediments horizontal burial 7 261 Vaiont slide, Italy 165 in situ measurement 181-5 Tectonic Vanuxem, Lardner 18 isotropic 51 deformation 29-32 Vein structure (mud-filled) 291 lateral burial 7 stress 29-32 Veins mean effective 45 meaning of term 3 as deformation criteria 304 meaning of 39 usage of term 3-4 ghost 293 normal 42 Tectonic consolidation 31 as lithification criteria 250--6, 259 principal 42-4 Tectonic deformation mud-filled 291 shear 42-4, 51 as preserved in rocks 30 Olympic Peninsula, Washington below glacier 79 meaning 3 259 tectonic 29-32, 68 Tectonic dewatering 31 Viscosity, coefficient of 11 tectonic, meaning of 3 Tectonic stress 68 Viscous rheology 11 tensile 114 Tectonic structures in sediments 30 Void ratio 46 in nature 282 Temperature in consolidation 168-87 tensional 230--5 below glaciers 75 definition of 7 Stress paths 10, 56, 210 effect on burial 175-6 Volcanic flows 135-8 accretionary prisms 187-204 effect on consolidation 178 Volcanoes unloading 180 effect on deformation 176 sand,112 Stress path diagrams 10, 52, 53 smectite-illite transition 218 sedimentary, 29, 112 Nankai prism examples 198, 199, Tensile strength 114 Volume change, see Volumetric strain 241 Tensile stress 114 Volumetric strain 3, 6, 43, 51 Stress, differential, see Deviatoric in nature 281 during burial 169-81 stress Terzaghi, Karl 14,45,48,49 during deformation 10, 43 Striations, on slickensides 274 Thermal compressibility 175 elastic 211 Structures Thermal regime, below glacier 75 Nankai prism 191-203 Chemical precipitation 118-21 Thermal strain 175 Density inversion 99-105 Thick bed, below glacier 77 Water content, definition of 7 dewatering 108-13, 291 Thickness, of sediments below glacier Waves fluid movement 113 77 ocean 103 glaciotectonic 87-91 Thin-sections, preparation techniques loading effect 15, 21 gravitational loading 99-105 262 Weak rock in-place disturbance 103 Thixotropy 22, 269 typical behaviour of 56 Kodiak, Alaska 245-56 Till, glacial 17 usage of term 2 liquefaction, due to 288 Time, role in experimental Web structure 293 Nankai accretionary prism 242-4 deformation 177 Welded tuffs 137 shear 105-8 Toe, in mass-movement slide 157 Wet water content, definition of 7 shrinkage 114-17 Tortuosity Wetting of sediments, structures due wetting 117 definition of 222 to 117 Subaerial creep 162 of flow paths 235 White, Theodore 19 Subaerial debris flow 142 Trace fossils, deformation of 117 Subnormal fluid pressure 13 Tractional stage, of deposition 134 X-radiography 262 Sulphides, as fracture-fill 306 Translational slides 153 Sunda Trench 30 Translational zone, in mass-movement Yapp Trench 30 Sunnm~re, W. Norway, avalanche slides 157 Yield 46 example 139 Trenton, New York 18-21 Yield surface 55 Supernormal fluid pressure 13 Triaxial tests 9, 54 Young's modulus 11, 169, 174, 175, see also Overpressure Turbidites 134 185