Geological Reconstructions of the East Asian Blocks from the Breakup of Rodinia to the Assembly of Pangea

Home , Dabie Mountains, Helan Mountains, Laurasia, South China Craton, SWEAT (hypothesis), Tethys Ocean

Earth-Science Reviews 186 (2018) 262–286

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Geological reconstructions of the East Asian blocks: From the breakup of T Rodinia to the assembly of Pangea ⁎ Guochun Zhaoa,b, , Yuejun Wangc, Baochun Huangd, Yunpeng Dongb, Sanzhong Lie, Guowei Zhangb, Shan Yub a Department of Earth Sciences, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong b State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics, Department of Geology, Northwest University, Northern Taibai Str. 229, Xi'an 710069, China c Guangdong Provincal Key Lab of Geodynamics and Geohazards, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China d Key Laboratory of Orogenic Belt and Crust Evolution, Ministry of Education, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China e Key Lab of Submarine Geosciences and Prospecting Techniques, Ministry of Education, College of Marine Geosciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Pangea is the youngest supercontinent in Earth's history and its main body formed by assembly of Gondwana and Supercontinent Laurasia about 300–250 Ma ago. As supported by voluminous evidence from reliable geological, paleomagnetic Pangea and paleontological data, configurations of major continental blocks in Pangea have been widely accepted. East Asia However, controversy has long surrounded the reconstructions of East Asian blocks in Pangea. To determine Assembly whether or not the East Asian blocks were assembled to join Pangea before its breakup, we carried out geological Breakup and paleomagnetic investigations on East Asian blocks and associated orogenic belts, supported by a NSFC Major Reconstruction Program entitle “Reconstructions of East Asian blocks in Pangea”. Our results indicate that the breakup of Rodinia around 750 Ma ago led to the opening of the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Asian oceans in East Asia, with the former separating the South China, North China, Alex Qaidam and Tarim blocks from other East Asian blocks at the margins of Australia and India, whereas the Paleo-Asian Ocean existed between the East Asian blocks and Siberia-Eastern Europe. The Proto-Tethys Ocean closed in the early Paleozoic (500–420 Ma), leading to the collision of South China, North China, Alex, Qaidam and Tarim with other East Asian blocks at the northern margin of Gondwana. The subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean formed the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, the largest accretionary orogen in Earth's history, and its closure was diachronous, with its western, central and eastern segments closing at 310–280 Ma, 280–265 Ma and 260–245 Ma, respectively, leading the Tarim, Alex and North China blocks to join Eastern Europe-Siberia as part of Pangea. During the early Devonian (420–380 ma), the East Paleo-Tethys Ocean opened with two branches, of which the north branch is called the Mianlue Ocean that separated the Tarim-Qaidam-Central Qilian-Alex and North China blocks in the north from North Qiangtang-Indochina-South China in the south, and the south branch is the stricto sensu East Paleo-Tethys Ocean that separated North Qiangtang-Indochina-South China from the Sibumasu and South Qiangtang-Lhasa blocks at the northern margin of Gondwana. In the Triassic, the East Paleo-Tethys Ocean (stricto sensu) closed along the Longmu Co – Shuanghu – Changning – Menglian – Inthanon belt, leading to the collision of North Qiangtang- Indochina-South China with Sibumasu and South Qiangtang-Lhasa, forming a single southern continent, which then collided with the Tarim-Qaidam-Central Qilian-Alex and North China blocks to form a coherent East Asian continent that had become part of Pangea by 220 Ma, when the Mianlue Ocean closed, leading to the formation of the E-W-trending Central China Orogenic System.

1. Introduction crust, or subduct beneath each other to create new crust and finally collide to generate orogenic belts. Some rigid plates (like the Pacific According to modern plate tectonics, Earth's surface consists of a plate) consist exclusively of oceanic crust, but most plates comprise number of rigid plates that either drift apart to create new oceanic both continental and oceanic crusts like the Eurasian plate. A

⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Earth Sciences, James Lee Science Building, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong. E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Zhao). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.10.003

Available online 06 October 2018 0012-8252/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. G. Zhao et al. Earth-Science Reviews 186 (2018) 262–286 supercontinent forms when all oceanic crust is consumed through plate the Early Paleozoic orogenic belts, Central Asian Orogenic Belt, Central subduction and nearly all continental blocks on Earth collide each other China Orogenic System and Paleo-Tethys Belt, which resulted from the and coalesce into a single landmass. Theoretically, such a probability subduction and closure of the Proto-Tethys Ocean, Paleo-Asian Ocean, that all continental blocks on Earth move together to form a single north and south branches of Paleo-Tethys Ocean, respectively. The landmass should be extremely low, which may be a reason why only a program has also obtained new Late Paleozoic to Triassic paleomag- few supercontinents formed in Earth's ~4.57 Ga long history, including netic data for the Indochina, Sibumasu, Lhasa, Qiangtang and Qaidam Columbia (Nuna) forming about 1.8 Ga ago (Rogers and Santosh, 2002; blocks and those micro-continental blocks within the eastern segment Zhao et al., 2002, 2004), Rodinia about 1.0 Ga ago (Dalziel, 1991; of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (Yi et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2015; Hoffman, 1991; Moores, 1991; Torsvik, 2003; Goodge et al., 2008; Li Yan et al., 2016; Huang et al., 2018 and references wherein). The et al., 2008a), and Pangea about 300–250 Ma ago (Wegener, 1912; geological and paleomagnetic data obtained from this NSFC Major Smith and Livermore, 1991; Murphy and Nance, 2008; Stampfli et al., Program, combined with those from previous studies, have led us to 2013). Recently, some people argue for an end-Archean (~2.5 Ga) su- conclude that the East Asian blocks had amalgamated to form a single percontinent (e.g. Knoreland), though global-scale end-Archean colli- continent that was added to the main body of the Pangea Super- sional events leading to the assembly of such a supercontinent have not continent by ~220 Ma. These geological data combined with available been recognized. No matter whether or not such an end-Archean su- paleomagnetic data also enable us to have reconstructed major geolo- percontinent existed, it seems that every other 700–800 Ma, nearly all gical events that the East Asian blocks experienced from the breakup of continental blocks on Earth's surface met together to form a super- Rodinia to the assembly of Pangea and the possible positions of the East continent, whose geodynamic mechanism still remains as an enigma to Asian blocks in Pangea, which are reflected in ten summary and review earth scientists. papers presented in this special issue (Cawood et al., 2018; Dong et al., Of recognized supercontinents in Earth's history, Pangea is the 2018a; Han and Zhao, 2018; Eizenhöfer and Zhao, 2018; Huang et al., youngest one that was first proposed by Alfred Wegener (1912) at the 2018; Li et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018; Xiao et al., 2018; Zhao et al., beginning of the last century on the basis of his continental drift hy- 2018; Zhou et al., 2018a, b). It deserves mentioning here that the re- pothesis. Although Wegener's continental hypothesis was initially reconstruction maps presented in this contribution are mainly based on garded ridiculous as he did not well explain what's a plausible driving geological reconstructions though in most cases they are consistent with force for the drifting of continents across ocean beds, but half a century paleomagnetic reconstructions, especially for those for the Paleozoic later it became, in a modified form, fully acknowledged and now has (e.g. Huang et al., 2018). The aim of this contribution is to present a been incorporated into the modern theory of plate tectonics. As sup- series of time slice reconstructions and summarize geological evidence ported by voluminous evidence from geological, paleomagnetic and for these reconstructions, with emphasis on the spatiotemporal evolu- paleontological data, the configurations of major continental blocks tion of the East Asian blocks from Rodinia to Pangea. Appendix I is a (e.g. Australia, Antarctica, India, Africa, South America, North America, powerpoint presentation with an animation showing major geological Greenland, Baltica, Siberia, etc.) in Pangea have been widely accepted events that the East Asian blocks experienced from the breakup of (Muttoni et al., 2003, 2009). However, controversy has long sur- Rodinia to the assembly of Pangea based on geological reconstructions rounded the reconstructions of the East Asian blocks in Pangea, in- presented in this contribution. cluding North China, South China (Yangtze and Cathaysia), Tarim, Qaidam, Central Qilian, North Qinling, South Qinling, North Qiang- 2. Positions of some East Asian blocks in Rodinia tang, South Qiangtang-Lhasa, Indochina (Annamia), Sibumasu, etc. (Fig. 1). A large number of models have been proposed for re- Rodinia is a Meso-Neoproterozoic supercontinent that was as- constructions of these East Asian blocks and also their relations to sembled 1.1–0.9 billion years ago and broke up 750–600 million years Pangea (Zhao and Coe, 1987; Ren et al., 1990, 2000; Metcalfe, 1994, ago (McMenamin and MacMenamin, 1990; Dalziel, 1991, 1997; 1996; Metcafe, 2009; Metcalfe, 2011a; Metcalfe, 2013a; Li et al., 1995a; Hoffman, 1991; Moores, 1991; Meert and Torsvik, 2003; Torsvik, 2003; b; Li et al., 1996; Şengör and Natal'in, 1996; Yin and Nie, 1996; Li, Goodge et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008a; Zheng et al., 2008a, 2008b). 1998; Zheng, 2004; Ferrari et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2011, 2013, 2016; During the period of 900–750 Ma, Rodinia existed as a coherent large Cawood et al., 2013; Cocks and Torsvik, 2013; Zheng et al., 2013; Zuza landmass surrounded by the single, Pan-Rodinian Mirovoi Ocean and Yin, 2017). So far, most reconstruction models assume that con- (Fig. 2; McMenamin and MacMenamin, 1990; Hoffman, 1991; Meert tinental blocks in East Asia were separated from the main body of and Powell, 2001; Cawood, 2005). Although the Rodinia super- Pangea by the Paleo-Tethys Ocean (e.g. Bambach et al., 1980; Scotese continent has been proposed for nearly 30 years, no consensus has been and McKerrow, 1990; Torsvik et al., 1996, 2008; Collins, 2003; Scotese, reached regarding its configurations due to insufficient geological and 2004, 2009; Golonka, 2004, 2007; Golonka et al., 2006; Metcafe, 2009; paleomagnetic constraints (Dalziel, 1991; Hoffman, 1991; Moores, van der Meer and Torsvik, 2010; Cocks and Torsvik, 2013; Domeier and 1991; Torsvik, 2003; Goodge et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008a). It is parti- Torsvik, 2014; Yoshida, 2016), though a few models placed the East cularly the case with the position of South China in Rodinia, with one Asian blocks connecting to Pangea by the late Triassic (e.g. Stampfli group of people placing South China between the eastern margin of et al., 2013). In these reconstruction models, the East Asian blocks are Australia and the western margin of Laurentia (Li et al., 1995a, b; Li considered to have existed as isolated micro-continental blocks sur- et al., 2002b; Li et al., 2007a; Li et al., 2008a; Wang and Li, 2003; rounding the Paleo-Tethys Ocean during the existence of Pangea. Zhang, 2004; Li et al., 2009a; Zhang et al., 2013b, 2015f), whereas most However, most of these reconstruction models were established mainly others favor reconstruction models that place South China together on the basis of previous geological and paleomagnetic data but did not with most other East Asian blocks connecting with or close to the fully incorporate recent geological data, especially for collisional northwestern margin of Australia or the northern margin of India (Zhao mountain belts between continental blocks in East Asia. To determine and Cawood, 1999; Goodge et al., 2008; Cawood et al., 2013). As whether or not the East Asian blocks were assembled to join Pangea shown in Fig. 2, in this study we adopt a model in which Cathaysia, before its breakup with the opening of the Atlantic Ocean, the National together with all other East Asian blocks except the North China and Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) set up a NSFC Major Yangtze blocks, was located at the margin of Rodinia, closing to the Program entitled “Reconstructions of East Asian Continental blocks in northwestern margin of Australia and/or the northern margin of India, Pangea”. whereas the Yangtze Block, with its southeastern (present-day) margin Since this NSFC Major Program started in 2012, researchers have facing Cathaysia, existed as an isolated block with subduction sur- carried out extensive field-based structural, metamorphic, geochemical, rounding its margins during the assembly and existence of Rodinia, as geochronological, paleomagnetic and paleontological investigations on supported by the presence of 950–750 Ma arc-related rocks surrounding

263 G. Zhao et al. Earth-Science Reviews 186 (2018) 262–286

50 N 60 N 70 N 80 N 80 N 70 N 60 N 50 N

Verkhoyansk Kolyma

East Siberian European

Kokqitov Tuva

Junggar

Tarim Alex North China (Sino-Korea) NQL SQL Arabian Lhasa South China Indian

140 E 50 E 130 E 60 E 70 E 80 E 90 E 100 E 120 E

Lake or ocean Craton Micro-continent Phanerozoic Orogens

Quaternary basin Proto-Tethys suture Paleo-Asian suture Paleo-Tethys suture

Paleo-Pacific suture Neo-Tethys suture Present subduction Strike-slip fault

CQL = Central Qilian NQL = North Qinling SQL = South Qinling NQT = North Qiangtang SQT = South Qiangtang

Fig. 1. Schematic map of Asia showing major continental blocks and bounding sutures (adapted from Li, 2006, Metcalfe, 2013 and Cawood et al., 2018). the margin of the Yangtze Block (Zhou et al., 2002a,b, 2006a,b; Zhao extension, and final breakup of Rodinia that happened in the periods and Zhou, 2008; Dong et al., 2011a, 2012; Zhao et al., 2011b). Based on 1100–900 Ma, 900–750 Ma and 750–600 Ma, respectively. For this the presence of Neoproterozoic arc-related rocks on both the south- reason, many early Rodinia reconstruction models did not show North eastern margin of the Yangtze Block and the northwestern margin of the China as the component of Rodinia (e.g. Dalziel, 1991, 1997; Hoffman, Cathaysia Block and ophiolites in the Jiangnan Orogen (Shu et al., 1991; Moores, 1991). Later, some Rodinia reconstructions have posi- 1994, 2008a, 2008b, 2011, 2014, 2015; Shu and Charvet, 1996; Wang tioned North China close to Baltica or Siberia at the margin of Rodinia et al., 2004, 2006, 2007, 2014; Shu, 2006, 2012; Zheng and Zhang, (e.g. Torsvik, 2003; Zhang et al., 2000, 2006a; Wu et al., 2005; Li et al., 2007; Zheng et al., 2007; Li et al., 2009a; Zhang et al., 2012a, 2012c, 2008a), but in this study we favor a configuration in which the North 2013a, 2013c; Yin et al., 2013a; b), Zhao (2015) proposed that the China Craton was close to India (Fig. 2), with the latitude similar to that oceanic lithosphere between the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks under- in other reconstructions (e.g. Torsvik, 2003; Li et al., 2008a). The ra- went divergent double-sided subduction (Fig. 2), and collision between tionale for this configuration is that both geological and paleomagnetic the two blocks occurred in the period between 825 and 815 Ma (Fig. 3), data support a possibility that North China was connected with or close as constrained by the UePb ages of 850–825 Ma defined by the to India in Columbia (Nuna), a pre-Rodinia supercontinent that existed youngest group of detrital zircons from the Sibao Group or its equiva- during Paleo-Mesoproterozoic time (Zhao et al., 2003a, 2011a; Zhang lents that were involved in collision between the Yangtze and Cathaysia et al., 2012b). Zhao et al. (2003a) argued that North China and India blocks, and 825–815 Ma produced from volcanic rocks from the Banxi had not been separated until the middle Mesoproterozoic (~1.4 Ga) Group and its equivalent strata that unconformably overlie the Sibao with the breakup of supercontinent Columbia (Nuna). Considering this Group or its equivalents. long-lived link between North China and India, we think it is more The North China Craton preserves little evidence for its involvement reasonable to place North China closer to India rather than to Siberia or in the assembly, subduction-related outside growth and rifting-related Baltica, which was far away from other East Asian blocks in most

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Fig. 2. Configurations of Rodinia (1000–850 Ma) containing all other East Asian blocks except the North China Craton and the Yangtze Block that wasseparatedfrom the Cathaysia Block by an ocean whose lithosphere was undergoing divergent double-sided subduction.

Fig. 3. The Yangtze Block joined Rodinia through collision with the Cathaysia Block at 825–815 Ma.

Rodinia configurations (see Fig. 2). interpreted the Neoproterozoic (825–750 Ma) rifting events as episodic plume events that happened at ca. 825 Ma, ca. 780 Ma and ca. 750 Ma, 3. Opening of the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Asian oceans with the but these events belonged to intracontinental rifting events, not forming breakup of Rodinia new oceans leading to the break-up of Rodinia. The breakup of Rodinia occurred mainly in the period between 750 Following the final assembly in the period 1.1–0.9 Ga, Rodinia un- and 600 Ma (Figs. 5-6; Hoffman, 1999; Cawood et al., 2007a; Li et al., derwent subduction-related outgrowth along some of its margins, 2008a and references wherein), probably caused by an independent forming Early Neoproterozoic magmatic arc-related assemblages ran- super-mantle plume event, leading to the opening of a number of ging in age from 900 Ma to 750 Ma, especially at the margins of Rodinia oceans including the Paleo-Pacific (Panthalassic) Ocean between Aus- where the Cathaysia, Yangtze, Tarim, India, Seychelles, Madagascar, tralia-Mawson and Laurentia (Torsvik and Cocks, 2013, Torsvik and Afif–Abas, and Azania blocks were located (see Figs. 2-4; Stern, 1994; Cocks, 2017), the Mozambique Ocean between the East and West Kröner et al., 2000; Zhou et al., 2002a,b, 2006a,b; Wang et al., 2004, Gondwana fragments, the Mawson Ocean (Sea) between the Greater 2006, 2007; Zhao and Zhou, 2008; Li et al., 1999, 2002b, 2003a, India (including India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and Seychelles) and 2007a, 2009a; Dong et al., 2011a, 2012; Zhao et al., 2011b; Zhang Australia-Mawson, the Adamastor (Khomas) Ocean among the Río de la et al., 2012b; Cawood et al., 2013, 2018; Ge et al., 2014; Santosh et al., Plata, Kalahari and Congo–São Francisco, the Iapetus Ocean between 2017). Although the margins of Rodinia underwent subduction-related West Gondwana and Laurentia and between Laurentia and Baltica accretion in the early Neoproterozoic, the interior of Rodinia experi- (Cocks and Torsvik, 2007), the Proto-Tethys Ocean separating the enced rifting-related extension in the period 825–750 Ma (Fig. 4), South China, North China, Alex Qaidam and Tarim blocks from other leading to the development of global-scale 825–750 Ma anorogenic East Asian blocks which were located at the margins of Australia and magmatic rock assemblages in nearly all continental blocks that com- India, and the Paleo-Asian Ocean between the East Asian blocks and prise Rodinia (Li et al., 2008b; Bogdanova et al., 2009). Li et al. (2008a) Siberia-Eastern Europe (Fig. 5). As pointed out by Li et al. (2008a), the

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Fig. 4. The interior of Rodinia experienced extension in the period 825–750 Ma. break-up of Rodinia occurred diachronously, with the first major break- can be regarded as the west and east branches, respectively, of the up event occurring along the western margin of Laurentia (present Proto-Tethys Ocean during late Ediacaran and early Paleozoic times. In coordinates), possibly as early as 750 Ma, leading to the opening of the this contribution, we restrict the scope of the Proto-Tethys Ocean to Paleo-Pacific, Mozambique, Mawson, Adamastor (Khomas), Proto-Te- East Asia, with its opening resulting from the breakup of Rodinia at thys and Paleo-Asian oceans, whereas the Kalahari, Río de la Plata and ~750 Ma, during which the South China, North China, Alex, Qaidam Amazonia cratons had not broken away from the southeastern margin and Tarim blocks were broken away from other East Asian blocks of Laurentia to open the Iapetus Ocean (also called the Proto-Atlantic (Fig. 5), and it was closed in the Early Paleozoic (500–420 Ma), largely Ocean;\) until ca. 600 Ma (Fig. 6), though the rift between them may coincidently with the closure of the Iapetus Ocean leading to the Ca- have started as early as ~750 Ma (Cawood et al., 2001). Of these oceans ledonian orogeny in Europe. In the Chinese literature, the Proto-Tethys with their opening directly related to the breakup of Rodinia, the Proto- Ocean was given different names in different areas, including the Altyn Tethys and Paleo-Asian oceans played an important role in the forma- Ocean whose closure led to the formation of the Altyn-Tagh UHP belt at tion and evolution of the East Asian continental blocks. the southeastern margin of the Tarim Craton (Liu et al., 2013a, 2015b), In some literature, the Proto-Tethys Ocean is referred to as a prin- the Qimantagh Ocean whose closure formed the South Qaidam UP-UHP cipal ocean intervening between those continental blocks that subse- belt in the North Kunlun Orogen (Meng et al., 2015; Yu et al., 2017a; quently assembled Gondwana and those today located in the northern Song et al., 2018), the South Qilian Ocean whose closure resulted in the hemisphere, including Laurentia, Baltica and Siberia (e.g. Stampfli development of North Qaidam UHP belt, the North Qilian Ocean whose et al., 2011, 2013). In this sense, the Iapetus and Paleo-Asian oceans closure led to the North Qilian Orogen along the southern margin of the

Fig. 5. The breakup of Rodinia occurred mainly in the period between 750 and 600 Ma, leading to the opening of the Paleo-Pacific (Panthalassic) Ocean between Australia-Mawson and Laurentia, the Mozambique Ocean between the East and West Gondwana fragments, the Mawson Ocean (Sea) between the Greater India (including India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and Seychelles) and Australia-Mawson, the Adamastor (Khomas) Ocean among the Río de la Plata, Kalahari and Congo–São Francisco, the Iapetus Ocean between West Gondwana and Laurentia and between Laurentia and Baltica, the Proto-Tethys Ocean separating the South China, North China, Alex Qaidam and Tarim blocks from other East Asian blocks which were located at the margins of Australia and India, and the Paleo-Asian Ocean between the East Asian blocks and Siberia-Eastern Europe.

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Fig. 6. A reconstruction map showing the formation of the East African Orogen, resulting from the closure of the northern sector of the Mozambique Ocean at about 650–620 Ma, leading to collision between the North-Central East Africa Block (Sahara-Congo) and the united Greater India Block (also called the SLAMIN Block; Meert et al., 1995).

Fig. 7. The final assembly of Gondwana resulting from the diachronous closure of the Adamastor (Khomas) Ocean at around 580–550 Ma and theclosureof Mawson Ocean (Sea) at 550–530 Ma, forming the Damara and Kuungan orogens, respectively.

Alex Block (Song et al., 2013, 2014, 2017), the Shangdan Ocean whose the Mirovoi Ocean (Dalziel, 1991, 1997; Cawood, 2005). This can closure formed the Shangdan Belt between the North and South China reasonably explain the presence of some pre-Rodinia-breakup cratons (Zhang et al., 1995, 1996, 2001a; Zhang et al., 2003a; b; Zhang (> 750 Ma) ophiolites or subduction-related arc rock assemblages in et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2015c; Zhang and Zhou, 1999; Li et al., 2002a, the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (e.g. Dobretsov et al., 1995; Windley 2007b; Xu et al., 2006a; Liu et al., 2013b; Dong et al., 2015, 2016a, et al., 2007) or the East African Orogen (e.g. Stern, 1994; Jöns and 2016b; Dong and Santosh, 2016; Li and Zhao, 2016), and an unnamed Schenk, 2007). In this case, the ages of the oldest ophiolites in the ocean whose closure led to the formation of the Caledonian-aged Central Asian Orogenic Belt or the East African Orogen cannot be used Huanan Orogen at the southeastern margin of South China (Ma, 2006; to infer the timing of the Rodinia breakup. Compared with other Ro- Li et al., 2010a; Zhao and Cawood, 2012; Zhao, 2015; Lin et al., 2018). dinia breakup-related oceans, the Paleo-Asian Ocean may have been The Paleo-Asian Ocean is a vast ocean bounded by the East Asian much wider and was a long-lived (at least 500 Ma) ocean, with its blocks (North China, Alex, Tarim and South China) on one side and subduction and final closure leading to the development of the Central Eastern Europe and Siberia on the other side (Fig. 5; Xiao et al., 2003; Asian Orogenic Belt, which is regarded as the largest accretionary Windley et al., 2007; Wilhem et al., 2012; Xiao and Santosh, 2014; Xiao orogenic belt in Earth's history (Windley et al., 2007). As the Paleo- et al., 2015; Xiao and Zhao, 2016). Strictly speaking, the Paleo-Asian Asian Ocean was located between East Asia and Laurassia, where, de- Ocean was not a newly opened ocean by the breakup of Rodinia but termining when and how the Paleo-Asian Ocean was subducted and represented the remnant of the Pan-Rodinian Mirovoi Ocean as the finally closed is a key to the reconstruction of the East Asian blocksin margins of the continental blocks on both of its sides were facing the Pangea. Mirovoi Ocean during the existence of Rodinia (Fig. 5). It is the same case with the Mozambique Ocean part of which was also the remnant of

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Fig. 8. Configurations of Gondwana showing the spatial distribution of the East African, Damara and Kuungan orogens (modifiedafter Gray et al., 2008).

4. Assembly of Gondwana of some East Asian blocks with Australia and/or India (Zhao et al., 1993, 2014; Metcalfe, 1994, 1996; Metcafe, 2009; Metcalfe, 2013a; Zhu Gondwana is conventionally divided into West and East Gondwana, et al., 1998; Yang et al., 2002a, 2004a; Ali et al., 2013; Cawood et al., of which the former consists of Africa and South America, and the latter 2013, 2018; Han et al., 2016a; Huang et al., 2018; Li et al., 2018; Wang consists of East Antarctica, Australia, India, Madagascar, Sri Lanka and et al., 2018), there are few records of the 650–620 Ma East African probably some of East Asian blocks including the Indochina, Sibumasu, Orogeny, 580–550 Ma Damara Orogeny and 550–530 Ma Kuungan South Qiangtang and Lhasa blocks which may have been located at the Orogeny in the East Asian blocks. This further supports those re- northern margins of Australia and India (Fig. 7). Traditionally, Gond- construction models in which the East Asian blocks were positioned at wana was considered to have formed by the simple amalgamation of the northern margins of Australia and India (Fig. 4), which were not West and East Gondwana during Pan-African (Brasiliano) orogeny, re- involved in the assembly of Gondwana in the period 650–530 Ma in sulting from the closure of the Mozambique Ocean at about association with the closure of the Mozambique, Adamastor (Khomas) 600–550 Ma (e.g. Windley et al., 1994, 1996; Collins et al., 2000). and Mawson oceans, which led to the formation of the East African, However, later studies indicate that the formation of Gondwana was Damara and Kuungan orogens. not so simple but was completed through a series of arc terrane accretion and amalgamation in the period 820–650 Ma, followed by 5. Closure of Proto-Tethys Ocean and the first assembly of East continent-continent collision resulting from the closure of the Mo- Asian blocks at the northern margin of Gondwana zambique, Adamastor (Khomas) and Mawson oceans in the period 650–530 Ma, forming the East African, Kuungan and Damara orogens, Following its final assembly at about 550–530 Ma, Gondwana had respectively (Figs. 7-8; Stern, 1994; Meert et al., 1995; Meert, 2003; existed as an independent single landmass until it collided with Torsvick and Cocks, 2013). According to Meert (2003), the East African Laurussia to form Pangea about 300 Ma ago. During Ediacaran to Early Orogen resulted from the closure of the northern sector of the Mo- Cambrian time, Gondwana was separated from other continental blocks zambique Ocean at about 650–620 Ma, leading to collision between the mainly by two oceans: the Iapetus and Proto-Tethys oceans, of which North-Central East Africa Block (Sahara-Congo) and the united Greater the former separated Gondwana from Laurentia and Baltica, whereas India Block (also called the SLAMIN Block; Meert et al., 1995; Meert, the latter separated Gondwana from Tarim, Qaidam, Alex, North China 2003; Figs. 7-8), following the accretion of the Arabian–Nubian arc and South China (Fig. 7). terrane to the Sahara Craton in the period of 820–750 Ma (Kröner, Since the late Ediacara, the lithosphere of the Iapetus Ocean had 1985; Kröner et al., 1987; Meert et al., 1995; Meert, 2003; Oriolo et al., subducted beneath the northern margin of Gondwana, forming a cor- 2017), whereas the Damara Orogen resulted from the diachronous dillera-type continental marginal arc during the Cadomian orogeny, closure of the Adamastor (Khomas) Ocean at around 580–550 Ma, involving one or more collisional events of island arcs and accretion of leading to the amalgamation of Kalahari with Congo–São Francisco, other material at a subduction zone (Murphy et al., 2006; Nance et al., and Congo–São Francisco with the Amazonia and Río de la Plata blocks, 2010, 2012). During Late Cambrian time, a series of super-large back- which were broken away from the southeastern margin of Laurentia arc basins developed along the northern margin of Gondwana (von with the opening of the Iapetus Ocean at around 600 Ma (Li et al., Raumer and Stampfli, 2008; Nance et al., 2010, 2012; Torsvik and 2008a). The Kuungan Orogen resulted from the closure of the Mawson Cocks, 2017), probably due to the subduction of the mid-oceanic ridge Ocean (Sea) at 550–530 Ma, leading to the amalgamation of the Greater of the Iapetus Ocean (Murphy et al., 2006). During Early Ordovician India (SLAMIN) with Australia-East Antarctica, paralleling the final time, these extensional basins had evolved a rift (Linnemann et al., assembly of Greater Gondwana (Meert et al., 1995; Meert, 2003; 2008), which itself evolved into a mid-oceanic ridge, leading to the Cawood et al., 2007b; Gray et al., 2008). Such a scenario is supported opening of the Rheic Ocean that tore up a strip of small continental by both geological and paleomagnetic data (Meert et al., 1995; Meert, fragments represented by the Avalonia, Armorica and Carolina arc 2003; Torsvik and Cocks, 2017). terranes from the northern margin of Gondwana (Murphy and Nance, Although both geological and paleomagnetic data support the link 1989, 2008; D'Lemos et al., 1990; Cawood et al., 1994, 2012; Cocks

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Fig. 9. The Proto-Tethys Ocean closed in the early Paleozoic (500–420 Ma), leading to the collision of South China, North China, Alex, Qaidam and Tarim with other East Asian blocks at the northern margin of Gondwana. et al., 1997; Murphy et al., 2001; Cocks and Torsvik, 2002, 2007, 2011; northern margin of Gondwana. According to Liu et al. (2012), the Bozkurt et al., 2008; Nance et al., 2002, 2010, 2012; Nance and Altyn-Tagh Orogen consists of four tectonic units: (1) north Altyn Ar- Linnemann, 2008; von Raumer and Stampfli, 2008; Pollock et al., 2009. chean basement; (2) north Altyn subduction–collision complex; (3) Torsvik and Cocks, 2017). While the Rheic Ocean expanded and Milanhe–Jinyanshan block; (4) south Altyn subduction–collision com- reached its maximum width (~4000 km) in the Silurian, these arc ter- plex that is further divided into the south Altyn HP-UHP belt and the ranes drifted north from Gondwana, shrinking the Iapetus Ocean, which south Altyn ophiolite tectonic mélange belt (Fig. 11). The HP-UHP was finally closed when the eastern and western parts of these arc metamorphic rocks enclosed as lenses in gneisses from the south Altyn terranes collided with Baltica and Laurentia, forming the Teisseyre- subduction–collision complex include stishovite-bearing eclogite, Tornquist Zone and the Canadian Appalachian Orogen, respectively, magnesite-bearing garnet peridotite, kyanite-bearing garnet pelitic and Baltica collided with Laurentia to form the Caledonian Orogen gneiss and eclogites, K-feldspar-bearing garnet clinopyroxenite and during late Ordovician and early Silurian time (480–420 Ma), leading to kyanite-garnet-K-feldspar pelitic granulites (Zhang et al., 2001b, 2002; the formation of a big landmass called Euramerica (Ziegler, 1990; Liu et al., 2002, 2005, 2007, 2012, 2015b, 2018a; Cao et al., 2009, MONA LISA Working Group, 1997; McKerrow et al., 2000; Murphy 2013; Gai et al., 2017). Available zircon ages indicate that the proto- et al., 2006, 2008, 2011; Torsvik and Cocks, 2017). liths of these HP-UHP rocks were formed at 860–560 Ma and were Coeval with the opening of the Rheic Ocean and the closure of the metamorphosed at 510–480 Ma (Liu et al., 2013a, 2018a and references Iapetus Ocean along the western margin of Gondwana was the wherein), which are interpreted as the timing of collision of the Tarim shrinking and final closure of the Proto-Tethys Ocean, leading tothe Craton with the northern margin of Gondwana. first assembly of nearly all East Asian blocks at the northern marginof As shown in Fig. 10, the Qaidam Block within the Proto-Tethys Gondwana (Fig. 9). As mentioned earlier, the Proto-Tethys Ocean was a Ocean was separated from Gondwana by the Qimantagh Ocean and Neoproterozoic to Early Paleozoic ocean with its opening leading to the from the Central Qilian Block by the South Qilian Ocean. The subduc- split-up of the Tarim, Qaidam, Alex, North China and South China tion and closure of the Qimantagh and South Qilian oceans produced blocks from the northern margin of Gondwana in accordance with the HP/UHP metamorphic belts along the southern and northern margins breakup of Rodinia (Stampfli, 2000; Stampfli and Borel, 2002). Dif- of the Qaidam Block (Yang et al., 1996, 1998, 2000, 2003a; Yang et al., ferent names have been assigned to the different branches of the Proto- 2004a; b; Xu et al., 2003; Yin et al., 2007; Song et al., 2012, 2013, 2014, Tethys Ocean between these East Asian blocks and the northern margin 2017, 2018), named the South and North Qaidam HP-UHP belts, re- of Gondwana, including the Altyn Ocean between the Tarim Craton and spectively, which mark the suture zones of the Qaidam Block with the the northern margin of Gondwana, the South Qilian Ocean between the northern margin of Gondwana and the Central Qilian Block, respec- northern margin of the Qaidam Block and the Central Qilian Block, the tively (Fig. 12). Available data indicate that the protoliths of HP and North Qilian Ocean between the Central Qilian Block and the southern UHP metamorphic rocks in both South and North Qaidam HP-UHP belts margin of the Alex Block, the Qimantagh Ocean between the southern were formed in the period 850–500 Ma and metamorphosed at about margin of the Qaidam Block and the northern margin of Gondwana, the 470–420 Ma (Yang et al., 1996, 1998, 2000, 2004b; Zhang et al., 2003a; Shangdan Ocean between the southern margin of the North China b; Zhang et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2006b; Zhang et al., 2007a; Zhang Craton and the northern margin of Gondwana, and an unnamed ocean et al., 2008; Song et al., 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2017, between the southeastern margin of the South China Craton and the 2018; Xu et al., 2001, 2003, 2006a, 2006b; Chen et al., 2007a, 2007b, northern margin of Gondwana (Fig. 10). 2008a, 2009; Yin et al., 2007); the latter is here interpreted as the The subduction and closure of the Altyn Ocean led to the collision of timing of collision and subsequent exhumation of the Qaidam Block the southeastern margin (present-day coordinates) of the Tarim Craton with the northern margin of Gondwana and the Central Qilian Block, with the northern margin of Gondwana along the Altyn-Tagh Orogen. which was largely coeval with collision of the Central Qilian Block with The Altyn-Tagh Orogen is characterized by the presence of high pres- the southern margin of the Alex Block along the North Qilian HP Belt, sure–ultrahigh pressure (HP-UHP) metamorphic rocks, which, together which occurred at 460–420 Ma (Zhang and Xu, 1995; Zhang et al., with those Early Paleozoic metamorphic rocks in the West Kunlun 1997, 2007b; Song et al., 2004, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2013). Orogen (Xu et al., 2005), are considered to have recorded a continent- As shown in Figs. 10 and 9, the other branches of the Proto-Tethys continent collisional event, leading the Tarim Craton to collide with the Ocean, including the Shangdan Ocean between the North Qinling Block

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Fig. 10. Schematic map showing the spatial distribution of the branches of the Proto-Tethys Ocean in East Asia, including the Altyn Ocean between the Tarim Craton and the northern margin of Gondwana, the South Qilian Ocean between the northern margin of the Qaidam Block and the Central Qilian Block, the North Qilian Ocean between the Central Qilian Block and the southern margin of the Alex Block, the Qimantagh Ocean between the southern margin of the Qaidam Block and the northern margin of Gondwana, the Shangdan Ocean between the southern margin of the North China Craton and the northern margin of Gondwana, and the Zhenghe- Dapu Ocean between the southeastern margin of the South China Craton and the northern margin of Gondwana.

and South China, the Erlangping Ocean (developing from a back-arc Qinling Block (Figs. 10; Zhang et al., 1996, 2001a; Dong et al., 2007, basin) between North China and North Qinling Block and the Zhenghe- 2011b, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016a, 2016b; Liu et al., 2013b, 2016b). Dapu Ocean between South China and the northern margin of Gond- Available data indicate that the initial closure of the Shangdan Ocean wana, were also closed nearly coevally with the closure of the Altyn, occurred at ~500 Ma (Yang et al., 2002a, 2003a, 2003b; Chen et al., Qimantagh, South Qilian and North Qilian oceans at about 500–450 Ma 2004; Chen and Liu, 2011; Zhang et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2013b, 2016b; (Hu et al., 1994; Zhang et al., 1996, 2001a, 2011, 2015d; Yang et al., Yu et al., 2015; Dong and Santosh, 2016; Gong et al., 2016; He et al., 2002a, 2002b, 2003b, 2005; Ratschbacher et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2018), a little bit earlier than the closure of the Erlangping Ocean 2004; Diwu et al., 2010, 2012, 2014; Chen and Liu, 2011; Wang et al., (back-arc basin), which occurred at ~450 Ma (Dong et al., 2013, 2014, 2011; Dong et al., 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016a, 2016b; Liu et al., 2013b, 2015, 2016a, 2016b; Liu et al., 2013b, 2016b). The closure of the 2016b; Xu et al., 2015b; Yu et al., 2015; Cao et al., 2016; Gong et al., Shangdan Ocean led to collision between the North Qinling Block and 2016; Li et al., 2016a, 2016b; He et al., 2018). Of these Proto-Tethys South China along the Shangdan Belt, which contains coesite- and/or branches, the Shangdan Ocean is conventionally considered as a main diamond-bearing UHP eclogites and amphibolites that are enclosed in ocean separating the North China and South China cratons, whereas the the diamond-bearing felsic gneisses (Fig. 13; Yang et al., 2002a, 2003b; Erlangping Ocean represented an incipient ocean developing from a Chen and Liu, 2011; Liu et al., 2013b, 2016b; Yu et al., 2015; Dong and back-arc basin due to the northward subduction of the Shangdan Ocean Santosh, 2016; Gong et al., 2016; He et al., 2018). As the host felsic beneath the southern margin of the united North China and North gneisses also underwent UHP metamorphism, these HP/UHP rocks are

Fig. 11. Geological map of the Altyn-Tagh Orogen showing the locations of HP/UHP rocks (Liu et al., 2013a).

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Fig. 12. Geological map showing the distribution of HP-UHP rocks in the South and North Qaidam belts (Song et al., 2018).

Fig. 13. Geological map showing the distribution of HP-UHP rocks in the North Qinling Orogenic Belt (Liu et al., 2013b). considered to have recorded the collision of the North Qinling and the addition of the united North and South China Block to the northern South China blocks following the closure of the Shangdan Ocean at margin of Gondwana. In summary, the initial closure of the Proto-Te- about 500–480 Ma (Chen and Liu, 2011; Liu et al., 2013b, 2016b), thys Ocean (including the Altyn, Qimantagh, North and South Qilian, whereas the North Qinling Block rejoined the southern margin of the Shangdan and Zhenghe-Dapu oceans) occurred in the period of North China Craton with the closure of the incipient Erlangping Ocean 500–460 Ma, leading to the first assembly of nearly all East Asian (back-arc basin) at about 450 Ma (Liu et al., 2013b, 2016b; Dong and blocks, which were added to the northern margins of Gondwana Santosh, 2016). Meanwhile, the southeastern margin (present-day co- (Fig. 9), which reached its maximum land in this period. ordinates) of the South China Craton may have collided with the northern margin of Gondwana with the closure of the Zhenghe-Dapu Ocean, leading to the formation of the Caledonian-aged Huanan Orogen 6. Opening of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean that was spatially coincident with the NE-SW-trending Cathaysia Block bordering the southeastern margin of the South China Craton (Zhao and As a precursor to the Neo-Tethys Ocean, the Paleo-Tethys was an Cawood, 2012; Cawood et al., 2013, 2018; Lin et al., 2018). Meta- immense ocean that was located between Gondwana and the European morphic zircons from the Chencai, Mayuan and Yunkai complexes of and Asiatic Hunic terranes, which were continental fragments broken- the Caledonian-aged Huanan Orogen yielded ages of 460–420 Ma (Li off from the northern margin of Gondwana and moved north. Itopened et al., 2010a and references wherein), which we think approximately as the Rheic and Proto-Tethys oceans subducted under these terranes mark the timing of the closure of the Zhenghe-Dapu Ocean, leading to along the northern margin of Gondwana and closed as the Cimmerian terranes were broken off from Gondwana to open the Neo-Tethys Ocean

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Fig. 14. Reconstructions of East Asian blocks showing the opening of the East Paleo-Tethys Ocean that had the north and south branches, of which the north branch is called the Mianlue Ocean that separated the Tarim-Qaidam-Central Qilian-Alex and North China blocks in the north from North Qiangtang-Indochina-South China in the south, whereas the south branch is the stricto sensu East Paleo-Tethys Ocean that separated North Qiangtang-Indochina-South China from the northern margin of Gondwana where the Sibumasu and South Qiangtang-Lhasa blocks is located. and moved north to collided with Laurussia (Stampfli and Borel, 2002; Qiangtang-Indochina-South China from the northern margin of Gond- Stampfli et al., 2002). The Paleo-Tethys Ocean can be further sub- wana where the Sibumasu and South Qiangtang-Lhasa blocks is located divided into the West Paleo-Tethys Ocean and the East Paleo-Tethys (Fig. 14). It still remains unknown whether the two braches of the East Ocean, of which the West Paleo-Tethys Ocean existed between Gond- Paleo-Tethys Ocean opened simultaneously or one opened earlier than wana and the European Hunic terranes including Armorica, Cantabria- the other, though available data indicate that the northern branch of Aquitaine-Ligeria-Moldanubia and Alboran–Adria–intra-Alpine–Cetic), the Paleo-Tethys Ocean (Mianlue Ocean) may have opened at as early whereas the East Paleo-Tethys Ocean was situated between Gondwana as 420 Ma (Zhao et al., 2003b; Chen et al., 2014a). and the Asiatic Hunic terranes including Karakum-Turan, Tarim- Qaidam-Central Qilian-Alex, North China, and South China- Indochina- 7. Closure of Paleo-Asian Ocean: collision of Tarim, Alex and North Qiangtang (Fig. 14). North China with East Europe and Siberia The West Paleo-Tethys Ocean started to open during Late Silurian to Early Devonian time when back-arc spreading separated the European As mentioned earlier, the Paleo-Asian Ocean was a long-lived ocean Hunic terranes from Gondwana (Stampfli et al., 2002; Keppie, 2015; separating the East European and Siberia cratons in the north and the Torsvik and Cocks, 2017), probably due to the subduction of the middle Tarim and North China cratons in the south, and its opening resulted oceanic ridge of the Rheic Ocean beneath the northern margin of from the breakup of Rodinia and its lithospheric subduction and closure Gondwana. Then, the European Hunic terranes moved north, ex- led to the development of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (Fig. 15), panding the West Paleo-Tethys Ocean but shrinking the Rheic Ocean, which is considered as the largest accretionary orogen in Earth's history and were finally accreted individually to Laurussia, closing the Rheic (Şengör et al., 1993; Şengör and Natal'in, 1996; Jahn et al., 2000a, Ocean in the Mississippian, which were accompanied by widespread 2000b; Jahn and Wu, 2001; Jahn et al., 2004; Windley et al., 2001, metamorphism and deformation, named the Alleghenian orogeny in 2002, 2007; Xiao et al., 2003, 2004, 2009, 2010, 2013, 2014, 2018; North America and the Variscan orogeny in Europe (Stampfli et al., Kröner et al., 2008, 2011, 2014, 2017; Wilhem et al., 2012). In the past 2002). Following the closure of the Rheic Ocean, the West Paleo-Tethys two decades, extensive investigations have been carried out on the Ocean began to shrink due to the subduction of the oceanic lithosphere Central Asian Orogenic Belt, producing large amounts of data and beneath the European Hunic terranes that had been added to the competing models (Wu et al., 2000, 2007, 2011; Badarch et al., 2002; southern margin of Laurussia, and was finally closed in the Late Car- Dobretsov et al., 2003; Jian et al., 2008, 2010; Deng et al., 2009; Xiao boniferous, leading to the formation of the main body of Pangea et al., 2009, 2010, 2013; Kröner et al., 2008, 2011, 2014; Rojas- through the collision of Gondwana with Laurussia in association with Agramonte et al., 2011; Rojas-Agramonte et al., 2015; Wilhem et al., the closure of the Uralian Ocean making Siberia added to Laurussia. 2012; Huang et al., 2013; Yin et al., 2013a; b; Zhou and Wilde, 2013; Bi The East Paleo-Tethys Ocean started to open in the Early Devonian et al., 2014, 2015; Cai et al., 2010, 2011a,b, 2012a,b, 2014a,b; Jiang (~400) and closed in the Late Permian or Early Triassic (Zhang et al., et al., 2012, 2015; Chen et al., 2014b, 2015a,b, 2016a,b, 2017; Zhou 2013a, 2015c; Xu et al., 2013, 2015a; Dong et al., 2018a; Wang et al., et al., 2014, 2015a, 2015b; Zhou et al., 2018a; b; Zhang et al., 2015e; 2018), existing between the Asiatic Hunic terranes and the northern Zhu et al., 2015, 2017a, 2017b, 2017c, 2017d; Xu et al., 2017, 2018; Yu margin of Gondwana for about 150 Ma (Mattern and Schneider, 2000; et al., 2017b; Dong et al., 2018b; Zhou et al., 2018a; b). There is now a Moghadam et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2016d; Li et al., 2017b). The ocean coherent outline of the timing and tectonic processes involved in the can be further subdivided into the north and south branches, of which closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean that led collision of the Tarim, Alex the north branch is called the Mianlue Ocean that separated the Tarim- (together with Central Qilian and Qaidam) and North China cratons Qaidam-Central Qilian-Alex and North China blocks in the north from with the East European and Siberian cratons and also much increased North Qiangtang-Indochina-South China in the south (Zhang et al., knowledge of the accretionary history of the Central Asian Orogenic 2001a; Zhang et al., 2003a; b; Zhang et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2015c; Li Belt and the nature of micro-continental blocks within the Paleo-Asian et al., 2002a; Lai et al., 2003; Hu et al., 2004), and the south branch is Ocean. In this special issue, Xiao et al. (2018) and Zhou et al. (2018a, the stricto sensu East Paleo-Tethys Ocean that separated North 2018b) have discussed the accretionary history of the Central Asian

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Fig. 15. Schematic map showing the Central Asian Orogenic Belt that developed from the subduction and closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean (modified after Şengör et al., 1993; Şengör and Natal'in, 1996; Xiao et al., 2013).

Orogenic Belt and the nature of micro-continental blocks within the 2016a,b,c, 2017a,b). At about 310–285 Ma, both of the Junggar and Paleo-Asian Ocean, respectively, and Han and Zhao (2018) and South Tianshan oceans were closed along the Western and Eastern Eizenhöfer and Zhao (2018) have discussed issues of where, when and Tianshan orogens, leading to the collision of the Tarim Craton with the how the Paleo-Asian ocean was closed, which led to collision of the Central Tianshan-Yili-Hasakstan Block (Han and Zhao, 2018). There- Tarim and North China cratons with the East European and Siberian fore, the western segment of the Paleo-Asian Ocean was closed along cratons. These four contributions largely reflect our current under- the Western and Eastern Tianshan orogens in the period 310–285 Ma, standing of the opening, expansion and closure of the Paleo-Asian suggesting that the Tarim Craton had been added to the main body of Ocean and the resultant Central Asian Orogenic Belt, which can be Pangea by ~285 Ma. summarized as follows: (3) The eastern segment of the Paleo-Asian Ocean was subducted (1) The initiation of southward subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean beneath both the northern margin of the North China Craton and the beneath the northern margin of the Tarim, Alex (plus Central Qilian and southern margin of the Mongolian Terrane bordering the Siberia Qaidam) and North China blocks was caused by collision of the Craton, and was finally closed along the Solonker Suture Zone, leading southern margins of these blocks with the northern margin of to the collision of North China with Mongolian Terrane (Siberia). By Gondwana at 500–470 Ma, resulting from the closure of the Proto- determining when the basins in the Solonker Suture Zone started to Tethys Ocean, whereas the tectonic transition from advancing to re- receive sediments from both the northern margin of the North China treating subduction on the northern margins of these blocks resulted Craton the southern margin of Siberia, Eizenhöfer et al. (2014, 2015a, from the breakup of the southern margins of these blocks from 2015b) concluded that the eastern segment of the Paleo-Asian Ocean Gondwana with the opening of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean in the Early was finally closed at about 260–245 Ma. Devonian (Han et al., 2016a). Combining recent data demonstrating that the middle segment of (2) The evolution of the western segment of the Paleo-Asian Ocean the Paleo-Asian Ocean was closed about 280–265 Ma (Liu et al., 2015a, was involved in the opening, expansion and closure of the Junggar 2016a, 2017a, 2017b, 2018b), we proposed the scissor-like closure of Ocean and the South Tianshan Ocean, with the latter younger than the the Paleo-Asian Ocean from west to east during the period of former. During Early Paleozoic time, lithosphere of the Junggar Ocean, 310–245 Ma, leading to collision of Tarim with the Kazakhstan-Yili- also partly called the North Tianshan Ocean, subducted southward Central Tianshan Block at 310–285 Ma (Fig. 16A), Alex (plus Central beneath the northern margin of the Tarim Craton, leading to the de- Qilian and Qaidam) with the Mongolia Terrane (Siberia) at 280–265 Ma velopment of an Andean-type continental arc and a back-arc basin, (Fig. 16B), and North China with the Mongolia Terrane (Siberia) at which further developed into a middle ocean ridge, leading to the 260–245 Ma (Fig. 16C). The details of closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean opening of the South Tianshan Ocean, separating the continental and associated individual collision of Tarim, Alex-Central Qilian- margin arc from the Tarim Craton, forming the Central Tianshan Block Qaidam and North China with Eastern Europe and Siberia are given by (Han et al., 2015, 2016a, 2016b, 2016c; Zhang et al., 2015a,b, Han and Zhao (2018) and Eizenhöfer and Zhao (2018), who

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(caption on next page)

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Fig. 16A. Reconstruction of East Asian blocks showing the closure of the western segment of the Paleo-Asian Ocean, leading to the collision of the Tarim Craton with the Central Tianshan-Yili-Hasakstan Block. Fig. 16B. Reconstruction of East Asian blocks showing the closure of the central segment of the Paleo-Asian Ocean, leading to the collision of the united Alex-Central Qilian-Qaidam block with the Mongolian Terrane at the southern margin of Siberia. Fig. 16C. Reconstruction of East Asian blocks showing the closure of the eastern segment of the Paleo-Asian Ocean, leading to the collision of the North China Craton with the Mongolian Terrane at the southern margin of Siberia. demonstrated that these blocks had become part of Gondwana by Jian et al., 2009a, 2009b; Li et al., 2013), whereas others consider the ~245 Ma. Changning-Menglian-Inthanon belt as the main suture (Metcalfe, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2011a, 2013a, 2013b; Wang et al., 2010a,b,c, 2012, 2013a,b, 2016a,b, 2017, 2018; Cai et al., 2017; Peng et al., 2014, 8. Closure of Paleo-Tethys Ocean and assembly of Pangea with 2015a, 2015b; Li et al., 2016c, 2017c, 2017d; Metcalfe et al., 2017; East Asian blocks Deng et al., 2018). Also controversial is the timing of the East Paleo- Tethys Ocean with models ranging from the closure at ~250 Ma to The assembly of Pangea was involved in the closure of the Proto- those at 150 Ma (Metcalfe, 1990, 1996, 2000, Metcafe, 2009, Metcalfe, Tethys, Iapetus, Rheic, Uralian, Paleo-Asian and Paleo-Tethys oceans 2011b, Metcalfe, 2013a, b; Stampfli and Borel, 2002; Collins, 2003; from the early Paleozoic to early Mesozoic. The closure of each of these Scotese, 2004; Golonka, 2007; Torsvik et al., 2008; van der Meer and oceans was often associated with the opening and expansion of a Torsvik, 2010). Based on recent sedimentary, biogeographical, struc- younger ocean, just as the closure of the Iapetus Ocean was associated tural, lithological, geochemical and geochronological data, Wang et al. with the opening and expansion of the Rheic Ocean, whose closure was (2018) concluded that the south sector of the East Paleo-Tethys Ocean then associated with the opening and expansion of the West Paleo- was closed along the Changning – Menglian – Inthanon – Bentong – Tethys Ocean. Similarly, the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean was Raub suture zone (Fig. 17), leading to collision of Sibumasu with South closely related to the opening and rapid spreading of the Neo-Tethys China-Indochina at ~240 Ma, whereas the north sector of the East Ocean, an immense ocean that opened in the early Permian through Paleo-Tethys Ocean was closed along the Longmu Co- Shuanghu suture splitting up a string of continental fragments, called the Cimmerian zone in Central Tibet, leading to the collision of South Qiangtang – terranes including Sibumasu and North Qiangtang-Lhasa (Stöcklin, Lhasa with North Qiangtang at about 250–230 Ma. Wang et al. (2018) 1974; Şengör, 1984, 1987; Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981; Şengör et al., also proposed that the eastward subduction of the East Paleo-Tethys 1988; Zanchi et al., 2015) from the northern margin of Gondwana, and Ocean formed a series of magmatic arcs and back-arc basins together closed in the Late Cretaceous or Early Paleogene, leading to the colli- with some continental fragments, including the famous the Jinshajiang- sion of India with Eurasia (Yin et al., 1994; Pan et al., 1997; Wang et al., Ailaoshan-Song Ma belt (Fig. 17). 2000; Yin, 2001, 2006, 2010; Yin and Harrison, 2000; Ding et al., 2001, In summary, the closure of the East Paleo-Tethys Ocean (stricto 2003, 2005, 2016; Hall, 2002; Hou et al., 2006; Wu et al., 2008, 2010, sensu) at 250–230 Ma led to the formation of a coherent southern 2014a, 2014b). With the spreading of the Neo-Tethys Ocean, the continent (including the Sibumasu, Indochina, South China, North Cimmerian terranes moved north and made the Paleo-Tethys Ocean Qiangtang and South Qiangtang-Lhasa blocks), which then collided shrinking and finally closing, leading to the assembly of Pangea. with a northern continent (including the North China, North Qinling, The Paleo-Tethys Ocean closed diachronously in its western and Central Qilian, Qaidam, Alex and Tarim blocks) along the Central China eastern sectors, of which the West Paleo-Tethys Ocean closed in the late Orogenic System to form a coherent East Asian continent, resulting Carboniferous (Stampfli et al., 2002, 2013), resulting in the formation from the closure of the Mianlue Ocean at 240–220 Ma. The Central of the main body of Pangea via amalgamation of Gondwana with China Orogenic System, which developed from the subduction and Laurasia, which occurred nearly coevally with the closure of the Uralian closure of the Mianlue Ocean, is an E-W trending super-orogenic Ocean, adding Siberia to Laurussia. Comparatively, the East Paleo-Te- system, extending from the West and East Kunlun belts in the west, thys Ocean had not closed until the end of the Paleozoic or the early through the Mianlue and Qinling belts in the central, to the Dabie-Sulu Mesozoic (Wang et al., 2018; Dong et al., 2018a). As mentioned earlier, belts in the east, probably further extending to the Korean Peninsula. the East Paleo-Tethys Ocean had the north and south branches, called Since the late 1980's following discoveries of HP or UHP rocks in the the Mianlue Ocean and the stricto sensu East Paleo-Tethys Ocean, re- Central China Orogenic System, researchers have carried out extensive spectively. The two branches opened nearly coevally at about geological and geophysical investigations on the Dabie and Sulu belts in 430–400 Ma, with the Mianlue Ocean separating the Tarim, Qaidam- the east segment and the Mianlue and Qinling belts in the central Central Qilian-Alex and Qinling-North China blocks in the north from segment, produced large amounts of data and competing interpreta- the South China-Indochina and North Qiangtang blocks in the south, tions, and proposed various models (Wang et al., 1987, 1992; Okay whereas the East Paleo-Tethys Ocean (stricto sensu) separated the et al., 1989, 1993; Xu et al., 1992, 2006c; Wang and Liou, 1993; Yin South China-Indochina and North Qiangtang blocks from the Sibumasu and Nie, 1993; Li, 1994; Nice et al., 1994; Hacker et al., 1995, 1998; and South Qiangtang-Lhasa blocks that were still located at the Zhai et al., 1995, 1998; Zhang et al., 1995, 1996, 2001a, Zhang et al., northern margin of Gondwana. 2003a, 2003b, 2004, 2009, 2015c; Rowley et al., 1997; Zheng et al., Controversy has long surrounded the issue of where is the main 1998, 2005, 2006a, 2006b, 2011; Li et al., 2000, 2001, 2002c, 2003b, suture of the East Paleo-Tethys Ocean (stricto sensu), with some re- 2009b,c, 2010b,c, 2011, 2017b; Yang et al., 2002c, 2002d; Sun et al., searchers arguing for the Bangong-Nujiang Belt for the main suture of 2008; Liu and Liou, 2011; Zheng, 2008; Wu and Zheng, 2013). Al- the western segment of the East Paleo-Tethys Ocean (Pan et al., 1997, though some of these models are exclusively mutual, there is a broad 2004, 2012), whereas other interpreted the Longmu Co-Shuanghu Belt consensus that the South and North China cratons have amalgamated to as the main suture (Li and Zheng, 1993; Li et al., 1995a; b; Li et al., form a single block at 240–220 Ma, indicating that the central and 2006; Li et al., 2007c; Li, 2008; Zhai et al., 2011). In addition, the eastern segments of the Mianlue Ocean closed in the period discovery of a Triassic eclogite belt in the Lhasa Block has led Yang 240–220 Ma. et al. (2009) to propose that the main suture zone of the East Paleo- The western segment of the Mianlue Ocean was closed to form the Tethys Ocean was located within the Lhasa Block. A similar debate has Kunlun Orogen, which is divided into the West and East Kunlun orogens also extended to the main suture of the southern segment of the East separated by the Altyn Tagh Fault (Xiao et al., 2005). Due to lacking Paleo-Tethys Ocean, with one school of though arguing for the Jin- reliable data, it still remains unknown or controversial regarding the shajiang-Ailaoshan-Song Ma belt as the main suture zone (Duan, 1981;

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Fig. 17. Tectonic sketch map of Southeast Asia showing the major suture boundaries and tectonic fragments (Wang et al., 2018). geological evolution of the West Kunlun Orogen, though limited data According to Dong et al. (2018a), the South Kunlun Belt represented a indicate that its formation was involved in the opening and closure of Paleozoic to Triassic fore-arc and accretionary complex related to the both the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Tethys oceans, of which the latter may northward subduction of the Mianlue Ocean, and the QXM was another have closed in the late Triassic (Mattern and Schneider, 2000; Xiao suture that records the final closure of the Qimantagh back-arc basin, et al., 2002; Yuan et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2007c, 2018). The East whereas the Central Kunlun Belt was a long-lived island-arc terrane Kunlun Orogen is considered to have formed by collision between the developing during Ordovician to Triassic times, rifted from the Qaidam Qaidam Block and the Qiangtang or Bayanhar Terrane as a consequence Block due to the spreading of the Qimantagh back-arc basin during the of the closure of the Mianlue Ocean (Li et al., 2017a; Dong et al., period of ca. 485–425 Ma. By synthesizing available petrological, geo- 2018a). Dong et al. (2018a) divided the East Kunlun Orogen into four chemical and geochronological data, Dong et al., (2018a) established a major tectonic units: the North Qimantagh Belt, the Central Kunlun tectonic model for the formation and evolution of the East Kunlun Belt, the South Kunlun Belt and the Bayanhar Terrane, separated by Orogen, which was involved in a trench-arc-back-arc basin system that three ophiolitic mélange zones that are, from north to south, the Qi- evolved into a protracted and long-lived northward-subduction and mantagh–Xiangride ophiolitic mélange zone (QXM), the Aqikekule- accretion along the Kunlun Suture during Paleozoic and Triassic time. hu–Kunzhong ophiolitic mélange zone (AKM) and the Muztagh–Bu- Chen et al. (2007a, 2007b, 2007c) recognized two generations of me- qingshan–Anemaqen ophiolitic mélange zone (MBAM) (Fig. 18). tamorphic monazite from garnet-mica schists in the Central Kunlun

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Fig. 18. Simplified tectonic maps of the East Kunlun Orogenic Orogen showing the ophiolitic mélange zones and tectonic divisions. Inset map in the lower-leftcorner shows the location of the East Kunlun Orogenic Orogen within China, while the schematic section in the lower-right shows the main tectonic units across the East Kunlun Orogenic Orogen (After Dong et al., 2018a).

Belt, of which the first generation of monazite occurs as inclusions 9. Conclusions within the core of garnet porphyroblasts and yield Th-U-Pb ages of 450–420 Ma, interpreted as the timing of closure of the Proto-Tethys Our reconstructions of the East Asian blocks from the breakup of Ocean (Chen et al., 2001, 2008b), whereas the second generation of Rodinia to the assembly of Pangea have reached the following con- monazite is present as inclusions within the rim of garnet porphyro- clusions. blasts and yield a Th-U-Pb age of 246.1 ± 3.8 Ma, interpreted as the timing of closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. Taken together, we believe (1) The breakup of Rodinia around 750 Ma ago led to the opening of a that the Mianlue Ocean in the East Kunlun area closed nearly coevally number of oceans, including the Paleo-Pacific (Panthalassic) Ocean with its central and eastern segments in the Mianlue-Qinling and Dabie- between Australia-Mawson and Laurentia, the Mozambique Ocean Sulu areas, respectively. between the East and West Gondwana fragments, the Mawson Therefore, the closure of the East Paleo-Tethys Ocean and the Ocean (Sea) between the Greater India and Australia-Mawson, the Mianlue Ocean at 250–220 Ma led to the formation of a coherent East Adamastor (Khomas) Ocean among the Río de la Plata, Kalahari Asian continent that included all East Asian blocks (Fig. 19). As the and Congo–São Francisco, the Iapetus Ocean between West Tarim, Alex-Qaidam and North China had been joined East Europe-Si- Gondwana and Laurentia and between Laurentia and Baltica, the beria with the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean at about 310–250 Ma, Proto-Tethys Ocean separating the South China, North China, Alex we can conclude that before the breakup of Pangea with the opening of Qaidam and Tarim blocks from other East Asian blocks which were Atlantic Ocean, all East Asian blocks had become part of Pangea by located at the margins of Australia and India, and the Paleo-Asian 220 Ma, at which Pangea reached its maximum land (Fig. 19). Ocean between the East Asian blocks and Siberia-Eastern Europe. (2) The closure of the Proto-Tethys Ocean occurred in the Early Paleozoic (500–420 Ma), leading to the first assembly of East Asian

Fig. 19. Reconstructions of East Asian blocks showing that all East Asian blocks had become part of Pangea by 220 Ma, at which Pangea reached its maximum land.

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Zircon U-Pb geochronology and Hf isotopic composition of granitiods in Russian Altai Mountain, A powerpoint presentation with an animation is given in Appendix I Central Asian Orogenic Belt. Am. J. Sci. 314 (2), 580–612. that shows major geological events that the East Asian blocks experi- Cai, F.L., Ding, L., Yao, W., Laskowski, A.K., Xu, Q., Zhang, J.E., Sein, K., 2017. enced from the breakup of Rodinia to the assembly of Pangea based on Provenance and tectonic evolution of lower Paleozoic–Upper Mesozoic strata from Sibumasu terrane, Myanmar. Gondwana Res. 41, 325–336. geological reconstructions presented in this contribution. It deserves Cao, Y.T., Liu, L., Wang, C., Chen, D.L., Zhang, A.D., 2009. P–T path of Early Paleozoic mentioning again that these time slice maps are purely based on geo- pelitic high-pressure granulite from Danshuiquan area in Altyn Tagh. Acta Petrol. Sin. logical reconstructions that are only used to show relative spatial po- 25, 2260–2270. sitions of continental blocks, not reflecting their real paleogeography. Cao, Y.T., Liu, L., Wang, C., Kang, L., Yang, W.Q., Liang, S., Liao, X.Y., Wang, Y.W., 2013. Determination and implication of the HP pelitic granulite from th Munabulake area in the South Altyn Tagh. Acta Petrol. Sin. 29, 1727–1739. Acknowledgments Cao, H.H., Li, S.Z., Yu, S.J., Li, X.Y., Somerville, I.D., 2016. Detrital zircon geochronology of Neoproterozoic to early Paleozoic sedimentary rocks in the North Qinling Orogenic Belt: Implications for the tectonic evolution of the Kuanping Ocean. Precambrian Res. Our research was supported by NSFC Major Program 279, 1–16. “Reconstructions of East Asian blocks in Pangea” (41190070) and its Cawood, P.A., 2005. Terra Australis Orogen: Rodinia breakup and development of the five sub-projects (41190071, 41190072, 41190073, 41190074 and Pacific and Iapetus margins of Gondwana during the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic. Earth Sci. Rev. 69, 249–279. 41190075) that have spanned five years (January 2012 – December Cawood, P.A., Dunning, G.R., Lux, D., van Gool, J.A.M., 1994. Timing of peak meta- 2016), during which time many friends, colleagues and research stu- morphism and deformation along the Appalachian margin of Laurentia in dents have helped us in a number of different ways. We are particularly Newfoundland: Silurian, not Ordovician. Geology 22, 399–402. Cawood, P.A., McCausland, P.J.A., Dunning, G.R., 2001. Opening Iapetus: constraints indebted to the members of the Academic Committee of the Program, from the Laurentian margin in Newfoundland. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 113, 443–453. including Profs. Weiming Fan, Yue Zhao, Liangshu Shu, Guang Zhu, Cawood, P.A., Nemchin, A.A., Strachan, R., Prave, T., Krabbendam, M., 2007a. Wenjiao Xiao, Jinjiang Zhang, Tao Wang, Yongjiang Liu, Zhengyu Sedimentary basin and detrital zircon record along East Laurentia and Baltica during assembly and breakup of Rodinia. J. Geol. Soc. 164, 257–275. Yang, Shaocong Lai, Jianbo Zhou and Chunming Wu. We would also Cawood, P.A., Johnson, M.R.W., Nemchin, A.A., 2007b. Early Palaeozoic orogenesis like to thank Dr. Simon Williams for his help in making an animation in along the Indian margin of Gondwana: Tectonic response to Gondwana assembly. Appendix I, and Drs. Yigui Han and Bing Xu for their assistance in Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 255, 70–84. drawing Figs. 1, 8 and 11-13 for this paper. This research was also Cawood, P.A., Merle, R.E., Strachan, R.A., Tanner, P.W.G., 2012. Provenance of the Highland Border complex: constraints on Laurentian margin accretion in the Scottish supported by a NSFC Key Project (41730213) and Hong Kong RGC GRF Caledonides. J. Geol. Soc. 169, 575–586. grants (17307918 and 17306217). Cawood, P.A., Wang, Y.J., Xu, Y.J., Zhao, G.C., 2013. Locating South China in Rodinia and Gondwana: a fragment of greater India lithosphere? Geology 41, 903–906. Cawood, P.A., Zhao, G.C., Yao, J.L., Wang, W., Xu, Y.J., Wang, Y.J., 2018. Reconstructing Appendix A. Supplementary data South China in Phanerozoic and Precambrian supercontinents. Earth Sci. Rev. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.06.001. Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// Chen, D.L., Liu, L., 2011. New data on the chronology of eclogite and associated rock from Guanpo Area, North Qinling orogeny and its constraint on nature of North Qinling doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.10.003.

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