Sects and Violence: Development of an inclusive taxonomy to hermeneutically explore the histo-philosophical motivators for the inception and development of the martial art, Wing Chun Kuen. S. R. Buckler Submitted for the award of Ph.D. 2010 Part One: The Past Abstract Martial arts participation rates exceed those reported for a number of higher- profile physical activities (Sport England, 2002), however little research has been conducted to investigate the purported motivation and benefits participants derive (e.g. Jones, McKay and Peters, 2006; Ko, Kim and Valacich, 2010). A specific area often discussed is the notion of personal growth (Ko et al., 2010), either through a form of psychotherapy (e.g. Monahan, 2007), extenuating what may be deemed positive personality attributes (e.g. Kurian, Caterion and Kulhavy, 1993), lowering depression (e.g. Bodin and Martinsen, 2004), reducing aggression (e.g. Twemlow, Sacco and Fonagy, 2008) or reducing stress (e.g. Yan and Downing, 1998). Such personal growth is deemed to be transformatory in nature (e.g. Lancaster, 2004; Luskin, 2004; Hartelius, Caplan and Rardin, 2007). Due to issues of generalisability within martial arts research (e.g. Jones et al., 2006), one style which has lacked a tradition of academic research has been selected for a case study. Wing Chun is a unique style, developing exponentially over the past forty years: a style which retains its fighting heritage, utilising exclusive training methods (e.g. Rawcliffe, 2003). Given the pragmatic nature of Wing Chun, an hermeneutic approach has been adopted to investigate the histo-philosophical motivation for the inception of the style to provide a context from which to explore current participant motivation. Initially, an inclusive theoretical taxonomy has been developed for subsequent analysis. This hermeneutic analysis has been conducted through the development of a 360 degree mixed-methodological approach (e.g. Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2008) utilising exploratory and explanatory stages (e.g. Creswell and Plano-Clark, 2007) to ascertain the validity of the taxonomy. Findings are subsequently discussed in relation to the mixed-methodological approach. From the taxonomy, a proposal is that an inherent link exists between the development of a better fighter and a better person while implying that the martial arts are a person-centred transformatory practice. CONTENTS PART ONE Title Page Chapter One Introduction 16 Chapter Two Chinese Martial Arts 64 Chapter Three An Inclusive Taxonomy of Combat Systems 106 Chapter Four Case Study of Wing Chun 125 Chapter Five Martial Arts Participation 189 PART TWO Title Page Chapter Six Research Methodology 215 Chapter Seven Research Phases 244 Chapter Eight Discussion and Implications 337 References 372 PART THREE Title Appendices Appendix I to XI 415 Note: All Americanisms have been converted to the English equivalent within direct quotes (e.g. actualization has been changed to actualisation, etc.) for ease of reading. Additionally, the use of Taoism, Tao, Taoist opposed to Daoism, Dao, Daoist, etc. has been used throughout due to their more familiar nature. LIST OF FIGURES Title Page Figure 1.1 The Chinese character ‘Wu’ (upper character) 20 and the Chinese character ‘Shu’ (lower character) Figure 3.1 Taxonomy of combat systems 121 Figure 4.1 Wing Chun lineage 134 Figure 4.2 A simplistic demonstration of the shared 137 foundation between the Tiandihui and Wing Chun Figure 4.3 Structure of the Triad organisation (adapted 139 from O’Callaghan, 1978:29-31). Figure 4.4 Possible locations of the Southern Shaolin 145 Temple Figure 4.5 Possible connection between Cantonese Opera, 172 Wing Chun and Secret Societies Figure 6.1 The 360 degree mixed method approach 241 Figure 6.2 The 360 degree mixed method approach applied 243 to the thesis Figure 8.1 A philosophical justification for the inception of 340 a martial or civilian combat style Figure 8.2 A transformation within the combat style 345 culminating in training for a safety, sport or spiritual emphasis Figure 8.3 The culmination of the taxonomy leading to a 351 better fighter or a better person Figure 8.4 The explicit link between a better fighter and a 361 better person LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS Title Page Photo 4.1 Han Dynasty Figurines (from the Lanshi tomb) 157 depicting Cantonese Opera postures Photo 4.2a-d Full scale indoor version of the Foshan 158 Guildhall Photo 4.3 Red Boat painted by Mr. Kenny K.C. Chan 160 Photo 4.4a Red Boat model 160 Photo 4.4b Red Boat model Hong Kong Heritage Museum 161 Photo 4.5 Master Huagudang 165 Photo 4.6 Wooden Dummy 170 Photo 4.7 Baat Chaam Dao as demonstrated by 171 Grandmaster Yip Chun LIST OF TABLES Title Page Table 1.1 Wing Chun training elements (adapted from 28 Rawcliffe, 2010:online) Table 2.1 Comparison of Western and Eastern martial 99 philosophies Table 3.1 Draeger’s classification of fighting systems 110 (Donohue and Taylor, 1994:22) Table 3.2 Armstrong’s classification system (adapted 113 from Donohue and Taylor, 1994: 23-24) Table 3.3 Reid and Croucher’s classification system 115 Table 3.4 Maliszewski’s tripartite classification system 116 Table 3.5 Summary of the strengths and limitations of 118 different classification systems Table 3.6 New classification system 120 Table 4.1 Key Wing Chun lineages (adapted from Chu et 133 al., 1998) Table 4.2 A Summary of The Seven Chinese Versions of 143 the Xi Lu Legend (adapted from Murray, 1994, pp.197-227) Table 6.1 Paradigm differences (adapted from Creswell 222 and Plano-Clark, 2007:22-23) Table 6.2 Seven purposes for mixed methods research 235 (Adapted from Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2008:103, Table 7.1) Title Page Table 7.1 Table 7.1: Mann-Whitney U-Test analysing training 263 motivators against gender for an international martial arts sample and an international Wing Chun sample. Table 7.2 Table 7.2: Kruskal-Wallis Test analysing training 266 motivators against time in training (quartiles) for a) an international martial arts sample, and b) an international Wing Chun sample. Table 7.3 Table 7.3: Multivariate tests demonstrating main and 274 interaction effects. Table 7.4 Table 7.4: Tests of between-subjects effects for 275 significant dependent variables. Table 7.5 Table 7.5: Comparison of group means for 276 significant dependent variables. Table 7.6 Table 7.6: Mann-Whitney U-Test analysing training 287 motivators against gender for a Wing Chun Association sample. Table 7.7 Table 7.7: Kruskal-Wallis Test analysing training 289 motivators against time in training (quartiles) for a Wing Chun Association sample. Table 7.8 Table 7.8: Multivariate tests demonstrating main and 292 interaction effects. Table 7.9 Table 7.9: Tests of between-subjects effects for 293 significant dependent variables. Table 7.10 Table 7.10: Comparison of group means for 294 significant dependent variables. Table 8.1 ‘Better fighter’ and ‘better person’ philosophical 352 orientations APPENDICES Appendix Title Page APPENDIX I: Combat Survey (online questionnaire from iii www.combatsurvey.com) APPENDIX II: Wing Chun Survey (online questionnaire from xvii www.wingchunsurvey.com) APPENDIX III: Ethical considerations for participants (from xxx both online surveys) APPENDIX IV: Statistical Analyses 1 to 8 xxxii APPENDIX V: Verbal introduction to Wing Chun Questionnaire xxxiv APPENDIX VI: Wing Chun Questionnaire (questionnaire xxxvi distributed to the Wing Chun Association) APPENDIX VII: An eleven stage process for content analysis xlvii (adapted from Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007) APPENDIX Wing Chun philosophy content analysis xliv VIII: APPENDIX IX: Instructor interview schedule liii APPENDIX X: Instructor interview ethical permission form lv APPENDIX XI: Instructor interview transcriptions lviii Acknowledgments I have eventually come to realise that a Ph.D. is a process...not a product. I have developed as a result of the interactions with many people who have helped this journey. To this extent, I would specifically like to acknowledge the support from a range of people. First and foremost, my supervisory team, Dr. Paul Castle and Dr. Derek Peters. Indeed, if it was not for Paul, my Director of Studies, and the outstanding contribution and support in the final stages, this thesis would not have come to fruition. It has been an honour to work with such a committed academic and friend... a true academic ‗Kung Fu‘ master who has kept me on my toes! Thank you! Within the martial arts For their insight, support and access, I would like to express my upmost thanks to Si Gung Shaun Rawcliffe, Sifu Steve Woodward and Sifu David Ackroyd- Jones (Midlands Wing Chun Kuen, UK). They have opened the world to Wing Chun for me and have selflessly shared their knowledge to promote Wing Chun in the purest sense. I would also like to express my thanks to my Wing Chun brothers and sisters, specifically Simon Moore, Kevin Carr, Richard Biggs and Genea Rawcliffe, whose insights, discussion and friendship have contributed in so many ways on this path. Such friendship, discussion and instruction have similarly been shared by numerous martial artists along the path: from the Filipino Martial Arts, Punong Guro Peter Lewis (international School of Filipino Martial Arts, Worcester), who has developed my perspective externally to the Chinese martial arts, and Shifu Catherine Hyde (Tai Ji Quan Dao, Worcester) who has broadened my perspective on Chinese Martial Arts and Qigong. Finally Sensei Dave Ritchie (Bujinkai Karate, Exmouth) where the journey began in 1981. There are numerous instructors and students who have similarly shared their friendship and knowledge over the years, too numerous to list here but an honour to have known. Within academia For the many hours of wondering why we are engaged on the Ph.D. process, my thanks must be expressed to my colleague and friend Wendy Messenger.