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SPRING, 1990 VOLUME 4, NUMBER. 3

ultural literacy at Fullerton

CSUF GEOGRAPHY DEPT Map portion of cultural literacy test

Identify: Afghanistan _; The Persian Gulf__ ; Nicaragua__ ; Vietnam_; Libya __; The Amazon 8asin__ ; The French-speaking region of Canada __ (Answers on page 4)

ALSO:

ARE WE FREE TO BE INTOLERANT? Cultural Literacy: hat irsch says you need to kno , and hy William Vandament inaccessible to active memory when and if the deci­ Psychology phering has been completed. To paraphrase an old' saw: for lack of a word, a phrase was lost; for lack of a Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to phrase, a sentence was lost; and so forth. The deleteri­ Know, by E. D. Hirsch, Jr., hit the nation's bestseller list ous effects of unknown words on memory are thus two­ in 1987, shortly after Allan Bloom's The Closing of the fold, involving lack of retention and comprehension of American Mind had received widespread attention familiar information along with the novel in the new among critics of American higher education earlier in context. the year. Casual observers have linked the two authors, But the problems of ignorance get worse when the along with former Secretary of Education William reader or listener is confronted with information that is Bennett, as advocates of an education that would pre­ implied rather than stated explicitly. In this situation, pare young people well for life in the 19th Century. the writer or speaker requires that the audience possess This is a mistake. appropriate information to fill in the missing pieces. A professor of English with an interest in general Many words and phrases contain several layers of educational issues, Hirsch attempts to confront the meaning that are comprehensible only to the person challenges that time and human limitations place on with a background that goes beyond that provided by the learning of new material. And make no mistake a standard dictionary. To understand and thus retain about it, new information is highly susceptible to loss a sentence in which someone is referred to as a "Quis­ during the processes involved in forming a long-term ling," for example, the reader must know that the writer memory, particularly if it does not immediately acti­ is characterizing the person as one who collaborates vate prior memories. with forces of evil. First, most sensory information received by hu­ Fortunately, the human proclivity to fill in voids in mans is lost for further processing within half a second the actual environment-based on past experience or of its offset unless it has previously established "mean­ motivation-is widespread. At even a basic sensory ing" to the individual. Then, in short-term or working level an incomplete visual image will sometimes be memory, the surviving information is accessible to "seen" as complete by a subject. The viewer of a few recall only for 20 - 30 seconds if intervening events leaves through the window will infer that an unseen interfere with rehersal activities necessary for its trans­ tree is present. In dealing with verbal material, the fer into long-term memory status. Further, a human receiving individ ual will use generalcontextual cues to can keep track of only a few pieces of information at infer the meaning that was intended in an incomplete once in shorHerm memory. George Miller (1956) took description. Cognitive psychologists postulate the note of the capacity limitations in an article entitled existence of personal "schemas" that are activated by "The Magical Number Seven: Plus or Minus Two," minimal environmental cues, and then blended with listing the accumulated research in which human sub­ the external information, to produce a consolidated jects, when given tests forimmediate recall, were found account of what has transpired in the environment. capable of memorizing on the average only seven In short, the process of reading or listening in­ unrelated digits, letters, syllables, or words. Humans volves an active partnership between the recipient of often find ways to expand the basic seven-unit capacity information and the provider, with the recipient re­ by grouping information into chunks, each consuming sponsible for supplying what the provider, perhaps only one of the seven bits. Words, phrases, clauses, and without due consideration, has assumed was unneces­ sentences attimes form the basic chunks ofinformation sary to make explicit. Effective communication thus that are processed in active memory within the capacity occurs only when provider and recipient share a com­ that Nature has allotted. mon background and vocabulary which allows the It is at this fundamental level of vocabulary and recipient to infer much hidden meaning, or when the grammar facility that Cultural Literacy as defined by provider has taken great pains to usea scaled-down Hirsch comes into play. The student who reads mate­ vocabulary that leaves virtually nothing to the imagi­ rial containing a large proportion of unfamiliar words nation. Few writers or speakers dealing with complex can be faced with an overwhelming set of tasks. The subject matter are capable of doing the latter; indeed, "meaningless" strings ofletters not only consume scarce most would protest correctly that such communication storage space; attempts to decipher them take up valu­ would be lengt~y, tedious, and insulting to a literate able time that may render the other familiar words audience.

2 • Senate Forum Hirsch and associates have worked for several relativism and permissiveness in higher education and years to define a vocabulary that will help the learner places emphasis on immersing undergraduate ~tudents deal effectively with the information contained in writ­ in the original writings of the great minds of western '->....i I ings for a general, well-informed American audience. civilization. William Bennett (1984), noting that "the The intent has not been the construction of a vocabulary highest purpose of reading is to be in the company of for specialists in various fields or of reader mastery in great souls," advocates that the curriculum be based on depth of terms and concepts. Rather, Hirsch, et al have "original literary, historical, and philosophical texts sought to create a list of words and phrases for which rather than on secondary works or textbooks." Both the reader possesses that type of knowledge common Bloom and Bennett treat the educational experience as to people who read periodicals and books of a nonspe­ one in which senior scholars, collectively in Bennett's cialized nature. Stated in the terms of cognitive psy­ case, make judgments about the value of curriculum chology, his goal is for the reader to develop a broad content based on intrinsic merits, and stress depth of array of schemas that can be activated to aid the speedy understanding over breadth. comprehension of information found in the reading Thus, although both Hirsch and other educational material of the literate American. It is not necessary reformers stress the need for a comPlon core of knowl­ that the reader identify Uriah Heep with Charles Dick­ edge for students, they have different methods of defin­ ens or David Copperfield or a given historical era-the ing that core and different goals for its mastery. The image of an unsavory schemer posturing as humble is core experiences derived by either method are faulted sufficient in the usual reference. as discri- minatory and conservative by some observers The methodology used in compiling the entries in who note that both place heavy emphasis on Western, two books, The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (Hirsch, male historical influences at the expense of the contri­ Kett, and Trefil, 1988) and A First Dictionary of Cultural butions of others. Literacy (Hirsch, 1989) for young people of age 11-12, Hirsch, however, points out that the content on his has varied with the content area. In some instances, lists is the product of a conservative process by which Hirsch and his associates have identified terms used most cultures determine their language use. He notes frequently in newspapers and periodicals. For some the functional value of a national or cultural vocabulary terms and phrases, they have relied on the consensus that is slow to change, citing the usefulness of collec­ among groups of experts-usually educators-to esti­ tive, stable schemas in providing the base for commu­ mate the relevance to the material that will likely be nication. He argues that the educator's primary re­ encountered by the reader. In the vocabulary devel­ sponsibility to current students is to prepare them to oped for the sciences, however, experts were consulted; deal with what they have to read, not to advance they generated lists and definitions of terms and con­ ideological concerns by teaching them nonstandard cepts that are basic. Hirsch acknowledges that arbi­ vocabularies while leaving them ignorant of the shared trary decisions were sometimes necessary. The compi­ vocabulary. lation of lists will be a continuing project as terms In essence, the educational dissenter who would change in their significance for general reading. stress cultural diversity in educational systems now Given the empirical nature of the Hirsch methodol­ has two lines of argument to challenge-conservatism ogy, how does the Cultural Literacy movement relate to the other calls for the reform of education? Hirsch et al appear not to make judgments about William Vandament the intrinsic value of information. Although the Hirsch is CSU Trustee Pro­ approach is laboriously detailed in its attention to the fessor and Professor content of education, this content is treated primarily as of Psychology at one component-almost as a set of tools-of the learn­ CSU Fullerton. A ing process. A review of the dictionaries compiled at former Provost and the Cultural Literacy Foundation reveals many terms Academic Vice whose origins are in folk or popular culture-for ex­ Chancellor for the ample, beat around the bush, eleventh hour, tender­ CSU system, he is foot, touch and go, by the book, black sheep. His engaged in studies of approach could well be characterized as pragmatic, American higher almost value-free. education policies In sharp contrast, many advocates of educational and programs and reform are promoting core curriculum requirements teaches learning and based on the presumably intrinsic value of specific memory at CSUF. writings and other information considered basic to our American culture. In The Closing of the American Mind, Allan Bloom is sharply critical of the trends of cultural

Senate Forum • 3 ------

by decree and conservatism by drift or laissez-faire. It seems somewhat paradoxical that the opposing camps-those favoring a multi-cultural, and Is itzerland therefore relativistic, approach and those stressing Western cultural heritage in education-both advocate an anarchy? the active imposition of curriculum content by elite professionals charged with fashioning educational Leon J. Gilbert policy. By contrast, Hirsch's approach may be consid­ Department of Foreign Languages & Literature ered empirically driven by, or passively reactive to, the ebb and flow of content that students will encounter in During the 1984 summer Olympics, CSUF was the the culture at large. site of the team handball competition. One evening my Hirsch does have detractors in addition to those family was seated directly behind a group of CSUF concerned with cultural diversity and equity. Postman students. The first game of the evening was between (1989) characterizes the Hirsch thesis that "the more Japan and Romania. "Who are you going to root for in you know, the more you can learn" as a truism not this game?" one of the students wanted to know. "Well, worthy of the fanfare it has received. However, it not Japan, that's for sure" another answered, "I'd never should be noted that Hirsch's rather detailed analysis root for a communist country." The Romanians even­ ofthe learning process goes beyond the statement of an tually won the game handily, aided no doubt by this intuitive principle; it offers hope that the remedy to fan's enthusiastic support. The second game pitted some educational problems may be simpler than their Iceland against Sweden. "What language do they speak chaotic symptoms would suggest if we concentrate on in Iceland?" one of them wondered out loud. "I think the building of shared vocabularies with our students. it's Lapp" one of the others responded. Then Switzer­ Most successful teachers through the ages have sought land played Yugoslavia, which prompted an inquiry as to present material by using terms and metaphors to the nature ofthe Swiss government. "It's an anarchy, familiar to novices as a bridge to the technical vocabu­ isn't it?" one of them suggested, "Isn't that where you lary required for the mastery of new subject matter. have a king and a queen?" Now this intuitive general insight about what is tran­ One could, of course, dismiss such cases of gross spiring in the classroom can be subjected to more global ignorance among our students as anecdotal. systematic analysis, and its validity tested. It is clear, This small group was hardly a representative sample. among other things, that more attention should be But growing evidence suggests that their lack of know1- given to the development of adequate student vocabu­ edge about the world around them reflected national laries early in our courses so that students can compre­ trends. The most broadly based data on this subject is hend us. It is also clear that"schema bridging" between provided by a National Assessment of Educational teacher and student deserves concentrated efforts if our Progress (NAEP) study conducted in 1985, which tested lectures are not to serve as garbled foreign language almost 8000 high school students' knowledge of history presentations to naive learners. I believe we should and literature. Reporting on the preliminary findings, offer our thanks and words of encouragement to Pro­ NEH chairman John Agresto stated on October 8,1985: fessor Hirsch and invite faculty colleagues to subject his Two thirds of the seventeen-year old students ideas to the test of classroom instruction.§ tested could not place the Civil War in the correct half century; a third did not know that the Decla­ Acknowledgment: The author expresses appreciation to ration of Independence was signed between 1750 William Smith for his astute comments about the Cultural and 1800; half could not locate the halfcentury in Literacy movement and his review of this manuscript. which the First World War occurred. Halfdid not recognize the names of Winston Churchill and Josef Stalin. While the NAEP study focuses primarily on high Answers to cover quiz school students' knowledge of American history and Student culture, several others, including an ETS national sur­ Answer pet. vey of 3000 college students and an Ohio State study of Afghanistan (#32) 77% 340 of its own undergraduates, reveal similarly dis­ Persian Gulf (#39) 65% tressing statistics on students' global knowledge. Nicaragua (#16) 55% Concerned about such trends and curious about Vietnam (#41) 67% the state of our own students' global awareness, a Libya (#30) 53% group of more than two dozen CSUF faculty met the Amazon Basin (#25) 46% throughout the Fall of 1987 under the auspices of an French-speaking Canada (#6) 57% API grant to develop a "Global Literacy" test. The purpose was to probe the student knowledge of world

4 • Senate Forum history, world politics, cultures, geography and cur­ rent developments of global significance. Initially, two HOW WELL CAN YOU DO ON THESE ITEMS WHICH pre-tests of 100 items taken from 140 sample questions STUMPED MOST STUDENTS? 'r submitted by a broad cross-section of the faculty were administered to 636 students. The pre-tests were then Sixty percent or more of the student sample got each of these evaluated for validity. A core group of seven facultyl questions wrong. met in March and April of 1988 to develop a final test consisting of the 55 statistically best questions taken 1. The term "mutually assured destruction" refers to which of the following? from the pre-tests. This test was then given to 1145 a) The notion, shared by many pacifists, that the destruc­ students enrolled in a random sample of 75 classes tion of all nuclear weapons will assure world peace selected from the Spring 1988 class schedule. b) a technical clause, contained in many peace treaties, The results confirmed our worst fears. The average referring to the destruction of the arsenals of defeated parties score reflected correct responses on only 49.8% of the c) the likely fate of Western civilization in the event of a questions, and while the average score did increase by third world war class level, the improvement in global knowledge be­ d) a deterrence strategy that credibly threatens a signifi­ tween the freshman and senior year was only 13 points, cant level of popUlation and industrial destruction should an with freshmen scoring an average of 42% and seniors adversary attack first scoring an average of 55%. Age was apparently signifi­ cant: scores improved by an average of 2 per cent for 2. Which of these phrases is descriptive of the U.S.S.R.? a) culturally and ethnically diverse each 10 years of survival. Better scores were also b) mercantilist and populist associated with foreign travel. Men scored, on the c) culturally and ethnically caucasian average, 7 percent better than women. These findings d) ethnocentric and monolingual were generally congruent with those of other studies of political and cultural awareness. 3. The summer of 1961 marked the: On the map portion of the test, 40% of our students a) building of the Berlin Wall were unable to locate Vietnam, half could not find b) end of the Korean War Libya, and 55% did not know the whereabouts of the c) convening of the Potsdam Conference Amazon Basin. On the multiple choice section, over d) signing of the Treaty of Versailles half were entirely ignorant about where and how the state of Israel came into existence; 56% were unable 4. The world's oldest civilization was centered in what is the present nation of correctly to identify Martin Luther, and half did not a) Egypt b) China know whether the first leader of the Soviet Union was c) Iraq d) Kenya Lenin, Marx, Stalin, or Trotsky. Sixty percent could not identify the only country among Hungary, Bulgaria, 5. The Roman Empire did not touch: Czechoslovakia, and Afghanistan that the USSR had a) the Baltic Sea b) the Adriatic Sea not invaded in the last 40 years. Sixty percent did not c) the Black Sea d) the English Channel know the location of the World Court and even fewer could name the five permanent members of the Secu­ 6. Which European power was the last to give up control of rity Council. Fifty-five percent did not know the major its Africancolonies? significance of the Magna Carta; 75% were unable to a) Great Britain b) France identify the non-Arab nation among Kuwait, Egypt, c) Belgium d) Portugal Iran, and Libya; and 80% could not identify the Latin 7. Which of the following languages is the mother tongue of American country in which Portuguese is spoken. A the largest number of speakers on the continent of Africa? third could not define the European Economic Com­ a) Swahili b) Arabic munity; a third did not know the significance of 1949 in c) Hausa d) Zulu Chinese history; and more than half did not know the population of the world to the nearest billion. 8. During the 19th century, China's relations with the West This is sobering stuff indeed. It is clear from the were characterized by: results of the test that our students know extraordinar­ a) Britain's conquest of China which resulted in its be­ ily little about the world in which they live, including coming part of the British Empire. the major events and individuals that have shaped and b) Establishment of spheres of economic and political continue to shape it. Nor would it appear that the years influence in China by several western powers. c) Economic development and political unification with that they spend under our tutelage improve that knowl­ the assistance of western countries. edge to any significant extent. In fact, transfer students d) The closing of China to western trade and investment. scored on average somewhat higher than those who had received all of their college education here. In an [Answers on page 11.] almost apologetic tone, the final report on the API

Senate Forum • 5 --

project notes that while our students scored just under seven disciplines made a series of week-long classroom 50% on the Global Literacy Test, this is no worse than presentations with course-relevant international di­ what was reported by ETS and Ohio State. mensions on an invitational basis, with the expectation It seems to me, however, that the fact that our thatthrough this process, the instructors of those courses students are as globally illiterate as everyone else's is will add permanent international dimensions. hardly comforting. After all, internationalization of the But we must go beyond voluntary programs based curriculum has been a frequently articulated goal of upon temporary funding, if we are really serious about our university for several years. The university's Mis­ our commitment to improve our students' global liter­ sion and Goals statement specifically enjoins us to acy. One of the clear outcomes of the Global Literacy emphasize multicultural and international issues study was that relevant course exposure (i.e., having wherever appropriate in the general education pro­ taken courses with an international dimension) was gram as well as in our majors. Our official posture is significantly related to higher performance on the test thus in harmony with that of California's Joint Commit­ and was so independent of the students' GPA. The tee for Review ofThe Master Plan for Higher Education easiest way to prepare our students to be knowledge­ which, in the report California Faces ... California's able and effective world citizens is to increase exposure Future: Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural De­ to global issues throughout the curriculum. mocracy, urges us to "internationalize the college and This is precisely what Executive Order 338 sug­ university curriculum and ... bring international issues gests we ought to be doing, at least within the frame­ into a wide range of programs" because they "tran­ work of General Education. In the introductory com­ scend the particular professional and career training ments to the GE distribution requirements in the CSU, too often sought by undergraduates",and to do so is "in E0338 comments that instruction approved to fulfill the best interest of California." But our professed those requirements should "recognize the contribu­ educatIonal philosophy has yet to be implemented in tions to knowledge and civilization that have been the curriculum in any consistent and systematic way. made by members of various cultural groups and Some preliminary efforts are underway with fund­ women." Later, in discussing the 24 units of course ing provided by an API development grant, two semes­ work devoted to the humanities and the social sciences, ter-long seminars were held during academic year it notes that "studies in these areas should include 1988-89 for faculty who volunteered to add modules exposure to both Western cultures and non-western with an international dimension to their courses. Under cultures." This basic driving philosophy of General a related FIPSE grant, faculty resource teams from Education is also strongly endorsed in the report of the

Leon Gilbert is a professor of German Tom Klammer chairs the Linguis­ Bernard Kravitz, Department of Ele­ and Assistant DeanofH&SS. Previ­ tics Department and is Composition mentary and Bilingual Education, ously, he served as chair of the De­ Coordinator for the English Depart­ joined the CSUF faculty in 1961. He partment of Foreign Languages and ment. He serves on the University has written numerous articles on in­ Literature. He joined the CSUF fac­ Board on Writing Proficiency and quinJ teaching. ulty in 1970. chairs the CSU Chancellor's Advi­ sory Committee on Student Writ­ ing Skills. 6 • Senate Forum biased by the majors of students enrolled in non-major biology (40% business, 20% engineering, 20% radio & hat's an TV communications). Biology majors did about the same as non-biology majors, though a few more recog­ E ? nized NSF and NIH than non-majors. One political Bayard H. Brattstrom science senior got 100%! Biology What do these data tell us? Perhaps that hearing acronyms on radio and TV is not sufficient for them to In teaching general biology to non-science be recorded in the brain in such a manner so that they majors, I try to point out the relevancy of biology to can be recognized when written. Perhaps that few of their lives. To test whether I am out of step, or whether our students read or remember what they read in the this group of students is as naive as the last, I often give popular press. Or, if they read it, they make only a my classes questionnaires. I am continually appalled general association but not an accurate translation! by the students' lack of awareness of their world. In the Knowing, for example, that the FDA has something to early 1960's, for example, more than 20 out of 23 in an do with drugs without really distinguishing the role upper division biology course could not recognize the that the FBI and the Food and Drug Administration names of Andreas Segovia, e. e. cummings, Jackson play. Perhaps we expect more from our students in Pollack, or the president of Mexico. these days of exploding information, and forget that the In the fall of 1985, I tested my non-major Biol­ students come to us just as naive as ever, and that they ogy 101 students (n=97), and those in my upper divi­ are doing the best they can to learn as much as possible. sion Evolution course (n=22) on their ability to identify In any event, ~'le still have work to do, and as the world a series of acronyms. I had selected these acronyms gets more complicated, we have an even bigger job of over the previous week from TV newscasts, local informing, clarifying, explaining, and, oh yes, trying to newspapers, Time and Newsweek. All had occurred in get them to think!§ the media fairly frequently. FBI, CIA, and IRS were the only three acronyms Correct Ball Park Blank correctly identified by more than half the students. LWrong Adding "ball park correct" (such as California Intelli­ F.B.I. 91% 3% 6% gence Association, Federal Drug Administration, Fed­ I.R.S. 86 6 9 eral Drug Agency, National Aero Studies Agencies, Oil e.I.A. 68 13 18 Petroleum Electricity Company), then more than half FD.A. 39 29 3 also recognized NATO, NASA, FAA, and FDA. Only E.P.A. 39 2 59 18% knew what the INS was, and in the year after the N.A.T.O. 33 17 5 Olympics, only 4% recognized the IOOC! Though the F.A.A. 26 28 45 printed questionnaire identified the acronyms as agen­ N.A.S.A. 21 45 34 cies or organizations, the most popular answers for IN.s. 19 4 77 NSF was "NOT SUFFICIENT FUNDS"! O.P.E.e. 10 40 50 There was no significant association of scores with N.I.H. 7 0 93 the year in college though freshmen and juniors seemed I.M.F. 6 0 94 to do slightly better than sophomores and seniors. N.S.F. 4 2 94 There was no evidence that students from anyone LO.O.e. 4 0 96 major did better than any other, but this is probably

curriculum to ensure that a significant international Gilbert: continued component is present in every course where it reasona­ bly ought to be, if not throughout the curriculum, then From page 5 at least throughout GE. If we fail to do so, we will Intersegmental Committee for a General Education continue to send more generations of CSUF graduates Transfer Curriculum which, in reference to the hu­ out into the world believing that Japan is a communist manities and social science core curriculum, encour­ country, that the Icelanders speak Lapp and that an ages us to "focus on the received traditions of the West anarchy is a system of government ruled by a king and and the less familiar traditions of other cultures ...." aqueen.§ The inescapable conclusion, it seems to me, is that it's high time we did something more than pay pious lip 1. Linda Andersen-Fiala, Anne Feraru, Charles Frazee, service to the call to internationalize our curriculum. Lee Gilbert, Bill Haddad, Marianne Lanier, Bill Puzo, and We must rigorously and systematically review our Troy Zimmer.

Senate Forum • 7 ------~------~------

Beat not the poor students and teachers

Tom Klammer Within the lives of many CSUF faculty members, English and Linguistics our definition of "literacy," our expectation of the kind of reading and writing that large numbers of the popu- . When Newsweek published an article called "Why lation can perform, has risen dramatically. At the same Johnny Can't Write" in December of 1975, laments time, we have aimed at achieving advanced literacy in about the terrible state of student writing skills found a a broader segment of our population than most other contemporary focus. The article stimulated something "first world" countries. Consider, for example, that: of a national panic that has not abated. We continue to • In 1890, 6.7% of America's fourteen to seventeen describe ourselves as being in the midst of a "literacy year-aIds were attending high school; by 1978 that crisis." number had risen to 94.1 %. The more things change, the more they remain the • In 1890, 3.5% of all seventeen year-aIds graduated same. from high school; by 1970 the number was 75.6%. In 1841 the president of Brown complained that - In 1900 about 4 percent of American eighteen to "students frequently enter college almost wholly unac­ twenty year-aIds attended college. By the late 1960's, quainted with English grammar." In the mid 1870's, 50% of them were entering some form of postsecondary Harvard professor Adams Sherman Hill assessed the education. writing of students after four years at America's oldest • In the United States just over 75% of young people college: "Every year Harvard graduates a certain complete high school, while in Sweden 45 to 50% number of men-some of them high scholars-whose complete the gymnasium (grades 11-12), and in West manuscripts would disgrace a boy of twelve." In 1896, Germany about 15% are enrolled in the Oberprima The Nation ran an article entitled "The Growing Illiter­ (grade 13). acy of American Boys," which reported on another Our public education system stresses openness to Harvard study. This one lamented the spending of all citizens. We strive to educate a far greater percent­ "much time, energy, and money" teaching students age of our citizens than many other countries, not just "what they ought to have learned already." There was to the level of high school graduation, but beyond. Our no conceivable justification, noted a rankled professor, national goals in this regard have undergone continual for using precious revenues "in an attempt to enlighten advancement during the twentieth century. As we • the Egyptian darkness in which no small portion of have invited more and more Americans to participate Harvard's undergraduates are sitting." in postsecondary education, we have also radically In 1898 the University of California Instituted the changed the function and goals of such education in Subject A Examination and was soon designating about regard to the social classes it serves. 30 to 40 percent of those who took it as not proficient in While from some points of view, our schools may English, a percentage that has remained approximately seem to be failing, from another they are struggling the same until today.! Thus, the "crisis" in student valiantly to meet the demands of a pluralistic democ­ literacy is not new. racy. It maybe that some of us look around at our entire Statistics are often used to demonstrate educa­ culture radically changing and then incorporate our tional decay, but consider our literacy crisis through the fears-of decay, of loss of order, of decline-into our perspective provided by another set of facts: analyses of our students' literacy and general scholastic • In the 1930's, "functionalliteracy" was defined by performance. Even if, limiting our focus in this way, we the Civilian Conservation Corps as a state of having wish to call whatwe see, rather hyperbolically, a "liter­ three or more years of schooling. acy crisis," we must acknowledge that this" crisis" has - During World War II the army set the fourth been with us for some time-our schools have been grade as a standard. populated for a great while with students who don't - In 1947 the Census Bureau defined functional illit­ meet some measure or other of academic preparation erates as those having fewer than five years of school­ and achievement. ing. • In 1952 the bureau raised the criterion to the sixth What We Do, What We Should Do, grade. and Why We Don't • By 1960 the Office of Education was setting the eighth grade as a benchmark. Six months after the December 1975 article ap­ -By the late 1970s some authorities were suggest­ peared in Newsweek, the Trustees of the CSU estab­ ing that completion of high school should be the defin­ lished what was to become the English Placement Test • ing criterion of functional literacy. to assess the skills of entering freshman and lower

8 • Senate Forum division transfers. In the same resolution they promul­ dents.) However, additional test and course require­ gated the principle that all students entering the CSU ments for ESL students are currently very difficult to after implementation of the EPT "be required to dem­ implement. Normal admission criteria, without any onstrate their competency with regard to writing skills such special testing requirements, apply to most ESL as a requirement for graduation." CSUF's Examination students, who are not foreign (visa) students. A law in Writing Proficiency and its Upper Division Writing suit at CSULong Beach has stalled that campus's efforts Course requirements originate with that resolution, to enforce a requirement such as we need; until it is though we took until 1981 to implement fully the resolved, the question of special ESL requirements is on Trustees'mandate. hold system- wide. All entering freshmen and transfer students who In my discussion with the teachers of the upper have not achieved satisfactory scores on other tests division writing courses required in CSUF's various (such as the SAT verbal) must now take the English majors, the main complaint is not about having to Placement Test. Those who score poorly on this have to require substantial amounts of writing, to design good enroll in English 099 (some sections of which are re­ writing assignments, or to respond to students' papers served for ESL students) and then English 101 (fresh­ so that they can revise what they write. Rather, almost man com position). English 099 carries no credit toward uniformly, the lament is that upper division students graduation. The more proficient go directly into Eng­ lack basic skills that their professors may not feel quali­ lish 101. A few exceptional students can pass the fied to teach and lack the time to cover in an advanced English Equivalency Examination, which obviates the disciplinary writing course . Clearly, our studen ts need requirement to take either 099 or 101, and grants 6 units the kind of instruction and reinforcement that they of credit. could receive in the second semester freshman compo­ Later in their careers, all students must pass a sition course that is required both in the UC and at course in their majors designated as having a heavy community colleges, as well as at most. other four-year writing emphasis. Finally, all who hope to graduate institutions around the country. must pass the Examination in Writing Proficiency, the A second semester of freshman writing is not p~rt central component of which is an essay evaluated by of CSU general education requirements., In current trained faculty readers drawn from almost every de­ negotiations to create a common GE transfer core cur­ partment. riculum, the CSU faculty representatives have shown Our best means of glimpsing how well our stu­ complete unwillingness to modify our GE patterns to dents can write is their performance on the Examina­ in<;lude a second semester of composition, even though tion in Writing Proficiency. Many students do very both the UC and the community college representa­ well on this. The overall passing rate is about 75%. tives have argued forcefully for such a requirement, However, the EWP shows us that the writing ability of which they already have. CSUF cou~d, however, inde­ a sizable number of students approaching graduation pendently require an additional freshman writing is at the freshman level; in fact for some it has declined course, as several CSU campuses already do. to a point below what we expect of students in English Keeping composition classes small is crucial if 101. This is not surprising. Research has demonstrated faculty are to spend the amount of time needed on the repeatedly that students who do not receive regular work of each individual student. Sections of English opportunities to write and to receive response to their 099 are now limited to 20 students, budn English 101, writing after completing freshman composition grad u­ the limit is 25. This is set by system wide policy and ally lose the abilities they acquired there, ending up by exceeds by 20% the maximum recommended by the graduation at a level near where they were at entry to national professional associations, the Conference on the university. College Composition and Communication (CCCC) and Three-fourths of our students with native languages the Association of Departments of English (ADE). other than English are unable to write at the minimal Students should take the EWP much earlier than passing level of the EWP. This stunning failure rate is most do now. If all students took the examination at the not the result of readers who overreact to minor inter­ beginning of their junior year, as the university says ference from foreign languages, for EWP readers are they should, those who fail could enroll in additional trained to allow for "writing with an accent" on the writing classes (if seats were made available in such timed, first draft essays of the examination. classes). Many students now postpone taking the EWP We should be testing the reading and writing abili­ until their final semester; those who fail then must often ties of all entering ESL students and requiring those delay graduation. Only the logistical problem of hold­ with inadequate skills to enroll in advanced ESL courses ing registration packets or carrying out whatever other that would enable them to make rapid progress to the enforcement procedures might be necessary prevents levels needed for college work. (Such instruction is not us from requiring the test earlier. remedial: it isthe equivalent of advanced instruction in Finally, we need writing throughout the curricu­ a foreign language for native English-speaking stu- lum, not just in courses meeting the current upper

Senate Forum • 9 division writing course requirement. We could accom­ plish this in stages by requiring substantial writing and response to writing aking • first,in upper division General Education classes; • then, throughout courses in the major; students literate .finally, in all GE classes. Many teachers already require writing in their classes, Bernard Kravitz and most agree that more writing across the curriculum Elementary and Bilingual Education would be desirable. But the growing campus emphasis on research and the increasing amounts of released According to E. D. Hirsch, the culturally literate time allotted to faculty members mean larger class sizes person possesses information needed to live happily and less faculty time for students and their writing, not and with success in today's world. He defines cultural more. Unlike the UC, we have few GAs to respond to literacy as "information, attitudes and assumptions student writing. Because our changing campus values that literate Americans share." Professor Hirsch and his and priorities are in conflict with our funding, the colleagues have drawn up a list of 4,500 words which situation is growing less favorable for increasing stu­ they believe are the key to cultural literacy, thus provid­ dent writing. ing a standard for measuring an individual's cultural A variety of forces are working against the steps I literacy. He claims that one need not have detailed have argued for, making progress in these areas seem knowledge of these terms; having enough to recognize harder to achieve than it needs to be. Frustrated and the term is adequate. For example, associating The disappointed, we may be tempted to "beat," in vain, the Canterbury Tales with Geoffrey Chaucer is sufficient. writing teachers and students from whom we want so One need not have read the book or know what it is much more. Whether or not "crisis" is the appropriate about. I agree with Hirsch's critics who say that this term to apply to the widespread inadequacy in aca­ standard is not satisfactory. Adoption of Hirsch's demic literacy that most faculty members perceive standard, they claim, will lead to the emphasis on among CSUF students, I believe we do have the power superficial knowledge as the major criterion of decid­ to teach our students more effectively and to enable ing who is and is not culturally literate. them to achieve whatever levels of writing and reading Professor Hirsch and other critics of contemporary ability we desire-if we are willing to commit ourselves education claim the United States is doing a poor job of to creative change in instructional methods and cur­ reducing cultural literacy. He sees a decline in literacy and in shared knowledge. The National Assessment of • ricular requirements.§ Educational Progress results showed a decrease be­ 1. On the history of the literacy crisis, see Michael Rose, Lives tween 1970 and 1980 in the ability of 17-year old stu­ on the Boundary, Free Press, 1989. dents to understand written materials. The verbal ~cholastic Aptitude Test Scores have declined rapidly In the past 15 years. According to Hirsch, only two­ thirds of our citizens are literate, and most of those are at a level that is too low. It was his conviction regarding the need to improve the level of cultural literacy that motivated him to write his book. Critics of Hirsch claim tha.t cultural facts are being taught now as never before. For example, never in the history of American education have a larger number of elementary and secondary school students have been exposed to the chronological study of serious noncon­ temporary literature, American and world history. According to Edgar Schuster, an editor of textbooks and professor of English, compendious anthologies of The Senate Forum is a publication of the Academic Senate at American literature have never sold better. Nor have California State University, Fullerton. It is designed to stimulate discussion, debate, and understanding of a vari­ American and world history textbooks. The accompa­ ety of important issues which the Senate addresses. Indi­ nying articles give us some basis for deciding which viduals are encouraged to respond to the materials con­ view is nearest the truth at Fullerton. tained in the Forum or to submit their own contributions. Why is it important for the populace of a demo­ Editor: Julian F.5. Foster, Political Science Editorial Board: John Bedell, Chair of the Academic Senate cratic nation to be culturally literate? The benefits and Professor of Sociology; Ed Trotter, Communications accrue to the individual and to society. The individual needs to be able to read with comprehension. Authors assume that their readers have a background of knowl-

10 • Senate Forum edge; if they don't, the authors will be unable to com­ subject with our students on a personal level. Begin­ municate with them. Those who are culturally illiterate ning instructors in higher education quickly discover

If cannot enrich their lives by reading. People who can­ that the overwhelming majority of their students are not read with comprehension are deprived of essential not interested in what they are supposed to be learning. rights of citizenship and human dignity. Thosewho The chances of raising student interest improve if fac­ are culturally literate, on the other hand, can use what ulty share anecdotes and relevant personal experi­ they know about the culture to understand themselves ences. A human dimension is added to the body of . and to become fully functioning individuals. knowledge in any subject field when students hear I We live in a pluralistic society with a diversity of about the different interpretations, the controversies, religions and ethnic traditions. This heterogeneity of the conjecture, and the unanswered questions that I'", beliefs, values and customs is protected by the scholars are addressing. Interestingly, students fre­ I Constitution, which is also the foundation of our unity. quently remember the anecdotes and shared personal f Accordingly, diverse people must be able to communi­ experiences long after they ha ve forgotten the concepts I cate effectively with one another for our nation to and facts presented in lectures and read in textbooks. " remain united. To do this, they must share a common Finally, I recommend that you immerse your stu­ background of knowledge. In addition, a common dents in sustained study of limited topics to give them background of information is essential to secure tradi­ the opportunity to do on-going inquiry and to develop tional democratic values, especially equal economic understanding by thoughtful interaction with the con­ opportunity, the freedom to participate in public af­ tent. Another mistake many of us make is to think of fairs, and the protection of civil rights and due process quantity as a criterion of good teaching. We feel the oflaw. students will learn more if we require them to read "X" If we as CSUF faculty accept that cultural literacy number of supplemental books a semester and to finish greatly benefits our students and our society, then an a certain number of pages from the basic textbook each important goal in teaching should be to help students week. Students may complain that requirements in our attain a common background of knowledge. We need courses are excessive, and that we cram too much to utilize approaches to teaching that will help to moti­ information into our lectures. The result is that we vate our students and to ensure permanency of learn­ spoon feed the content we want them to learn and they ing. The problem is that cultural information in all repeat it back on examinations. I believe that only by subject areas is being taught ineffectively to students requiring our students to study fewer, well selected, who do not want to learn it. I believe the following four topics will they have the time to engage in such schol­ suggestions can be easily incorporated into each arly Clctivities as analyzing, comparing, synthesizing, instructor's style of teaching and will bring about an evaluating, communicating and defending their ideas. improvement in the teaching of cultural information, With this Clpproach they can internalize the content First, faculty need to convey the importance of the they are studying; it will be more meaningful to them; content they are teaching to the lives of their students. and will be remembered. We should not assume that students can figure out for I agree with Bill Vandament's assessment of the themselves why they should be learning the subjects worthwhile service Professor Hirsch has provided to we teach. The excellent teacher succeeds in making faculty at all levels of education. Hirsch has caused us clear to students how the content hel she is presesnting to consider the importance of shared knowledge to the can make a difference to them. Unless a subject is made individual and to a democratic society. He has fol­ meaningful to them, students will memorize it to pass lowed through on the difficult task of formulating a an examination and only too quickly forget it. body of content that culturally literate individuals Second, faculty need to relate the content they are should possess. Although there is considerable dis­ teaching to what is going on in the world outsid,e the agreement on the specifics of his content, his standard university campus. Just as we make a mistake in for determining cultural literacy, and his recommended assuming students can figure out for themselves the means of helping youngsters to attain it, he and his importance, of the subject they are studying, we cannot colleagues are to be congratulated on presenting us take for granted that they will on their own apply what with an idea that can improve the education of our iI we teach to issues in contemporary society, and to the students.§ universal concerns of people striving to cope with the pressures of living in a complex world. Examples of how content relates to the real world will help students form a mental pattern or schema that will help them to understand how the concepts they are studying fit in. Thus they will learn the content more easily, and the Answers to the questions in the box on page 5: 1D, probability of their recalling it will increase. 2A, 3A, 4C, 5A, 6D, 7 A, BB. Third, we need to share our enthusiasm for our

Senate Forum • 11 iscri ination and the university

Albert Flores our principal objective we cannot avoid teaching these Philosophy lessons if we are to remain true to our commitment to ra tionality (not to mention fairness) as a basis for action. Why should we adopt an anti-discrimination pol­ Simply stated, prejudice and bigotry are forms of icy? And what precisely should such a policy include? aggression against those so victimized. They tend to be Important questions - even more so because we are more virulent when nurtured in the vacuum of igno­ teachers and scholars with the capacity to marshal the rance and intolerance. Prejudice threatens individual forces of reason and education against the injustice and security because one never knows >what outrageous oppression that is prejudice. opinion constitutes the basis of another's judgment. As a community of thinkers, dedicated to learning May one's race or religion, for example, disqualify one and scholarship, the university is an institution founded from a job or admission to a university? Bigotry in its on the ideal of reason as the principle basis for action. extreme form can lead to overt terrorism that can vio­ Certain traditions evolve that sustain it well in its late basic rights and sometimes result in a loss of life. pursuit of these goals and ideals. Perhaps the most More commonly, bigotry finds its expression in hate important of these are openness and tolerance. Open­ literature and derogatory epithets intended to threaten ness involves a willingness to consider an idea on its one's sense of well-being and self-worth. merits and to pursue it seriously if it can contribute to To act on these bases implies an acceptance of our knowledge or understanding. Tolerance can be violence as a means of dealing with others, especially defined as the acceptance of a variety of perspectives those who are different. It legitimizes the acceptance of from which knowledge and truth are achieved and a injustice as a proper force inherent in the nature of belief that much is to be gained from the ferment of human relations. It encourages the victimization of ) competing perspectives. As a result of the civilizing those who are most vulnerable. It means eschewing . forces of our shared lives together, these traditions rational restraints in the exercise of po>wer and aqui­ naturally undergo continual revision as we refine the esces to the rule that "might makes right." In all its limits to which we remain open and tolerant of differ­ forms, discrimination creates disharmony and social ing ideas and their various modes of expression. instability and remains at odds with the civilizing Prejudice and bigotry are the antitheses of these trends that are an essential part of the exercise of reason traditions. They cannot be reconciled with the goals of and the mission of a university. the university. Both practices are grounded in igno­ Thus, as members of an institution committed to rance and the acceptance of stereotypes or false as­ education and a life of reason, >we must publicly commit sumptions. They inevitably lead to results that violate ourselves in our actions and policies to challenge all principles of rationality. Decisions about who to admit, forms of discrimination. No other act is more central to hire, or promote must be made on the basis of an our mission and ideals. individual's qualifications and not on the basis of fac­ We often know quite well who is likely to be the tors logically irrelevant to a rational decision. Race, victim of discrimination. We also know the common gender, religion, ethnicity, and so on, are irrelevant to forms and contexts in which this discriminatory behav­ any such decision and should be explicitly excluded ior is likely to arise, and when what is said is an from consideration. Hatred toward individuals merely expression of prejudice or bigotry. Ambiguous refer­ because they belong to some such group is not only ences should not be tolerated and should be challenged irrational but also an unjust violation of their human for clarification whenever there is a hint of prejudice. rights. Actions springing out of such hatred cannot be We need not try to list all the forms within which such tolerated and should be the object of the most serious attitudes can be expressed; the ingenuity of the hate­ censure that an institution such as ours can issue. monger knows no limits. Why rouse the cleverness of The rejection of discrimination is of singular im­ those who would attempt to avoid censure on a techni­ portance to academic institutions because it signifies cality? Our commitmentto reason often lead us to over­ our commitment to reason rather than power as the rationalize what should be obvious to everyone - to basis for action. Histotyprovides countless examples discriminate is wrong. Anyone who says or does of how reason has failed to defeat the forces of prejudice anything harmful or degrading because of prejudice or and the hysteria bred of bigotry. Insofar as education is bigotry is discriminating and deserves censure.§

12 • Senate Forum -----IC

~e ree o to e Intolerant ! ( Keith Boyum And if "not taking it anymore" is what's really Political Science happening lately in the realm of intolerant incidents, I'm encouraged. We all ought to like that kind of

Serious people who care deeply about higher intolerance. As nobody should tolerate rape, nobody I education believe the following propositions: should tolerate intolerance. I also think that 'in toler­ II Incidents of intolerance and discrimination are on anceofintolerance' isa preferred basis on which to take the rise in our society. policy action. Policy premised on righteous indigna­ II The California State University (system-wide and tion is always strong, and will nearly self-evidently be individual campuses) should adopt policies de­ stronger than policy based on a premise that may be signed to oppose intolerance, to insure welcom­ mistaken. ing climates for all students. The policy problem boils down to how best we II Some speech -- at least "fighting words" -- should might be able to get people to do what we want them to be prohibited. do: be tolerant. Let us suppose that we can choose (A) Succinctly, my own views about the propositions the threat of (negative) sanctions, (B) inducements are these: (rewards), or (C) rational persuasion. .. We don't know whether intolerance is on the rise. (A) The threat of sanctions often signals that an But whether or not intolerance is increasing, there important social norm is involved, and that can be a may be something more interesting occurring. strength of policies premised on it. But costs of enforce­ II We ought to welcome thoughtful programs de­ ment can be a problem, and most would find oppres­ signed to insure congenial environments . sive a social order that fundamentally, or even fre­ .. I'd rather not ban fighting words even though I quently, relied on the threat of sanctions. We are not oppose them. I doubt the effectiveness and I fear making policy for Albania. Basing policy on the threat the" chilling effect" of such a ban. of sanctions ought to be avoided if possible. We hear quite often nowadays that incidents of in­ (B) Inducements normally feel less oppressive, and tolerance are on the increase. I am not sure that this is should because of that be preferred to the threat of true. We need to clearly distinguish between reports of sanctions. We are familiar with inducements at the incidents, and incidents per se. Suppose someone said university, of course: our students commonly choose they would survey dentists to discover how many Cal State because California taxpayers heavily subsi­ tooth cavities Americans had. An alert 11 year old dizetheireducations. But we wantthem to love us, too. (indeed, my own) can spot the flaw: not all cavities are Be a Titan! Selling (in effect) one's compliance lacks the reported to dentists, and reports from dentists could moral quality of taking action on the basis of beliefs. vary entirely independently from variation in the real (C) Rational persuasion is least oppressive, and incidence of cavities. occupies the moral high ground. Indeed, the University Though almost nobody knows it (and some may is based on the belief that ideas are greatly important, not believe it), the incidence of rape (and indeed, of and that rational persuasion is possible. violent crimes generally) appears to have been slowly I conclude that a university should stress rational declining in the United States, at least since 1973. The persuasion - teaching - in regula ting behavior. After observation is founded on a real measure of the inci­ all, if we don't believe in ideas, and in teaching, who dence of crime: the National Crime Survey, begun in will? Inducements should be employed only if neces­ 1973. In the same years reports of rape have skyrock­ sary, ana the threat of sanctions should be a last resort, eted. Press accounts of "increases" in that crime have in the face of urgent need. in fact been increases in reports. Beliefs about the frequency of incidents of intoler­ Why We Should Not Ban Fighting Words ance seem to me to parallel beliefs about the incidence of rape. Many recent compilations show large in­ I think there is much support for an outright ban on creases in reports of intolerant incidents. But the real that portion of hateful language that amounts to fight­ frequency of intolerant behavior could be rising, fall­ ing words. "Fighting words" are personally abusive ing, or unchanged: we don't know. epithets which, when directly addressed to any ordi­ The point is not that intolerance or rape are some­ nary person are, in the context used and as a matter of how not problems. The point instead is subtler, and common knowledge, inherently likely to provoke a ultimately more interesting. We may have something violent reaction whether or not they actually do so. at work here reminiscent of the line from a movie of just Such words include terms widely recognized to be a few years back: "I'm mad as hell and I'm not going to derogatory references to race, ethnicity, religion, sex, take it any more!" sexual orientation, disability, and other personal char-

Senate Forum • 13 acteristics. Our campus community strongly shares a the university curriculum, with programs and courses fundamental norm that discrimination and hateful in, amongst others, Afro-Ethnic, Chicano, American, speech are wrong. That's important: I'll return to this Religious, and Womens Studies. observation. But I find two major problems with a With a ban on fighting words at least some in our ( formal ban on hateful language by campus regulation. community would discuss these topics less frequently The first problem with banning fighting words is and less vigorously. Why risk charges and hearings creating what lawyers call a "bright line." Laws or and the rest - generally, having administrators on regulations that forbid things need to be very clear, or your case? How's that going to look in a tenure (or else someone accused of violating them can argue other) review? I think that no amount of assurances unfairtreatment. "I didn't know it was against the law" would overcome this effect. Ultimately, a ban on fight­ is, as the saying has it, no excuse; but "The law did not ing words would handicap a conversation we very plainly forbid this activity" can be not only an excuse, much need to have. but an occasion for finding the law unconstitutional If we decide not to ban them, we need not tolerate (void for vagueness, a denial of due process of law.) fighting words. Government policies, law, in legiti­ In the face of this, regulation might employ the mate political systems embody norms arising from the definition of fighting words used above, as the Univer­ shared sense of right and wrong in the community. But sity of California has done. To generate an even brighter the range of the community's sense of right and wrong line, one could list the words to be outlawed. (The is very broad. Not everything the community thinks is University of Wisconsin has issued lists of such forbid­ right is made a legal requirement, and not everything den words.) Such a regulation might pass constitu­ the community thinks is wrong has a corresponding tional muster. But how long would it take a person legal prohibition. intent upon hate to substitute another word, a hint, a But that doesn't mean that communities tolerate coy phrase, a gesture? Not long, I think. deviations from important norms. Communities My conclusion is that an attempt to ban hateful through celebrations and ceremonies and through speech through fair, non-vague regulation is to chase a everyday reminders, teach norms. And re-teach, cele­ will 0' the wisp. The fairer one tries to be by creating a brate, renew, invigorate and reinvigorate them. As bright line, the easier it is for the haters to evade. On the well, communities meet deviations with sanctions. other hand, that the university should not employ Deviants are met with anger, preaching, cold shoul­ unfair, vague definitions seems self-evident. ders, expulsion from the lodge, pressure to resign. (He Perhaps worse, a "chilling effect" can occur when missed this point when Richard Nixon asserted, "I am people who wish to obey a law not only avoid crossing not a crook.") the line into illegal conduct, but in fact avoid coming If we are as strongly opposed to discrimination and near the line. For example, in the face of bans on hate as I think we are, we have a rich variety of ways to obscenity some artists and authors might avoid any show our intolerance of intolerance. We have the explicit discussions of sex. With that, our appreciation curriculum and the classroom. We sponsor student of an important andbasic human reality can be stunted. activities and lecture series. We communicate often We need to talk about race and ethnicity, about and intensely. religion and about sex. Indeed we affirm that need in We can use those tools, and we ought to.§

Al Flores is a profes­ Keith Boyum, profes­ sor of philosophy and sorofpolitical science, campus advisor for teaches and writes the health profes­ about judicial proc­ sions. His teaching esses. He was ap­ and scholarly inter­ pointed to a special ests lie in the area of panel to advise the professional ethics. Chancellor on policy He has been a mem­ designed to promote ber of the CSUF fac­ racial and ethnic ulty since 1982 understanding on CSU campuses.

14 • Senate Forum . ~REED@M AND INm0~ERANGE alone because there will always be some who will not respond. (In defense of) a ban The restrictions in the policy proposed for CSUF are all borrowed from other state and federal policies, on 'fighting words' including various CSU Executive orders. The most controversial is a prohibition against "fighting words," which the Supreme Court has ruled does not constitute. Craig K. Ihara protected speech under the First Amendment (Chap­ Department of Philosophy linsky,1942). However much we want to protect free speech we cannot and do not protect speech that slan­ Over the last few years there has been a disturbing ders others, or incites sedition or other kinds of vio­ number of racial incidents on campuses across the lence. The question is whether" fighting words" should country, including Stanford and Michigan to cite two of be placed in the category of protected speech or prohib­ the best known cases. On our campus too there is ited conduct. Given its intent and potentially harmful mistrust and misunderstanding between different stu­ consequences, it seems to me that it clearly belongs in dent groups. Currently the most outstanding example the latter. . . involves MEChA and the Associated Students' leader­ Some would disagree, dismissing "fighting words" ship. Happily we have not yet had the worst kinds of as "merely offensive," conflating them thereby with incidents that other campuses have experienced, but bad odors, vulgar dress and other matters of poor taste. we cannot be confident that such incidents will never This is a kind of insensitivity to the nature of racial and occur here. other kinds of discriminatory abuse when directed at Another concern is to graduate more underrepre­ specific individuals. Such abuses amount to attempts sented students. To do this we must have a campus to intimidate and to subjugate people through the environment that attracts and retains students from threat of violence. At some point speech is no longer areas that are sometimes so different from traditional dialogue but an attack, often on those who are the least Orange County that they might as well be from a in a position to defend themselves. different country. Unfortunately, as a survey con­ This is not to deny that there are legitimate issues ducted last spring shows, our campus is not perceived raised by "fighting words." One concern is what Keith as a very hospitable place by many such students. Boyum calls the "bright line" problem. Briefly put, in An essential element in the overall effortto im­ order to be fair as well as constitutional, prohibitions on prove the campus climate and prevent serious inci­ speech need to be very clear. However, language clear dents must be for the University to state clearly and enough to pass constitutional muster will be so specific prominently its position against invidious discrimina­ that those so inclined can easily express their hate in tion. Ifnothing else, such a policy affirms the institution's other words. support and encouragement to anyone likely to be One must agree with Keith that we cannot hope to victimized by discrimination, racial orl otperwise. eliminate all ways of expressing hate. Any policy with (Imagine how likely a white student would be to attend that intent would be foolish, and really would infringe a predominantly black university where (1) there was on free speech. The "fighting words" clause does not reason to believe that at least some anti-white attitudes attempt so large a task. Its intent is merely to provide existed, and where (2) those in authority refused to recourses to those who are victimized in a very particu­ adopt a general prohibition against verbal abuse.) lar way, through the use of epithets commonly recog­ However, across the country anti-discrimination nized as "inherently likely to provoke a violent re­ policies have been opposed on the grounds that the sponse." Clearly this prohibition only provides protec­ prohibitions they includeagainst discriminatory verbal tion from name calling and other demeaning references abuse infringe on academic freedom and the First of the worst sort, but even this minimal protection is Amendment. Such objections can be avoided by elimi­ better than none. nating all such prohibitions. Unfortunately, policies It might be objected that it would be messy and containing only exhortations is not likely to be taken se­ time-consuming if the university involved itself in every riously, and the important message that it addresses to incident of name calling on campus. Anyone who the campus community is likely to be dismissed as thinks that there is that much name calling on this mere verbiage. Whether we like it or not what the campus has a very dim opinion of our student body. institution prohibits will be regarded as what the insti­ There are isolated cases, but in general, people do not tution feels most strongly about. Much as we would bring trifling incidents to the attention of those in au­ thority. Thus there are very few official reports of ) like to depend exclusively on non-punitive and non­ restrictive measures to promote tolerance and non­ sexual harassment, even though the language of the discrimination on our campus, we cannot rely on them Executive Order 345 on that topic is very broad.

Senate Forum • 15 r------

Another concern has to do with the'! chilling effect" some '!chilling effect" remains, it's worth considering of a prohibition. Academic freedom is a most cherished that this might be a good thing. We need to be careful value on any university campus and above all we must of what we say about gender, race, sexual preference, et not inhibit the free discussion of any point of view, cetera. An awareness that someone might find our ( however repugnant. But there are limits to even our language offensive is part bf what it means to be sensi­ most cherished and important freedoms. Academic tive to others, and thatis what all of us must be if we are freedom should not permit personal attacks on stu­ to live successfully together in a multi-cultural society.. dents, especially by those in authority. Such attacks do In short, the prohibition of '!fighting words" is not not contribute to a free exchange of ideas, nor deserve objectionable because it is too broad. The real objection to be called the presentation of a point of view. They are to it is that it is too narrow. It is so limited that it does not intended to inform but to harm, and qS such impede not cover a variety of racist and discriminatory behav­ the pursuit of truth which is the underlying rationale ior. So, for example, since it only covers direct, face-to­ behind free speech and academic freedom. Aggressive face confrontation, it does not prohibit racist graffiti, or racism is more chilling than any prohibition of it could caricatures, such as occurred during the "lip sync" be. incident last spring on our .campus. Unfortunately, The cliche that "The best remedy for bad speech is more inclusive language is both more problematic and more speech" oversimplifies the situation. A group of less politically viable. individuals hurling racial epithets at someone is not State Assembly Resolution No. 126 mandates the inviting a dialogue, and without regulations on the UC and CSU to '!correct any existing behaviors, prac­ basis of which complaints can be brought there may be tices, and policies ... that result in differential treatment no subsequent discussion about why racial epithets among its students" including "adoption and enforce­ ought not to be used. In the classroom, where the ment of specific policy statements ... that discriminatory professor's authority is supreme, students need to be policies, behaviQr, and practices will not be tolerated." empowered to voice their objections. H they are not, Thus, the University has the legal responsibility to various forms of discrimination may simply slide by protect students from racial and discriminatory harass­ without being addressed. ment that impedes their educational opportunities. It Part of the anxiety about the chilling effect of pro­ appears to me that adoption of an anti-discrimination hibiting "fighting words" should be dcispelled by a policy is imperative. For these and the other reasons clear understanding ofthe courts' interpretations .. What cited above, it appears to me that the adoption of this "fighting words" prohibits is knowingly directing anti-discrimination policy is both the best, as well as the abusive epithets to a specific person or group of per­ least, that we can do.§ sons in a context in which itis likely to provoke a violent reaction. So, for example, there is no prohibition against using quotations which include derogatory references to race or sex, or against making the most exhaustive lists of chauvinist or racist epithets if it is for a legitimate academic purpose such as examinini? attitudes about women or African-Americans .. To invoke a distinction often made in philosophy, "mentioning" such words does not amount to "using" them in a way which is Craig K. Ihara re­ prohibited. ceived his B.A. at Once it is made clear that it is specific uses of Stanford, and his "fighting words" that are prohibited, it should also be M.A. and PhD. at clear that using such a word because one did not know UCLA, all in philoso­ its derogatory nature is not itself a violation of the phy. His research policy because it is not used in an abusive manner. In areas are in ethics and any case, such unintentional uses should be rare be­ Asian philosophy. cause "fighting words" must be "commol1lyrecognized He serves all the to be inherently likely to provoke a violent reaction." Human Relations (As we grow older, professors my become increasingly Task Force, and as out of touch, but hopefully not that out of touch.) Educational Equity Furthermore it should also be clear that the prohi­ Coordinator for bition of"fighting words" does not rule out advocating H&SS. offensive views. One may argue for the intellectual inferiority of African-Americans, but one cannot call anyone a "nigger." Hone still believes, despite these reassurances, that

16 • Senate Forum hoosing a president: a conversation

Julian F.S. Foster qualities of a CEO Others drew various distinctions: Political Science HAMPTON: The university doesn't produce prod­ ucts, but rather is a people-oriented organization. In­ The choiceofollr next president is likely to affect the terpersonal skills are vital. campus in major and lasting ways. All faculty should LABRADO: In the corporate world there is more flexi­ interest themselves in this. The Senate Forum here intro­ bility, wider scope for action. A university like this one duces the members of the Presidential Selection Advisory is more structured, which inevitably places limitations Committee (PSAC), who will make the key preliminary on what a president can do. decisions, the final choice being up to the Board of Trustees. HAAK: Unlike a typical corporation, the university is We asked each of the committee members to respond a professional organization with its own customs and to six questions in the hope of discovering the approach which traditions. they will bring to the task. We reached eleven of the thirteen SIMON: Business and academia are very different (Chancellor Reynolds and Trustee Lansdale being the excep­ environments. In a corporation, the profit margin is tions.) Of the eleven, two were reluctant to deal with the always the bottom line. On a campus, a lot of compet­ specific questions. Trustee Campbell felt that it was wisest to ing interests and philosophies have to be harmonized. bring no preconceptions to the selection process, so as to be BARNES: CEOs function in top-down organizations, able to focus an open mind on finding the sort of president where profit-making is essential. University presidents Fullerton needs. Trustee Vitti was concerned that members must work collegially. Their decision-making should of the Board should speak only for the Board,not as individu­ include the people most involved in and knowledge­ als. The remaining nine responded to the questions, which able about each topic. responses form the basis for what follows. BEDELL: My view of a CEO is that this person tends to Does a university president need skills and per­ keep the cards close to the chest. He/ she tends to be au­ sonal qualities different from those of a CEO of a thoritarian and may have a tendency to be a legend in corporation of comparable size? his or her own mind because these persons frequently Several respondents noted that a university presi­ have a need to be obeyed. On .the other hand, a dent needs academic qualifications and a background in university president will not survive personally or teaching, research and academic administration. Beyond professionally if challenges are threatening and taken that, WHITE said that the new president needs all the personally.

Selection Committee members Carol Barnes has been atCSUF since lor, he returned to the Fullerton 1975. She has been Coordinator of campus in 1986; he became chair of the Elementary Education Program, the campus Senate in 1988, and and has acted as Coordinator of Child was elected by it to serve on the Development. She was elected to PSAC. the statewide Senate in 1981, reelected in 1984 and 1987, and has Larry Labrado, elected by the staff Barnes been involved in numerous evalu­ to the PSAC, has been Coordinator Labrado ative activities for the Chancellor's of the Equal Opportunity Program Office. She was elected to the PSAC for 17 years. He has also served on by the Academic Senate. the Orange County Manpower Commission for 7 years. He has Jack Bedell joined the Sociology taken part in several searches for department here in 1969, later be­ administrators, both on campus coming its chair. He has served on and off. the CSU statewide Academic Sen­ ate,and wasChairofit1982-84. After Arnold Miller, Advisory Board two years as an acting Vice-Chancel- representative on the PSAC, earned Bedell Miller Senate Forum • 17 Will gender or ethnic background playa signifi- . ethnic concerns, but I don't think we should deliber­ cant role in the selection of the new president? ately seek out a woman or minority candidate. Should they? MILLER: (spelling out that sex-blind, race-blind point of The most outspoken answer was also one of the view most completely) We should be looking for the best briefest: person to deal with the total scope of the job ... The SHULTZ: They should. I don't know whether they search should not focus on any given trait or traits, but will. rather consider the total personality and background of· HAAK: (perhaps leaning in this direction) Certainlyaf­ the candidate - evaluate each as a totality. The new firmative action considerations should be considered president should be sensitive to the diversity and scope significantly in this, as well as in all other administra­ of our student body. tive and faculty appointments. If you could direct the new president to give pri­ But affirmative action may just mean non-discrimi­ ority to one or two problems or areas of develop­ nation: ment, what would they be? BARNES: Clearly we will adhere to all Affirmative The off-campus members - HAAK and HAMP­ Action policies. We must ensure that women and TON - understandably said they would be learning about minority candidates receive the same consideration as this in meetings of the PSAC. Two of the three elected faculty white males. We should pick the best candidate, re­ representatives said almost identical things: gardless of gender or ethnic background. SHULTZ: 1. Student retention: the new president will HAMPTON: There is no doubt that being a woman or have to address the changing demographics of Orange an ethnic minority can be a handicap. The Board of County. 2. Recruitment and retention of a quality Trustees is committed to Affirmative Action - which in faculty. Local living costs may be the greatest obstacle this instance means a commitment to ensuring equality to achieving this. of opportunity. The overarching criterion must be the BARNES: 1. Recruitment, retention and education of needs of the Fullerton campus. an ethnically diverse student body. We should make BEDELL: Gender and ethnic background playa sig­ excellence in teaching our central concern. 2. We need nificant role in being sure that the pool of candidates is to recruit and retain a first-class faculty; the evidence of as diverse, broad and representative as possible. We the coming teacher shortage is only too clear. BARNES must get the best person for the job, selecting from the slipped in a third priority: increasing the amount of non -state most representative pool possible. money we raise, a cause endorsed by BEDELL. Others dealt with this topic briskly: BEDELL: If we are going to achieve excellence and LABRADO, WHITE: No - and No. even continue to do well what we do, we must develop SIMON: I hope the new president will be sensitive to alternative sources of funding. BEDELL also mentioned

a PhD. in Physical Chemistry from to the PSAC by the Academic UCLA. A Registered Professional Senate. Engineer in California, he has published over 60 papers, mono­ Jim Simon, the student represen­ graphs and patents. He joined the tative on the PSAC, is also the Xerox Corporation in 1973, becom­ current President of the Associ­ ing President of their Electronics ated Students. A 22 year old busi­ Division and a Vice President of ness major, he hopes in the near the corporation. He is now Presi­ future for a career in property Shultz dent of the Technology Strategy development, with either law or White Group. politics as more distant goals. He has been involved in two other Harris Shultz (Mathematics) came searches on the campus. to CSUF in 1970. He has published extensively in professional jour­ Royleen White, who represents nals, and has been deeply involved the alumni on the PSAC, got a B.A. in the mathematics education re­ from Fullerton in 1969, and a form movement. He directs the master's degree in Public Admini­ Honors Program. In 1989 he was stration in 1980. She taught high chosen for the CSU's Outstanding school for one year. She is now Professor award. He was elected Director of Administrative Serv- Simon Campbell

18 • Senate Forum the importance of good teaching, insisting that the research PSAC discussions. HAMPTON added that the right candi­ vs. teaching argument was a false debate which should be date will be the one who can maintain the momentum which put to bed. Fullerton has already generated. MILLER: The new president should be concerned with SIMON: We need someone who can identify with a innovative ways of teaching, and must also balance th.e large commuter campus. Someone whose academic demands of teaching and research within the construct experience was at a small liberal arts college might be at of the CSU... address the strategies necessary to meet quite a disadvantage here. the major faculty recruiting and restructuring chal­ The remaining four respondents all referred to that lenge faced by CSUF in the 90' s. mysterious artifact, the 'Fullerton Way.' SIMON: I believe the next 10 years will be crucial for MILLER: The new president should understand the CSUF. Students care about this; it determines the value 'Fullerton Way' - a methodology whereby senior of their diploma. Are we going to try for national administrators and faculty develop approaches and recognition, or be content with being a locally based their implementation in a collegial fashion. college? Also we need to decide whether or not we are LABRADO: The new president will need to be a team going to be fully committed to our athletic program. player, comfortable with the 'Fuller~on Way.' The selection procedures require that candidates BARNES: We want someone who is enthusiastic, ex­ be evaluated in terms of their "appropriateness cited about the 'Fullerton Way', which involves heavy for the campus," What do you think is"appropri­ faculty participation in governance. ate" at Fullerton? BEDELL: 'Appropriate' at Fullerton means depending WHITE, SHULTZ, HAAK and HAMPTON indicated that on trust, listening and bemg devoted to the 'Fullerton in general, they hoped that this would emerge in the course of Way.' This means cherishing and advocating consulta- ices for the city of Tustin, and also works as a consultant. In Marianthi Lansdale holds the title of Vice President in the both capacities, she has engaged in talent searches. Marina Pacific Oil Company. She has been involved in many civic Off-campus representatives activities, mainly in the Long Beach and Palm Springs areas, and was w. Denny Campbell earned his JD. at U.S.c., and has been named to the CSU Board of Trus­ .a member of the California State Bar Association since 1963. tees in 1985. She currently chairs A Director of several companies, he has been on the Board of the Board, and is thus an ex officio Trustees since 1987 and is currently its Vice-Chair. He serves member of the PSAC. as Chair of the PSAC. W. Anne Reynolds has a PhD. in Harold Haak earned a Ph.D. in po­ zoology from the University of Lansdale liticalscience at Princeton. He taught Iowa, and has published exten­ at San Diego State for 7 years, then sively in developmental biology. becoming an administrator - a dean She taught at Ball State University at San Diego, AVP at Fresno State, and the University of Illinois be­ Chancellor atthe University of Colo­ fore becoming provost at Ohio rado/Denver, and (in 1980) Presi­ State. A member of numerous dent at CSU Fresno. He represents boards of directors and commis­ the presidents on the PSAC. sions, she was appointed Chancel­ lor of the CSU in 1982, a position Claudia Hampton has been a mem­ which places her on all presidential Haak ber of the Board of Trustees for 15 search committees. Reynolds years, during which time she has been part of several presidential AnthonyVittiholdsaJD.fromthe searches. She is also a member of San Fernando College of Law, prac­ CPEe. She earned her doctorate at ticed as an attorney from 1970 to USC, and is Director of the Human 1981. He then went into banking and Community Relations Resource and real estate development, pres­ Office of the Los Angeles City Uni­ ently being president and sole fied School District. shareholderin Vitti Enterprises. He was appointed to the Board of Trustees in 1989. Hampton Vitti

Senate Forum • 19 ...

tion, respect and active listening. the guts, even if it means career loss, because in the end Is it appropriate for a university president to criti­ those who honor principles are rewarded. cize publicly the Governor or the Legislature or Some leaders operate by building consensus and the Board of Trustees if he/she feels that they compromises, others by being strongwilled, dy­ have adopted policies which are damaging to th~ namic, and forceful. Which type comes nearest to university? describing the person you will be looking for? This qllestion produced the widest range of dis­ No one opted for the dynamic and forceful type. The, agreement among the panel members. division between those who saw attractions in both sets of HAAK: As a current president I find this question too characteristics, and those who made the need for building loaded and fraught with ambiguity for me to give a compromise and consensus the fundamental requisite. reasonable answer. Our processes certainly include SHULTZ: One needs combination of the two. abundant opportunities for us to make, in a public HAMPTON: A blend of both. Some occasions require fashion, the best cases for our campuses consensus-building, while others demand more force­ Voices of caution : ful, immediate decisions. One can have a dynamic LABRADO: To do this would be politically unwise, approach to consensus building. . and I doubt whether a president who acted in such a MILLER: It is not an either / or proposition. A leader way would last very long. Constructive criticisms are has to be innovative and lead if he is to succeed. If he best made privately. tries to implement his ideas alone, without gaining the HAMPTON: I certainly would not advise it! Todothis support of the faculty and other senior administrators, is impractical, and rarely serves the interests of the he will fail. institution well. Generally speaking, everyone involved SIMON: Future policy needs to be based on a consen­ wants what is best. Their perceptions of what that is sus, which has been generally successful in the past. may vary, and reasoned, rational dialog through the Yet a dynamic leader could give us a real boost. We normal organizational channels is the best way of re­ need to set our sights higher, and this calls for a vision­ solving such differences. ary rather than a manager. Middle positions: More forthright endorsements for consensus-build-. SHULTZ: A president should feel free to speak on ing: issues which relate to the university. WHITE: Any successful leader has to build consensus. WHITE: The new president will be working in a politi­ This is especially true in a university, where there is less cal arena. The 'official' answer to this question is of a heirarchy then there i.l' in many other kinds of probably negative, but in practice I think the president organizations. should be free to speak out provided that doing so does LABRADO: We need someone to build consensus. not risk bringing bad consequences down on the cam­ BARNES: We should prefer consensus and compro­ pus. mise. Those affected by a decision should always be BARNES: A president first should try a 'honey' rather involved in making it - and this means a genuine than a 'vinegar' approach. However, he/she has a gathering of input, not a pretense of consultation. responsibility to speak out forcefully to educate the However, ultimately we need decisiveness and dyna­ legislature, the trustees and the public about our needs. mism. If the situation becomes grave and the quality of our BEDELL: The answer to this question is obvious. This students' education is threatened, a president has a campus is built on consensus and compromise. You moral and ethical obligation to criticize publicly. can also be a dynamic and forceful consensus-builder, MILLER: A president needs to have good working and I would hope we will get a hard working, charis­ relationships with the Governor, the legislature and the matic person who respects and is respected by all Board. However, there are circumstances where it may members of our academic community. well be constructive and appropriate for the university HAAK: In my opinion, the current leadership litera­ president to be openly and publicly critical of adopted ture, with its emphases on 'vision' and 'transforma­ policies. tions,' needs to be downplayed. I doubt that your . Unqualified claims for independence: campus needs or would benefit from an Old Testament SIMON: Yes. The president represents several con­ prophet or a captain of industry in your presidency. stituencies: students, faculty, staff, and administrators. The Forum thanks those members of the PSAC Each of these should feel confident that the president is who made this article possible. representing them. BEDELL: Absolutely. The new president will not be serving anybody,' including the Governor and the Legislature andtheBoard of Trustees, if he/ she sits still while the university is damaged. The students and employees deserve better, and the president must have

20 • Senate Forum