Understanding Household Fuel Transitions: The Case of ()

About this report:

This report provides an overview of findings from a pilot study that explored the issue of household fuel transitions in Namuwongo (Kampala). The project is intended as a precursor to future studies on fuel transition and the potential role briquettes can play as a transitional fuel. Author and contributions:

This report was written by Gabriel Okello (African Centre for Clean Air), Fredrick Mugisha (ACTogether), Irene Namaganda (EASE Women’s Enterprise) and William Avis (University of Birmingham). The authors would like to thank the community leaders and residents of Kasanvu Zone in Namuwongo for willingly participation in this study. Special thanks go to Sean Serugo and Afsa Karungi (African Centre for Clean Air), Byibesho Richard (Chairman, Kasanvu Zone L.C.1), Sebbanja Junior and Mwambu Peter (ACTogether). The author also appreciates the contributions of Francis Pope (University of Birmingham), who made useful comments on earlier versions of the Report. About the A Systems Approach to Air Pollution – East Africa (ASAP-East Africa) project

ASAP-East Africa brings together leading UK and East African researchers in air pollution, urban planning, economic geography, public health, social sciences and development studies to provide a framework for improved air quality management in three East African cities: Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), Kampala () and Nairobi (Kenya). This timely and responsive programme of activity will enhance local decision-making abilities to improve urban air quality, reduce the effects of air pollution upon human health, and allow for sustainable development to proceed without further deterioration in air quality. Central to the project’s aims are strengthening research capabilities and technological expertise in East Africa, with local stakeholders and experts involved in the conception, implementation, and uptake of the programme and its outcomes. Suggested citation:

Okello, G. Mugisha, F. Namaganda, I. and Avis, W. (2019). Understanding Household Fuel Transitions: The Case of Namuwongo, Kampala. ASAP-East Africa Report. Birmingham, UK: University of Birmingham.

Disclaimer Statement

This document is an output from a project funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) through the Research for Evidence Division (RED) for the benefit of developing countries. However, the views expressed and information contained in it is not necessarily those of, or endorsed by DFID, which can accept no responsibility for such views or information or for any reliance placed on them. asap-eastafrica.com 2

Title of Research Programme A Systems Approach to Air Pollution – East Africa

Reference Number 17-0600

Name of Lead Organisation University of Birmingham

Project Management Team Dr Pope, Dr Andres, Dr Avis and Ms Blake

Key/Core Partners Addis Ababa Institute of Technology/ Ethiopian Roads Authority

African Centre for Technology Studies

Cardiff University

Ethiopian Public Health Institute

Kampala Capital City Authority

Ndejje University

Strathmore University

Uganda National Roads Authority

University of Nairobi

Countries to be Covered by Research Ethiopia (Addis Ababa), Kenya (Nairobi), Uganda (Kampala)

Project Start Date/End Date 01/09/17-30/06/2020

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Table of Contents Abbreviations ...... 6

Overview ...... 7 Introduction ...... 7 Results ...... 7 Conclusion ...... 8

Rational and Background ...... 8

Aims and Objectives ...... 9

Methods and Materials ...... 10 Study location and overview ...... 10 Selection of the site ...... 10 Study population ...... 11 Study design ...... 11 Phase One ...... 11 Phase Two ...... 13 Phase Three ...... 14 Recruitment of households ...... 14 Household information...... 15

Measuring PM2.5 and CO ...... 16 Return after 24 hours ...... 17 Handling of devices after 24 hours/preparation for next measurements ...... 17 Data entry ...... 17 Statistical analysis ...... 17 Household Information and participant information ...... 17

24-hour exposure to PM2.5 and CO for each household ...... 18 Comparison of exposure according to fuel type ...... 18 Determination of likely challenges faced during exposure assessment ...... 18 Quality control Measures ...... 19

Results ...... 19 Section one ...... 19

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Fuel users ...... 19 Fuel vendors ...... 20 Section two: Challenges and market opportunities associated with cleaner fuels ...... 21 Factors affecting scaling up ...... 22 Section three: Assessing the impact of a partial and full fuel switch from charcoal to briquettes...... 23 Challenges experienced by the research and participants during the research period...... 25

Discussion: ...... 26 Main findings ...... 26 Strengths of the study ...... 27 Limitations of the study ...... 28

Conclusion ...... 28 Recommendations ...... 28

References ...... 30

Appendices ...... 32

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Abbreviations

μg Microgram (1μg = 1 x 10-6 g)

μg/m3 Microgram per cubic meter

ACCA African Centre for Clean Air

ASAP East Africa A Systems Approach to Air Pollution – East Africa

CO Carbon monoxide

DALYs Disability Adjusted Life Years

DFID Department for International Development

HAP Household Air Pollution

FGD Focused Group Discussions

h Hour

LPG Liquefied petroleum gas

m Meters

PM Particulate matter

PM2.5 Particulate matter with aerodynamic less than 2.5 μm

SOP Standard Operating Procedure

SWOT Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities and Threats

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation

US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

WHO World Health Organisation

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Overview Introduction

Household air pollution (HAP), generated from incomplete combustion of solid biomass fuels used for cooking, heating and lighting, is responsible for an estimated 4 million deaths annually. Exposure to high levels of pollutants found in HAP has been associated with a range of health issues including; lung cancer, heart disease, bronchitis and other cardiorespiratory conditions. Exposure to HAP has also been associated with increased susceptibility to respiratory tract infections (Taylor, Nakai, 2012a) and producing damaging effects in early life on lung development. There are also clear links between HAP and climate change.

HAP is responsible for approximately 20,025 annuals deaths and over 887,467 Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in Uganda (Global Health Data, exchange, 2016). Access to clean, sustainable, affordable and reliable energy services is an enormous challenge yet energy is vital for socio-economic and human development as well as for poverty eradication. Switching from traditional biomass to new (cleaner) fuel types for cooking can reduce airborne emissions, but households often only partially convert, continuing to use traditional fuels for part of their daily cooking needs. There is also little evidence of the benefits of partial switching to new fuel types in Uganda. Methodology

This study presents a cross-sectional study pilot study conducted in the low income settlement of Namuwongo (Uganda) with the aims of documenting factors that influence uptake of new/cleaner fuel types, challenges and market opportunities associated with cleaner fuels (briquettes); and assessing the impact of a partial and full fuel switch from charcoal to briquettes.

This study involved collecting data in three phases; (a) focused group discussions (FGD’s) with users and seller of various fuel types (including firewood, charcoal, briquettes, LPG etc.); (b) FGD’s with EASE women’s enterprise (briquette manufacturers); and (c) collection of household information and measurement of air pollutants (primarily fine particulate matter - PM2.5) using Purple Air II SD and carbon monoxide (CO) using carbon monoxide data loggers (LASCAR EL-USB-CO).

Results

Factors that appeared to be most relevant in household choice of fuel type included (a) cost of fuel; (b) accessibility to fuels; (c) reliability (d) technical characteristics of fuel and cooking practices; (e) cultural preferences; and lastly, if at all, (d) potential health impacts. Presence of raw materials, availability of market and profitability were some of the reasons underlined by people and organisations selling briquettes whereas distribution, competition from charcoal/firewood and changing of customers’ mind-set were some of the challenges. Overall PM2.5 exposure concentrations were highest in households using charcoal only with average

3 24-h PM2.5 concentrations of 298 µg /m followed by households using both charcoal and briquettes with average

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concentrations of 220 µg /m3. The lowest exposures 150 µg /m3 were measured in households that used briquettes only.

Conclusion

In documenting factors that influence uptake of cleaner fuels; challenges and market opportunities associated with briquettes (clean fuels); and impact of complete fuel switch, this study offers highlights that government, businesses, and other stakeholders can apply towards overcoming the burden of fuel transition (from traditional biomass fuels) and move towards a cleaner energy future. There’s need to carry out more research across other settings to add onto this exciting evidence. Rational and Background Household air pollution (HAP) from biomass fuel smoke is a leading cause of global disability and mortality with an estimated 4 million deaths attributed to this exposure annually by WHO (WHO, 2018). Exposure to HAP has been associated with non-communicable diseases including stroke, ischaemic heart disease (Lim et al., 2012), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (Kurmi et al., 2010a) and lung cancer (Hosgood et al., 2010). HAP exposure is believed to significantly contribute to half of deaths due to pneumonia among children under 5 years of age (Gordon et al., 2014).

Although air pollution and especially HAP, is a global concern, the burden falls disproportionately on the poor and marginalized in Low and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs). Women and children, who are particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of pollution, are likely to experience the highest exposures to HAP due to their domestic roles (Okello et al. 2018; Gordon et al. 2014). In his chapter “Women’s work: Kitchen kills more than the sword” (in the book entitled “Women and Gender Equity in Development Theory and Practice: Institutions, Resources, and Mobilization”), Smith set out the evidence of the disproportionate ill health burden borne by women and children in LMIC’s and highlighted household cooking as the only risky behaviour which men generally do less than women in all cultures (Jaquette, Summerfield, 2006).In sub-Saharan Africa over 700,000 people die every year from exposure to air pollution generated by burning biomass or solid fuels (Global Health Data Exchange, 2016).

Household access to clean and affordable energy is critical to improving living standards in the global south (Oyedepo, 2012). Approximately 95% of the population of Uganda uses traditional biomass fuels, such as wood, dung, charcoal, or crop residues, to meet household energy needs (WHO, 2015). This has adverse effects on households' health, their productivity and also contributes to environmental degradation. As a result of the harmful smoke emitted from the combustion of biomass fuels, HAP is responsible for approximately 20,025 annuals deaths and 887,467 Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in Uganda (Global Health Data, exchange, 2016).

Switching from traditional biomass to new (cleaner) fuel types for cooking, heating and lighting homes can reduce airborne emissions of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and carbon monoxide (CO), but households often only partially convert to such fuels, continuing to use traditional fuels for part of their daily cooking needs. There is little

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evidence of the benefits of partial switching to new fuel types in Uganda. To effectively target interventions, it is essential to better understand:

 Factors that affect the uptake of cleaner fuels (e.g. affordability, accessibility, reliability and knowledge constraints).

 The impact on air quality of a partial or full switch from charcoal to briquettes.

 Challenges and market opportunities associated with cleaner fuels.

By generating such an understanding, it may be possible to support policy makers and advocates develop tailored interventions that improve the uptake of cleaner fuels.

The current situation analysis in Uganda highlights that there is limited and inadequate data on fuel transition with no clearly defined data collection, archiving and updating mechanisms. Information about biomass energy and its contribution to Uganda’s social, economic and industrial growth are not well documented. Owing to this paucity of information, the University of Birmingham in collaboration with the African Centre for Clean Air (ACCA), ACTogther and EASE women’s enterprise carried out a pilot fuel transitional study in Namuwongo Kampala to document factors that influence uptake of new/cleaner fuel types, challenges and market opportunities associated with cleaner fuels; and assess the impact of a partial and full fuel switch from charcoal to briquettes. Aims and Objectives 1. To document the factors that influence uptake of new fuel types (namely briquettes but also including LPG and others). 2. To document the challenges and market opportunities associated with cleaner fuels and to support micro- enterprises producing briquettes (focussed on a case study of the EASE women’s collective). 3. To assess the impact of a partial and full fuel switch from charcoal to briquettes.

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Methods and Materials Study location and overview

The pilot was conducted in the densely populated Figure 1: Map of Namuwongo informal settlement of Namuwongo (Kasanvu Zone) in Kampala (Uganda). Namuwongo is located in Division, one of the five administrative . It is bordered by Lugogo to the north, to the northeast, Kiswa and to the east, to the southeast, Kisugu and to the south, to the west and to the northwest. The neighbourhood is located approximately 6 kilometres (3.7 mi), by road, southeast of Kampala’s central business district. The coordinates of Namuwongo are:0°18'29.0"N 32°36'44.0"E (Latitude:0.308050; Longitude:32.612223).

The informal settlement is mainly constituted of houses built using poles and wattle; some are built with sunburnt bricks, with wattle used as cement. They are mainly makeshift structures. Households mainly used firewood and charcoal for cooking. Matooke, cassava, beans and posho were the main foods cooked in Namuwongo. The study was conducted from October to mid-November 2019 during the rainy season.

Selection of the site

Namuwongo site was identified as the location for this pilot study given existing engagements by the University of Birmingham in the area. The ASAP-East Africa project team are undertaking a larger study on HAP in partnership with Lung Institute in Namuwongo and have strong existing connections with civil society groups in the area (Avis et al., 2019). Namuwongo is also the site of a KCCA led informal settlement upgrading scheme that Is seeking to provide increased access to LPG.

Although the site was identified, approval had to be granted from the local council authorities before study was conducted. Prior to the beginning of the study, local leaders including the local council chairman and environmental officers, were contacted with an introductory letter describing the study (Appendix 1.0). This letter explained what the study would involve and sought to determine if the local community wished to be involved. Initial contact was made by the project facilitators from ACTogether. Feedback was received after three days. The local council chairperson and facilitator from ACTogether then led in organising and inviting participants to the

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FGD’s. The researcher coordinated with the research assistant, local chairperson and facilitator from ACTogether to organize the FGD’s after permission was granted.

Study population

The study population was selected based on participants in homes that used either charcoal or briquettes for cooking.

Study design

The study involved three phases: (a) mobilising participants (users and seller of various fuel types) for FDG’s, (b) FGD’s with EASE women’s enterprise (briquette manufacturers) and (c) collection of household information and measurement of air pollutants.

Fieldwork methodology and recruitment of participants are further explained in the following sections. Before beginning each FGD, consent was sought from the participating members from each group. For participants who didn’t have a signature or didn’t know how to sign, a thumb print was used as a form of signature.

Below is a summary of the information in the consent form (Appendix 2.0).

 Participants were thanked for agreeing to participate. Research team emphasised that we were interested to ascertain opinions on the factors considered when choosing a fuel type to sell (individuals/organisations), use (households) or manufacture (EASE women’s enterprise).

 The information would be completely confidential, and the study would not associate any participants’ name with anything said in the focus group.

 Information given the FGD’s would be recorded so that the thoughts, opinions, and ideas heard from the participants were well captured. No names would be attached to the focus groups.

 Participants had a right to refuse to answer any question or withdraw from the study at any time.

 We understood how important it was that this information is kept private and confidential.

 Any participant who had any questions during or after the discussions could always contact a study team member using the contacts on the information sheet (Appendix 3.0).

Phase One

This phase addressed our first objective which was to document the factors that influence uptake of new fuel types (namely briquettes but also including LPG and others). This phase involved mobilisation of the households that used, and individual/organisations, that sold various fuel types (firewood, charcoal, briquettes, kerosene and LPG).

A questionnaire (Appendix 4.0) developed by University of Birmingham together with ACTogether, EASE and ACCA was used to document factors influencing uptake of new fuel types. Factors that persuaded asap-eastafrica.com 11

household/consumer preferences were recorded. Factors discouraging uptake of new fuel types were also recorded. ACTogether took the lead in obtaining this information from the FGD’s.

A total of three FGD’s were conducted for households and individuals/organisations using and selling various fuel types respectively:

 The first FGD took place on 3rd October with a total of 10 people (nine residents and the chairperson attended). This was a group of briquettes users and sellers. EASE enterprise was represented among the sellers.

Figure 2: Interaction during the first Focused Group Discussion

Aspects determining fuel choice among various households in Namuwongo were documented. The factors affecting uptake among the different fuel types (charcoal, briquette, firewood, kerosene and LPG) were also documented. Factors such as price (compared to household income), burn time, environmental sustainability, standardised product etc. were documented from participant comments. Aspects preventing partial or complete fuel switch will also be recorded.

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 The second FGD took place on 5th October; seventeen (17) people attended. This group was comprised of charcoal, firewood, crop residues (mainly maize cobs) and kerosene users; and charcoal sellers.

Figure 3: Opening remarks by Gabriel Okello (ACCA) before commencement of 2nd FGD

After the session, we managed to recruit the households, using charcoal and briquettes for cooking. These households later participated in phase three which involved collection of household data information and air quality (PM2.5 and CO) measurement to assess partial and complete fuel switch.

 The third FGD (7th October) involved households that used LPG and electricity users.

Phase Two

This phase addressed our second objective which was to document the challenges and market opportunities associated with cleaner fuels. The focus was on EASE women’s enterprise which manufactures and sells briquettes in and around Namuwongo. Market opportunities associated with manufacturing/producing cleaner fuels using the case study on briquettes were documented. The FGD organised with EASE women’s enterprise took place at the company premises. The FGD was conducted with leaders of EASE women’s enterprise.

The research team discussed with EASE women’s micro-enterprise team the market opportunities and barriers associated with supplying new fuel types using the questionnaire (Appendix 5.0) developed by ACCA, ACTogther and University of Birmingham. The enterprise also provided some information on their business model and operations to enable the documentation, this included:

 The existing opportunities in the market.

 Barriers hindering the widespread use of the new fuels.

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 Possible lessons for other entities/organisations supplying new fuel types.

Potential output from EASE women’s micro-enterprise FGD included:

 A reworked business plan

 A business diagnostic

 A business evaluation

Solutions developed could be replicated for other enterprises providing new fuel types in different areas. Data collected from all focused group discussions was extracted from the questionnaires and presented in table form.

Phase Three

This phase addressed the third objective of assessing the impact of partial or complete fuel switch. This phase involved recruiting of households using charcoal and briquettes. Written informed consent was obtained from the study participants before commencement of the study. A pragmatic target of 15 households (5 using charcoal only, 5 using charcoal and briquettes and 5 households using briquettes only) were chosen given the resources and time available for the pilot study. We did not perform power calculations to inform sample size.

During the data collection period, there were three occasions when data collection had to be suspended. These periods were due to failure to access the households by the researcher and research assistant due to heavy rainfall (two times) and absence of the household head (one occasion). Field work suspended during the heavy rainfall was a safety precaution for the researchers and air monitoring devices. The monitoring study was conducted from October to early November 2019.

Recruitment of households

Ten households were recruited after the second FGD’s, with the remaining households recruited later. Interpreting was carried out by the research assistant and the ACTogther facilitator who both spoke the local language and had prior experience of working in Namuwongo. All questions were addressed via the researcher. Demonstrations were conducted using the air monitoring instruments with volunteers from the meetings.

There was a lot of emphasis on explanation and demonstration during the meetings given low literacy levels amongst participants and an eagerness to see equipment in operation. Each household that expressed interest and used charcoal and/or briquettes for cooking and/or heating, was given a household code which was later used to identify the household’s data. Information sheets (Appendix 3.0) were given to households interested in participating in the study so that they could consult with their family members and friends if they wanted.

The researcher and research assistant then moved (after all the FGD’s were complete) from home to home to measure exposure in the participating households. Measurement of exposure to PM2.5 and/or CO took place in the kitchen.

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Household information

An interviewer-administered questionnaire Figure 3: Research assistant administering a (Appendix 3.6) was completed with the head of the questionnaire household to record details about each household that was included in the study. The questionnaire had five major sections which included:

a) Household data section: Collected information on the household code, date of assessment, number of rooms and number of occupants in the household.

b) Household characteristics section: Gathered details on the presence or absence of windows, type of roof, wall and

windows material. Figure 4: Household monitoring c) Kitchen characteristics section: Gathered details on the kitchen/volume, presence or absence of windows, type of roof, wall and windows material.

d) Biomass fuel assessment section: Gathered information on where cooking took place (indoors/outdoors), types of fuels, stove type, sources of lighting, presence or absence of a smoker in the household and any other sources of smoke.

e) Cooking and heating assessment section: Collected information on foods frequently cooked, cooking methods, when meals were prepared, duration of cooking, primary cook, how long primary cook (years) had been cooking,

number of meals cooked per day, how frequently the fire was lit up and participants’ knowledge about air pollution and its health effects.

The questionnaire was administered by the researcher and usually took 20 to 25 minutes.

Information on predictors collected from the self-reported questionnaires (as elaborated above) was intended to provide more knowledge on the determinants of variability with the different fuels using households. Given that the self-reported questionnaires could not estimate/quantify the exposure concentrations, we measured air pollutants namely PM2.5 and CO.

Devices used

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PM2.5 exposure data were obtained from measurements over a 24-h period using the Purple Air II SD device connected to a 20,000mAH Anker® power bank. Real-time carbon monoxide levels were measured every minute using a CO data logger (LASCAR EL-USB-CO) with a measurement range of 0-1000 ppm and a resolution of 0.5 ppm.

Pre-sampling and calibration checks were performed on each of the devices before sampling took place.

Purple Air II SD

 Low-cost laser particle counter approximately $259

 Small (7cm x 7cm x6cm), wearable, makes no noise

 Can operate from a power bank (5000mAh >9h; 20000mAh >36h) or fixed to mains electric power

 Uploads in real-time to server via Wi-Fi (or mobile phone hotspot)

 Logs to SD card – so data recoverable if Wi-Fi signal lost

 Records data every 80 seconds.

Purple Air Pre-sampling checks:

 The device was checked to ensure that the memory was cleared.

 Checked whether power bank was charged. Device was also checked to make sure it was connected to the power bank which provided external power to enable measurement to take place for 24 hours.

Lascar EL USB CO logger

Carbon monoxide exposure was measured using a carbon monoxide (CO) data logger with USB interface for set up and downloading data. The device measures concentrations from 0 to 1000ppm CO measurement range and saves up to 32,510 measurements. The device also has a user-programmable warning threshold with bright visual and audible warnings which are activated when a pre-set warning level has been exceeded. It uses 3.6V, ½ AA lithium batteries and has a logging rate of 10 seconds, 30 seconds, 1 minute or 5 minutes.

Measuring PM2.5 and CO

During the fixed site monitoring within the household, the air monitoring devices for CO and PM2.5 were co-located and placed at a height of approximately one metre to two metres from where the cooking was taking place, and about one metre from the ground. The monitors were attached to a wall or if that was not possible, placed on a chair or stool or raised object. Emphasis was made not to place the devices on the ground. Measurement was carried in households which had a kitchen or shelter/makeshift structure being used as a kitchen.

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Return after 24 hours

Sampling was for approximately 24 hours in each household. A brief meeting was held with the contact person from each household to enquire about the experience of using the devices and establish the time cooking took place. Each participant was thanked for participating in the study. Every participant was asked about any challenges they experienced and their thoughts about the study. Every challenge experienced was recorded.

Handling of devices after 24 hours/preparation for next measurements

After meeting with the participant(s) at a household, a clean and safe place was used to download the exposure data on to a laptop. Data from each device was downloaded to a personal computer. The collected Purple Air II SD data were downloaded using a card reader whereas CO data were downloaded using proprietary software (EasyLog USB Ver. 7.2.0.0).

Sometimes devices were switched off and taken to the ACCA office for downloading (in case it was not possible in the field) due to the need to recharge power banks.

Data entry

Data from the questionnaires were extracted and entered into Microsoft Excel. For quality assurance purposes, 5% of randomly selected questionnaire data were entered twice on a separate Excel worksheet file. All data for the study were stored in an anonymous format in the researcher’s personal computer. The data was backed up using an external hard disk.

Statistical analysis

Household Information and participant information

Raw data were entered into an excel sheet to form a simple database. The data base format was a modification of the HAP data previously collected by Saksena (Saksena et al. 2003). The following information was extracted.

The following information was extracted.

 Household data

o Number of rooms, Number of occupants

 Biomass fuel assessment

o Primary cooking fuel type

o Primary fuel- for lighting

o Kitchen location

o Smoking Status

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o Frequently cooked foods, cooking methods and cooking duration

 Household characteristics

o Roof material, construction Material and type of windows

 Kitchen characteristics

o Roof material, construction Material and type of windows

o Kitchen volume (m3)

 Pollutants measured

o PM Sampler location, sampling Duration (hrs)

o PM estimate µg/m3 and CO estimate ppm

o Devices used

 Challenges faced (both by participants and research team).

 Knowledge of any information about air pollution.

24-hour exposure to PM2.5 and CO for each household

Data were analysed using Microsoft Excel 2018. All measurements were collated in one dataset. After exclusion of the first fifteen (15) and last fifteen (15) minutes before and after the 24-h measurements respectively, arithmetic means were derived for household. From the minute by minute values, hourly mean concentrations were then calculated. Average daily concentrations were then calculated as the means of these 24-hourly concentrations for households. In order to ensure that the 24-h means were robust, only measurements carried out for 23 hours or more were retained.

Comparison of exposure according to fuel type

An assessment on the effect of fuel type used for cooking on household exposure was derived by calculating the average exposure values among households who used similar type of biomass fuel (charcoal, charcoal and briquettes; and briquettes only). The comparison of 24-h mean PM2.5 exposure from households according to fuel type was plotted. Data used for plotting the box and whisker graphs were from fifteen households.

Determination of likely challenges faced during exposure assessment

To establish the feasibility and practicality of measuring HAP, challenges experienced by the researcher and participants were recorded. Participants’ challenges were recorded during the follow up meeting after 24 hours and in cases where participants called the researcher on phone. The researcher also recorded down any challenges experienced during assessment of HAP. All the challenges experienced by the researcher and participants were tabulated. asap-eastafrica.com 18

Quality control Measures

 Standardised validated questionnaires will be used  Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for each device and questionnaires will be used  Piloting will be done at two households prior to commencement to test equipment and the questionnaires. Results This chapter summarises the results, in line with the main aims of the study.

 The first section describes documents the factors that influence usage of traditional fuels and those that affect uptake of new fuel types (namely briquettes, kerosene, LPG and others).  The second section documents the challenges and market opportunities associated with cleaner fuels with a case study of the EASE women’s collective in Namuwongo.  The third section evaluates the impact of a partial and full fuel switch from charcoal to briquettes.

The results chapter also examines the relationship between various determinants or predictors and measured exposure; and presents information on the practical challenges of measuring HAP in an urban setting in Uganda using low-cost monitoring devices.

Section one

Factors that influence uptake of new fuel types (namely briquettes but also including LPG and others).

Fuel users

Preference for a specific fuel type depended on various reasons and the reasons varied from home to home as documented below.

Table 1: Reasons for adoption and barriers to uptake of various fuel types by households.

Fuel type Reasons for adoption Barriers to uptake

Firewood and crop o Cheap thus affordable o Makes saucepans dirty residues o Easily accessible o Produces a lot of smoke o Food tastes better (nice aroma) o Smoke can spread to the neighbors and cause conflicts o Cumbersome as one has to keep adding firewood

Charcoal o Affordable when compared to gas o Expensive sometimes and electricity o Inconsistent quality o Easily accessible o Fluctuations in prices o Can be reused unlike briquettes asap-eastafrica.com 19

o Stoves are portable. Cooking can o Rainy seasons affect prices take place indoors or outdoors o Doesn’t make saucepans dirty compared to firewood o Food has nice aroma o Less accidents during cooking

Briquettes o Burns for long hours o Inconsistent quality o Sometimes burns without soot o Sometimes produce smoke o Affordable o Smell bad sometimes

Kerosene o Cooks faster and convenient o Food sometimes smells of kerosene o Relatively cheap

LPG o Time saving o Can explode o Expensive

Electricity o Fast and clean o Expensive o Unstable and unreliable (Power cuts)

Fuel vendors

Challenges and opportunities that influenced trade in traditional and new fuel types were documented.

Table 2: Challenges and opportunities in trading in various fuels

Fuel type Opportunities Challenges

Firewood and crop o Cheaper than charcoal o Becoming scarce residues o Sourcing is becoming expensive

Charcoal o Profitable due to availability of o Scarcity especially during rainy customers seasons which affects prices o There’s ready market o Price fluctuation affects budgeting and planning o Loss of customers due to inconsistency in quality o Limited capital to invest in expansion o Clients demand for add-ons which affects profitability

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Briquettes o Presence of raw materials (organic o Inconsistent quality waste) o Distribution is expensive o Business is profitable o Changing mindset of people to switch o Are produced within the is challenging community. o Taxes on briquettes yet margins are o No smoke so customers like them low o Conserves the environment o Competition from firewood and through reuse of organic waste charcoal

Average daily expenditures on fuel varied according to family size. Average family size/members in a household was 5.5 people. Below are prices collected from the FGD’s.

 4,000 UGX daily on charcoal.

 2,000 UGX daily on briquettes.

 1,000 UGX daily on briquettes

 5,000 UGX daily on charcoal

 3,000 UGX daily on paraffin.

 100,000 UGX monthly on LPG (3,333 UGX daily based on a 30-day month)

The above expenditures depended on the number of household members, the quality of the fuel and the type of food being cooked. It is worth noting that according to data collected the average number of members in a household was 5.5 people.

Section two: Challenges and market opportunities associated with cleaner fuels

Challenges and market opportunities associated with producing briquettes (Case study of EASE women’s enterprise in Namuwongo) were documented and summarised in a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis table presented below:

Table 3: showing a SWOT analysis on EASE women’s enterprise

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES (internal risks) Measures to counter risks

 Product quality is not  Women’s group readily  EASE needs training from consistent due to inconsistency available in briquette experts to improve the quality of raw material production and act as sales and maintain consistency of  Lack of trained personnel at agents briquettes the factory

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 Available raw material like  Limited space for production  Acquiring more space charcoal dust and organic and drying; which are limiting  Getting better equipment to waste in the area for briquette expansion improve production and quality production  Company has carried out competitor analysis on price and product distribution  Price of briquettes is equivalent to that of charcoal

OPPORTUNITIES THREATS (external risks)

 One of the major raw material charcoal dust is  Community based so in a position to attract from charcoal yet charcoal is being phased out. collaboration and support  High taxes (especially Value Added Tax) on the  Readily available market from households, briquettes yet they have low margins restaurants, poultry breeders, hotels, schools etc.

EASE women’s enterprise business distribution model highlighted some existing mechanisms being applied to reach customers. These included:

 Selling directly to customers (last mile distribution especially those near the factory)

 Selling briquettes through sales agents in and around Namuwongo

 Informing customers of availability of briquettes through social media (WhatsApp)

EASE women’s enterprise has a business plan though it needed refining due to a number of evolving factors e.g. shifting focus to kitchen waste from charcoal dust since charcoal dust is becoming harder and more expensive to access. The business plan had also evolved in response to environmental and social aspects in Namuwongo.

Factors affecting scaling up

The main factors needed to scale up and thus reduce the cost of production and/or final product were discussed and documented. These included:

 Buying raw materials in larger quantities enables us to get discounts  Machinery would reduce cost of production and ensure consistency. Women involved in production would become sales agents  Increase in drying space would increase production and reduce cost  Improved training of personnel to enable the production of a better product

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In a bid to compliment the briquettes, EASE enterprise signed a joint sales agreement with JOSA green technologies which produces improved cook stoves that supplement briquettes.

Section three: Assessing the impact of a partial and full fuel switch from charcoal to briquettes.

Data on 24-h personal exposure to HAP were collected from eighteen households. Of the 18 households who participated in the study, fifteen provided valid air quality data relating to PM2.5 and/or CO. HAP exposure was assessed by measuring carbon monoxide (CO) and/or fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations using the Purple Air II SD and CO lascar.

3 Table 4: Average 24-hour PM2.5 (g/m ) concentrations in households using charcoal and briquettes in Namuwongo, Kampala

3 Average 24-hour PM2.5 (g/m ) concentrations in households using charcoal and briquettes in Namuwongo

Charcoal Charcoal and Briquettes Briquettes only

340.24 220.55 180.80

282.59 206.96 120.19

199.05 285.73 165.26

392.58 198.51 110.94

276.14 188.90 175.16

Average 298.12 220.13 150.47

Overall PM2.5 exposure concentrations were highest in households using charcoal only with average 24-h PM2.5 concentrations of 298 µg /m3 followed by households using both charcoal and briquettes with average concentrations of 220 µg /m3. The lowest exposures measured occurred among households which used only briquettes. Average concentrations were 150 µg /m3 for households that used only briquettes. Whilst to scale of the pilot renders it challenging to make sweeping assumptions, findings do suggest that use of briquettes only for cooking is associated with lower overall levels of household air pollution.

It is worth noting that whilst households using briquettes only showed results with lowest PM2.5 concentrations, the overall average concentrations were still higher than the WHO 24-h guideline limit (25µg /m3).

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Figure 5: Comparison of 24-h mean PM2.5 kitchen concentrations in households in Namuwongo (Uganda) according to fuel type

450 Charcoal only Charcoal + Briquettes Briquettes only 400 350 300 250

200 concentration concentration

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Figure 6: Box and whisker plot showing comparison of 24-h mean PM2.5 kitchen concentrations in households in Namuwongo (Uganda) according to fuel type

450 400 350 300 250

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- 50 24 0 Charcoal Charcoal & Briquettes only Briquettes Fuel type

The line inside the box represents the median value, the lower and upper box lines represent the limits of the interquartile range (25th and 75th percentiles), and the “whiskers” represent the 5th and 95th percentiles of the distribution.

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Illustrations of one-minute average PM2.5 and CO concentrations among households that participated in the study showed that each household had an overall different one-minute average PM2.5 and CO concentrations over a period of 24 hours. Much as each household had different exposure averages over the 24 hours, results showed that cooking activities predominantly generated high exposures. This usually occurred in the mornings, afternoons and evening.

Figure 7: An example showing one-minute average PM2.5 and CO concentrations of a household in Namuwongo using charcoal over a period of 24 hours.

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Average minute PM2.5 concentrations μg/m3 Average minute CO concentrations ppm

3 Results showed that PM2.5 concentrations in homes using charcoal fuels could reach (hundreds) 100’s 휇g/m averaged over 24h with peak concentrations in (thousands) 1000s 휇g/m3 during cooking periods.

Challenges experienced by the research and participants during the research period.

Several challenges were experienced both by the researcher and the participants during the pilot study. These included:

Challenges experienced by participants/subjects

 Some participants feared the devices would make audio or picture recordings of them thus breaching their privacy.

 Other participants feared that the devices would explode.

Challenges experienced by the researcher

 Heavy rainfall interrupted movement to the field as it was difficult to set devices or move through the areas when it was raining.

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 Sometimes power cuts prevented timely recharging of the power banks which meant delay in setting up in the following household. Discussion This chapter summarises the main findings of the study, compares them with previously published work in this field and discusses the main strengths and limitations of the current study. This section also brings together the significance of the work and explores recommendations for future work in this area.

Main findings

Whilst the government of Uganda has set targets to reduce dependence on traditional cooking fuels in order to reduce exposure to HAP, clean fuels have failed to gain widespread use. The percentage of households using solid fuels for cooking remains above 90% across the country – levels in urban areas are lower but remain high (UNIDO, 2016).

From our pilot study, the failure to attain widespread use can be attributed to several market barriers. One of the major issues is cost: clean cooking fuels such as LPG and electricity are prohibitively expensive for many households, particular those with lower incomes. Cleaner fuel types like briquettes, that could be affordable, have inconsistent quality and sometimes need compatible stoves which further discourages their use. Besides the expense, many consumers are hesitant to adopt new technologies or approaches to cooking, reflecting the lack of public awareness on air quality issues. At the same time, Uganda’s limited infrastructure prevents these fuels from being made available in many local marketplaces.

Factors that appear to be most relevant in a household's choice of fuel type are: (a) cost of fuel; (b) accessibility of fuels; (c) reliability (d) technical characteristics of fuel and cooking practices; (e) cultural preferences; and lastly, if at all, (d) potential health impacts. The latter did not feature prominently in discussions of reasons for or against the use of particular fuels.

Whilst a number of barriers exist, undermining the uptake of cleaner fuels including briquettes, this pilot study also highlighted opportunities to encourage the use age of transitional fuels such as briquettes. These include:

 Reduction in household air pollution by briquettes when used in absence of any traditional biomass fuels (as shown in figure 7)

 The cost of briquettes is more or less the same price as charcoal which can be affordable to most households in Uganda

 Briquette production provides employment opportunities to people in communities either through working at the production facility, transporting the briquettes to the market or working as sales agents.

 There is availability of organic materials – a major raw material in briquette making is household waste. This provides an opportunity to address solid waste management and air quality issues. asap-eastafrica.com 26

 Briquettes can be standardised and of consistent quality if the manufactures receive training from experts.

 Production can be expanded and replicated in other areas of the country and continent.

Figure 8: showing reduction in PM2.5 concentrations

450 400 350 300 250

concentrations 200 2.5 150 100 24h PM 24h 50 0 Charcoal Charcoal & Briquettes only Briquettes

Fuel type

Uganda is gifted with abundant renewable energy potential from sources such as biomass, water, wind and the sun. However, this potential has not been fully utilised resulting in a situation where approximately 15% of the population has access to electricity, an unreliable grid that does not meet their daily energy service needs. The majority (over 90%) depend on unsustainably used traditional biomass fuels for energy needs.

There are several renewable energy awareness campaigns by government for example energy week but some segments of the audience e.g. key government agencies, policy makers, wider community, legislature are not well targeted; key responsible government agencies are not well coordinated and have thus failed to put in place a comprehensive regulatory framework for tackling such issues. Highly inefficient technologies are common at various levels of the biomass value chain i.e., harvesting, transformation into secondary energy (mainly charcoal), and transportation and at end-use. This study highlights that whilst transition to cleaner fuels such as electricity and LPG is the long-term goal, this will take years if not decades to accomplish with the most vulnerable often the last to receive access to these. This pilot study highlights that supporting the production, distribution and usage of briquettes could play a transitional role in addressing particularly harmful levels of air pollution.

Strengths of the study

The strengths of our study include documentation of factors that influence uptake of new fuel types, the challenges and market opportunities associated with cleaner fuels.

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Another key strength of our study was the availability of real-time monitoring at one-minute intervals over a 24-h period using low-cost devices, enabling reporting of detailed temporal pollutant patterns including characterisation of peak exposure periods among the different households. 24-hour measurement is a particular strength of the work as it presented a complete day in a specific household.

There is currently increased interest in reduction of air pollution in general in Uganda. This has to a number of studies to provide more evidence (Okello et al. 2018; Tumwesige et al. 2017).

The study has also forged connections with a variety of organisations present in Namuwongo and lays the groundwork of trust and reciprocity amongst partners for future work.

Limitations of the study

The study was restricted to households within a small area coverage over a period of 35 days.

We did not collect repeated measures of 24-hour indoor CO and PM concentrations within the same household to understand seasonal variability in household air pollution. HAP measurements collected during a single 24-hour period may not be representative of actual household exposure levels. Longer periods of monitoring (48–72 hours) or repeated measurements on different days are likely to be more representative of the true degree of household air pollution exposure, however logistical reasons prevented this.

Another limitation of this study presented was the small sample size relative to the total population in Namuwongo. This reflects the practical and logistical challenges in conducting continuous FGD’s and pollutant monitoring in low-income settings. Conclusion This pilot study highlights evidence on the reasons for slow uptake of cleaner fuels including the barriers of uptake, the impact of partial or complete fuel switch; and the challenges and opportunities available for companies dealing in cleaner fuels.

It is important to note that much as transition towards cleaner fuels may come with some challenges, this report offers highlights that government, businesses, and other stakeholders can apply towards overcoming these challenges and move boldly towards a cleaner energy future.

Access to modern and clean energy is a necessary precondition for achieving development goals that extend far beyond the energy sector, such as poverty eradication, access to clean water, improved public health and education, women's empowerment and increased food production.

Recommendations

 Provide more sensitisation in order to increase knowledge and acceptability of briquettes

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 Increase funding to Innovations or interventions that aim to improve the quality and last mile distribution of briquettes.

 Tax charcoal producers while providing some tax waivers (like Value Added Tax) for Start-ups that trade in cleaner fuels for at least three years

 Government should offer subsidises to keep the price of briquettes low

 Low-interest rates should be offered by government financial institutions for briquettes producers in order to increase production.

 There is need to carry out a larger study with a wider area and stakeholder coverage.

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Appendices Appendices available on request

1.0 Introductory letter

2.0 Consent form (Focused Group Discussion)

3.0 Information sheet

4.0 Focused Group Discussion Questionnaire

5.0 Questions for EASE women’s micro-enterprise

6.0 Household questionnaire

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