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Lewis, FL; Et. Al. “Robotics” Mechanical Engineering Lewis, F.L.; et. al. “Robotics” Mechanical Engineering Handbook Ed. Frank Kreith Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999 c 1999byCRCPressLLC Robotics Frank L. Lewis 14.1Introduction....................................................................14-2 University of Texas at Arlington 14.2Commercial Robot Manipulators...................................14-3 Commercial Robot Manipulators • Commercial Robot John M. Fitzgerald Controllers University of Texas at Arlington 14.3Robot Configurations...................................................14-15 Ian D. Walker Fundamentals and Design Issues • Manipulator Kinematics • Summary Rice University 14.4End Effectors and Tooling...........................................14-24 Mark R. Cutkosky A Taxonomy of Common End Effectors • End Effector Design Stanford University Issues • Summary Kok-Meng Lee 14.5Sensors and Actuators..................................................14-33 Tactile and Proximity Sensors • Force Sensors • Vision • Georgia Tech Actuators Ron Bailey 14.6Robot Programming Languages..................................14-48 University of Texas at Arlington Robot Control • System Control • Structures and Logic • Special Functions • Program Execution • Example Program • Frank L. Lewis Off-Line Programming and Simulation University of Texas at Arlington 14.7Robot Dynamics and Control......................................14-51 Chen Zhou Robot Dynamics and Properties • State Variable Representations and Computer Simulation • Cartesian Georgia Tech Dynamics and Actuator Dynamics • Computed-Torque (CT) John W. Priest Control and Feedback Linearization • Adaptive and Robust Control • Learning Control • Control of Flexible-Link and University of Texas at Arlington Flexible-Joint Robots • Force Control • Teleoperation G. T. Stevens, Jr. 14.8Planning and Intelligent Control..................................14-69 University of Texas at Arlington Path Planning • Error Detection and Recovery • Two-Arm Coordination • Workcell Control • Planning and Artifical John M. Fitzgerald Intelligence • Man-Machine Interface University of Texas at Arlington 14.9Design of Robotic Systems..........................................14-77 Kai Liu Workcell Design and Layout • Part-Feeding and Transfers University of Texas at Arlington 14.10Robot Manufacturing Applications..............................14-84 Product Design for Robot Automation • Economic Analysis • Assembly 14.11Industrial Material Handling and Process Applications of Robots...........................................................................14-90 Implementation of Manufacturing Process Robots • Industrial Applications of Process Robots 14.12Mobile, Flexible-Link, and Parallel-Link Robots.....14-102 Mobile Robots • Flexible-Link Robot Manipulators • Parallel- Link Robots © 1999 by CRC Press LLC 14-1 14-2 Section 14 14.1Introduction The word “robot” was introduced by the Czech playright Karel Capekˇ in his 1920 play Rossum’s Universal Robots. The word “robota” in Czech means simply “work.” In spite of such practical begin- nings, science fiction writers and early Hollywood movies have given us a romantic notion of robots. Thus, in the 1960s robots held out great promises for miraculously revolutionizing industry overnight. In fact, many of the more far-fetched expectations from robots have failed to materialize. For instance, in underwater assembly and oil mining, teleoperated robots are very difficult to manipulate and have largely been replaced or augmented by “smart” quick-fit couplings that simplify the assembly task. However, through good design practices and painstaking attention to detail, engineers have succeeded in applying robotic systems to a wide variety of industrial and manufacturing situations where the environment is structured or predictable. Today, through developments in computers and artificial intel- ligence techniques and often motivated by the space program, we are on the verge of another breakthrough in robotics that will afford some levels of autonomy in unstructured environments. On a practical level, robots are distinguished from other electromechanical motion equipment by their dexterous manipulation capability in that robots can work, position, and move tools and other objects with far greater dexterity than other machines found in the factory. Process robot systems are functional components with grippers, end effectors, sensors, and process equipment organized to perform a con- trolled sequence of tasks to execute a process — they require sophisticated control systems. The first successful commercial implementation of process robotics was in the U.S. automobile industry. The word “automation” was coined in the 1940s at Ford Motor Company, as a contraction of “automatic motivation.” By 1985 thousands of spot welding, machine loading, and material handling applications were working reliably. It is no longer possible to mass produce automobiles while meeting currently accepted quality and cost levels without using robots. By the beginning of 1995 there were over 25,000 robots in use in the U.S. automobile industry. More are applied to spot welding than any other process. For all applications and industries, the world’s stock of robots is expected to exceed 1,000,000 units by 1999. The single most important factor in robot technology development to date has been the use of microprocessor-based control. By 1975 microprocessor controllers for robots made programming and executing coordinated motion of complex multiple degrees-of-freedom (DOF) robots practical and reliable. The robot industry experienced rapid growth and humans were replaced in several manufacturing processes requiring tool and/or workpiece manipulation. As a result the immediate and cumulative dangers of exposure of workers to manipulation-related hazards once accepted as necessary costs have been removed. A distinguishing feature of robotics is its multidisciplinary nature — to successfully design robotic systems one must have a grasp of electrical, mechanical, industrial, and computer engineering, as well as economics and business practices. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a background in all these areas so that design for robotic applications may be confronted from a position of insight and confidence. The material covered here falls into two broad areas: function and analysis of the single robot, and design and analysis of robot-based systems and workcells. Section 14.2 presents the available configurations of commercial robot manipulators, with Section 14.3 providing a follow-on in mathematical terms of basic robot geometric issues. The next four sections provide particulars in end-effectors and tooling, sensors and actuators, robot programming languages, and dynamics and real-time control. Section 14.8 deals with planning and intelligent control. The next three sections cover the design of robotic systems for manufacturing and material handling. Specifically, Section 14.9 covers workcell layout and part feeding, Section 14.10 covers product design and economic analysis, and Section 14.11 deals with manufacturing and industrial processes. The final section deals with some special classes of robots including mobile robots, lightweight flexible arms, and the versatile parallel-link arms including the Stewart platform. © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Robotics 14-3 14.2 Commercial Robot Manipulators John M. Fitzgerald In the most active segments of the robot market, some end-users now buy robots in such large quantities (occasionally a single customer will order hundreds of robots at a time) that market prices are determined primarily by configuration and size category, not by brand. The robot has in this way become like an economic commodity. In just 30 years, the core industrial robotics industry has reached an important level of maturity, which is evidenced by consolidation and recent growth of robot companies. Robots are highly reliable, dependable, and technologically advanced factory equipment. There is a sound body of practical knowledge derived from a large and successful installed base. A strong foundation of theoretical robotics engineering knowledge promises to support continued technical growth. The majority of the world’s robots are supplied by established stable companies using well-established off-the-shelf component technologies. All commercial industrial robots have two physically separate basic elements: the manipulator arm and the controller. The basic architecture of all commercial robots is fundamentally the same. Among the major suppliers the vast majority of industrial robots uses digital servo-controlled electrical motor drives. All are serial link kinematic machines with no more than six axes (degrees of freedom). All are supplied with a proprietary controller. Virtually all robot applications require significant effort of trained skilled engineers and technicians to design and implement them. What makes each robot unique is how the components are put together to achieve performance that yields a competitive product. Clever design refinements compete for applications by pushing existing performance envelopes, or sometimes creating new ones. The most important considerations in the application of an industrial robot center on two issues: Manipulation and Integration. Commercial Robot Manipulators Manipulator Performance Characteristics The combined effects of kinematic structure, axis drive mechanism design, and real-time motion control determine the major manipulation performance characteristics: reach and dexterity, payload, quickness,
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