Review of Life Cycle Impacts of Wcs

Review of Life Cycle Impacts of WCs

A report completed for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs by Environmental Resources Management (ERM) Ltd.

April 2009

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Published by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

Review of Life Cycle Impacts of WCs

Final Report to the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs

April 2009

Suggested citation for this report:

Gandy, S., Smith, S., Paton, W., and Aumônier, S. (2009). Review of Life Cycle Impacts of WCs. ERM. Defra, London.

This research was commissioned and funded by Defra. The views expressed reflect the research findings and the authors’ interpretation; they do not necessarily reflect Defra policy or opinions.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary ...... i Objectives and Methodology ...... i Market Analysis ...... i Environmental Impacts Across the Life Cycle Stages ...... ii Social Impacts ...... iii Data Gaps ...... iii Intervention Analysis ...... iv Acknowledgements ...... v 2 Introduction ...... 1 About the Study ...... 1 Project Aims ...... 1 Scope ...... 1 Project Approach ...... 2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) ...... 2 3 Market Trends ...... 4 Introduction...... 4 Current Market Situation ...... 4 Future Market Trends ...... 6 Valves and Flushes ...... 6 4 Production and Waste Management ...... 8 Introduction...... 8 Production of WCs ...... 8 Treatment of WCs at End of Life ...... 9 5 Water Treatment ...... 10 Introduction...... 10 Treatment of Water for Domestic Supply ...... 10 Treatment of WC Wastewater ...... 10 Sewage Sludge Disposal ...... 11 6 Transport ...... 13 Raw Material Extraction ...... 13 WC Manufacture ...... 13 End of life ...... 13 7 Social Impacts ...... 14 Introduction...... 14 Production and Manufacture ...... 14 Waste Management ...... 14 8 Data Gap Analysis ...... 15 Introduction...... 15 Life Cycle Stages ...... 15 Geographic Scope ...... 15 Other Aspects ...... 16 9 Comparative Analysis ...... 17 Introduction...... 17 Life Cycle Assessment of WCs ...... 17 Key Findings...... 18 Ambient Heat Loss Studies ...... 21 Other Factors ...... 23

10 Intervention Analysis ...... 24 Introduction...... 24 Review of Existing Interventions ...... 24 Recommendations for Future Interventions ...... 27 Implications of Interventions ...... 31 11 Conclusions ...... 33 Market Analysis ...... 33 Environmental Impacts Across the Life Cycle Stages ...... 33 Social Impacts ...... 34 Data Gaps ...... 34 Intervention Analysis ...... 35

Glossary

ASP Activated Sludge Processing BERR (Department for) Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform BMA Bathroom Manufacturers’ Association BRE Building Research Establishment BOD Biological Oxygen Demand CDEW Construction, Demolition and Excavation Waste

CO2 eq Carbon Dioxide equivalents (the standard unit for measuring GWP) COD Chemical Oxygen Demand CSH Code for Sustainable Homes Defra Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs DIY Do It Yourself EA The Environment Agency ERM Environmental Resources Management Ltd EU European Union GHG Greenhouse Gas GWh Gigawatt hour GWP Global Warming Potential HWRC Household Waste Recycling Centre ISO International Standards Organisation kWh Kilowatt hour LCA Life Cycle Assessment MDF Medium Density Fibreboard Ml Megalitre MTP The Market Transformation Programme OFWAT The Water Services Regulation Authority SCP Sustainable Consumption and Production SWMP Site Waste Management Plan ULF Ultra-Low Flush WC Water Closet WRc WRc Plc Consultancy

Executive Summary

Introduction

1.1 Defra commissioned this report to review and bring together evidence of the environmental and social impacts of WCs across their lifecycles. The review extended to look at policy interventions in existence which affect WCs and to make further recommendations for improving sustainability performance. Objectives and Methodology

1.2 The specific aims of this project were as follows: • to identify and quantify (where possible) the environmental and social impacts across the life cycle of WC manufacture, transport, use, and disposal, based on existing evidence; • to assess the robustness and fitness for purpose of the identified data; • to identify gaps in the available evidence; • to make recommendations on further research required on life cycle impacts of WCs; • to identify existing EU, UK and international interventions which are aimed at improving the environmental performance of WCs; and • to make recommendations on interventions to maximise improvement of the sustainability performance of WCs in the UK. 1.3 A life cycle approach was adopted to collect evidence and to identify the environmental and social impacts of WCs in the UK. 1.4 The project investigated the environmental impacts associated with the production, use and disposal of WCs. In the context of this project, a WC is defined as the cistern, bowl and plastic/metal attachments used to connect to the plumbing supply, as defined by the European standard for WCs, BS EN 997:2003 (WC pans and WC suites with integral tap). Market Analysis

1.5 The market analysis revealed that sanitaryware for the UK market is split between domestically produced and imported products. Trends in purchases are moving towards more water efficient cisterns, which are frequently concealed (and are therefore plastic rather than ceramic). 1.6 WC lifetimes appear to be decreasing, with the MTP revising its estimation from 18 years to 15 years, and other sources using 10 years.

Environmental Impacts Across the Life Cycle Stages

1.7 Separate chapters are dedicated to the production and waste management of WCs, water treatment and transport, and the information gathered is brought together in the comparative analysis. This section assesses the relative contribution to the overall environmental impacts from the production and waste management of WCs compared to the impacts during use (which predominantly arise from water treatment). A number of conclusions can be drawn from the first part of the analysis, which ignores heat loss effects: • The impacts associated with the use phase outweigh those of the production and disposal phases for nearly all the environmental indicators used. The impacts of water and sewage treatment are generally equally significant, with the exception of eutrophication impacts , which are significantly higher for sewage treatment. Of the other phases, the production of the ceramic material is the most important. • A typical WC (with no leakages) currently uses about 267m3 of water over its lifetime. Reducing flush volumes has the potential to reduce significantly the overall environmental impacts of a WC. • The production of the ceramic materials makes a noticeable contribution to the overall environmental impact across the WC life cycle, which has a bearing upon the net benefits of the replacement of an existing WC with a lower flush volume WC. 1.8 Additional work investigated ambient heat losses associated with flushing WCs indoors. These heat losses arise as incoming mains water, at a relatively low temperature, is brought up to the room’s ambient temperature before being flushed away. (For a more detailed description of the methodology and modelling results, please refer to Annex E – Modelling of Heat Loss.) The heat lost from the room to the water is compensated by the room’s heating system. 1.9 The study indicated that these ambient heat loss effects dominate the other life cycle impacts, as discussed in 1.7). For a scenario where expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation is used to lag the cistern (reducing heat losses), and the central heating runs for four months per year, the share of impacts between stages is presented in Figure 1. 1.10 In the particular instance plotted, heat loss effects account for 96% of the environmental impacts of WCs across their life cycle. Annex E provides further details of alternative scenarios, but the most conservative still assigns 80% of impacts to heat loss. Any intervention that reduces water use will also reduce heat losses, as there will be less water to adsorb the energy.

Figure 1 Share of Impacts Across the Life Cycle of a WC1

Production and Disposal Phases Ceramic for WC Other Materials Distribution Water treatment Heat Loss WC detergent usage Sewage treatment

Use Disposal Phase

Social Impacts

1.11 There was little evidence of significant social impacts across the life cycle of WCs. The main area of possible concern is the labour conditions in the Far East, where a sizeable proportion of UK sanitaryware is manufactured. Data Gaps

1.12 An extensive review of data (and, by extension, data gaps) was performed. The most significant gaps were identified to be as follows: • Life Cycle Studies. No studies of WCs have been completed; studies tend to focus on the use phase, and do not consider heat losses from flushing. • Producer Countries. Literature relating to the production of WCs in the countries which are major suppliers of sanitaryware to the UK is limited to pre-2000 studies. Considering the global expansion of production, it is reasonable to assume that the current status has altered since then. • Social and Health Impacts. The majority of information on social and health impacts in relation to the manufacture of ceramics is based on EU countries. Although these impacts are transferable to any context where vitreous china is produced, working conditions will be different in other countries.

1 For each of ten parameters (abiotic depletion, acidification, eutrophication, global warming potential, ozone layer depletion, human toxicity, freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity, marine aquatic ecotoxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity and photochemical oxidation), the relative share of the total environmental impact across the life cycle of WCs was derived from modelling. The diagram depicts the overall averages of those shares, with equal weighting applied to all parameters.

iii

• WC Specific Information. Much of the literature available does not relate specifically to WCs, but to other products or general material groups which limited the transferability of the information to this study. Intervention Analysis

1.13 The use phase is identified as the most important part of the life cycle of WCs. It follows that the most effective interventions are likely to reduce the impacts from the use phase. Reducing heat loss is mentioned below, but the most obvious opportunities arise from reducing the flush volume. Reducing Flush Volume

1.14 Increased uptake of cistern displacement devices, dual and variable flush retrofit devices and new low flush WC suites could be increased with better publicity of the availability of such devices and their potential to save water. 1.15 Increased levels of metering of domestic customers should increase interest in water efficiency. 1.16 It is expected that the revision of the Water Supply Regulations will consider the case for a reduction in maximum permitted flush volumes (currently 6 litres). Interventions at End of Life

1.17 Scrap WCs are a relatively good source of aggregate. Members of the public could be made more aware of the recycling opportunities for scrap WCs at their HWRCs, and traders could be offered free disposal for recyclable materials such as scrap WCs and other bathroom fixtures and fittings. 1.18 The Landfill Tax and Aggregates Levy encourage the recycling of CDEW, as do SWMPs and other policies and targets arising from Defra’s Waste Strategy for England 2007. It is suggested, therefore, that there are already sufficient incentives in place for the CDEW industry. Other Interventions

1.19 Rainwater and greywater harvesting systems provide means of reducing the burden of WCs on potable water supplies. However these systems are generally expensive to install. Additionally, any system that requires separate pumping of an alternative water supply is likely to see its environmental benefit severely reduced. 1.20 Heat losses during flushing have the most significant environmental impacts, so the addition of some form of insulation, for example, lagging of the WC cistern, would be one wayis well to reduce the environmental impacts of WCs. However, heat losses elsewhere in the house may be more significant.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are extended to the members of the project steering group:

• Bathroom Manufacturers’ Association; • Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform; • Building Research Establishment (BRE); • British Ceramic Federation; • British Water; • Elemental Solutions; • Environment Agency; • The High-Level Group on Sustainable Consumption and Production in Chemical Supply Chains; • Institute of Heating and Plumbing Engineering; • Society of British Water and Wastewater Industries; • Water UK; and • WRc.

2 Introduction

About the Study

2.1 Defra commissioned ERM to conduct a desk-based review of existing literature to determine the environmental and social impacts that occur in the life cycle of WCs, possible interventions and further recommendations for improving sustainability performance. There is little existing evidence (UK and international) on the sustainability of WCs; however, the data that are available have been collated and reviewed in this project. Project Aims

2.2 The specific aims of this project are to: • identify and quantify (where possible) the sustainability impacts (environmental and social) across the life cycle of WC manufacture, transport, use, and disposal, based on existing evidence; • assess the robustness and fitness for purpose of the identified data; • identify gaps in the available evidence; • make recommendations on further research required on life cycle impacts of WCs; • identify existing EU, UK and international interventions which are aimed at improving the environmental performance of WCs; and • make recommendations on interventions to maximise improvement of the sustainability performance of WCs in the UK. Scope

2.3 The project investigates the environmental impacts associated with the production, use and disposal of WCs. In the context of this project, a WC is defined as the cistern, bowl and plastic/ metal attachments used to connect to the plumbing supply, as defined by the European standard for WCs, BS EN 997:2003 (WC pans and WC suites with integral tap). 2.4 The WC bowl is constructed of vitreous china and the cistern is constructed of either plastic or vitreous china. Using information relating to the relative market share of vitreous china and plastic cisterns, a weighted mass of plastic and vitreous china has been calculated to define the relative material composition of one average WC (Ref 5).

2.5 The construction and maintenance of the water supply, drainage and sewage infrastructure are not considered within the scope of this project. 2.6 Water leakage from the water supply infrastructure is not considered within the scope of this project as it is not considered to be attributable to the production or operation of a WC. Project Approach

2.7 This report provides an evidence review on WCs, prior to considering further interventions for reducing the impact of WCs. 2.8 Information for this report was gathered through a desk-based review and did not involve direct stakeholder consultation. A steering group, made up of government, industry, regulatory bodies and research organisations was consulted on specific issues throughout the project. The steering group provided useful information in relation to the marketing, use and disposal of WCs in the UK, while highlighting the limited literature available with regard to the production of WCs outside of the EU. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

2.9 A life cycle approach was adopted to collect evidence and to identify the environmental and social impacts of WCs in the UK. 2.10 LCA is a technique for assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts occurring in all life cycle stages of a product or service system. The LCA method has been standardised by the International Standards Organisation (ISO) (Ref 31). • LCA is an established method for assessing the environmental impacts of products. LCA studies assess the potential environmental impacts throughout a product’s life, from raw material acquisition through production, use and disposal (Ref 26). • The life cycle perspective ensures that any emerging policies or interventions do not simply shift the environmental burden or the social impacts to another life cycle stage. • LCA is the most appropriate method to quantify the environmental impacts that occur in the supply chain of a product system. • Social impacts are more difficult to quantify than environmental impacts and therefore have not traditionally been included in LCA methods. However, this review also includes a qualitative consideration of the social impacts of WC manufacture and use. 2.11 The following stages were considered in the LCA of WCs:

• raw material extraction; • WC manufacture; • transport; • use; and • end of life waste management. 2.12 The diagram below shows the life cycle stages assessed. The arrows represent transport between stages, which is also included in the assessment. The treatment of water and sewage was also included, as well as energy production associated with heat lost with water on flushing. Figure 2.1 Life cycle stages of WC use

Sensitivity Primary Intervention Analysis Research Analysis

Water Heat Production Treatment

Raw Material Final Extraction Manufacture Use Market Disposal WM TTrendsrends Trends + Loss of Heat

Raw Material Packaging Sewage Extraction Manufacture Treatment System Boundary

Environmental Social Impacts Impacts

3 Market Trends

Introduction

3.1 The market trends for WCs in terms of design, purchasing habits and water efficiency, as well as other factors, are important to understand in terms of the implications that they may have on future design and possible interventions. Current Market Situation

3.2 Figure 3.1 shows that just under 18% of total the UK sanitaryware production is exported, while UK-produced sanitaryware products account for almost 40% of the UK sanitaryware market (Ref 5) (Ref 59). Figure 3.1 UK Production and Consumption of Sanitaryware (2007)

10% 1% 18%

11% 39%

17%

82% 22% UK Asia & Oceania

Ex por ted Domes tic market European Union Middle East & Northern Africa (excl EU) Western Europe Other (excl EU)

Total UK Production = 118M pieces Total UK Consumption = 248M pieces

N.B. The geographic location categories are taken from those identified by HM Customs and Excise (ref 59). For a full list of which countries are included in each category please refer to http://www.uktradeinfo.com/index.cfm.

Ceramic Imports

3.3 Of the sanitaryware imports to the UK (see Figure 3.2), a significant proportion (36%) come from Asia and the Pacific, the majority of which are manufactured in China, accounting for 21% of the total UK sanitaryware market (Ref 59). This includes ceramic sinks, wash basins, wash pedestals, baths, bidets, water closet pans, flushing cisterns, urinals and similar sanitary fixtures. No data exists for WCs as a separate type of sanitaryware.

Figure 3.2 Imports to the UK in 2007 2% 16%

Asia & Oceania 36% European Union

Middle East & Northern Africa (excl EU) 18% Western Europe (excl EU) Other

28%

Furniture Trend

3.4 Plastic cisterns, of both exposed and concealed design, currently comprise 30% of the market (Ref 5). Most exposed domestic cisterns are now ceramic, while concealed cisterns are usually plastic (Ref 6). There is a growing desire within the domestic market for concealed bathroom furniture (Ref 6). Water Efficiency

3.5 The Market Transformation Programme (Ref 33) reports that at least 70% of the domestic market is dual flush. This is supported by the BMA, who estimate that 90% to 95% of new WCs are 6/4l dual flush, and the remainder are other designs such as single (4.5l) or other dual flush (5/3l, 4/2.6l) (Ref 5). Existing properties (~26 million homes), could be flushing on 6+ litres, and as much as 13l, in older or unmodernised properties (Ref 33). 3.6 Approximately 1.5 million WCs are sold on the domestic market each year. In the commercial sector, 1 million pieces are sold in the sanitary market, although this figure also includes urinals (Ref 5). UK Point of Purchase

3.7 Private households tend to source WCs from bathroom retailers, builders’ merchants, house builders or DIY stores. DIY stores represent a significant outlet for WC purchase by private consumers. Anecdotal evidence from the BMA indicates that DIY stores capture 25% to 28% of the UK market (Ref 5). Lifetime and Replacement Frequency

3.8 The MTP reports that the average lifetime of a WC is 18 years (Ref 33), although this is being revised downwards this year and is now estimated at 15

years (Ref 58). In demand forecasts by South Staffordshire Water, a ten year replacement frequency is used (Ref 48). This frequency includes a factor for bathroom refurbishments driven by changes in fashion and house moves. For the purposes of this study, a WC lifetime of 15 years is assumed, in line with the revised MTP estimate. This means that most WCs will be disposed during the building’s lifetime, rather than during demolition. Future Market Trends

3.9 The future of WC design is directed towards lower water consumption (Ref 36). This is most obviously achieved through reduced flush volumes and developments in WC design. Improvements in aesthetic design will be important for low-flush WCs with volumes below the regulatory maximum, as the limited products currently available on the market are considered to restrict the consumers’ selection of these over more stylish, higher flush volume products (Ref 36). 3.10 Plastic and concealed cisterns are expected to become more prevalent (Ref 5). Valves and Flushes

Siphon and Drop Valve

3.11 Before January 2001, all domestic WCs in the UK had to use a siphon flush. When the handle is pulled, a piston lifts water to start a siphon, emptying the cistern into the toilet bowl. When the cistern is empty the siphon is broken and the cistern refills ready for the next flush. 3.12 Since January 2001, drop valves and flap valves that meet certain performance targets have been permitted. These valves allow a button- operated flush and a two-button dual-flush operation. The Water Regulations require endurance testing, which includes 200,000 flushes under laboratory conditions. However, mechanisms can be incorrectly installed and debris can enter the cistern during installation or later during use, causing immediate leaks (Ref 22 & 57). Evidence from water companies shows that leakage from valves has been a problem in some installations (Ref 22). Variable flushing devices

3.13 Variable flushing devices and/or optimising the full flush are a simple, and often cost-effective, solution for converting an existing WC. Variable flush devices allow the user to choose the quantity of water used in each flush. 3.14 While the possibility to save water usage is clear, it should also be noted that there is a potential to waste water, if repeat flushing is required because the user does not operate the device correctly.

3.15 Retrofit devices, including variable flush retrofit devices, are one of the key recommendations for how to reduce water consumption in (amongst other reports) the Thames Gateway Water Neutrality report (Ref 24). Air-assisted Flushing

3.16 New WC designs such as the Propelair® incorporate air-assisted flushing, reducing the water consumption of each flush to an average 1.46 litres (Ref 44). This may be suitable for some niche markets, particularly where space is not restrictive, as the Propelair® WC takes up more space than the average WC. Furthermore, the flush action requires electricity, which makes this model less suitable, in both financial and environmental terms, for widespread domestic uptake at this point in time.

4 Production and Waste Management

Introduction

4.1 This section outlines the typical production and waste management arrangements for the various components of a WC across its life cycle (except the use phase), include recycling, treatment and landfill disposal. Any stated assumptions were made with the guidance of the Steering Group. Production of WCs

4.2 There are three main material components of a WC, namely vitreous china, plastic and metal, of which vitreous china makes up the major proportion. 4.3 Vitreous china is produced from china or ball clay, which is specifically chosen for its physical properties (Ref 61). This type of clay is found in its natural state in parts of Europe and the Americas (Ref 39). However, it can also be produced from kaolin, which can be found in greater abundance worldwide (Ref 62 & 63). The UK is a major producer of china and ball clay (Ref 29). 4.4 The major components in the production of ceramic sanitaryware are clay and a flux (e.g. feldspar, silica, limestone), which are combined using a universal technique of slip casting and are then poured into plaster of Paris moulds. The clay product is then sprayed with a feldspathic glaze before firing in a kiln, which is typically fuelled by gas (Ref 61). 4.5 The final piece of sanitaryware is a hard, shiny material, which is white in its uncoloured fired state. Colours can be added prior to glazing if a coloured ceramic is required (Ref 1). 4.6 Wastes arising during the production of ceramic sanitaryware are usually returned into the production system (Ref 1). However, some solid wastes, in the form of sludge and brokenware, are generated during the process (Ref 29). Process effluent might also contain suspended solids which require wastewater treatment (Ref 29). 4.7 All WCs generally have some plastic components, often formed of several different polymers, inside and/or included in seats (typically high impact polystyrene), seat fixings and lids. Other plastic components may be included in any flushpipes, hinges, washers and outlet connectors. 4.8 In most WCs, metal is a minor constituent: some exposed pipes may be stainless steel, chromed steel or brass; hinges, fixings and fittings may sometimes utilise stainless steel; and metal flushing levers. Wooden seats are usually composite, made from wooden powder and melamine (Ref 1).

Treatment of WCs at End of Life

4.9 Since buildings tend to stand for longer than 15 years, the majority of WCs will be replaced during a building’s lifetime, rather than at the point of demolition of the building. 4.10 WCs replaced during DIY projects are very likely to be taken to the local household waste recycling centre (HWRC), and should be put in the rubble skip, rather than the landfill skip, for effective waste management. 4.11 WCs installed by local bathroom fitters will either be taken to the local HWRC (probably at some cost to the contractor), or disposed of in their own skips. Scrap WCs Arising Through Refurbishment

4.12 Vitreous china is the main component in WCs. Fired vitreous china cannot be recycled back into WCs, but the material can be crushed and used as aggregate in a variety of applications (Ref 60). 4.13 Whether the other materials are recycled, recovered or landfilled will depend mainly on the facilities at the HWRC, but may also depend on whether the person disposing of the waste has separated the different materials (Ref 26). 4.14 The majority of the plastic polymers utilised in WCs are unspecified, making them less likely to be segregated for recycling, and therefore likely to be sent for thermal treatment or disposed to landfill. 4.15 Most metals are recycled providing they have been segregated, or otherwise landfilled. Waste wood from WCs is only suitable for energy recovery or landfill. Scrap WCs Arising During Building Demolition

4.16 Vitreous china is included in the category of construction, demolition and excavation waste (CDEW), which includes concrete, brick, tiles and soil. In 2005, arisings of CDEW totalled about 90 million tonnes (± 9%), of which approximately 42 million tonnes (± 15%) was recycled as aggregate, by approximately 900 recycling crushers (Ref 23). Data referring specifically to vitreous china are not available. 4.17 Another 28 million tonnes (± 16%) of the CDEW arising was sent to landfill for disposal, landfill engineering or landfill capping. The remaining CDEW was spread over exempt sites (Ref 18). However, current trends point towards a higher rate of recycling of CDEW as aggregate (Ref 60). 4.18 The introduction of mandatory SWMPs in April 2008 will encourage construction sites to separate waste more efficiently and therefore it can be expected that higher rates of recycling can be achieved in the future (Ref 56).

5 Water Treatment

Introduction

5.1 This section outlines: • water treatment to supply domestic water used for WC flushing; and • wastewater treatment of WC effluent. Treatment of Water for Domestic Supply

5.2 Water destined for drinking water supply is required to undergo disinfection treatments prior to circulation. This is achieved using (among other things) a chemical oxidant, and chlorine is used most predominantly. To disinfect 1 megalitre (Ml, equivalent to one thousand cubic metres) of water for domestic consumption, 0.07 tonnes of chlorine are required (Ref 52). 5.3 Both water treatment and pumping operations require energy. To supply 1Ml of water, 590kWh of electricity are required, of which 80kWh are from renewable sources. The associated GHG emissions for generating all this

electricity total 0.27 tonnes CO2 eq. (Ref 52 and Ref 65). 5.4 The water supply infrastructure is vulnerable to damage, which causes an average daily leakage of 4,858Ml (Ref 52). Daily domestic water usage totals 7,750 Ml, and accounts for some 52% of total UK water consumption (Ref 64). Therefore, in order to deliver 1 litre of water to a household, 1.3 litres of water must be produced by the water companies. This has not been included in the analysis, since it is argued that this should not be attributed specifically to the use of WCs. Treatment of WC Wastewater

5.5 Domestic sewage is directed to a sewage treatment facility where it undergoes treatment to allow for its release back into a watercourse. 5.6 There are currently approximately 9,000 sewage treatment facilities in the UK, which treat over 11 billion litres of wastewater per annum, from industrial, commercial and domestic sources. All treatment facilities typically treat a mixture of wastewater from all these sources, with the proportional mix of each dependent on location (Ref 52 & Ref 16). 5.7 The sewage undergoes treatment either by flowing through a series of filter beds, or by a process known as activated sludge processing (ASP). In the latter, air is bubbled through the sewage to encourage the growth of micro- organisms that break down the organic matter in the sewage. This is a high

energy process that can have an energy consumption which is up to ten times greater than the filter beds. Approximately 80% of sewage treatment facilities use ASP (Ref 43). 5.8 In 2005/06, 0.07 tonnes of iron salts (typically ferric sulphate) per Ml of sewage were used to chemically remove phosphorous from sewage, which is sometimes necessary depending on local authority discharge requirements. Water discharge requirements vary between regions in the UK and are dependant on the base water quality of the local water courses (Ref 16 and Ref 58). 5.9 The average energy requirement to treat 1Ml of sewage to a standard allowing for release to a watercourse is 630kWh, of which 90kWh is from renewable sources. The associated GHG emissions total 0.28 tonnes (Ref 52 and Ref 65). Sewage Sludge Disposal

5.10 Following the sewage treatment process, the solid waste that remains is known as sludge. In 2005/06, a total of 1.35 million tonnes of sewage sludge were produced, of which 81% was reused. Reuse is considered to be any route that is not landfill or incineration, as presented in Table 5.1 below. The remaining sludge is either disposed of (to landfill or incinerated) or can be utilised in a number of different ways. Each route has associated energy consumption costs, which have been accounted for in this analysis. Sewage sludge in the UK is mostly sent to farmland for landspreading. Table 5.1 Breakdown of Sludge Treatment Pathways (Ref 41)

Sludge Treatment Pathway Breakdown (%)

Sludge to farmland 74%

Sludge to incineration 15%

Sludge to landfill 4%

Sludge to compost 1%

Sludge to land reclamation 3%

Sludge to other 3%

5.11 Increasingly, sludge is incinerated for energy recovery or used in the production of biogas for energy generation. In 2005/06, a total of 493GWh of energy were generated from sewage sludge, accounting for approximately 6.4% of total energy used to treat water and wastewater (Ref 43).

5.12 Finally, but importantly, it should be noted that any interventions that reduce the flush volume of WCs may not have the expected beneficial effect on sewage treatment impacts. WC flushwater comprises a relatively small proportion of total sewage treatment throughput. Therefore, it is possible that the impacts of reduced flush volume will be low in large municipal treatment works, but could be more significant in individual treatment systems such as septic tanks.

6 Transport

6.1 This section describes the transport pathways associated with the production and distribution of WCs. However, the comparative analysis showed that transport does not make a significant contribution to the overall life cycle. Raw Material Extraction

6.2 As mentioned previously (paragraph 4.3), china or ball clay can be sourced from the UK, Europe and the Americas, while kaolin is available worldwide (Ref 29). This type of clay has a high economic value, which makes long distance transport more feasible (Ref 39). WC Manufacture

6.3 UK WCs are 60% imported and 40% domestically produced (refer Chapter 2 Market Trends). For the purposes of this project, an average distance that one WC is transported has been calculated from the relative quantities of sanitaryware imported from different regions (Ref 59), using these distances: Table 6.1: Assumed Distances for Container Ship Transport Manufacture Location Container Ship Transport Distance

Western Europe 300 km

European Union 1,096 km

Middle East and Northern Africa 5,000 km

Asia and Oceania 10,000 km

6.4 A differentiation has been made between distances of ship transport and truck transport. For example, goods distributed from Western Europe are likely to be transported by both truck and ship in order to reach the UK. 6.5 Truck transport from the UK port to retail must also be considered. An average distance of 250km has been assumed for this project, except for Western Europe, where it is assumed that truck transport will also be used prior to ship transport to the UK. End of life

6.6 An average distance of 100km has been assumed for transport of waste WCs to an aggregate crushing facility, which are fewer in number in the UK in comparison to landfills or standard recycling facilities.

7 Social Impacts

Introduction

7.1 This section describes the social impacts associated with the life cycle of WCs. Production and Manufacture

Labour Conditions

7.2 A significant proportion of WCs imported in the UK are sourced from Asia- Pacific, with China, in particular, accounting for 36% of total UK imports. The International Labour Organisation’s (ILO) ‘Introductory Report – Decent Work, Safe Work’ provides statistics for work-related accidents and diseases. In 2005, the ILO estimated that 26% of all the world’s work-related fatal accidents and diseases were located in China (Ref 49). However, no reports or accounts were found suggesting any specific issues with the manufacture of WCs, despite the fact that it is relatively labour-intensive. Either there are no issues, or no studies have been conducted. 7.3 As there may be a number of suppliers involved in the different components of WCs, labour condition issues are relevant throughout the supply chain. Waste Management

Facilities

7.4 There are social impacts associated with any facility treating, disposing or recycling of the solid wastes and liquid effluent generated through the WC lifecycle, and these will have an impact on the surrounding environment. As well as local effects surrounding the immediate vicinity of the facilities, broader regional impacts may exist as well (Ref 25). 7.5 However, given that these effects are a result of the treatment of all effluents and not specifically of WC effluent, the social impact of waste management facilities is not considered to be attributable to the life cycle of a WC.

8 Data Gap Analysis

Introduction

8.1 Table B1 in Annex B provides a detailed assessment of the various data gaps identified during the course of this study. This section highlights the most significant findings. 8.2 The reviewed literature, as a whole, was further assessed in terms of its applicability to life cycle stages, geographic scope and its specific relevance to WCs. Life Cycle Stages

8.3 Major gaps in relation to life cycle stages are as follows: 8.4 Complete Analysis. Information regarding the production, consumption and disposal of WCs is limited. Available literature does not relate specifically to WCs. 8.5 Focus on Use Stage. The literature focuses primarily on the use of WCs and water consumption, as opposed to the earlier life cycle stages relating to vitreous china production and WC manufacture, or the latter stages relating to waste management at end of life. The comparative analysis performed suggests that these other phases also play an important role in the overall environmental impacts of WCs. 8.6 Distribution. Significant data gaps exist for life cycle information of distribution operations. However, reasonable estimates can be made based on weight and distance transported for distribution. 8.7 Heat Loss. ERM has identified in this study (see Annex E) that ambient heat loss (in the flushed water) could be an important issue in the overall environmental performance of WCs, but we are not aware of any studies that have been performed which specifically analyse this issue. Geographic Scope

8.8 Major gaps, geographically, are as follows. 8.9 Producer Countries. Literature relating to the production of WCs by the major suppliers of sanitaryware to the UK is limited to pre-2000 studies. Considering the global expansion of production, it is reasonable to assume that the current status has altered since then. 8.10 Social and Health Impacts. The majority of information on social and health impacts originates from within the EU. Although these impacts are

transferable to any context where vitreous china is produced, working conditions will be different in other countries. The nature of vitreous china production is such that stringent health and safety and occupational health procedures will prevent significant social and health impacts in the EU. However, those standards may not be upheld in non-EU production facilities. 8.11 Country Monitoring of Impacts. The environmental and social impacts vary widely, depending on each country’s legislative controls, and whether they are enforced. It is difficult to identify all impacts in all vitreous china producing countries due to lack of accessibility and monitoring. Other Aspects

WC Specific Information

8.12 Much of the literature available does not relate specifically to WCs, which limited the transferability of the information to this study. For example, literature relating to raw materials extraction in the WC production phase largely focuses on the general extractive industry and does not address the ball clay mining industry specifically. 8.13 The relationship between reduced sewage flows and reduced energy use in sewage treatment is not fully understood. The relationship is unlikely to be linear and it is therefore important to understand.

9 Comparative Analysis

Introduction

9.1 This section outlines work undertaken to model the environmental impacts across the life cycle of a WC. An analysis of the results shows which phases have the most significant impacts across the entire life cycle and consequently where investigation into potential interventions should be focussed. Life Cycle Assessment of WCs

9.2 A life cycle approach was taken in the analysis of environmental impacts across the lifetime of a WC from raw material extraction to end of life waste management, following ISO 14040 (Ref 31). Two processes were modelled in order to undertake the comparative analysis – the life cycle of one WC and the production and treatment of 1m3 of water. The modelling results from these two processes could then be combined using the assumptions made regarding WC life span and flush volumes to assess the significance of water consumption in terms of environmental impacts across the life cycle of WCs. This method is shown in Figure 9.1 below. Figure 9.1 The Combination of Two Modelling Processes

Water Treatment

Raw Material Final Disposal Extraction Manufacture Use

Average Water Usage: Flush volume 6.3 litres 7.7 flushes per day Lifetime of 15 years Sewage Treatment

9.3 The environmental impacts associated with the manufacture, use and disposal of a WC were modelled against ten environmental indicators, including eutrophication, global warming potential (GWP) and freshwater

aquatic ecotoxicity. The modelling assumes a WC flush volume of 6.3 litres, which represents an average flush volume of WCs estimated to be currently in operation in the UK and a total usage of 2825 flushes per year, over a lifetime of 15 years (Ref 33). 9.4 One further significant source of environmental impact s arise from ambient heat loss during flushing (see Annex E: Model of Heat Loss During Flushing). Initial modelling suggested that this was likely to be of quite some importance. However, given that results were not conclusive, and relied heavily on weak assumptions about the typical ambient temperature of bathrooms, the heat loss data was not included in the original comparative analysis for this study for which the results are discussed in paragraphs 9.5 to 9.17 below. The results of work which investigated ambient heat loss more thoroughly in an additional study are presented in paragraphs 9.18 to 9.28. These additional results were seen to change the complexion of the initial comparative analysis considerably. Key Findings

Modelling Results

9.5 The resulting data provided quantifiable figures representing the environmental impact of a WC throughout its life cycle. The results are presented in Tables D1-3 of Annex D: Results of Comparative Analysis. 9.6 Overall, the impacts associated with the use phase outweigh those of the production and disposal phases for nearly all environmental indicators. In the use phase, the impacts of water and sewage treatment are generally equally significant, with the exception of eutrophication impacts which are significantly higher for sewage treatment than for water treatment. Of the other phases, the production of the ceramic material is the most important. The various contributions under conditions of the default assumptions in paragraph 9.4 above are plotted in Figure 9.2. 9.7 The following can be ascertained from the modelling results: • The global warming potential (GWP) of the use phase is approximately four times that of the combined production and disposal phases (see Table D3). The majority of the GWP for the combined production and disposal phases is attributable to the production of the ceramics. • The eutrophication impacts of the combined production and disposal phases are approximately 5% of the use phase. Almost all of the eutrophication impacts in the use phase are a result of sewage treatment. • Ozone layer depletion impacts are almost equal for the use phase and the combined production and disposal phases.

• Transport impacts associated with the distribution of WCs are not significant in relation to the overall life cycle. • The use of cleaning detergent during the use of a WC is not significant in relation to the overall life cycle. Figure 9.2 Share of Impacts Across the Life Cycle of a WC2

Production and Disposal Phases

Ceramic for WC Other Materials Distribution Water treatment WC detergent usage Sewage treatment Disposal

Use Phase

• The impacts associated with treatment of water supplied to the WC are about as significant as the impacts associated with the sewage treatment of WC effluent. Implication of Reducing Flushwater Volumes and Breakpoint Analysis

9.8 ERM considers that the most feasible phase in which to influence a change in the environmental impacts of a WC is use, where impacts associated with water consumption are by far the most significant. A series of different scenarios was developed, representing reduced flush volumes, which were analysed in respect of one year’s water usage. 9.9 The environmental impacts associated with the production phase are not insignificant and therefore it is reasonable to consider any ways in which to influence production to reduce the impacts across the whole life cycle. Production of ceramic is by far the biggest contributor to the impacts associated with the production phase and therefore it is likely that any meaningful impact should be focused on this process. In line with current predictions for the UK WC market (see Section 3 Market Trends), it can be

2 For each of ten parameters (abiotic depletion, acidification, eutrophication, global warming potential, ozone layer depletion, human toxicity, freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity, marine aquatic ecotoxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity and photochemical oxidation), the relative share of the total environmental impact across the life cycle of WCs was derived from modelling. The diagram depicts the overall averages of those shares, with equal weighting applied to all parameters.

expected that an increasing proportion of WC consumption will be of the concealed cistern design. This type of cistern is typically constructed of plastic, which has much lower environmental impacts associated with its production than vitreous china. 9.10 By comparing the annual water saving benefits with the total impacts associated with the production and disposal of a WC, it was possible to conduct a breakpoint analysis, assessing the associated number of years for payback in replacing an existing WC. The results are presented in Table D4 of Annex D. 9.11 If a WC of 9-litre flush volume is replaced by a WC of 4.5 litres (equivalent to 6/4 dual flush WC, if we assume a 1:3 flush ratio), the payback is as follows: • 1 year to offset impacts from terrestrial ecotoxicity; • 5 years, to offset impacts from GWP; and • 10 years, to offset impacts from freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity. 9.12 If a WC of 6-litre flush volume is replaced by a WC of 4.5 litres (equivalent to a 6/4 dual flush WC, if we assume a 1:3 flush ratio), the payback is as follows: • 3 years to offset impacts from terrestrial ecotoxicity; • 16 years, to offset impacts from GWP; and • 29 years, to offset impacts from freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity. 9.13 If a WC of 6 litre flush volume is replaced by a WC of 3.75 litres (equivalent to a 6/3 dual flush WC, if we assume a 1:3 flush ratio), the numbers for payback are as follows: • 2 years to offset impacts from terrestrial ecotoxicity; • 11 years, to offset impacts from GWP; and • 20 years, to offset impacts from freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity. 9.14 All of the above results assume that the benefits of the reduced flush volume should be compared with the costs of scrapping an old WC (with the associated recycling and recovery where possible), and manufacturing and distributing a new one. 9.15 This is not completely representative, however, since the WC being replaced might be at the end of its life, in which case the replacement was going to happen anyway, and the benefits of the reduced flushing may be realised immediately. 9.16 It is reasonable to assume that, on average and without any targeting, the WCs might be replaced halfway through their lifetime, on average, in which

case the above figures can be halved, producing paybacks (for replacement of a 6-litre flush volume WC with a 6/3 dual flush WC) of: • ½ year, to offset impacts from eutrophication; • 5½ years, to offset impacts from GWP; and • 10 years, to offset impacts from freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity. 9.17 Furthermore, it becomes clear that some form of targeting (for example, looking at older housing developments, with older, higher capacity WCs) could increase the benefits and reduce the payback times further. Ambient Heat Loss Studies

9.18 Annex E provides details of the original study into ambient heat loss, which indicated that this could be a significant factor, and the subsequent work, which verified that this is the case. 9.19 In the additional work, a new model was built that consisted of a large spreadsheet, with a row assigned for every minute of the day. Temperatures of the incoming water (if the WC is flushed), the external room and the cistern water are all calculated based on the values of the previous minute, unless any changes take place. The main interventions are to toggle the home’s central heating system (on/off) or to flush the WC. However, the modeller can also vary the incoming mains water temperature, add insulation to the cistern, and stipulate for what fraction of the year the central heating would be used. 9.20 The performance of the model was checked against empirical measurements of WC temperature changes, and minor adjustments were made so that the model reflected the measured results. 9.21 The model allowed extensive testing of different scenarios, varying all the parameters previously mentioned. . A graphical representation of the results was developed, and this is reproduced for one scenario in Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3 Temperature Results for One Heat Loss Scenario

25 800

700 20

600 Cumulative Heat Loss / kJ

500 15

400

10 300 Temperature / °C

200 5 100

0 0 00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 00:00 Time / hours Mains Water Room Temperature Cistern Flush Event Heat

9.22 In this particular scenario, which included no insulation, a total of 725kJ were lost over the course of one day. This figure could be halved by adding insulation, but the heat loss is still significant. 9.23 For a scenario where expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation is used, and the central heating runs for four months per year, the addition of ambient heat loss to the shares of impacts shown previously in Figure 9.2 is dramatic, as shown in Figure 9.4. Figure 9.4 Share of Impacts Across the Life Cycle of a WC

Production and Disposal Phases Ceramic for WC Other Materials Distribution Water treatment Heat Loss WC detergent usage Sewage treatment

Use Disposal Phase

9.24 In the particular instance plotted, heat loss effects account for 96% of the environmental impacts of WCs across their life cycle. Annex E provides

further details of alternative scenarios, but the most conservative still assigns 80% of impacts to heat loss. 9.25 The heat loss occurs during the use phase, of course, so any interventions that reduce the impact of the use phase become much more favourable under these conditions. The earlier section on implications of reducing flushwater volumes presented some payback times for various replacement scenarios. 9.26 If ambient heat loss is included, the payback times for different flush volumes changes under different environmental indicators are presented in Table 9.1. The scenario modelled is the same as shown above, with EPS insulation, and assumes that, on average, the existing WC is halfway through its lifetime. 9.27 These payback times are extremely short, highlighting the value of reducing flush volume, and thereby the amount of heat that is removed during each flush. Table 9.1 Number of Years to Payback When Heat Loss is Included Change in Change volume / l Abiotic depletion Acidification Eutrophication Global warming Ozone layer depletion Human toxicity Fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Terrestrial ecotoxicity Photochemical oxidation

0.5 0.2 0.5 0.9 0.2 0.4 0.2 1.8 0.5 0.1 0.3 1.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.9 0.2 0.1 0.2 1.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.2 0.0 0.1 2.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.1 2.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.1 3.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.1 3.5 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 4.5 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

Other Factors

9.28 The treatment of water to drinking standard and the treatment of waste water discharge present potentially significant ecotoxicity aspects due to the basket of chemicals and industrial enzymes which might enter the water stream and/ or the soil and groundwater system. This issue is not dealt with directly in this study as, excepting the volume of water used, it is not considered to be influenced by the production, use and disposal of WCs. However, given that these ecotoxicity aspects relate specifically to the volume of water consumed or discharged, this is a potential area of focus for future studies.

10 Intervention Analysis

Introduction

10.1 This section provides an analysis of interventions that Government may wish to consider in order to improve the overall environmental impacts associated with the use of WCs in the UK. Review of Existing Interventions

Cistern Displacement Devices and WC Retrofit Devices

10.2 Cistern displacement devices currently available in the UK include Save-a- Flush, Hippo the Water Saver and Freddie Frog and are generally available free of charge from the water companies. The devices are designed to be fitted into the cistern to reduce its capacity. It is estimated that water volume per flush can be reduced by 1-3 litres (Ref 54). According to ERM’s calculations, this equates to water savings of 40-127m3 over the lifetime of one WC. 10.3 WC retrofit devices are fitted into the cistern to enable dual/ variable flush functions and claim to reduce water consumption by 30-50%. According to ERM’s calculations, this equates to 80-135m3 over the lifetime of one WC. Unlike cistern displacement devices, retrofit devices are generally not available free of charge. 10.4 Current uptake of these types of devices is relatively low in the UK due to a lack of information and understanding regarding the benefits, the perceived or actual need for these benefits and indeed knowledge of their existence (Ref 13). There is also the possibility that repeat flushing may be required, if these devices are not installed and operated correctly. 10.5 An Environment Agency report investigating the feasibility of various scenarios for reaching water neutrality in the Thames Gateway region concluded that water neutrality could not be achieved by retrofitting alone, though it could have a significant impact in reducing total water consumption. Fitting a variable flush retrofit device and ultra-low flush WC replacement produced average water savings of 10.27 and 22.13 litres per head per day respectively. The environmental impacts of disposing of redundant WCs and production of new WCs were not factored into the scope of the study (Ref 24). 10.6 Singapore has required cisterns of no more than 4.5 litres per flush to be installed in all new public housing apartments since 1992. With effect from April 1997, installation of low flush WCs was made mandatory for all new

premises including all residential, hotels, commercial buildings and industrial establishments (Ref 11). 10.7 The Hamburg Water Saving Demonstration Project between 1986 and 1989 conducted a test study to evaluate water consumption of 1400 households. The study assessed households with a water meter only and those with a water meter and water saving device (eg. cistern replacement device, showerhead replacement device). The average saving rate determined as a result of the study was 25% per household (Ref 70). The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 (1st July 1999)

10.8 These regulations legislate that all newly installed WCs will have a flush volume not exceeding 6 litres. However, the regulations relate to the point of installation rather than the point of sale and are not strictly retrospective, so components for high flush volume WCs are still available on the market (Ref 57). Water Efficiency and Water Conservation Campaigning

10.9 Several water efficiency and water conservation awareness campaigns are run by Waterwise, the water companies and others, focusing on the uptake of cistern capacity displacement devices. However, as described above, uptake of these devices appears to have peaked, despite consumer research indicating that customers are willing to try them (Ref 13). Water Efficiency Labelling

10.10 The BMA has recently introduced a water efficiency label, which indicates products that meet certain water efficiency requirements. The original manufacturer signs a Declaration of Conformity testifying that the products meet the criteria of the Scheme, which for WCs, states that flush volumes should not exceed 4.5 litres per single flush or an average flush volume of 4.5 litres for dual flush WCs, based on a flush ratio of 1 full flush to 3 reduced volume flushes (Ref 4). 10.11 There is no requirement for third party verification of product testing although applicants are invited to provide evidence that they meet requirements (Ref 4). 10.12 Mandatory water efficiency labelling for WC products has been in effect in Australia and New Zealand since 2003. A voluntary water labelling scheme was not considered sufficient to reduce water consumption - the worst performing products also had to be covered. The scheme was forecast to reduce water consumption of WCs by 22% in the period 2003-21. It is

currently too soon to assess the effectiveness of the scheme, but a report by WRc is due to be published during 2008 (Ref 15). 10.13 In Europe, eco-labelling for energy-consuming products has proven to be successful in informing consumers of the performance of products on the market (Ref 27). Studies have shown that this has served to influence the purchases of certain products that require a higher level of decision-making from the consumer. In other words, some products have features that vary in performance capabilities product-to-product and therefore encourage the consumer to think more about which features are important to them (e.g. washing machines) (Ref 46). Construction, Demolition and Excavation Waste (CDEW)

10.14 The majority of the material waste at the end of the life of a WC is ceramic, which is typically demolished at the same time as the building it is in, or alternatively disposed of as construction waste. Defra’s Waste Strategy for England 2007 outlines policies and targets for combating the quantity of CDEW and the environmental impacts of its disposal. Policies and targets which have an effect on the environmental impact of end of life waste management of ceramic sanitaryware focus on facilitation of the crushed waste as aggregate and consequently diversion of this waste from landfill. 10.15 The Landfill Tax and the Aggregates Levy provide financial incentive for construction sites, firstly, to recycle their demolition waste and, secondly, to obtain secondary or recycled aggregates, including those arising from ceramic sanitaryware where possible (Ref 17). 10.16 A Site Waste Management Plan (SWMP) is required at all construction projects in England worth more than £300,000 which will encourage more effective waste segregation and enable more efficient reuse/ recycling of CDEW. Currently, the majority of CDEW is classified as ‘mixed’ or ‘other’ and information on what this comprises is limited (Ref 18), but it is assumed that much of this is landfilled due to the potential contaminants in the waste. More effective segregation should help to ensure that end of life WCs can be segregated from contaminated CDEW and recycled as aggregate (Ref 17). The Enhanced Capital Allowance (ECA) Scheme

10.17 The Enhanced Capital Allowance Scheme enables businesses to claim 100% first year capital allowances on investments in technologies and products that encourage sustainable water use, including water efficient WCs. Businesses are now able to write off the whole cost of their investment against their taxable profits of the period during which they make the investment.

Recycled water treatment

10.18 In Australia, a residential recycled water scheme is being developed which recycles 4.7 billion litres of water per year to service 35,000 homes. The Rouse Hill Recycled Water Plant will reduce water demand by 35% (Ref 70). Water Metering

10.19 In New York City, USA, mandatory metering, in conjunction with water reduction schemes and regulatory actions, has led to a 15-17% reduction in water consumption when compared to pre-metering records. Water metering was made mandatory for new residential construction in 1985 which, when combined with new flat-rate water rates, offered residential owners a financial incentive for switching to metering. The Multi-family Conservation Program (MCP) was established in 2003 and made homeowners responsible for their own ‘hardware efficiency’, such as fixtures and leaks repair. Mandatory metering and the MCP have been coupled with regulatory actions, such as the banning of higher flush volume WCs, to further reduce water consumption. (Ref 69). Leak Detection

10.20 In Canada, the Halifax Regional Water Commissions has adopted a holistic approach to leak detection, which has served to reduce leakage from its pipe network by 30 million litres per day. The approach focuses on leak detection, metering, speed and quality of repairs, and asset management (Ref 70). Increased water tariffs

10.21 Several countries have investigated the effectiveness of increased water tariffs on the volume of water consumed. However, it appears that the effectiveness of such a scheme is linked to the water consuming habits of the locality, along with what other water saving schemes are being run in conjunction with tariffing. For example, in areas of Spain, water tariffing has proven successful when implemented in conjunction with a water saving campaign and bans on the use of drinking water for swimming pools or for irrigating gardens (Ref 70). Recommendations for Future Interventions

10.22 The use phase is the most significant stage of the life cycle of WCs. It follows that the main focus of these recommendations is on water efficiency rather than interventions during production and disposal phases.

Revision of The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 (1st July 1999)

10.23 These Regulations will be reviewed in 2008 with a view to setting new performance standards for key fittings, including WCs. This will provide a mechanism to require improvements to the standard of water using products installed within existing buildings that would complement the whole house performance standard to be established in building regulations. 10.24 Vendors of WC products should be encouraged to reach a voluntary agreement on the products that are available for sale within the UK, focusing on more efficient designs. That said, most manufacturers are already offering WCs that are more efficient than required by current regulations. Water Metering

10.25 Traditionally, water use was unmetered and households could use as much as they wanted, usually paying according to the rateable value of their home. Water companies are increasingly installing meters – predominantly for householders that choose to have one or in new houses. Metering does encourage households to save water. Research shows that a metered household uses around 10% less water than an unmetered household. Uptake of water meters is expected to increase without intervention by 2% a year (Ref 50). Water Usage Tariffs

10.26 Thames Gateway Water Neutrality Project investigated the impact of introducing a tariff for water usage above a certain threshold. Although scenarios suggested the potential for significant water savings, the report concludes savings of approximately 5% per capita, due to the lack of data and uncertainty of results. 10.27 Market research amongst Thames Gateway residents found that this option raised concerns as it is considered to be exploitative (Ref 24). Mandatory Water Efficiency Labelling and Water Product Information Scheme

10.28 Providing the consumer with easily understandable information regarding the product at the point of sale has the potential to allow the consumer to select water efficient products. Currently in the UK, this information is not readily visible on WCs and thus the consumer is unlikely to understand the difference between one WC and another. 10.29 The BMA water efficiency label displays a water efficiency mark, aiming to increase the information available to the consumer at the point of sale which could reduce significantly the desirability of less efficient models.

10.30 Consumer research for the Thames Gateway Water Neutrality study indicated that the majority of customers are in support of legislation that bans less efficient water appliances, which further suggests that inefficient WCs will be less desirable to the public should they be aware of levels of water use at point of sale (Ref 24). Water Efficiency Campaign

10.31 Studies assessing consumer opinion with regard to water efficiency and water conservation have shown that people have an unprompted awareness of environmental issues, and that water is one of the major resources of concern. However, concern for energy conservation is regarded as a much more pressing issue, and many people indicated that they are active in energy conservation (e.g. turning out lights, not leaving appliances on stand-by) whilst being not so active in water conservation (Ref 13). 10.32 Following on from the fact that people can impact on energy consumption, by indicating how much energy is required to supply and dispose of water to flush a WC, there is potential for people to put more thought into the amount of water they use. The message of efficient water usage is reinforced by providing metered customers with the potential for financial reward. 10.33 A water efficiency campaign should inform the public why water efficiency is necessary and provide simple suggestions about how to affect a change in the home. Consumer research suggests that a persistent reminder of this message is influential in reinforcing behavioural change, for example as a result of prompting from family members or through a media campaign (Ref 24). Rainwater Harvesting and Reuse of Greywater Schemes

10.34 Several studies and trials have been conducted investigating the harvesting of rainwater and the reuse of greywater3 for WC flushing and outdoor uses. The results have largely been successful in terms of reducing overall water consumption, but the initial cost of installing such a system and the space required to locate the additional water storage and treatment tank, as well as considerable ongoing maintenance costs means that widespread domestic uptake is not considered feasible in the current UK market. 10.35 A successful greywater reuse scheme is in place at the Millennium Dome, which supplies all the WCs onsite with flushwater. This demonstrates how, with reasonable capital investment and in a context where a relatively large

3 ‘Greywater’ is water originating from the mains water supply that has been used from bathing (showers or baths) and in hand basins (Ref 37).

quantity of greywater is produced for reuse, there is potential for this type of intervention to have real benefits in the future (Ref 32). 10.36 With respect to the feasibility of rainwater harvesting and greywater reuse schemes in the future, the impact of electricity usage for pumping water must also be considered, which has the potential to reduce the net environmental benefit from this kind of water recycling scheme (Ref 8). 10.37 It should be remembered that although greywater and rainwater systems are beneficial to the environment in terms of reducing water consumption, this benefit might be offset by other environmental impacts of the systems. From a life cycle perspective, the impacts incurred from energy needed to fuel the system, the chemicals required for disinfection and the burdens from infrastructure, have the potential to counteract the benefits from reduced water consumption (Ref 68). 10.38 Greywater systems reduce the volume of wastewater from baths and showers passing through drains. The relatively steady flow of water from the use of these appliances encourages the flow of water in drains and reduces the risk of blockages. The impact of reduced water flow through the sewage system is dealt with in Implications of Interventions, below. Waterless and Macerator WCs

10.39 Currently, macerators, vacuum and composting WCs are considered niche markets for domestic usage. Due to space constraints, high energy requirements and the nature of the UK drainage network, waterless and macerator WCs are often not suitable for use in UK homes (Ref 22). Valve vs. Siphon flush

10.40 In the section on siphon and drop valves (starting paragraph 3.11), it is mentioned that drop valves can leak, whilst the design of the siphon makes leakage much less likely. Further work is needed to determine the extent of valve leakages, and determine what policy interventions might be appropriate. Ambient Heat Loss

10.41 As water in the WC cistern heats to room temperature, heat is lost from the home, thus requiring an energy input in order to maintain a steady indoor room temperature. ERM modelling suggests that over the 15 year life cycle of a WC, the impacts of this additional energy could be significant, and this is further investigated in Annex E.

Scrap WCs Arising Through Refurbishment

10.42 Whether scrap materials arising from refurbishment are recycled, recovered or landfilled depends both on the actions of the person responsible and the facilities available at the local HWRC. 10.43 Members of the public could be made more aware of the recycling opportunities for scrap WCs (and that they should therefore not be put in the landfill skips) on existing literature describing the services offered by HWRCs, or on information which is provided at the point of sale of new WCs. 10.44 For bathroom fitters, disposal charges (where they exist) at HWRCs might be waived for WCs, because they can be recycled. This would encourage the traders to return the materials rather than put them in skips for landfilling. Implications of Interventions

10.45 Several of the existing and recommended interventions are likely to have an impact on other phases of the life cycle and on other sectors within the UK. In all cases where distribution of information is required, the impact of producing literature and the distribution of it has the potential to be a significant impact. Table 10.1 presents the implications of the interventions identified and potential solutions. The water consumption relating to each CSH level is based on predicted volumes as a result of the building design features required to attain that CSH level (Ref 24). Table 10.1 Retrofitting or WC Replacement Requirements to Offset the Demand from One New Home Water Consumption No. Retrofitted No. ULF WC to Offset (per Households Replacement household per day) Needed Households Needed CSH Level 1/2 288 litres 11.4 5.4 CSH Level 3/4 252 litres 10.2 4.7 CSH Level 5/6 192 litres 7.8 3.6

Implications for the Construction Industry and its Suppliers

10.46 Changes in WC specifications as a result of water efficiency labelling and changes to the Water Fittings Regulations (Ref 55) are most likely to affect sanitaryware manufacturers, property developers, and their suppliers. The impacts are likely to materialise as changes in manufacturing operations and procurement. Implications for New Housing

10.47 In order to limit the impact on water consumption from development, new houses will need to built to high standards and designed with energy and

water efficiency in mind. The Code for Sustainable Homes (CSH) and revisions to Building Regulations create standards for this, but new housing will inevitably increase water demand in a given area. 10.48 Table 10.1 presents the number of existing homes that would require retrofitting with a WC water efficiency device or replacement with an ultra-low flush (ULF) WC in order to counteract the impact of increased water usage from a single new home (Ref 41). Implications of a WC Retrofitting Programme

10.49 Table 9.1 above shows how retrofitting existing homes can go a considerable way in counteracting increased water demand. However, the implications in the short-term have the potential to be considerable. It is understood from consumer research that customers require information regarding the devices available, as well as a degree of assistance in installing and maintaining them (Ref 13). 10.50 Based on consumer research, it appears that the uptake of retrofit devices is most likely to be successful via the distribution of a free water efficiency pack (Ref 13). However a water efficiency pack, in itself, has impacts in terms of production, distribution and disposal. It is not clear who would bear the costs of such a campaign. Implications of reduced water demand on sewage and drainage networks

10.51 Reducing the volume and consequently the pressure of water passing through the drainage infrastructure could potentially have adverse impacts in terms of blockages. This issue was investigated for an Environment Agency report by WRc in 2007, but there was no conclusive evidence that reduced water demand causes blockages. Furthermore, it concluded that as long as reduced water demand is factored into drainage requirements for new homes, it is unlikely that blockages would occur (Ref 21). 10.52 This same issue has also been considered by the Australian government in their analysis of the potential for introducing lower flush volume WCs into the Australian market. Further to results of a study assessing the influence of flush volumes and drain design (drain shape, diameter, drainline slope etc), the recommendation was to install ultra-low flush WCs only in situations of specific drain design and slope. It has also been suggested that by incremental reductions in standard WC flush volumes, it will be possible to gauge the effect on drainage flows before blockages occur (Ref 47).

11 Conclusions

11.1 Defra commissioned this report to review literature concerning environmental and social impacts across the life cycle of WCs, possible interventions and further recommendations for improving sustainability performance. Market Analysis

11.2 The market analysis revealed that sanitaryware for the UK market is split between domestically produced and imported products. Trends in purchases are moving towards more water efficient cisterns, which are more frequently concealed (and therefore plastic rather than ceramic). The popularity of dual- flush systems is reducing the use of siphons, despite the fact that siphons are much less likely to leak. Variable flushing devices are also being encouraged, but take-up of air-assisted flushing devices, which significantly reduce the volume of flushwater, is expected to be restricted to more niche markets. 11.3 WC lifetimes appear to be decreasing, with the MTP revising its estimation from 18 years to 15 years, and other sources using 10 years. Environmental Impacts Across the Life Cycle Stages

11.4 Separate chapters are dedicated to the production and waste management of WCs, water treatment, and transport, and the information gathered is brought together in the quantitative comparative analysis. This section assesses the relative contribution to the overall environmental impacts from the production and waste management of WCs, compared with the impacts during use (predominantly from water treatment) but excluded ambient heat loss. A number of conclusions can be drawn from that analysis: • Overall, the impacts associated with the use phase outweigh those of the production and disposal phases for nearly all environmental indicators. In the use phase, the impacts of water and sewage treatment are generally equally significant, with the exception of eutrophication impacts which are significantly higher for sewage treatment than for water treatment. Of the other phases, the production of the ceramic material is the most significant in terms of environmental impacts. • A typical WC (with no leakages) currently uses about 267m3 of water over its lifetime. Reducing flush volumes has the potential to significantly reduce the overall environmental impacts of a WC. • The production of the ceramic materials makes a noticeable contribution to the overall environmental impact across the WC life cycle, which has a

bearing upon the net benefits of the replacement of an existing WC with a lower flush volume WC. • In considering feasible options for influencing the environmental impacts across the life cycle of a WC, production impacts should be considered as well as those associated with use (i.e. water consumption). 11.5 Further work which investigated ambient heat loss led to the following additional conclusion: • Ambient heat loss associated with water in the WC cistern is the dominating factor in terms of environmental impacts. Incoming mains water is at a relatively low temperature, and the temperature of the water in the cistern/ toilet bowl rises before it is flushed away. If the warmth absorbed comes from the home’s central heating system, the energy associated with recovering that loss of heat is very significant for the life cycle of the WC. Estimates in this report vary between scenarios, by suggest that 80% to 96% of the environmental impacts can be attributed to this heat loss. Social Impacts

11.6 There was little evidence of significant social impacts across the life cycle of WCs. The main area of possible concern is the labour conditions in the Far East, where a sizeable proportion of UK sanitaryware is manufactured. Data Gaps

11.7 An extensive review of data (and, by extension, data gaps) was performed. The most significant gaps were identified to be as follow: • Life Cycle Studies. No complete studies of WCs have been conducted; studies tend to focus on the use phase, and do not consider heat losses from flushing. • Producer Countries. Literature relating to the production of WCs in the major suppliers of sanitaryware to the UK is limited to pre-2000 studies. Considering the global expansion of production, it is reasonable to assume that the current status has altered since then. • Social and Health Impacts. The majority of information on social and health impacts originates from within the EU. Although these impacts are transferable to any context where vitreous china is produced, working conditions will vary in other countries. • WC Specific Information. Much of the literature available does not relate specifically to WCs, which has some limitations for the transferability of information to this study.

Intervention Analysis

11.8 The intervention analysis reviewed interventions already in place in the UK and overseas and presents a number of additional suggestions. The use phase is identified as the most important part of the life cycle of WCs. It follows that the most effective interventions are likely to concentrate on reducing the impacts from the use phase. Reducing heat loss is mentioned below, but the most obvious opportunities arise from reducing the flush volume. Reducing Flush Volume

11.9 A number of measures are already available for reducing the volume of water used in each flush. Cistern displacement devices are very simple and generally available free from water companies; dual and variable flush devices achieve the same aim but are generally not free (or retrofitted). 11.10 Uptake of these measures might be improved with better publicity of their availability and effect. Water efficiency campaigns and/or water efficiency labelling of WCs could improve awareness. 11.11 Improved water efficiency could be encouraged by increased levels of water metering or water usage tariffs. 11.12 A legislative intervention that is already inevitable is the revision of the Water Fittings Regulations which will consider setting new performance standards for key water using fittings, including WCs. Interventions at End of Life

11.13 Scrap WCs are a relatively good source of aggregate. Members of the public could be made more aware of the recycling opportunities for scrap WCs via their HWRCs, and traders could be offered free disposal for recyclable materials such as scrap WCs and other bathroom furniture. 11.14 The Landfill Tax and the Aggregates Levy encourage the recycling of CDEW, as do SWMPs and other policies and targets arising from Defra’s Waste Strategy for England 2007. It is suggested, therefore, that there are already sufficient incentives in place for the CDEW industry, and that further interventions are not currently necessary. Other Interventions

11.15 Rainwater and greywater harvesting systems provide means of reducing the burden of WCs on the water treatment industries. These systems are best designed into new builds; though any system that requires the separate

pumping of the alternative water supply is likely to see any environmental benefit severely reduced. 11.16 As ambient heat losses during flushing are significant, some form of lagging of the cistern is desirable, and pays back its investment quickly.

Annex A: Literature Review Tables

The following tables present the literature reviewed in relation to this project.

WC Production

Title Author and Age Source/contact SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact Details ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE details: Key data identified Life Cycle Stages Geographic Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Targets/ New Methods Impact of policy/ method OR Environmental Social Life Cycle Stages Other Relevant (1) Credibility (2) Reliability (3) Objectivity (4) Scope Results of Study Identified as Issues Transferab Making a ility Significant Contribution

1 Small-scale mines, R. G. M. Heath (2005), http://www.jstage.jst n/a Extraction of raw South Africa This report outlines the environmental impacts from small-scale Type of mine, method of mining and refinement methods have n/a n/a Water pollution; Labour issues; and n/a n/a High Low Medium Low their cumulative Journal of Water and .go.jp/article/jwet/3/2 material; and mines in South Africa. Further it outlines proposed management varied impacts on the environment. Most important impacts Soil degradation; Local community issues. environmental Environment Technology, /3_175/_article Production of strategies to limit the impacts caused by small-scale mining. It attributable to clay mining are: Soil contamination; and impacts and Vol.3, No.2 ceramic. concludes that small scale miners should be trained to operate in • Accelerated erosion of surrounding land; Biodiversity. developing countries an environmentally responsible manner, backed up legislation. • Instability and increased risk of flooding from excavation of flood best practice Water quality impacts from small scale miners should be terraces and riverbanks; guidelines for water monitored on a regional level rather than an individual mine by • Altered river channels from mining of alluvial beds; management mine basis. • Wind-blown dusts and waste rock dumps entering aquatic environment; • Loss of arable land; • Contamination of surface water supply from oils from machinery.

Mining taking place within riverbed/ floodplain has greater chance of rehabilitation due to floods.

Communities living close to mines are aware of environmental impacts. Mining seen as a viable form of living – environmental issues largely ignored by miners. Local communities prefer to be employed in the mining sector than in the rehabilitation of mined land.

2 Environmental, International Finance www.ifc.org/.../gui • Benchmark figures Production of Global These guidelines refer to EHS issues applicable to the ceramics N/A Best practice guidelines are Air Emissions • greenhouse gas emissions; Community H&S n/a n/a High Medium Medium High Health and Safety Corporation (2007) _EHSGuidelines2 for air emissions and ceramics; industry. Industry-specific impacts and strategies to combat presented to minimise risks to Particulate matter from dryer & kiln stacks - 50 mg/Nm 3; • air pollution; and • labour issues; Guidelines for effluent levels from Production of WCs. these impacts are outlined. pollution. Benchmark figures are 3 • water treatment. • human health issues. 007_CeramicTile/ SO 2 - 400 mg/Nm ; Ceramic Tile and sanitary ware provided which are based on $FILE/Final+- NO - 600 mg/Nm 3; Sanitary Ware manufacture; Environmental issues refer to: i) emissions to air; ii) wastewater; these pollution minimisation x Emissions to Air Occupational H&S +Ceramic+Tile+an 3 HCl - 30 mg/Nm ; Manufacturing d+Sanitary+Ware. • Energy usage for and iii) solid waste. actions being followed. Particulate matter; Sulphur oxides; Nitrogen oxides; Common to most industrial facilities: HF - 5 mg/Nm 3; pdf sanitary ware GHG emissions; and Chlorides & Fluorides. Respiratory hazards; Exposure to heat; manufacturing Guidelines for emissions and effluents achieveable under normal Lead - 0.5 mg/Nm 3; Exposure to noise/ vibration; Physical processes. operating conditions in appropriately designed facilities with Cadmium - 0.2 mg/Nm 3; Wastewater hazards; and Electrical hazards. appropriate pollution prevention mechanisms for the ceramics TOC - 20 mg/Nm 3. Process wastewater may contain suspended solids, sector are provided. Good practice is to achieve the stated levels suspended/dissolved heavy metals, sulphates, 95% of the time. Effluent Levels boron, traces of organic matter. pH - 6-9 S.U.; Benchmark data for resource consumption and waste generation BOD - 60 mg/l; Solid Wastes for the ceramics industry are provided. TSS - 50 mg/l; Comprises different types of sludge from process Oil & grease - 10 mg/l; wastewater treatment and glazing/ plaster/ grinding Lead - 0.2 mg/l; activities; brokenware; broken refractory material; Cadmium - 0.1 mg/l; solids from dust treatments; spent plaster moulds; Chromium (total) - 0.1 mg/l; granular limestone/ limestone dust; packaging waste Cobalt - 0.1 mg/l; (plastic, wood, metal, paper). Copper - 0.1 mg/l; Nickel - 0.1 mg/l; Zinc - 2 mg/l. Energy Consumption Thermal: spray drying = 980-2,200 kJ/kg; Thermal: drying process = 250-750 kJ/kg; Thermal: once-fired firing = 5,400-6,300 kJ/kg; Thermal: twice-fired firing = 6,300- 7,300 kJ/kg; 3 Tile and Brick Clay D. Padmalal, K. Maya, K. www.krpcds.org/p n/a Extraction of raw India This study provides an assessment of the tile and brick clay N/A Soil Contamination Resource consumption; Labour issues; and Geographic location N/A Medium High Medium Low Mining and Related Narendra Babu and S.R. ublication/downloa materials; mining industry in Kerala, India. The industry is analysed with Labour issues; and Top soils of areas surrounding mining areas can become Water consumption; Local community issues. of mine (local socio- Environmental Mini (2004) - Kerala ds/96.pdf Production of respect to potential environmental and related impacts - i) land; ii) Local community issues. unsuitable for agricultural activity - removal of top layers Greenhouse gas emissions; economic & physical Impacts in the Research Programme on ceramics water; iii) atmosphere; and iv) socio-economic conditions. The can reveal fertile land. Air pollution; conditions); Chalakudy Basin, Local Level Development study concludes that the clay mining industry has a significant Water pollution; Extraction of raw Central Kerala Centre for Development impact on the environment although its contribution to Water Consumption/ Pollution Soil degradation; materials; and (Discussion Paper Studies, employment in the area means that environmental concerns are Mining process creates artificial ponds. Risk of Soil contamination; and Manufacture of No. 96) Thiruvananthapuram secondary. contamination of surface water by dust. Disused mines Biodiversity. ceramics. often filled with urban solid wastes and leachates can cause water pollution. Emissions to air during firing/ baking can get absorbed into rainwater and contaminate surface water. Lower than normal levels of groundwater as water pumped from pits to continue mining operations - water scarcity in summer seasons.

Air Pollution

Higher than normal levels of SO 2, CO, CO 2 from transportation and processing of raw clays. Health problems for local communities due to smoke emissions from kilns.

Socio-economics Mining provides employment opportunities.

Labour Several deaths following pit closure - not appropriately decommissioned. Deaths from pit collapse etc - poor H&S.

4 United States Patent Akio Matsumoto and Toshiya www.freepatentso • Relative material Production of Global Patent registration for a new method of preparing vitreous china N/A N/A Vitreous china comprising glass phase (25-70% by N/A N/A N/A N/A Medium High Low Low No. 5,372,976 - Nishikawa (December 1994) nline.com/537297 make-up of vitreous ceramics; and sanitaryware from this. The patent report describes the weight) and crystalline phase (75-30% by weight). Vitreous China, 6.html china Production of WCs. input materials and the process by which the vitreous china and Method for Preparing sanitaryware are formed. Glass phase = K 2O+Na 2O (4-12%), SiO 2 (50-75%), Al 2O3 the Vitreous China, (17-40%) Saintary Ware Crystalline phase (glaze) = Aluminia (10-60%), Quartz (0- Produced therefrom 20%), Mullite (2-20%) and glaze therefrom

5 Cradle-to-Gate Study María-Dolores Bovea; Úrsula N/A Extraction of raw Spain This study provides an LCA of the process of mining, treating N/A N/A • Excavation and loading and transport to crushing • Air pollution; N/A Processes involving of Red Clay for Use Saura; Jose Luis Ferrero; materials; and marketing red clay from a mine in Spain in order to identify facilities and heaps make the greatest contribution to • Resource consumption. movement of clay in the Ceramics Josep Giner (2007) - The Production of the stages and unit processes that have the greatest impact on impacts for pollution emissions; within the mine: Industry: International Journal of Life ceramics the environment. • Impacts directly related to fuel consumption • Excavation; Background, Aim Cycle Assessment (Volume • Loading and and Scope 12 (6) 439-447) transport to crushing and heaps.

6 How a toilet is made - Advameg (2007)http://www.madeh N/A Production of USA Outlines the process of making vitreous china from raw material Toilet bowls and tanks made from vitreous china: mix of ball clay N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Low Low Low Low Background, Raw ow.com/Volume- ceramics; (clay) to final product. and china clay + silica + fluxing agent. Clay received as liquid materials and the 5/Toilet.html Production of WCs. slurry which is thinned to a watery consistency and screened to Manufacturing remove impurities. Purified slip is thickened again and poured Process of a toilet into moulds for casting. Plaster of Paris moulds absorb water from clay and is dried to a semi-solid – called greenware. Left to dry in open air for several days and dried in a dryer for 20 hours at 100°C. Sprayed with glaze and then passed through graduated temperature zones in kiln: 200°C at start to 1,200°C in centre, to final temperature of 100°C – whole process taking about 40 hours.

Toilet seat made from plastic (polystyrene) or wood (hardwood, usually maple or birch, + melamine + zinc stearate).

Plastic seats made by injection moulding from melted polystyrene pellets. Pressure of 4,450 kg/ m 2 and 205°C to mould seat. Cool water pumped round the mould to bring the temperature down and the seat solidifies.

Page 1 of 21 WC Production

Wooden seats made from wood flour and 15% powdered plastic resin and a small amount of zinc stearate. Mixture is poured into a mould and heated to 150 deg C and clamped with 150t force for 6.5 mins, when the wood and melamine will be fused together and hardened. Seat is painted, passes through a vapour room to remove excess paint and then through a drying oven. Process is repeated 4 times – 2 coats of primer and 2 coats of enamel paint.

Tank fixtures made of stainless steel or copper and joint made from rubber-like plastic.

Clay waste can mostly be recycled/ reused as long it has not been fired. Air-dried greenware can be scrapped, softened and reprocessed into water slip of first stage.

7 Mining with Marcello M. Veiga, Malcolm http://66.102.1.10 N/A Extraction of raw Global This report presents case studies to demonstrate the diverse • Mining industry perceived as indifferent to present and future N/A • Case studies of how lack of education about • Soil contamination and degradation; • Human health issues; • Stakeholder This is a study that High Low High Medium Communities Scoble, Mary Louise 4/scholar?hl=en&lr materials challenges faced by mining operations in achieving a sustainable socio-economic and biophysical welfare of local communites. environmental/ mineral/ chemical hazards can pose risks • Water pollution; • Labour issues; engagement - Local focuses largely on McAllister (2001), 'Natural =&q=cache:9y6ZR mining community. Further it outlines approaches to foster • Sustainable mining community is one that can realise net to the local community. • Resource consumption; • Local and global communities. communities and the metal mining Resources Forum' Vol 25 LXXs2YJ:www.fac sustainable mining communities and the role of community benefit from introduction of mining that last beyond closure of • Case studies of how communities suffer from a lack of • Biodiversity. employees must see sector however the pp.191-202 ome.uqam.ca/pdf/ consultation and capacity building. mine: environmental issues, communication/ education with local economic alternatives following mine closure - MNC's benefits resulting issues are NRF_Mining_with community and perceived net benefit to community. responsibility to ensure sustainable future for local from mining transferable to the • MNCs do not always apply same environmental standards in community. operations in terms clay mining sector. _Communities_20 host country as country of origin. • ILO estimated 13 million miners in 55 countries globally - of social benefits, Examples of 01.pdf+ • Governments in developing countries' govts may encourage 80-100 million people depend on mining as livelihood. infrastructure environmental and unsustainable mining conditions in order to receive revenues. • Some countries facing severe social and environmental development etc. health issues • Responsibility of MNC to determine whether geological and problems from poor mining and process practices from • Industry- specifically relate to other conditions will support an environmentally safe lack of economic alternatives. community co- metal materials. development and closure. • Conservation/ heritage/ aesthetics often superseded by participation - • Need effective means of communication with all stakeholders - need for employment - typically countries where less able innovative local govt, employees, local people - to determine what is to make choices and plan for future. approaches to mutually agreed as positive developments and ensure education establishing long- and understanding of issues and prevent expectations of jobs, term benefits even benefits and developments being frustrated. after mine has • Child labour in mines in developing countries - poverty, closed lack of incentive for education, no employment prospects, lack of policy to prevent, reluctance to invest in improvements to social benefits of community. • Cultural, social and political constraints are barriers to meaningful consultation with stakeholders and developing consensus on common concerns. • Sustaining the community is integral to effective and respected operation - ecological sustainability, economic vitality, social equity.

8 EHS Guidelines - International Finance www.ifc.org/.../$FI N/A Extraction of raw Global These guidelines refer to EHS issues applicable to the extractive • Extraction activities for construction materials including mining N/A Air Emissions Respiratory Hazards Construction Corporation (2007) LE/Final+- materials industry. Industry-specific impacts and strategies to combat for limestone, clay, gypsum and feldspar. • Particulate matter emissions should take ecological • Exposure to dust and fine particles - Materials Extraction +Construction+Ma these impacts are outlined. • Due to market value, extraction of clay and feldspar may be and human toxicity of dust into account. workers at risk of pneumoconiosis, terials+Extraction. extracted at some distance from their intermediate processing • Combustion by-products from vehicles and emphysema, bronchitis and fibrosis. pdf Environmental issues refer to: i) Air emissions; ii) Noise and facilities/ final markets. machinery. Exposure to silica can cause silicosis. Vibrations; iii) Water; iv) Waste; and v) Land conversion. • Activities include: removal and storage of topsoils, excavation • Gases (toxic/ non-toxic) from blasting activities -

Occupational H&S issues refer to: i) Respiratory hazards; ii) by machinery (shovelling, ripping, drilling, blasting), transport, NO 2, CO and NO. Noise Physical hazards; and iii) Noise. crushing, grinding and stockpiling of materials. • Exposure to excessive noise. Community H&S issues refer to: i) Land instability; ii) Water; iii) • Activities for site closure: demolition of building structures, Noise & Vibrations Explosives safety; and iv) Decommissioning. removal of aboveground/ underground utilities, slope stabilisation, • Noise emissions from all extraction activities. Physical Hazards topsoil reinstatement, revegetation. • Vibrations impacts largely from blasting activities. Risk of physical injury from machinery and explosives. Water • Water consumption can be high in some extractive Land Instability industries. • Activities have potential to cause • Surface water regimes may be altered from flow landslide/ collapse that will impact on diversions, water intake, changes to drainage surround population. pattern. • Wastewater can be high in suspended solids. Also Water can contain nitrate and ammonia residues if blasting • Activities may later surface and used. groundwater regimes that will impact on • Potential for exposure of minerals containing local communities for potable water sulphite and elemental sulphur, although typically supplies, rishing, irrigation, stock associated with metal mining activities. watering, etc. • Diversion of water may lower Waste groundwater supply - often difficult to • Solid wastes include aggregate and removed predict/ reverse. topsoil, and hazardous wastes from impurities contained in rock. Decommissioning • Ecological habitat, structural and Land Conversion chemical contamination legacies if a • Excavation can involve major topographical and thorough decommissioning plan is not land-cover changes including clearing of pre-existing prepared. vegetation. This can lead to loss of soil, loss of naturally occurring vegetation, destruction fo ecological niches, leaching of minerals from soil, disruption of natural hydrological systems.

9 Minerals Planning Office of the Deputy Prime www.mineralsuk.c Raw materials UK This factsheet provided an overview of ball clay supply in the UK. • UK is a leading ball clay producer and exporter. N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A A large proportion of High Low Low Low Factsheet: Ball clay Minister & British Geological om/britmin/mpfbal extraction It's importance to the UK economy as a provider to domestic • Sales of ball clay totalled 0.96 million tonnes in 2004 - declining the UK's Society (2006) l_clay.pdf industry and as an exporter to the wider ceramics industry is due to competition, namely Ukraine. sanitaryware is explained as UK ball clay has specific qualities that makes it a • 159,000 tonnes for UK consumption. exported from desirable raw material for the production of high quality vitreous • 805,000 tonnes (83%) exported in 2004, 635,000 tonnes to EU outside of the EU china. (Spain & Italy mostly) - principally used in sanitary ware (namely China) manufacture. where the • UK ceramic sanitaryware = £205 million in 2002, employing information from this 16,500 people. factsheet will not • Ball clay has specific characteristics that make it suitable for apply. sanitaryware - only 3 locations in UK with suitable characteristics. EU regulations • 65% of UK locations are constrained in operations by nature concerning conservations and other designations. preservation of • All UK ball clay extraction by open pit methods - hydraulic natural habitat, H&S excavators and dump trucks. issues etc will not • Ratio of waste to ball clay varies with location - overall ratio of apply therefore it is clay to waste is 1:1.5. unknown what • 70% of ball clay is sold in shredded form. environmental and • UK ball clay qualities highly regarded for its consistent social impacts will characteristics. arise from ball clay • Blended ball clays transported in bulk, some in bags. extraction outside of Transported by road domestically. Exported by road to ports and the EU. shipped.

10 Introductory Report - Dr. J. Takala, Director, Safe This report provides an overview of the most recent estimates of Decent Work, Safe Work International Labour occupational and work-related accidents and diseases, world- Work for Office (2005) wide, some of the causes for recent changes and what the ILO International Labour and its member States are doing to improve conditions in the Organisation workplace for the millions who are at risk from injury.

Page 2 of 21 WC Production

11 Avoiding New Theodore E. Downing www.iied.org/mms n/a Raw materials Global • Resettlement effect = loss of physical and non-physical assets. • Need resettlement plan - time • World Bank review in 1994 identified <30% N/A • Joblessness; Raw materials N/A High Medium High High Poverty: Mining- (2002), International d/mmsd_pdfs/058 extraction • Goal of rehabilitation = sustainable devt where people are better bound and with a budget, setting • MIDR and new poverty are not perceived to be high • Homelessness; extraction Induced Institute for Environment _downing.pdf off than before - seldom achieved. out strategy, objectives priority issues for industry - emerging issues of liability, • Marginalisation; Displacement and and Development and • 9 potential risks: joblessness, homelessness, marginalisation, entitlement, actions, politics, economics and geology are forcing the subject to • Food insecurity; Resettlement World Business Council for food insecurtiy, loss of common lands and resources, increased responsibilities, monitoring and the surface. • Loss of common lands and resources; Sustainable Development . health risks, social disarticulation, disruption of formal educational evaluation. • Consolidated approach to dealing with MIDR issues and • Increased health risks; activities, loss of civil and human rights. • Prior consultation with best direction for investment not yet developed but should • Social disarticulation; • MIDR is identified by World Bank as major risk to societal stakeholders, namely community, be based on compensation + investment + stand-alone • Disruption of formal educational sustainability. essential. financing. activities; and • More likely to occur in poor, developing countries where land • Impoverishment risk • Loss of civil and human rights. tenure is weak, agriculture predominant - effects are more assessment - identify which devastating for people who rely on the land. people are at highest risk from 10 Local and global community; • Evidence of MIDR globally - can be expected to increase as known risk categories - identify Human health issues; national mining policies liberalised and companies opt for open- 'vulnerable groups'. Labour issues. cast mining and rural population density increases. • Identify entitlements to restore economic and social base - compensation, income restoration, transfer assistance, income substitution, training, benefits etc. • MIDR issues can induce new poverty on pre-existing impoverished areas.

12 Sectoral Mass Enviros Consulting (2004) http://www.epolitix • Vitreous china WC production UK Material composition Market/ Economic information • Focuses on manufacturing • 84%imported raw materials plus packaging is exported Resource consumption; N/A WC productionn/a High High High High Balance Study for .com/NR/rdonlyres composition. • Total clay (ball and china) consumption = 700,000 tonnes • Table & ornamental ware, sanitaryware and tiles are known operations: input/ output as finished product. 16% lost to: air as gaseous emissions Water consumption; the UK Ceramics /45519241-4666- • Vitreous china • Total flux (feldspar, nepheline syenite, silica, limestone, china collectively as ‘whiteware’ boundaries of movements (0.12%); land as waste (4.5%); and water as Greenhouse gas emissions; Industry 4AB2-B7F0- production process. stone) consumption = 371,200 tonnes materials. Other operations contamination in effluent (10.4%). Air pollution; 3 4D158A977522/0/ • UK sanitaryware • Total glazes consumption = 25,000 tonnes • 7 million sanitaryware units sold by UK manufacturers in outside production of sanitaryware • 41% (7.7 million m ) of total material input for total Water pollution; BiffawardProgram turnover. • Total plaster for mould making = 25,000 tonnes 1999/00 (ONS PRA, 2000) – unit is a finished article, equivalent products excluded (eg. quarrying). ceramics industry is water. Further 1 million m 3 Soil degradation; • UK sanitaryware • Vitreous china EC Customs Tariff Category = <3% water to 1.05 million tonnes of mass based on 15kg typical mass • Input boundaries: raw materials; Soil contamination. meonSustainable embedded in raw materials. sales. absorption; translucent; grey white/ added colour; and smooth (estimated by CERAM). ancillary production materials; ResourceUse113. • All water inputs are removed, either as steam or in • UK sanitaryware texture. Typical composition = 30% china clay, 20% ball clay, recycled materials from outside effluent streams. pdf. imports/ exports. 30% quartz, 20% flux. • UK sanitaryware manufacturing is worth 2.1 billion EUR and site; water; and energy. • Energy • Refer page 30 for schematic of manufacturing process for employees (Ceram 1999). • Data received from study Sanitaryware sub-sector mass balance consumption plus glazed, undecorated products. sample, which has been validated • 1% of ceramics industry output by mass; 10% of CO 2 equivalent. • Sanitaryware industry often supplied with raw materials by and scaled up comparing sub- sector’s turnover in value. • Resource efficiency. Production independent industries as require great range of highly refined sector data against 1999 • 88,000 tonnes product from 114,000 tonnes dry raw • Water consumption. • Universal technique of slip casting, which is poured into plaster materials according to certain specifications. Prodcom data for manufactured material: clay (50%), aggregates (22%), chemicals (17%), • Waste arisings (incl moulds. output. plaster (6%) and glaze (5%). disposal method) • Glazed in clay state by spraying with raw feldspathic glaze. • Raw materials increasingly sourced from third world countries • CO 2 emitted from mass loss • Fired to approach zero water absorption – around 1,200°C. however European clay producers remain important, with UK and from firing of 5% clay mass not Resource efficiency Can be continuous or intermittent. Gas is the most common fuel. Germany maintaining dominant position. included (loss on ignition – LOI). • Raw material efficiency = 15% • Dry material efficiency = 77% • Different sanitaryware standards and specifications across EU • Water consumption = 5m 3/ tonne production (excl mean that production plants maintained to serve local markets. embodied water in raw materials = 12% of water used) • Significant trade barrier due to UK siphon specifications so Energy goods must be produced especially for UK market – reduces • Predominantly dependent on gas fuel source. ability for UK manufacturers to export. • Energy use per tonne product = 6.6 MWh

• CO 2 equivalence per tonne product = 1.6 tonnes CO 2

Waste • KPI based on total mass of sector waste divided by mass of wet raw materials = 19% • Total sector waste = 272,524 tonnes. Breakdown: non- special (92.2%), special (2.8%), paper & board (1.3%), metal (1.1%), plastic (0.2%), other (2.4%). • Disposal routes breakdown: recycled (16.9%), incinerated (0.1%), reprocessed on-site (0.3%), reprocessed off-site (1%) and landfill (81.7%)

Page 3 of 21 WC Use

Title Author and SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Age Topics covered Key data identified Life Cycle Geogr- Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Targets/ New Methods Impact of policy/ Environmental Social Life Cycle Stages Other Contact (1) (2) (3) (4) Stages aphic method Identified as Making a Relevant Details Credibility Reliability Objectivit Transferabili Scope Significant Contribution Issues y ty 1 Improving the Market WC water • Typical WC WC UK This report gives indicative targets and eco- WC flushing accounts for 30% water • Increase sales of water efficient WCs In 2020: Water N/A Development of flushing N/A http://www. High High High High water efficiency Transformatio consumption; WC replacement cycle; production; design standards for WCs and addresses consumption. by improving info available at point of Class leader = 3l/flush consumption; technology; mtprog.com of WCs n Programme flush volume; • WC market spread Use water consumption of dual-flush and single- sale; Best practice = 4.5l/flush Resource Market guidelines/ minimum /SelectProd (MTP) (2007) Benchmark by product type; flush WCs. Includes policies to reduce Replacement cycle of 18 yrs. • Common test methodology to be used Market average = consumption standards; uctStrategy. performance • Potential water water consumption and risks/ issues for all stakeholders & manufacturers; 4.69l/flush Consumer flushing aspx?intSel targets for WC consumption potentially requiring a response. In 2007: • Remove from sale WCs below Minimum standard = behaviour; ection=7&in flushing and WC reductions from 70% + of UK market is dual flush. minimum standard for installation (6 5l/flush Construction guidelines/ tSector=6 design; Policies policies Policies refer to changing consumer Market leader = 6/4 dual flush. litres) and increase sales for water minimum standards; and strategy to awareness/ behaviour; setting regulated WC Class leader = 3.3l/flush efficient WCs; Aim to reduce WC flush Development of standard implement standards; developing WC innovation; and Best practice = 5l/flush • Raise consumer awareness of low-flush water consumption to testing methodology; reduction in WC building regulations/ requirements. Market average = 5.12l/flush WCs; 1,448 megalitre/day. Stakeholder engagement flush water Minimum standard = 6l/flush • Replace high flush WCs with best consumption. Scenarios are provided predicted changes in practice WCs/ install retrofit devices; Increased installation of WC water consumption for: Following current trends (no new • Provide guidance to developers/ 4.5 litre or less volume • 2020 with no new policy actions; policies), WC flush water consumption specifiers on WCs with 4.5 litre and less WCs in new • 2020 with all proposed actions taken; will reduce by 13% from 2,002 flush volumes; and developments. • 2020 with improvements delivered at megalitres/day to 1,740 megalitres/day. • Voluntary agreement with retailer and earliest possible opportunity. suppliers on water efficient WCs.

3 BNWAT18: Market Embodied energy • UK water use; Use UK This report describes the link between Total UK water use = 6.26x106 Ml/yr: • To enable realistic future scenarios, In 2020: Water N/A WC production; As no energy http://www. High High High High Accounting for Transformatio in providing water • Energy required to energy and water use - embodied in domestic = 62.5%, C&I = 25.6%, evaluate embodied energy use of water By implementing water consumption; Use. required in mtprog.com the trade-off n Programme to homes and in pump water; supplying water, heating during use of water, Agriculture = 11.9% supplied to home and of wastewater efficiency measures Resource operating WC /ApprovedB between energy (MTP) (2007) wastewater • Energy to supply treatment of wastewater. Sets out policies/ treatment. Watermark Project data is out embodied energy will be consumption. (Water companies have itself, direct riefingNotes and water use - management. water to home targets and action plan for achieving 3.7 TWh/yr to pump 4.36x106 Ml/yr. of date; and reduced: 1.25x106 Ml/yr greatest incentives to benefit from /PDF/MTP_ Innovation (98/99); reduction in water consumption. • Implement water efficiency measures. water saved and 520 increase water efficiency reduing water BNWAT18_ Briefing Note Reducing water • Energy to treat Watermark Project (1998/99) GWhr/yr saved. and reduce embodied consumption 2007Decem will reduce wastewater (98/99) Reducing water consumption will reduce 468 kWh per megalitre water supplied energy.) (i.e. lower flush ber10.pdf embodied energy energy use. Reducing energy use/ water 437 kWh per megalitre wastewater volumes, use however use can impair performance - risk of treated. recirculating reducing water repetition. Where one is increased and water for consumption will other is decreased, not clear which is the With no implemented solutions, water flushes). not reduce energy more sustainable. consumption will increase to 2025. use of a water- using appliance. Scenarios are provided for predicted increases in water consumption for: • 2020 with no new policy actions; • 2020 with all proposed actions taken; • 2020 with improvements delivered at earliest possible opportunity.

4 Water Nick Grant, • Water efficiency = Efficient fittings to Conservation Elemental reduce water consumption but no lifestyle Products: A Solutions changes should be required. preliminary • Water sufficiency = Optimisation of review equipment and user input to optimise water usage (i.e. enough is enough ) - no loss of effectiveness. (eg. turning tap off when brushing teeth) • Water substitution = Replacement of water with an alternative (e.g. air, compost for toilets or using broom to sweep pavement rather than a hose). • Water recycling/ reuse/ harvesting = reuse is with little treatment and recycle requires prior treatment

Page 4 of 21 Water & Sewage Treatment

Title Author SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE and Age Key data Life Geographic Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Targets/ New Impact of policy/ method Environmental Social Life Cycle Other Details (1) Credibility (2) Reliability (3) (4) identified Cycle Scope Methods Stages Relevant Objectivity Transferability Stages Identified as Issues Making a Significant Contribution 1 Sewage Treatment in the UK: UK Defra • Destinations of Use UK Government guidance on how sewage is treated in Sewage sludge to disposal n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a http://www.defra.g High Low Medium High Implementation of the EU Waste Water (2002) sewage sludge in the UK and action being taken to improve. outlets in 1999/00: ov.uk/Environment Treatment Directive the UK Farmland = 52% /water/quality/uww • Proportional Incineration = 21% td/report02/default sewage Landfill = 17% .htm treatment Other = 10% standards in UK Sewage Treatment Standards 1992 & 1995: Primary = 14% Secondary = 81% Tertiary = 5% 2 Energy and Sewage Parliament • Volume of Use England and This report provides a Over 10 billion litres of sewage produced everyday In 2005, energy recovering from Sludge incineration for energy recovery requires • Endocrine- • Human health Use n/awww.alphagalileo. High Low Medium High ary Office sewage Wales (unless background of the in England and Wales. waste combustion and biogas energy intensive centrifugation or thermal disrupting issues associated org/images/pdf.pdf of Science produced; otherwise UK's water and (including from sewage sludge) dehydration. Currently more acceptable to spread chemicals with reducing energy and • Energy to treat stated) energy management Approximately 6.34 GWh of energy to treat this accountd for 10.8% and 4.2% of over agricultural land but sewage increasing and (EDCs) from intensive wastewater Technolog sewage; with particular volume of sewage. Actual energy will depend on UK renewable energy. agricultural land decreasing therefore incurring human waste treatment methods. y (April • Sludge disposal emphasis on sewage quality of sewage and treatment required (Primary/ greater transport costs. have adverse • Increased water 2007, destinations; treatment, which is Secondary/ Tertiary). effect on pollution due to less No.282) • Energy identified as a major Increase energy efficiency by Biogas production from sewage treatment already endocrine rigorous sewage recovery from consumer of energy Effluent discharge to fresh, ground or coastal replacing machine parts with an established means of energy generation - likely to systems of treatment methods sewage sludge. within the water waters. Sludge is applied to agricultural land (62%), more efficient ones and increase if spreading of sludge is restricted further. animals and fish industry. Various incinerated (19%), used for land reclamation (11%) optimising sensor technology • Faecal pollution options for sewage or alternative uses such as composting or landfill (eg. adjust pump according to Future technologies of energy production from - currently treatment are (8%). flow) - can produce savings of sewage treated by evaluated in terms of 30-50%. • Conversion to oil & gas - high operational costs energy intensive energy conservation Energy used to abstract, treat and distribute drinking from maintaining high temperatures UV radiation and renewable energy water; collect, treat and discharge sewage and generation. manage sewage sludge.

Sludge produced either by: percolating filter bed In 2005/06 493 GWh of • Use as fertiliser for biomass crops as final (low energy, small volume of sludge for energy) or renewable energy generated treatment stage for liquid sewage - low operational activated sludge processing (ASP) (3x energy of from sewage treatment at water costs but not known how efficient at removing filter bed, much greater volume of sludge for industry sites - sludge pollution and large area of land required. energy). ASP emerging as industry standard for incineration, biogas. secondary treatment.

4 Towards Sustainability 2005-2006 Water UK • Chemicals Use UK This report outlines Chemicals n/a Chemicals n/a n/a Use n/a www.water.org.uk/ High Low Medium High used to supply the water industry's • to supply 1Ml water = 0.07 tonnes The more chemicals are used in treatment of water home/policy/report and treat water/ strategy for • to sewage 1Ml sewage = 0.07 tonnes and wastewater, less potential for recovery. General s/sustainability/indi wastewater; sustainability in • percentage sewage recycled = 0.1% upward trend in recycling of drinking water and cators-2005- • Destination of carrying out its wastewater sludge 06/towards- sewage sludge; operations. Statistics Sewage sludge sustainability-2005- • Volumes of are provided for • total = 1.35m tonnes Sludge 2006.pdf leakage from environmental, climate • percentage reused = 88% Treatment of wastewater involves removal of water network; change and which produces biosolids (sludge). Can be recycled • Energy to community based Leakage to land to use a fertiliser for agriculture or reused as supply/ treat issues along with a • loss of supply from network = 4,858 Ml/day a fuel. Remainder is landfilled or incinerated (with water/ sewage; commentary of energy recovery). • Energy used; performance based Energy • Energy on previous years. On • to supply 1 Ml water = 586kWh Leakage generated from the whole, the results • to treat 1 Ml sewage = 634kWh Ofwat set target to point where costs for reducing sewage; are either an • renewable energy used = 14% leakage further equal the cost of supply water from • GHG emissions improvement on • renewable energy generated = 493GWh next cheapest resource option. Water leakage from previous years or distribution has decreased since previous years. largely the same. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Notable exceptions • to supply 1 Ml water = 0.289 tonnes Energy relate to the supply of • to treat 1 Ml sewage = 0.406 tonnes Energy used in treating water/ wastewater and at water and pumping stations. Positive trend in use of renewable maintenance of water energy sources compared to previous years. infrastructure. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Arise from use of gas and electricity from fossil fuels and from transport, and directly from facility.

5 Chlorine and disinfection by-products Water UK n/a Use UK This article addresses • All UK water disinfected before supply, usually by N/A N/A N/A • Human health Use n/a http://www.water.o High Low Low Low (2007) the chemicals used to chemical oxidant (eg. chlorine, chlorine dioxide, issues associated rg.uk/home/policy/ disinfect drinking ozone) or physical disinfectant (eg. UV light). with chlorination of positions/chlorine water to safe Chemicals can react to form by-products but these water - no evidence standards in the UK. are at low levels. Water industry closely monitors to proove. This is identified as supply to ensure no exceedences of chemicals in being chemical drinking supply. • Human health oxidation using issues associated chlorine based • Most common disinfectant is chlorine as it is with by-products of chemicals, or physical effective and easy to control. chemicals used to disinfection by UV disinfect water - light. • No evidence from research to suggest that although only chlorination of drinking water has adverse effects to present at low levels. human health however water industry minimises any theoretical risks as a precaution.

6 Leakage Water UK This article addresses • >325,000km mains and millions of joints vulnerable (2007) the issue of leakage in to ground conditions and traffic pressure - not mains water pipes and possible to reduce UK leakage to zero. the significant water • Leakage should be maintained to point where loss incurred from this. environmental, economic and social cost of water saved by reduced leakage = cost of new resources. A new strategy aims • 30% reduction in leakage in England & Wales to see a reduction in since 1995. water loss from • Previously operated a 'find and fix' policy. Now leakage of 300 million operating more wholesale mains replacement. litres per day by 2010. • If schedules met, reduction in leakage of 300 million litres per day by 2010.

Page 5 of 21 End of Life - waste management Title Author and SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Age Key data Life Cycle Geographic Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Impact of Environmental Social Life Cycle Stages Other Details (1) Credibility (2) Reliability (3) (4) identified Stages Scope Targets/ New policy/ method Identified as Relevant Objectivity Transferabilit Methods Making a Issues y Significant Contribution 1 Survey of Office of the • Construction, End of life waste England 2003: N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A www.communities. High High High High Arisings and Use Deputy Prime demolition and management Total CDEW = 90,932,000 tonnes gov.uk/publication of Construction, Minister (2005) excavation s/planningandbuild Demolition and waste arisings Recycled aggregate/soil: ing/surveyarisings Excavation and disposal • Hard C&D = 39,597,000 tonnes Waste as destinations for • Excavation (used as soil) = Aggregate in the year 2003. 5,852,000 tonnes England in 2003 • CDEW arisings in 2003; Landfill engineering/ restoration: • CDEW • Hard C&D = 694,000 tonnes management • Excavation = 5,318,000 tonnes routes in 2003. • Mixed CDEW = 441,000 tonnes

Back-fill quarry voids: • Hard C&D = 1,314,000 tonnes • Excavation = 9,832,000 tonnes • Mixed CDEW = 2,264,000 tonnes

Landspread over exempt sites: • Hard C&D = 1,963,000 tonnes • Clean, unmixed excavation = 8,728,000 tonnes • Mixed CDEW = 5,738,000 tonnes

Landfill: • Clean unmixed hard C&D = 630,000 tonnes • Mixed/ contaminated hard C&D = 225,000 tonnes • Clean excavation = 2,759,000

tonnes • Mixed/ contaminated excavation = 2,432,000 tonnes • Mixed CDEW = 3,146,000 tonnes

2 Survey of Department for • Construction, End of life waste England 2005: N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A www.communities. High High High High Arisings and Use Communities demolition and management Total CDEW = 89,630,000 tonnes gov.uk/publication of Alternatives to and Local excavation s/planningandbuild Primary Government: waste arisings Recycled aggregate produced = ing/survey Aggregates in London (2007) and disposal 42,070,000 tonnes England 2005: destinations for Recycled soil producted = Construction, the year 2005. 4,360,000 tonnes Demolition and • CDEW Excavation arisings in 2005; Landfill engineering: Waste • CDEW • Clean hard C&D = 850,000 management tonnes routes in 2005. • Contaminated hard C&D = 10,000 • Clean excavation = 2,650,000 tonnes • Contaminated excavation = 80,000 tonnes • Clean mixed CDEW = 330,000 tonnes • Other = 280,000 tonnes

Landfill capping: • Clean hard C&D = 20,000 tonnes • Clean excavation = 5,370,000 tonnes • Clean mixed CDEW = 20,000 tonnes • Other = 20,000 tonnes

Landfilled • Clean hard C&D = 440,000 tonnes

Page 6 of 21 End of Life - waste management Title Author and SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Age Key data Life Cycle Geographic Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Impact of Environmental Social Life Cycle Stages Other Details (1) Credibility (2) Reliability (3) (4) identified Stages Scope Targets/ New policy/ method Identified as Relevant Objectivity Transferabilit Methods Making a Issues y Significant Contribution • Contaminated hard C&D = 70,000 tonnes • Clean excavation = 12,500,000 tonnes • Contaminated excavation = 980,000 tonnes • Clean mixed CDEW = 2,450,000 tonnes • Contaminated mixed CDEW = 430,000 tonnes • Other = 1,260,000 tonnes

Landspread over exempt sites = 15,440,000 tonnes 3 Waste Strategy Defra (2007) • Govt targets End of life England This document outlines the Landfill Tax N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A http://www.defra.g High High High High for England to reduce waste Government's strategy to • currently £24 per tonne for ov.uk/environment 2007: Annex CDEW in management reduce the environmental non-hazardous (and non- /waste/strategy/str C3 England. impacts of CDEW generation. inert) wastes for 2007/08 - will ategy07/pdf/waste Construction, The strategy is relevant to the increase by £8 per tonne 07-annex-c3.pdf demolition and construction industry as a each year from 1 Apr 08 until excavation whole however specific at least 2010-11. waste strategies are influential when considering the end of life Aggregates Levy management of WCs. • currently £1.60 per tonne of virgin aggregate - to increase The Government’s objectives to £1.98/tonne from 1 Apr 08. in relation to construction • encourages use of waste are: construction aggregates and • to provide the drivers for the recycling of CDEW in place of construction sector to improve new quarrying. its economic efficiency by creating less waste at every Site Waste Management stage of the supply chain, Plans (SWMP) from design to demolition; • requirement for sites to • to get the sector to treat produce documented waste waste as a resource, closing management (segregation the loop by re-using and and disposal routes) plan. recycling more and asking • encourage reduction in contractors for greater use of waste generated and improve recovered material; and resource efficiency. • to improve the economics of the re-use and recycling Code for Sustainable sector by increasing sector Homes demand and securing • new national standard for sustainable design and construction of new homes. investment. • 'star rating' for new home to demonstrate environmental performance. • SWMP is minimum standard under code - more points for re-use, recycling etc. • voluntary standard for new homes in England only.

Page 7 of 21 Misc Data & Statistics Title Author and Age SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Key data identified Life Cycle Geographi Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Impact of Environmen Social Life Cycle Stages Other Details (1) (2) Reliability (3) (4) Stages c Scope Targets/ policy/ tal Identified as Relevant Credibility Objectivity Transferabilit New method Making a Issues y Methods Significant Contribution 1 UK Climate & Met Office Online • Average seasonal Use UK N/A Winter = Dec-Feb; Spring = Mar-May; Summer = Jun-Aug; N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A http://www.metoffi Medium Low High High Weather temperatures in UK Autumn = Sep-Nov ce.gov.uk/climate/ Statistics uk/ 2006: Winter = 3.9°C Spring = 7.4°C Summer = 15.8°C Autumn = 11.4°C

2005: Winter = 4.7°C Spring = 8.1°C Summer = 14.8°C Autumn = 10.4°C

2004: Winter = 4.4°C Spring = 8.4°C Summer = 14.9°C Autumn = 10.0°C

Average seasonal (2004-2006): Winter = 4.3°C Spring = 8.0°C Summer = 15.2°C Autumn = 10.6°C

2 Britons lead the The Daily • Toilet paper Use UK This article identifies Britain • 17.6 kg toilet paper per person per year N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A www.telegraph.c Medium Low Low Low way in toilet Telegraph (5th consumption per as the highest toilet paper • Toilet paper consumption of 110 rolls per capita o.uk/news/main. paper use February 2007) person per year in consumer in Europe. It • Research by European Tissue Symposium predicts that jhtml?xml=/news Britain further predicts an increase Europe's toilet paper consumption will increase by 40% over /2007/02/05/wrol in toilet paper consumption the next decade ls05.xml of 40% over the next • UK is almost two and a half times the European average decade. 3 World BSRIA Press & • 2004 data for value WC Global This provides a market • Ceramic WC market reached 73.8 million units (US$2.6 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A http://www.bsria.c High Medium Medium Medium Sanitaryware Information of WC market and production; overview of the world billion) in 2004 - Closed-coupled WCs for the top10 markets o.uk/press/?press Market Overview breakdown by country. Use. sanitaryware market. It is held 59% of world volume sales in 2004 with China being =213 • Relative split based on recently published largest market with 13.5 million units in 2004 followed by the between ceramic and investigations into the US with 8.7 million sales. plastic cisterns. sanitaryware, taps & mixers, • Sales of other WC types occupy a minor segment among • Leading sanitary and baths & showers the top10 WC markets, with Japan holding 65% of total ware producers. markets across 23 countries sales. These are tank-less toilets, which use water directly - 14 in Europe, 4 in America from the water supply in order to flush the toilet. and 4 in Asia. The research • WCs largely manufactured from ceramic (71%) with consisted of an extensive plastics being the second most popular material. Use of research programme of face marble, steel and other materials is negligible. China, the US to face and telephone and Russia dominate the total ceramic cistern market interviews with suppliers in whereas Brazil, Germany and Italy were the largest market the market at local and pan- for plastics in 2004. regional level. • Ideal Standard, part of American Standard, was the leading supplier of ceramic sanitaryware by value in 2004 (19% of the 15 European markets by price). • Spanish group Roca was the main supplier by volume, which accounted for 18.0% of the same market. • Sanitec was in second place in both volume and value terms. • The top-6-suppliers ranking is completed by Villeroy & Boch, Eczacibasi and Jacob Delafon (Kohler Group).

4 Water prices Water UK (2008) • Cost of drinking Use UK This article provides • 1p for 10 litres in England & Wales - about 90p per day. N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A http://www.water.o High Low High High water; consumers with information • Water/ wastewater services vary according to local rg.uk/home/resour • Cost of treating, regarding water supply and conditions - quality of raw water, geographical and ces-and- supplying and disposal sewage treatment disposal. environmental factors. links/waterfacts/w of wastewater per • Estimated 33% customers are metered in 2007/08. aterprices appliance. • Cost of flushing WC per flush = 1-2p (assumes cost of water and wastewater combined at 0.20p per litre, Ofwat 2007)

Page 8 of 21 Misc Data & Statistics Title Author and Age SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Key data identified Life Cycle Geographi Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Impact of Environmen Social Life Cycle Stages Other Details (1) (2) Reliability (3) (4) Stages c Scope Targets/ policy/ tal Identified as Relevant Credibility Objectivity Transferabilit New method Making a Issues y Methods Significant Contribution 5 Water by Water UK (2008) • Total water supplied Use UK This article provides Water supplied N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A http://www.water.o High Low High High numbers to UK per day. consumers with information • England & Wales = 15,922 Ml (1 million litres) per day. rg.uk/home/resour • Number of water regarding industry data on • UK = 19,000 Ml per day. ces-and- treatment works in UK. water and wastewater links/waterfacts/w • Total length of mains services, infrastructure, Water treatment works aterindustry/data in UK. water quality, finance and • England & Wales = 1,301 • Total volume investment. Data is sourced • UK = 1,699 wastewater received from 'Who's Who in the per day in UK. Water Industry 2007. Length of mains water infrastructure • Total length of • England & Wales = 335,500 km sewers in UK. • UK = 408,500 km • Total number of wastewater treatment Wastewater works in UK. • England & Wales = 10,000 Ml per day • UK = 11,200 Ml per day

Length of sewers • England & Wales = 309,831 km • UK = 370,000 Ml

Wastewater treatment works • England & Wales = 6,362 • UK = 9,300

6 Waste Conversation N/A End of life UK Demolition N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A End of life waste N/A 01923 664000 High Low High Low management of with Sylvia waste Ceramics are left in the management ceramics Zakar, BRE managemen building and destroyed in t demolition. Demolition waste is collected and recycled as aggregate. Glaze on vitreous china does not affect its use as an aggregate.

Individual disposal • Crushed and recycled as aggregate; or • Deposited at salvage yard for reuse (rarely for hygiene reasons).

Recycle methods • Used as in-fill or for landscaping on-site; or • Removed off-site, graded and sold; or • Removed off-site and spread over exempt site (e.g. golf course).

7 Domestic heating Energy Saving • Efficiency of fuels for Use UK This report describes the Figures for heating efficiency are often quoted, but any N/A N/A • Resource N/A Use N/A www.energysavi High High High High by electricity Trust (2006) heating options for heating homes meaningful comparison between fuels must take account of consumption ngtrust.org.uk/... by electricity, compares the whole energy supply chain, progressing through primary /CE185.GPG34 them with alternatives, and energy, delivered energy and useful energy. Simply stated: 5%20- advises on specifying • Primary energy is that required at source before %20Domestic% electric heating and hot conversion, distribution and delivery. water systems to best • Delivered energy is that supplied to the home, on which 20heating%20by practice standards. payment is based. %20electricity.p • Useful energy is that required to warm the home or heat df the water

Conversion efficiency of delivered to useful energy is very high for electric heating , and can normally be taken as 100% irrespective of the type or make of appliance used.

Conversion efficiency of delivered to useful energy is lower for gas and oil – typically around 86% for new gas and oil boilers.

Page 9 of 21 Misc Data & Statistics Title Author and Age SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Key data identified Life Cycle Geographi Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Impact of Environmen Social Life Cycle Stages Other Details (1) (2) Reliability (3) (4) Stages c Scope Targets/ policy/ tal Identified as Relevant Credibility Objectivity Transferabilit New method Making a Issues y Methods Significant Contribution 6 A review of the Water • Recommendations to Use UK • Develop best practice N/A n/a N/A n/a n/a N/A n/a High High High High enforcement of Regulations support the guidance manual to cover the Water Supply Advisory Regulations. enforcement - recognise (Water Fittings) Committee differing priorities of water Regulations 1999 (2002) companies and be reviewed from 1 April 2000 to ensure reflects current to 31 March 2001 good practice. WRAS should lead these discussions with a view to producing a guidance manual by April 2003. • One national model for Approved Contractor schemes. (Currently eight separate schemes with variable entrance requirements) - develop minimum entry threshold and benefit structure for implementation by April 2003. • Regulations, their interpretation in guidance documents and the Regulator’s Specifications should be kept under review to recognise and encourage new technology and to prevent the Regulations becoming a barrier to innovation or trade. • Further consideration of the system of self- certification allowed by the Regulations required - introduce of quality control mechanisms to ensure test equipt meets national standards. • Lack of point of sale control allows noncompliant products to be lawfully sold but unlawfully installed. DEFRA should consider the introduction of point of sale control of water fittings.

7 DOMESTIC BRE Housing • Mix of fuels used for Use UK The purpose of this report is In 2001: N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A www.projects.br high High High High ENERGY FACT Centre (2003) domestic heating in UK to gather together in one • Natural gas = 69% e.co.uk/factfile/b FILE 2003 volume data on important • Solid fuel = 4% r457prtnew.pdf trends related to domestic • Oil = 6% energy use, and in particular • Electricity = 20% on the measures that have been taken to improve energy efficiency.

Baseline year of 2001.

Page 10 of 21 Ecoinvent Studies

Emission Factor Name Simapro Reference Processes Uncertainties of note 1 Transoceanic freight ship Translated name: Transport, Frachter Übersee Operation of vessel • Specific fuel consumption of transoceanic freight ship = 1.3. Literature shows different figures - values used for this study represent a rather low fuel consumption. • EIs for persistent organic compounds (PAH) based on very limited data sets Included processes: The module calls the modules addressing: operation of vessel; • Marine fuels combusted in ships’ engines, consist primarily of residual and distillate fuels and used for the main engines propelling the vessel. Lighter fuels (diesel, and therefore considered to be highly uncertain. production of vessel; construction and land use of port; operation, maintenance and gas oils) used for auxiliary engines that provide for lighting, pumping etc. • Lack of information on inland shipping particulate emissions available – figures disposal of port. • Fuel consumption for propelling only is accounted for: heavy fuel oil at regional storage. for combustion of heavy fuel oil assumed (Jungbluth 2003). Remark: Inventory refers to the entire transport life cycle. Port infrastructure • Heavy metal emissions depend on metal content of fuel, which depends on metal content of original crude. Metal content generally higher in residual fuel oil. Figures expenditures and environmental interventions are allocated based the yearly derive from CORINAIR (2002) and represent a mix using distilled/ residual ratio of 28:72 IMO (2000). throughput (0.37). Vessel manufacturing is allocated based on the total kilometric • Tributylin compounds used as antifoulants on ships - assumed 120g/m 2 (Champ & Bleil 1988), leaching of 5-50 µg/m 2d and painted surface of 34,000m 2 (Heusser performance (2'000'000km) and its transport performance (50000/unit). For each 1992). transport activity 2 ports are required.; Geography: Data from one port in Netherlands is employed as an estimate for international water transportation. Technology: HFE based steam turbine and diesel engines. Manufacture and • Yearly km performance = 100,000km Version: 1.3 disposal of vessel • Average lifespan = 20 years Energy values: Undefined • Total km performance = 2,000,000km Percent representativeness: 0.0 • Average carrying capacity = 50,000t Ecoinvent system process without infrastructure. • Average load factor = 32,500t • Transport performance/ vehicle = 65,000,000,000 tkm/vehicle • Load capacity assumed to be 51,500t • Standard distances applied for transport • NMVOC emissions based on 60% solvent content and assumed 100% released as NMVOC • Energy assumed to be 50% of cumulative energy of materials used (10% electricity, 90% heavy fuel oil) • Waste treatment for non-metal components included.

Construction, • Represents conditions at Port of Rotterdam, Netherlands, unless otherwise stated. operation, land use • Total transported tonnage is used to determine the demand factor for port infrastructure = 3.18E-09 unit/t. and disposal of port Total port area = 10,500 ha Area of water = 3,500 ha Land area = 7,000 ha

• Average transport distance of 5,000km assumed. • Port demand assumed to 1.27E-12 unit/tkm. • The figures for disposal are derived from Maibach et al. (1999) and are rough estimates, accounting for excavation and transport of the deconstructed material as well as for disposal of the materials as inert waste, 5% water on inert material landfill. • Oil spills occurring in the water area are accounted for as emissions to water - geometric mean of 100,133kg oil to water used for study. • Energy consumption at the port is based on assumptions for the specific electricity consumption at the port in Hamburg. • Land occupation and transformation are taken into account. 2 Transport, lorry 32t/RER Sni Translated name: Transport, Lkw 32t Operation of vehicle • For the attribution of vehicle share to the transport performance a vehicle life time performance of 5.23E06 tkm/vehicle have been assumed.; Geography: Data • Uncertainties for airborne gaseous emissions data considered to be low. Included processes: operation of vehicle; production, maintenance and disposal of refers to average transport conditions in Europe (EU 15: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, • Several uncertainties for particulate emissions. Large (PM>10) caused by non- vehicles; construction and maintenance and disposal of road. Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the UK).The data for road infrastructure reflect Swiss conditions. exhaust mechanical process - low reliability, high uncertainty. Fine (PM<2.5) Remark: Inventory refers to the entire transport life cycle. For road infrastructure, • Assumed that all heavy duty vehicles (HDV) are diesel engine vehicles. originate from exhaust emissions and has lower uncertainty. expenditures and environmental interventions due to construction, renewal and • Average EU15 diesel fuel consumption of 2.69E-01 kg/vkm; 11.53 MJ/vkm; 32.07 litres/100km. • Emission indices for heavy metals based on expert estimates. Also based on disposal of roads have been allocated based on the Gross tonne kilometre • Airborne gaseous emissions from exhaust and evaporation included - sulphur content of 300 ppm for diesel assumed. Data used calculated from Swiss conditions particulate emission fractions which are highly uncertain. performance. Expenditures due to operation of the road infrastructure, as well as • Hydrocarbon emissions included - based on Swiss vehicles, diesel concepts distinguished and warm emission fraction applied. land use have been allocated based on the yearly vehicle kilometre performance. • Particulate emissions included - distinguishes between emissions from exhaust due to fuel combustion and non-exhaust emissions from abrasion of tyres and For the attribution of vehicle share to the transport performance a vehicle life time brakes etc. No further distinction between vehicle class size is made. performance of 5.23E06 tkm/vehicle have been assumed.; Geography: Data refers • Heavy metal emissions to air, soil and water from trace elements in fuels and tyre abrasion accounted for. to average transport conditions in Europe (EU 15: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Maintenance and Study doesn't appear to refer to 32t lorry. Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the UK).The data for road infrastructure reflect Swiss disposal of vehicles conditions. Data for vehicle manufacturing and maintenance represents generic European data. Data for the vehicle disposal reflect Swiss situation. Construction, • Generic data for Swiss road infrastructure applied to account for environmental interventions due to construction, renewal, operation and maintenance - all • Road construction material and energy consumption data considered to be Technology: For vehicle operation all technologies are included in the average data. maintenance and environmental exchanges refer to one meter year (m*a). high quality. Road construction comprises bitumen and concrete roads. For the manufacturing of vehicles,disposal of road • Data organised into 3 sub-modues: i) Road; ii) Operation, maintenance and road; and iii) Dispoal, road. • NMVOC emissions data from road construction data considered to be low. the data reflects current modern technologies • Road expenditures/ interventions from tunnel and bridge construction and maintenance of the road network. Data generation difficult as roads differ within category • Share of tunnels per km of road likely to be lower in other EU countries. Version: 1.3 and categories distinguish between function and not condition. For further calculations total length of the Swiss Road network of 71114 km Bundesamt für Statistik • Most of the road operation data based on assumptions and considered to be Synonyms: truck, Heavy Duty Vehicle, Lastwagen (BfS) (2000) assumed. qualified estimates. Energy values: Undefined • Construction and renewal of road needs to be allocated between passenger and goods vehicles allocation based on the Gross transport [Gtkm] performance as • Land occupation data quality considered to by good. Ecoinvent system process without infrastructure. proposed by Frischknecht (1996) and Maibach (1999). For the European road network total Gtkm-performance of 8.87E+12 Gtkm applied resulting in a specific road • Land transformation based on an arbitrary time period and may differ for a demand per Gtkm of 3.65E-04 (m*a)/Gtkm (assuming a total road length of 3.24E+06 km). For EU 32T truck = 38.07% of total network. different time period. Data considered to be average for Swiss conditions. • If road operation and land use are important, the time occupied by different user types, regardless of weight, is more appropriate allocation. Therefore yearly vehicle km perfomance is selected as allocation criterion for land use, road operation and mai • Road surface is based on Swiss data for 1m of road in 1 year and different road types are distinguished between, including 10% of motorways of concrete construction.

• Material consumption of road: 50% recycling for foundation, no recycling for surfacing/ subgrade. Subgrade laste 100 years and then reconstructed. No recycling for concrete assumed. • Significant VOC emissions from bitumen use in road construction. Different road types are distinguished between. • Size distribution of particulate matter adjusted to comply with size distribution for this study. • Tunnel construction expenditure limited to energy consumption for lighting/ ventilation - no further expenditures for road. Assumed that 50% of tunnels and two pipes = 147m per km of road. Different road types are distinguished between. • Bridge construction expenditure is based on that of rail bridges due to lack of other data. Assumptions made for total length of bridges and data available only for motorways. • Operation and maintenance of roads: de-icing, weed control, road marking, energy consumption - different road types distinguished between, • For land use, distinction between land use vs. land occupation and further distinction between paved road areas and embankments. For this study, no data for EU land use therefore Swiss data used and road allocation factors applied. • Road disposal - complete reuse/recycling of road materials assumed. Expenditures accounted for are skid-steer loader, transport over 20km of 80% to recycling plants

Page 11 of 21 Ecoinvent Studies

Emission Factor Name Simapro Reference Processes Uncertainties of note

3 Sodium perborate, monhydrate Translated name: Natriumperborat, Monohydrat, Pulver, ab Werk Material and energy • NaBO 3H2O • former EMPA study (1998) based on data from 9 different European powder at plant Included processes: This module contains material and energy input for the input for the • natural gas, oil and hard coal needed for process heating producters and are representative and of high quality - uncertainty considered to production of perborates out of borax, NaOH and hydrogen peoroxide. Transport production of • standard values for production of organic chemicals applied for transport processes and infrastructure of chemical plant be low. and infrastructure have been estimated. perborates out of • input data based on EMPA study on detergents (1999) and former stude of EMPA and Boustead-Consulting for the peroxygen sector group of European Chemical Remark: data based on a study, performed by EMPA and Boustead Consulting borax, NaOH and Industry Council (1998). CAS number: 007632-04-4; Geography: average data from 9 European producers hydrogen peroxide. • main contributors to environmental loads are precursor substances for production and heat production step Technology: average technology used from these European producers Transport and Version: 1.3 infrastructure have Energy values: Undefined been estimated. Percent representativeness: 85.0 Production volume: unknown This unit process contains confidential information. Therefore, only the aggregated inventory data are given in this process sheet. This makes this process similar to its corresponding system process in the system library. Ecoinvent system process without infrastructure.

4 Electricity medium voltage, Translated name: Strom, Mittelspannung, Produktion GB, ab Netz Study only appears to be in German!!! production GB at grid Remark: This dataset describes the transformation hight to medium voltage, the transmission of electricity at medium voltage. Included are electricity losses and

direct SF 6-emissions to air.; Geography: The calculations are based on Swiss data.

Specific SF 6-Emissions (percentage of SF 6 stock) are based on British data. Technology: Average technology used to transmit and distribute electricity. Includes underground and overhead lines, as well as air-, vacuum- and SF6-insulated high-to- medium voltage switching stations.

Time period: Data on SF 6 emissions and electricity consumption are for 2000 Version: 1.3 Energy values: Undefined Percent representativeness: 100.0 Ecoinvent system process without infrastructure. 5 Heat, natural gas, at boiler Translated name: Nutzwärme, Erdgas, ab Heizkessel mod. <100kW Study only appears to be in German!!! modulating >100kW Included processes: The module calls the module 'natural gas, burned in boiler modulating <100kW' which in turn includes fuel input from low pressure (CH) network, infrastructure (boiler), emissions, and electricity needed for operation. The module uses the average net efficiency for the type of boiler (estimated from literature). The heat distribution is not included.; Geography: Extrapolation from Switzerland to Europe (RER). Technology: New models on market Version: 1.3 Energy values: Undefined Ecoinvent system process without infrastructure.

6 Sanitary ceramics at regional Translated name: Polyethylen-Granulat, HDPE, ab Werk Gate to gate • based on information for 2 factories from major European sanitary ceramics producer (OSPAG 2002) and an LCA case study with data from a producer in Italy. • data is detailed but from one single source - overall quality considered to be storage Included processes: Aggregated data for all processes from raw material extraction production of • electricity and other products consumed are based on EU average mediocre until delivery at plant sanitary ceramics, • detailed production waste from OSPAG provided, input data not as detailed - some waste fractions without corresponding input data Remark: Data are from the Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry (APME). including transport of • standard transport distances used for transport of metal inputs Not included are the values reported for: recyclable wastes, amount of air / N2 / O2 raw materials to • transport of product to consumption in Switzerland assumed at 600km rail freight consumed, unspecified metal emission to air and to water, mercaptan emission to factory and of • lifetime of buildings assumed at 50 years, lifetime of machines assumed at 25 years air, unspecified CFC/HCFC emission to air. The amount of "sulphur (bonded)" is product to • cumulative energy demand (CED) from firing and electricity consumption assumed to be included into the amount of raw oil. Switzerland. • dust emissions from handling of raw materials only emission of relevance - particles of PM 2.5 CAS number: 009002-88-4; Geography: 10 European production sites • emissions from firing and electricity consumption upstream (A,B,F,P,NL,S,UK) • wastes often oil-contaminated Technology: polymerization out of ethylene under normal pressure and temperature • major part of non-contaminated waste can be recycled Time period: time to which data refer • ceramics produced in slurry processing produces wastewater that requires treatment - data for Austrian wastewater treatment plant available. Version: 1.3 Synonyms: HDPE, PE, HD-PE Energy values: Undefined Percent representativeness: 32.2 Production volume: 1.32 Mt (1992) Ecoinvent system process without infrastructure.

7 Polyethylene, HDPE, granulate Translated name: Polyethylen-Granulat, HDPE, ab Werk Cradle to grave • Dataset established as European average based on information from plastics industrial association (ie. APME) (Boustead 1995-2003). It is from cradle to grave • Information for production of fuels and energy taken from International Energy at plant Included processes: Aggregated data for all processes from raw material extraction production of high covering extraction of resources to production of the product. Agency (International Energy Agency (1997a); International Energy Agency until delivery at plant density polyethylene • Use and final disposal are not included. (1997b); International Remark: Data are from the Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry (APME). (HDPE) • Wastes are listed only as an output that leaves the system. Energy Agency (1997c); International Energy Agency (1997d)) representing the

Not included are the values reported for: recyclable wastes, amount of air / N 2 / O 2 • Vertical averaging procedure used in methodology. year 1995. All remaining data from manufacturers and operators of the consumed, unspecified metal emission to air and to water, mercaptan emission to • What is method of allocation of polyethylene HDPE? respective process step (Boustead (1999): 43). Therefore the quality of the data air, unspecified CFC/HCFC emission to air. The amount of "sulphur (bonded)" is • Energy values are expressed using gross calorific value, rather than net calorific value. depends upon the quality of the information supplied by companies and no assumed to be included into the amount of raw oil. • Data is based on a production volume of 1.32 Mt of HDPE from 10 different production sites in Europe in 1992/93, made relative to a production volume of 4.1 Mt in conclusions on certainty of information can be made. No other data available. CAS number: 009002-88-4; Geography: 10 European production sites 1997. • Not possible to split off production of HDPE for other previous steps therefore (A,B,F,P,NL,S,UK) • Infrastructure is not included with the exception of oil well operation and road transportation. This is due to their minor importance (Boustead, 1999). only cumulated process from methodology is possible. Technology: polymerization out of ethylene under normal pressure and temperature • No uncertainty approximations made as difficult to establish for a dataset Time period: time to which data refer where the background of the final numbers is not known. Version: 1.3 Synonyms: HDPE, PE, HD-PE Energy values: Undefined Percent representativeness: 32.2 Production volume: 1.32 Mt (1992) Ecoinvent system process without infrastructure.

8 Tap water at user Translated name: Trinkwasser, ab Hausanschluss Study only appears to be in German!!! Included processes: Infrastructure and energy use for water treatment and transportation to the end user. No emissions from water treatment.

Page 12 of 21 Ecoinvent Studies

Emission Factor Name Simapro Reference Processes Uncertainties of note 9 Hard coal burned in power plant Translated name: Steinkohle, in Kraftwerk Study only appears to be in German!!! Included processes: Energy conversion for electricity production. Use of fuel oil for startup is accounted for. Particle removal is included in this module. DeSOx and DeNOx are described in different modules; they are applied here according to the actual use in the country; SOx and NOx emissions are the reduced ones. It is assumed that 25 % of the plants are river cooled, 75 % use cooling tower (average UCTE). The water treatment is described in separate modules. The disposal of non- recycled ashes is modelled separately.

Remark: The module describes the operation of an average plant in the country. The plant is used for middle load with 4000 hours of operation at full capacity per year. The plant is assumed to operate 150000 hours during its lifetime. For the assessment of main characteristics (LHV, sulphur and ash content of coal,

efficiency of the plant) and criteria emissions (SOx, NOx, particles, and CO 2) a bottom-up approach has been used. It consists on the collection of information about single plants. Base data on all major UCTE power plants in 1993 have been integrated, to the extent possible, with updated information for year 2000. The size distribution of particles has been derived from German data. Halogene emissions have been estimated on the basis of the content of the species in the country- specific coal input mix, assuming average retention rates. For CO and VOC-

emissions average values for UCTE are included. Two average values for N 2O emissions from UCTE plants are considered for the two cases with or without DeNOx; the country specific emission depend therefore on the share of DeNOx. Emissions of trace elements were calculated by means of a formula

(CORINAIR) using the ash content in the country-specific coal input mix and average transfer coefficients for coal power plants, taking into account the share of DeSOx installed. Emission of uranium and thorium radioactive isotopes were assumed proportional to the corresponding element emitted with particles; the other non-gaseous radioactive isotopes of the uranium and thorium decay chain were assumed proportional to the emitted U-238 or Th-232. The emission of gaseous radon and K-40 are taken from the literature. The waste heat releases to air and water have been allocated on the basis of the assumed share of river cooled power plants and assumptions on the direct losses to air. The share of the recycled ash is country-specific. For the disposal of the remaining ash, typical country- specific compositions are taken into account in appropriate disposal modules.; Geography: Country-specific data. Technology: Average installed technology. Version: 1.3 Energy values: Undefined Ecoinvent system process without infrastructure.

Page 13 of 21 Water Efficiency

Author and SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Age Key data identified Life Geographic Summary of Report Policies/ Targets/ New Impact of policy/ method Environmental Social Life Cycle Other Details (1) (2) Reliability (3) Objectivity (4) Cycle Scope Methods Stages Relevant Credibility Transferabi Stages Identified as Issues lity Making a Significant Contribution 1 The Economics The • Ratio of full- to part-flushes. Use UK WCs account for majority of water use in homes so are first • Most UK WCs are wash-down and of 5 configurations: close For replacement, difficult to Dual flush retrofit Water N/A Use n/a www.environm High Medium High High of Water Environment target for water efficiency measures. coupled, low level, high level, back to wall concealed and estimate cost due to several 2 trials (Southern & Anglian Water) report consumption; ent- Efficient Agency (2003) concealed. potential variables. From water different savings - both based on siphon based Resource agency.gov.uk/ Products in the Base case: 9 litre assumed as average in assessing a • Two factors when considering WC choice: price (eg. company perspective, ok to retrofits. consumption. commondata/a Household replacement program. 6 litre assumed as average for new concealed more expensive) and fit (eg. will water saving WC use averages as extremes will - Southern averaged 27% reduction; crobat/eweph_ purchases although 75-80% will be 6/4 dual-flush. WCs fit existing space?). cancel out. - Anglain averaged 4% reduction. replaced for style rather than failure. • Flushing mechanism can be valve (single/ dual-flush)/ valve- • Dual-flush siphon retrofits (ie. default to part- 1597545.pdf less (ie. siphon). Most dual-flush are drop valve mechanism flush - now illegal) do not waste water although Valve leakage not considered in report. for clear use of double mode. Siphon dual-flush must default uncertainty as to how much water they save. to full flush (ie. hold down handle). Indicated flush volumes do not necessarily reflect actual flush • Available WCs in 2003: volumes - several variables due to product design and/or human - Valve: 6l drop valve, 6l flap valve, 6/4 dual drop valve, behaviour. UK situation is unique. Important to understand 6/4l dual drop valve, 4/2l dual drop valve. details of: water demand; educate consumer (eg. leak detection - Siphon: 6l single, 4.5l single. (6/4l dual may be now etc); prevent promotion of wrong measures or barriers to good available - 2008) measures; and identify potential requirements for future. • Fixed flush WC volumes set by inlet valve. Valve can 'bed in' allowing water level to rise. If ineffective, plumber may increase flush volume - 6l maximum flush does not guarantee 6l at installation. • If flush ineffective, 2nd flush required - likely to be more regular as flush volumes drop. Worst case 6l might operate at 12/6 dual-flush with 2 flushes needed to clear solids. • Water Regulations Performance Specifications for WCs

considered to provide sufficient set of tests - few WCs put forward for independent testing - poor performance & double flushing likely to increase unless WCs required to achieve performance standard. • Measured trials show ratio of full to part-flush at 1:0 (only full flush used) or 1:2 (1 full to 2 part flushes) - often assumed to be 1:3 or 1:4. • WCs tested with water supply off. During use, cistern begins to fill before emptying so increases flush volume - WRc tests show increase of about 1 litre. • Dual flush can offer savings but considering variables of human behaviour, installation, product standard, maintenance, cannot guarantee actual water savings. • Only WRAS and KIWA do 3rd party approvals - certification process not functional and anything goes as long as nominal 6 litre or less. • No water efficiency labelling - should differentiate between similar products . • Price reflects design and quality rather than water efficiency.

2 WCs: Best Nick Grant and N/A Use UK This report outlines current best practice for the "environment- • Water Regulations 1999 specify max flush volume of 6 litre - N/A • With good WC design, ok to go down to 4 litre Resource N/A Use www.solutionel Medium Low Medium Low practice since Mark Moodie conscious designer or builder." The writers advocate the use of actual volume is higher as measurement done with water flush volume without causing drainage consumption ements.co.uk/D the Water (undated), siphon flushes as a more efficient, leak-free mechanism than supply off. Dual flush allowed as long as criteria met. problems - why risk leakable valves and ownloads%20c Fittings Elemental valves and are sceptical of the push for valve dual-flush WCs • Siphons only originally allowed as has leak-free mechanism misleading dual-flush? opy/WCstate% Regulations Solutions which they claim are likely to leak unnoticed and be used and have better drain carry than valves. • Dual-flush effective flush volumes likely to be 20of%20the%2 1999 incorrectly. The emphasise how WC testing is performed with • Valves will eventually leak - tested for 200,000 flushes (30 inaccurate - report's own trial of 4/2 and 6/3 the water supply turned off and cannot guarantee real-world yrs) but does not address time and human element factors. resulted in average 4.6 litre flush. Real-world 0art.pdf performance. • Worn/ jammed valve will leak; Worn/ jammed siphon will fail flush performance is not guaranteed. • Consumers are generally aware of water as a resource and to flush properly. Slow inlet valve leaks will also likely go un- consider its conservation to be of importance, although not so noticed. important as energy conservation, air pollution and climate • Valve leakage causes: scale on valve seat; incorrect change – people are more likely to carry out energy saving installation; lime scale deposits jam mechanism; cracked activities rather than water saving activities – 9% consider water plastic components; accidental damage. Leakage is usually conservation as main challenge facing western society. Those non-detectable to untrained eye. in water-stretched areas more likely to consider water a main • In US, estimated 20% WCs leak at 75,000 litre per year per issue. WC - US textbooks allow for 15-30 litre leakage per person • Less than 1 in 6 have a retro-fitted WC flushing device (eg. per day. dual flush) – most would be willing to volunteer for a trial, most would continue to use if it proved successful, although lower water costs for metered customers was a key motivator.

4 Mandatory water The Times, • % UK homes with water meters; — 30 per cent of homes have meters in England and Wales n/a n/a n/a • Resource • Local Use n/a http://business.t Medium Low Low Low meters a step (August 17 • % yearly increase of water — This is increasing at a rate of 2 percentage points a year consumption community imesonline.co.u closer 2007) meter uptake; issues k/tol/business/i • • Suppliers in areas where there is serious water stress will be ndustry_sector able to apply for entire regions to be compulsorily metered. s/utilities/article • 12 companies qualify to apply for compulsory water metering. • enable suppliers to resort to compulsory metering instead of 2274821.ece building reservoirs or taking other measures. • not considered to be an alternative to combating leakage. • companies need to apply to Defra and application considered by EA, OFWAT and Consumer Council for Water. • Cost of meter to be borne by customer, spread out over several bills (rather than one up front payment). • Concerns over how low-income/ larger households will cope with changes considering there is currently no support system in place.

Page 14 of 21 Water Efficiency

Author and SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Age Key data identified Life Geographic Summary of Report Policies/ Targets/ New Impact of policy/ method Environmental Social Life Cycle Other Details (1) (2) Reliability (3) Objectivity (4) Cycle Scope Methods Stages Relevant Credibility Transferabi Stages Identified as Issues lity Making a Significant Contribution 3 Using Water Consumer • % considering water Use UK • Large national survey of more than 2,000 consumers in August • 10% have a water-efficient device (eg. hippo/ hog bag/ save- N/A Recycling of greywater Resource WC production; Refer also: www.ccwater.o High High High High Wisely: Council for conservation a key challenge. 2006. Survey was introduced as for consumer organisations a-flush), 13% didn’t know: metered customers more likely to • 82% willing to use greywater from bath, consumption and 'Flush rg.uk/upload/pd Quantitative Water in • % with cistern displacement and Government to better understand how we live and use of have a cistern replacement device showers and washbasins for WC flushing if Use Volumes' and f/Using_Water_ research to association with devices. household appliances – not to alert minds of water issues from • 36% have dual flush or low flush WCs: more likely to have a filtered and disinfected. 'Reuse of Wisely_v4_PRI determine WRc (2006). • % with retro-fitted water start. dual flush in water-stretched areas. Non-bill payers less likely • Similar results obtained from smaller-scale Water' tabs NT.pdf consumers’ efficiency devices. • The research aims to provide a clear insight into the influences to know whether they have dual flush or not. national telephone survey of 510 respondents attitudes to • % willing to re-use greywater. on consumers’ current and future attitudes and behaviour. • Vast majority do not use water efficient WC devices as in summer 2005. water use and • perceived WC flush volumes • The overall aim of the research is to provide evidence-based consider that they don’t need them or they don’t know about • Respondents in non-water-stretched areas water per flush. conclusions on consumers’ views on water use in the home and them: (63% for dual flush/ low flush and 78% for hippo/ hog more reluctant to reuse greywater for toilet conservation • % with dual flush/ low flush workplace, and provide recommendations on how consumers bag/ save-a-flush) flushing. WCs. can be encouraged to use water more wisely. • % who would consider water • 10% have a cistern displacement device – lack of information/ Retrofitted water-devices efficiency device for WC cistern. knowledge identified as key barrier in uptake of water efficient • 16% of respondents have one, 75% don’t devices. have one, 10% don’t know. • High level of willingness to re-use greywater as long as it is • 56% would consider a device for WC cistern filtered and disinfected. (compared to 54% for taps and 49% for • Respondents over-estimated water required to flush a showerheads). • Middle age category (35-60) more likely to have one, high SEG group more likely to have one. WC by approximately 50%. • 67% were willing to volunteer to have a device • Metered respondents more likely to estimate lower water fitted free of charge. consumption levels than non-metered. Respondents not • 34% not willing to participate in free of charge responsible for paying for water estimated higher water use device trial – ‘too much effort’ (57%), council/ levels across all activities rented (20%) and privacy (14%). • 97% willing to keep device if proved successful: 45% free of charge, 17% would pay £5, 19% would pay £10, 17% would pay £20. • Metered customers more willing to pay for device – shows willingness to pay more upfront when can expect to recover initial outlay through usage savings. • Majority would like independent plumber or water company to fit device (rather than DIY or local authority)

5 Towards water Environment • Water consumption for different Use Thames To investigate the feasibility of water neutrality in the Thames Water demand Residents’ attitudes from Recommendations - combining education, • Resource • Local Use Drainage www.environm High High High High neutrality in the Agency, 2007 levels of home. Gateway, UK Gateway in the face of the Govt's Homes for the Future Baseline = 169 l/ head/ day = 405.6l/ hh/ day market research survey marketing and Govt action consumption community Report by WRc ent- Thames • Water savings achievable from objective (160,000 new homes between 2001 & 2016 in TG). Level 1/2 = 120l/ head/ day = 288l/ hh/ day Thames Gateway is area of • Information explaining why water efficiency issues for EA in 2007 agency.gov.uk/ Gateway: metering. Water neutrality = total water used after new devt is equal Level 3/4 = 105l/ head/ day = 252l/ hh/ day water shortage – most recent necessary, incl shock tactics, balanced with concluded no subjects/waterr Summary report • Water savings achievable from to or less than total water used in TG before devt (2005/06). Level 5/6 = 80l/ head/ day = 192l/ hh/ day drought 2004-06. positive messages of simple steps of how to recorded es/287169/191 variable tariffs. Concludes that retrofitting alone will not reach water neutrality • More needs to be done to change. evidence of 7628/?lang=_e - • Water savings achievable from Achievable by: i) making new devt more efficient; ii) offsetting by – reductions needed from non-household properties, protect water resources and • Emphasis on what water companies and Govt blockages as a efficient new homes. retrofitting existing homes; and iii) metering and variable tariffs. metering, variable tariffs. should be led by Govt. are doing to ensure new homes are more water result of 19k • Water savings achievable from • Awareness raised by: meters, efficient. reducing retrofitting. Concludes that neutrality by 2016 is technically feasible but Compulsory metering can only affect unmetered homes. publicity of drought, negative • Compulsory water meters demand for • No. retrofitted homes needed to challenging for both providers and customers. Variable tariffs can potentially affect ALL homes. feelings towards waste, global • All new homes build to high standard – cost to water and offset new housing. perspective of water in rest of be passed onto homeowner. adverse • Consumer attitudes (focuses on Seven pathway scenarios assessed against baseline Reduction in carbon emissions of 2.7% across all scenarios world. • Legislation to ban non-water efficient impacts TG residents) (169l/person/day = 521Ml/day in total). BAU scenario forecasts and 10% of BAU scenario. • Meters seen as most appliances. unlikely in new 8% rise by 2016 - almost all attributable to new housing. effective as provide financial • Grants and incentives to encourage developments. Retrofitting incentive. retrofitting However, Most efficient water efficiency measures identified are: Average savings for variable flush retrofit device = 10.27 • Reminders from family • Widespread distribution of water efficiency could be • Compulsory Metering - 10% per capita saving. Important litres per head per day, 24.65 litres per household per day. members, concern for pack from water companies implications for financial incentive and considered acceptable by residents. Average savings for ULF WC = 22.13 litres per head per day, environment, action by local fitting ULF • Variable Tariffs - 5% per capita saving. Uncertainty of results 53.1 litres per household per day councils/ water companies also WCs in certain due to lack of data and residents express concern. encouraged effective water homes • Efficient New homes - 9-17% of total water saved. All residentsNumber suppor tiveof existing of new homes thatto high need env. to standards.be retrofitted to offset conservation. (especially with • Retrofitting - 23-47% of total water saved. Effort to demand of a single new home (based on 2.4 people per • Discouraging factors: lifestyle/ single drains) household): home aspirations, teenage and should Level 1/2: 7.6 houses incl variable flush, 4.5 houses incl children, lack of sustained take care not media campaign, to fit where already low flow drainage.

Page 15 of 21 Water Efficiency

some customers had no choice but to be on a meter. • Variable tariffs raised concerns – seen as exploitative (not a major focus of discussion and not fully explained).

Page 16 of 21 Author and SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Age Key data identified Life Geographic Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Targets/ New Methods Impact of policy/ method Environmental Social Life Cycle Other Relevant Issues Details (1) (2) Reliability (3) Objectivity (4) Cycle Scope Stages Credibility Transferabi Stages Identified as lity Making a Significant Contribution 1 The Influence of Katharina N/A WC Switzerland This report investigates the relative importance of eco- Brands have 2 functions for consumers: i) inform Discrete choice analysis chosen as survey method: Respondents willing to pay for A-labelled energy Resource WC production This is for Energy labelling which may not be http://www.iwo High High High High Eco-Labelling Sammer and productio labelling when compared with other product features about intangible characteristics (eg. quality); and ii) - possible inclusion of dependent variables with efficient products. consumption representative of a similar water efficiency e.unisg.ch/org/i on Consumer Rolf n; (eg. brand name, cost). Discrete choice analysis was provide value (brand, prestige). qualitative scaling attributes (eg. buying decision). Environmental labelling scheme. Consumer behaviour was wo/web.nsf/0/e Behaviour – Wüstenhagen, Use. performed on a survey of 300 interviews in - consumers choose from products within restricted For low-involvement product (light bulbs) labelling labelling as noted to be different for the high- and low- 0670aeecfbfce Results of a Business Switzerland in 2004. The EU Energy label is used for Activities by firms to provide consumers with info on set - assumed most beneficial is chosen. acts adds higher value as 'information chunk' - more being a involvement products. 18c125708b00 Discrete Choice Strategy & the light bulbs and washing machines. Conclusions are products = 'signalling' - personal attributes of respondents included in aware of other product attributes in high-involvement differentiating 6d6474/$FILE/ Analysis Environment made for sustainability marketing and policy. Activities byconsumers to search/ check product analysis. products. factor for Assume WC to be a low-involvement Sammer_Wues (forthcoming). characteristics = 'screening' - random utility function taked other influencing consumers in product as much of consumer decision tenhagen_Discr Version: Sept. factors of buying behaviour into account. Willingness to pay for labelled product and for making product based on aesthetics. eteChoice_200 1, 2005 EU Energy Label = compulsory label applying to all environmental product features is encouraging for choices 5.pdf white goods, home appliance and light bulbs sold Two products chosen: marketers wanting to differentiate their brand on within the EU - allows consumers to compare Washing machine - high involvement product as energy efficiency lines. However Swiss market has appliances. more expensive. 80% of products A-rated - labelling scheme requires Light bulbs - low involvement product. regular review. Previous study (1998) concludes one third of purchases are influenced by energy label. Retailers can increase revenue by offering plenty of A- labelled energy efficient products. 2 REGULATION George N/A Use Australia and This report provides a proposed plan for a mandatory Major quantifiable economic benefits of water Testing, registration and admin costs largely fixed as Projected reductions for 2003-2021 for WCs of 22%. Resource n/a n/a International Standards http://www.wat High High High High IMPACT Wilkenfeld and New Zealand water efficiency labelling scheme in Australia and New efficiency labelling are the value of the water saved incurred whether change purchase behaviour or not. (Over 50% from clothes washers and 25% from consumption Dublin Region Water Conservation Project errating.gov.au/ STATEMENT: Associates Pty Zealand. The process involved an analysis of (both freshwater supply and wastewater disposal). Product costs relate to buyer behaviour – if buyers showers.) in Ireland: this is a voluntary label covering publications/ris. Proposed Ltd for economic benefits vs. costs, consultation with Major economic costs are the increase in the cost of not affected by label, average prices unlikely to rise. Over 86% of total water savings from labelling at clothes washers and dishwashers. html National System Department of stakeholders, and a projection of impacts as a result products and the program administration costs. residential homes. of Mandatory the Environment of the scheme. The concluding recommendations Toilets scheduled for mandatory registration, labelling Some countries have mandatory minimum Water Efficiency and Heritage, propose mandatory labelling for all water-using The costs associated with initial compliance are likely and water efficiency standards (max average flush water efficiency standards for water fittings, Labelling for Australia (2004) products on the market as alternatives are not to be moderate, and unlikely to cause any participants volume 5.5 litres). although these are less common than Selected considered to be realistic methods of combatting to withdraw from the market. The demand for more minimum energy performance standards. Products water conservation issues. water-efficient models is likely to drive up the average Voluntary water efficiency labelling is not considered The US Energy Policy and Conservation Act, retail price of the labelled products, so supplier a realistic alternative to the proposed regulation. as amended (EPCA), requires the maximum revenues should increase by far more than the costs water use for toilets is 1.6 US gallons (6.0 of testing, registration and labelling. Water and wastewater prices do not reflect the full litres) per flush (10 CFR Part 430, Federal costs of these services (Australian case but argument Register, 18 March 1998). Retailers’ revenue should increase in line with also replicated in UK) increased manufacturers’ prices. Costs will be Singapore has required cisterns of no more incurred in ensuring implementation of the labelling Increased water prices mean greater incentive to than 4.5 litres per flush to be installed in all scheme and training of staff to understand it. consider water-efficiency in product purchases. new public housing apartments since 1992. Increasing water service prices may strengthen With effect from April 1997, installation of low flush toilets was made mandatory for all new premises including all residential, hotels, commercial buildings and industrial Cheaper, lower quality overseas manufacturers may buyer incentive somewhat, but would not overcome establishments. not see benefit in costs of registering and labelling, lack of market information on its own. transferring burden to importer – potentially anti- competitive. Higher end, more efficient products may Introduce economic instruments to favour imports of gain access to market. As the purpose of WEL is to water efficient WCs – considered in Australian overcome information failure in the market, proposal but not suitable for several reasons (majority competition between products should be enhanced, of products manufactured within Australia, ambiguity since water-efficiency will become a stronger factor in of trade categories makes it difficult to distinguish product differentiation between products) Flush Volumes

Author and SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Age Key data identified Life Cycle Geographic Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Targets/ New Methods Impact of policy/ method Environmenta Social Life Cycle Stages Other Relevant Contact Details (1) (2) Reliability (3) (4) Stages Scope l Identified as Making Issues Credibility Objectivity Transferab a Significant ility Contribution

1 BN DW WC: Market • Water consumption WC UK This report outlines assumptions, rationale and method Annual water demand = ownership x • Increase sale of water efficient WCs to In 2010: Water N/A WC production; Use. What additional http://www.mtpro High Medium High High Actions to Transforma by WC product type production; in the development of the forecasting model for WC frequency of use x volume per use achieve significant market penetration; Volume of water used per flush predicted consumption; resources/ works g.com/Approved improve water tion (% of total UK); Use water consumption, sets out policies/ targets to achieve Estimates based on current data for • Replace high flush volume WCs with to reduce due to retrofitting policies. Resource required to BriefingNotes/P closet design Programme • Average flush reductions and action plan required to meet targets. microcomponents of domestic water usage water efficient WCs/ equipment; Fewer savings going forward as more consumption implement low- DF/MTP_BNDW and efficiency - (MTP) frequency; (BSRIA, 2002) • 5% WCs sold to be ultra-low flush/ meet <6L/flush standard. volume cisterns? WC_2007Dece Briefing Note (2007) Reduced flush volume is necessary to reduce water Assumption of 100% penetration of WCs in waterless by 2020; and % total UK water consumption by WC (possible to fit into mber10.pdf relating to consumption from WCs per household. UK dwellings. • Reduce mean water consumption of product type in 2010: existing WC pans? policy scenario Consumption estimated from current market high volume WCs by 5% by using 9l+ = 22.1%; 7.5l = 22.6%; 6l = 12.4%; need to objectives in Outlines predicted future trend in flush volumes for mix of WC types and average flush volume retrofitting/ repacing with water efficient 6/4l = 42.6%; 4.5l = 0.4%; and <4.5l = 0%. manufacture/ Policy Brief WCs. Dual-flush 6/4 litre WCs emerging as industry per flush. equipment. instally new pans? standard. Average flush frequency of 4.71x/day Assumed that more efficient flush volumes what is GHG Assumed that more efficient flush will develop as a result of change in impact?) Scenarios are provided for predicted changes in WC In 2007, % total UK water consumption volumes will develop as result of consumer behaviour from 2010 onwards. flush volume for: by WC product type: guidance to developers/ specifiers and Development of effective flush volume of Are existing • 2020 with no new policy actions; 9l+ = 29.7%; 7.5l = 38.3%; 6l = 13.2%; 6/4l following policies: <4.5l/flush from 2010 onwards. drainage systems • 2020 with all proposed actions taken; dual flush = 18.7%; 4.5l = 0%; and <4.5l = • Code for Sustainable Homes ; Voluntary agreements with retailers and adequate for low- • 2020 with improvements delivered at earliest possible 0%. • Mandating Water Efficiency ; and suppliers predicted to encourage 4.5/ volume flush WCs? opportunity. • Water Product Information Scheme . <4.5l/ flush WCs from 2015 onwards. (need to Following current trends (no new policies), manufacture/ install stock levels of WCs not predicted to In 2020, % total UK water consumption by new drainage change by 2020. WC product type: system? what is % total UK water consumption by WC 9l+ = 4.0%; 7.5l = 3.3%; 6l = 4.3%; 6/4l = GHG impact?) product type 66.6%; 4.5l = 30.1%; and <4.5l = 1.7%. 9l+ = 14.1%; 7.5l = 18.2%; 6l = 9.0%; 6/4l = Need to take into 53.4%; 4.5l = 4.9%; and <4.5l = 0.4% consideration impact of leaking valves on total water consumption.

2 BNWAT20: Market • Average number of WC UK This report considers how ultra-low flush (<3 litres) WCs In 2007: • Reduce average WC flush volume by If all goals achieved through innovation, Water N/A Consumer behaviour N/A http://www.mtpro High High High High Very low water Transforma WCs per household; production; will impact on water consumption by 2020 and outlines 80% current sales from 6/4l or 6/3l increasing installation ultra-low flush research and policy change: consumption (WCs not 'luxury' g.com/Approved use water tion • Market split of WCs Use targets/ action plan to encourage low-flush WCs. Lower Majority of remainder = 6l WCs that are acceptable in terms of item so reduced BriefingNotes/P closets - Programme by flush volume; flush volume will reduce energy to supply/wastewater 4/2.6l available style, design and ease of use; By 2012: water consumption DF/MTP_BNWA Innovation (MTP) • Consumer behaviour treatment and wastage of drinking water. Important that • Develop ultra-low flush WCs that can Significant number of ultra-low flush (<3 perceived as benefit); T20_2007Dece Briefing Note (2007) of WC replacement flushing performance is not impaired as risk of repeat Average no. WCs = 2.6/dwelling in 2001 connect to existing drainage and litres) WCs sold. Consumer behaviour mber10.pdf flushing which will cause higher water use. Water sewerage system; (limited styles for low- consumption from WC flushing per dwelling is higher • Set minimum standards to encourage By 2015: flush models so less when fewer people per dwelling. Maximum flush volume emerging technology to develop lower No sales of 6 or 6/4 litre WCs. likely to be selected) for newly installed WCs regulated at 6 litres - average flush volumes; flush volume of WCs reduced as a result. • Develop standards and test methods By 2020: for ultra low flush WCs by 2012 to All WCs sold have flushing volume of <3 WCs can reduce water consumption without demanding promote consumer confidence and litres. change in behaviour. WC replacements typically for increase uptake of products; and Significant number of <1.5 litres WCs style and not due to failure. Availability of different • Encourage WC product information to sold. styles of low-flush WCs will act as a barrier. Prices of increase consumer confidence and WCs of different flush volumes not significantly educate about flush volumes. different. Average number of WCs installed per dwelling has increased to 2.6 (2001). UK has widest selection of WC styles in EU therefore more difficult to replace with new style without leaving 'shadow of old'.

Potential reduction in WC water consumption is 47 megalitres/ day.

More research into drainage requirements for low-flush WCs is necessary. Potential of blockage from lower volume/ pressure of wastewater. Water Cycle Management for New Developments focusing on wastewater collection from ultra-low flush WCs.

Page 18 of 21 Flush Volumes

3 Propelair Propelair With regards to Use UK This newsletter provides an update on the development Trials of Propelair low volume flush WC N/A N/A • Resource • Health N/A N/A http://www.pro Medium Low Low Medium News: the Limited Propelair prototype of the Propelair product, which operates using an air- resulted in: consumption; issues pelair.com/Pro occasional (2007) WC (compared with flush system. The update is generally positive, outlining • 87% reduction in water consumption; • Water pelair%20New newsletter of conventional WCs): the benefits in reduced water and energy consumption, • 85% reduction in energy use; consumption s%20May%20 Propelair • percentage reduction however it should be noted that it is written by the • average flush volume of 1.46 litres; Limited (May in water consumption; producers of the product and the information should be • contaminant removal rate of 99.8% (94% 07.pdf 2007) • percentage reduction assumed to be biased in favour of the Propelair product. for dual-flush toilets). in energy use; • percentage reduction 2 prototypes to be demonstrated at in carbon emissions; 'Bathrooms & Kitchens Expo 2007' to work • percentage reduction with conventional and air-assisted small in aerosol generation bore drainage. Aim to show benefits of during flushing; small bore waste pipes and ways to reduce • contaminant removal water/ carbon footprint of new rate. developments.

Propelair tested to compare air-flush with conventional and reducted flush WCs generates 95% less aerosol (associated with spreading of bacteria) than conventional WC.

UK trials of prototype resulted in: • 5 tonnes water saved over 19 days; • carbon emissions reduced by 85%; • 50 tonnes water saved for 7500 flushes over 18 months.

All Propelair prototypes currently made of glass-fibre pans. First batch of vitreous china pans due.

4 Water-efficient The • Water consumption Use UK n/a • 50l water used per person per day for WC • Lower flush volume WCs being Delayed action inlet valves Resource N/AUse phase; N/A www.interflush WCs and Environmen per person per day flushing = 35% of all domestic water use. developed but current 4l full flush WC is • With 7l WC, saving of 1.4l per flush at 3- consumtion; Product design. .co.uk/water_e retrofits: t Agency from WCs; • Flush volumes of older toilets can be probably lower limit for conventional bar and 3.5l at 10-bar. Water ff%5B1%5D._ Conserving • Potential savings reduced with cistern displacement devices - drains. Using smaller diameter drains/ consumption wcs_890010.p water in from cistern cistern water is displaced and flush volume boosters could allow lower flush Low-flush volume WCs buildings displacement devices; reduced by that amount (normally 1 litre). volumes in future. • 13l WC = 76l per person per day. df • Potential savings Lowering water level will also reduce • Other potential technologies are leak- • 9l WC = 50l per person per day. from delayed action efficiency of flush - double flushing could free flush mechnanisms. • 7.5l WC = 43l per person per day. inlet valves; increase total water consumption. • 6l WC = 32l per person per day. • Potential savings • As WC is flushed, cistern immediately • 4l WC = 21l per person per day. from low-volume flush starts to refill - more water used than • 3/6l WC = 20l per person per day. WCs. expected. Delayed action inlet valve keeps • 2.5/4l WC = 17l per person per day. valve shut until bowl is empty, then opens to allow to refill. • Dual-flush cisterns permitted is operation is clear and instructions provided. Lesser flush should be no greater than 2/3 full flush. Retrofitting of dual-flush devices to

Page 19 of 21 Reuse of Water

Title Author and Age SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact Details ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Key data identified Life Cycle Geographic Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Targets/ New Methods Impact of policy/ method Environmental Social Life Cycle Stages Other Relevant (1) Credibility (2) Reliability (3) Objectivity (4) Stages Scope Identified as Issues Transferability Making a Significant Contribution 1 BNWAT19: Alternative sources of Market • Water consumption Use UK This report outlines the feasibility of using rainwater/ In 2007: No specific targets/ policies. Encourage developers to By 2020: Water consumption; N/A Innovation of new What is the impact http://www.mtprog.com/ High High High Medium water - greywater and rainwater Transformation for WC flushing per greywater/ reclaimed water for some domestic • 30% of total UK water consumption is WC offer systems to private customers. Rainwater system can provide 25% WC flushwater. Resource technologies to of biological ApprovedBriefingNotes/ reuse: Innovation Briefing Note Programme average household; functions, targets and required actions. With no flushing. Greywater system can provide 30% WC flushwater. consumption. reduce water usage; treatment of PDF/MTP_BNWAT19_2 (MTP) (2007) • Potential water policy measures, water consumption predicted to • 40l water per average household for WC flushing. Consumer behaviour greywater/ 007December10.pdf savings from using continue to increase. • Using greywater/ reclaimed water could save 2.0% of homes have rainwater harvesting. - education to reclaimed water greywater/ reclaimed 18,000 l/ year = third of household flushing water. 2.0% of homes reuse greywater. encourage water required prior to water; More economic to consider methods of reducing efficiency; use? water use/ fitting water efficient applicances before With no implemented solutions, water consumption Water saving of 17Ml/day = 6,200 Ml/yr (based on Legislation to target considering use of rainwater/ greywater/ reclaimed will increase to 2025. 0.5% of homes have rainwater harvesting and 0.5% construction industry water. Greater potential to introduce into new of homes reuse greywater in 2010). and regional plans; What are the developments if introduced at planning stage. Increase impacts of a Outlines design and maintenance requirements for converted drainage installing new system. Non-domestic properties have system plus potential to make much bigger savings, especially additional from rainwater harvesting and used in several equipment? processes.

Scenarios are provided for predicted reductions in Greywater systems WC water consumption from the re-use of water for: not attractive as not • 2020 with no new policy actions; financially beneficial • 2020 with all proposed actions taken; and long payback • 2020 with improvements delivered at earliest period. possible opportunity. More research More research required to understand the carbon required into energy impact of rainwater and greywater systems. consumption of rainwater/ greywater systems.

If carbon footprint of greywater system is greater than using current drinking water supply, carbon savings vs. water savings needs to be considered.

2 Life Cycle Assessment of V. Bronchi, O. No relevant data. Use Switzerland This study investigates the environmental impacts of: N/A i) Study not relevant to WC flushing. • Lower energy consumption/m 3 drinking water at Water consumption; N/A Use N/A http://www.sph.umich.edu/ri High High Medium Low Rainwater Use for Domestic Jolliet and P. i) using rainwater for clothes washing over drinking larger scale dwelling over individual house. Resource skcenter/jolliet/Bronchi%20 Needs Crettaz (1998) water. Results show that reduced washing powder ii) To compare energy consumption and environmental Attributable to differences in drinking water energy consumption; 1999.pdf Institute of Soil and reduced energy consumption has a lower impacts of drinking water and rainwater recuperation requirements between Zurich & Swiss average. GHG emissions. and Water impact. at an individual house and at larger scale dwelling. • Energy requirements for recuperated rainwater at Management - Impacts associated with tank construction is not larger scale dwelling 62% of individual dwelling. Ecosystem ii) using rainwater over drinking water for toilet included. Lower energy requirements for storage tanks: Management flushing at an individual residence and a larger scale greater uptake of water in larger dwelling so less dwelling. Results show that larger scale rainwater Following environmental impacts assessed: 3 storage time/ m . recuperation has reduced energy consumption and • Human toxicity; • Individual dwelling requires smaller tank to achieve fewer environmental impacts. • Terrestrial ecotoxicity; environmental optimum. • Aquatic ecotoxicity; • Differences in environmental impacts between 2 • Global warming; drinking water scenarios not significant. • Photochemical oxidation; • For rainwater recuperation, individual house • Acidification; impacts are significantly higher than larger dwelling • Eutrophication; and for photochemical oxidation, acidification, aquatic • Energy consumption. ecosystem, eutrophication and global warming impacts.

3 Sustainable Water Use in the Built Peter Coombes n/a Use Australia This study investigates how the reuse of stormwater n/a Rainwater and stormwater from roofs can be stored in Reduced water consumption, reduced discharge of Water consumption; n/a n/a n/a Environment: EDS Special Issue and George and roofwater can provide benefits in the form of a tank outside. For reuse of rainwater for WC flushing, stormwater. Wastewater Kuczera, reduced mains water consumption. It further outlines recommendation for first flush separation device and Department of strategies for the capture and implementation of rainwater tank. Retrofitting in developed areas can be expensive on Civil, Surveying rainwater/ stormwater reuse. unfeasible. Easier to install rainwater tank requiring 2- and Stormwater from roofs, paved and garden areas can 6m 2 in several locations than constructing an urban Environmental Focus on source control for management of water be captured in underground tanks, ponds, wetlands or 2 pond requiring an area of 200-2000m . Engineering, consumption from flushing. i.e. to minimise cost- by aquifer recharge/ storage (i.e. injection of University of effectively the consumption of mains water and the stormwater into suitable aquifer and stored until Newcastle production of storm and wastewater. required at a later date). Implementation through retention of rainwater in tanks, stormwater detention, onsite treatment of Rainwater tanks should be between 5,000l (2m 2) and greywater, water efficient appliances and onsite 2 15,000l (6m ) capacity - reduction in mains water use infiltration. of up to 65% and reduction of stormwater discharges of 55% achievable, provided roofwater used for indoor purposes and dual water supply strategy used (i.e. top up tank with mains water as necessary using trickle system). Tank installed over concrete of 100mm thickness and plumbing and pump installed directly to appliances using rainwater. First flush separation device recommended to separate first 0.3-0.5mm of rainfall to prevent inflow to rainwater tanks. Design needs to maximise conservation of roofwater whilst minimising contaminant transport to tank.

4 Using recycled water for non- V. Lazarova, S. n/a Use Global This report reviews worldwide examples of Toilet flushing = 30% domestic water usage and Greywater recycling: large scale residential building, Schemes recycling water for toilet flushing Water consumption Human health issues Use; Further study into iwaponline.com potable, urban uses: a review with Hills and R. Birks greywater, rainwater and domestic sewage >60% in commercial buildings. Domestic greywater France increasing and specific examples of well established, Consumer attitudes treatment systems particular reference to toilet (2003), Water recycling, specifically for reuse for toilet flushing. often sufficient for flushing volumes. In offices, toilet Light and dark greywater collected and treated using municipal scale schemes in USA/ Japan and newer, towards recycling of necessary (i.e. MBR, flushing Science and flushing greater and greywater sources more limited. membrane bioreactor (MBR) (i.e. biological treatment local community-scale in Europe/ Australia. water. BAF, GAC) - what Technology: Examples of greywater/ rainwater recycling for WC then ultrafiltration) – approximately 50-70% of total are the impacts/ Water Supply flushing and the success of the schemes in water Greywater = wastewater from household, excluding water use within apartments, producing more that One of the key factors for success of water recycling costs of these (Vol 3 No 4 pp conservation. toilet wastes (light grey = bathroom sinks, baths, required for flushing. Excess discharged to sewer or scheme is perception of users – generally positive treatments? 69-77) . showers; dark grey = laundry facilities). Organic used for irrigation. Greywater monitoring showed MBR attitude to recycled water for WC flushing purposes. matter and microbiological pollution levels in treatment is effective and produced high quality More ‘personal’ uses (e.g. watering vegetables) has greywater comparable to domestic sewage. Can effluent however it is one of the most expensive less acceptance. contain high levels of bacteria – FC levels used to treatments for water reuse (<75m 3/d= €3/m 3; indicate safety of greywater however pathogenic 3 3 300m /d=€1.7/m ). safety also depends on treatment type. Building Services Research and Information Association Millenium Dome: in-building greywater recycling (BSRIA) published guidelines in 2001 for greywater Treatment of sufficient greywater, rainwater and and stored rainwater reuse (14 CFU/100ml). groundwater from site to flush all WCs and urinals – 3 Sewage collected in a ‘closed loop’ can be stronger capacity of 500m /d. Rainwater collected from roof in and less homogenised – warmer due to reduced hoppers directing drainage through reedbed system. retention time and lack of cold infiltration. Greywater treated using biological aerated filter (BAF) Composition of municipal wastewater well-studied and then membrane filtration. Rising groundwater and many examples of reuse. Usually for from underlying aquifer treated with granular activated irrigation/industrial but examples in USA and Japan carbon (GAC) and membrane filtration to remove of dual reticulation for toilet flushing and other non- contaminants to make up remainder of flushing potable urban uses on a large-scale. requirements.

Collected greywater/ domestic sewage often treated on-site, usually in basement. Larger municipal schemes (USA/ Japan) use recycled water from waste water treatment works.

Page 20 of 21 Reuse of Water

Title Author and Age SCOPE OF STUDY RESULTS OF STUDY IMPACTS/ ISSUES IDENTIFIED Source/ Contact Details ROBUSTNESS OF EVIDENCE Key data identified Life Cycle Geographic Summary of Report Current scenario Policies/ Targets/ New Methods Impact of policy/ method Environmental Social Life Cycle Stages Other Relevant (1) Credibility (2) Reliability (3) Objectivity (4) Stages Scope Identified as Issues Transferability Making a Significant Contribution 5 Microbiological investigations of H.J. Albrechtsen Use Denmark This report investigates the microbial quality of Numerous rainwater collection systems in Denmark Microbial quality of water can be investigated re: total General microbiological quality of rainwater supplied Water consumption Human health issues Use; Appears that there iwaponline.com rainwater and graywater collected (2002), Water rainwater and greywater reuse systems with and Germany over the past 10 years. Potential risk number of bacteria, presence of indicator organisms WCs comparable to reference toilets. 12 out of 27 Consumer attitudes was no treatment of for toilet flushing Science and reference to distributed drinking water quality. of contamination of public drinking water supply or specific pathogens. May be substantial variations samples had one or more pathogens not found in towards recycling of rainwater prior to Technology (Vol systems through back siphonage, leakages and between different locations/ climatic conditions/ wildlife WCs supplied with drinking water. Use of rainwater water. use and limited 46 No 6-7 pp incorrect installations with cross-connections to in contact with collection surface. Rainwater collected introduced micro-organisms into the household that treatment of 311-316) drinking water system – contamination containing in storage tanks located underground or in basement. do not occur in drinking water. rainwater - refer biological agents poses health threat to consumers Greywater collected, rinsed, UV-radiated and used for studies making use of drinking water. toilet flushing. Greywater plants gave more problems from odour of more extensive and substantially higher numbers of E.coli and treatment methods? Enterococcus in some toilets. (i.e. MBT, BAT etc)

6 The environmental benefits of J. Anderson Environmental Use Global This report examines the conservation of water Natural water cycle has been significantly altered Several examples of water reuse around the world for Water reuse reduces amount of fresh water being Water consumption; n/a Use N/A iwaponline.com High Low Low Low water recycling and reuse (2003), Water benefits of water through reuse has substantial environmental benefits through extractions from rivers and groundwater for agricultural, urban and industrial purposes - irrigation, diverted from a river and reduces the amount of Water pollution. Science and conservation through from reductions in water diversions, reductions in human use, urban/ agricultural runoff and discharge car washing, toilet flushing etc. pollutant being discharged – improvements in Technology (Vol reuse/ recycling of wastewater discharge impacts. No specific of untreated wastewater to rivers. Rates of downstream water quality. Water, if treated 3 No 4 pp 1-10) water. reference is made to the benefits of reusing water extraction often exceed groundwater recharge – appropriately, can be reused to reduce demands on for WC flushing and instead is a generic overview of significant economic, social and environmental high quality water sources and improve how water conservation is beneficial to the impacts. environmental water quality. Therefore more high environment as a whole. quality water to cater for new drinking water needs – Water drawn from rivers for urban supply reduces savings in relation to water divertion/ water flow in rivers. Stormwater runoff and wastewater treatment/ distribution. discharges often contain pollutant cause a decline in river quality.

7 Economic, Water Quantity and Peter J. Use Australia This report examines the design, construction and Inner city house fitted with with 9,060l AST (4m 2 and Water Quantity Monitoring during 169 day period indicates use Resource Human health Use (Water This study is High High Medium Medium Quality Results from a House with Coombes, performance of a dual water supply system. The 2.5m high) for supply of hot water, toilet and outdoor Daily samples collected for: of rainwater tank reduced mains water consumption issues Treatment) specific to a case a Rainwater Tank in the Inner City George Kuczera results show that the water is suitable for hot water, uses. House located adjacent to heavy industrial - rainwater from roof directed to tank; demands and stormwater discharges to sewer. in Australia which and Jetse D. toilet and outdoor areas. Rainwater was compliant 2 area with alloment area of 245m . - overflow water from tank; is not Kalma with Australian drinking water standards. - water use from tank; and Widespread installation likely to reduce need representative of Dual water supply system - maximum water levels in tank. for new dams, water supply, stormwater economic, Cost of rainwater is $0.3 (Australian) per kl. 2 Cost of regional mains water assumed to be $1 to • rainfall collected from 115m roof area into tank drainage infrastructure. regulatory or $14 (Australian) per kl and then pumped directly (to avoid cross connection March - August 2001 (with tank) compared with environmental/ with mains water supply) to hot water system and mains water meter readings for Nov 00 - Nov Secondary environmental impacts not weather conditions toilet cistern. Mains water top up if water falls below 01: assessed. in the UK. a certain level. - 52% reduction in mains water usage; • mains water used for remainder of household and - 39% reduction in stormwater to sewer. Water quality considered to be acceptable for The environmental to top up tank when water levels low, using trickle top up system. hot water, toilet and outdoor uses. impacts of the • Rainwater storage volume = 8,315l; Airspace at Comparison with previous year (i.e. before system are not top to prevent 'stormwater detention' and delaying rainwater tank): considered excess roof water = 0.75m 3; Pump located 0.1m - 70% annual mains water reduction. hollistically from a above base to avoid sediment entering water supply. life cycle • Installation involved: Ground levelled and 10cm Geographic issue: long term rainfall is constant perspective. concrete slab constructed; tank placed over therefore water savings calculated considered to concrete and piping as desired; plumber responsible be representative. for pumps, pipes from roof and to water supply, - Coombes (2002) estimated water saving of mains water trickle top up and float system; 63% for Figtree rainwater harvesting electrician responsible for power point close to development. pump. • Development required local authority approval Total water usage (mains + rainwater) reduced significantly over previous years: - demand moderation due to presence of tank; - variations in occupancy numbers; - rainwater not used for outdoors as low pressure from tap (likely to change if fitted with pump or if garden bigger).

Water Quality • No treatment of water Samples taken from: - tap in rainwater tank (0.6m above base); and - hot water tap in kitchen.

Higher than Aus. guidelines for: - faecal coliforms (one instance) following rainfall; - pH a little low; and - zinc too high - can cause distaste in water. Very dependent on geography and local environmental conditions.

Costs Dependent on geography and local conditions. Estimation based on: - capital expenditure plus replacement/ maintenance costs (incl interest); - savings from reduced mains water usage; and - cost of running rainwater system (electricity for pump).

Current cost could be disincentive - suggest rebate to encourage uptake.

Page 21 of 21

Annex B: Gap Analysis Table

Introduction

Table B1 below provides a gap analysis for the topics covered in the main report. The first column names the impact area under consideration, rates the availability of literature on a scale of low-medium-high, and assesses the significance of the data gap using the following code:

 () significant data gap exists; and  () no significant gap exists.

Table B1 Summary of gaps for impacts of WC life cycle

Impact Area Literature Gap availability significance Key Identified Gaps Notes/ Comments Economic Indicators GDP None. Literature that presents economic indicators, such as import/ export data and GDP, High  is readily available. Sources of this information include HM Customs and Excise and Trade data the Office for National Statistics. These are reliable sources which are regularly None. updated. Trade data specific to WCs is not available however it is included within a High  more general ‘sanitaryware’ category, which includes WCs, bidets, sinks etc. Economic Interventions Quotas None. There is a large selection of literature available on UK and international quotas, High  tariffs and subsidies, however much of this is general information and not specific to Tariffs and sanitaryware. The literature did not provide evidence on the relation of economic subsidies None. interventions to environmental impacts. High  Sector Trends Company policies 1) No literature relating to CSR of sanitaryware Literature is limited on the location of production and the extended supply chain from and practices companies or policies regarding the wider raw materials extraction. supply chain. 2) From where are WCs sourced? On what is Literature is limited on company policies and practices in an environmental and this based (eg price, location, ethics)? Any social context. What is available focuses on improved water efficiency product consideration of labour conditions/ designs. Low  environmental impacts lower down the chain? MISD practices 1) Literature does not relate specifically to Literature is limited on strategies that mining companies take in promoting materials for WC production; and sustainable development in relation to their operations. What is available focuses 2) Environmental impacts are not addressed largely on the mining industry as a whole. Literature relating to mining companies Low  from a life cycle perspective. involved in the extraction of materials for WC production is not available. Consumer trends None. Literature is available on what WC products consumers are buying and what drives them to select certain WC specifications.

The information available on how consumer trends affect environmental impacts is good. For example, reductions in water consumption have been forecast in relation to increased uptake of lower flush volume WCs.

Sources of information include the MTP and BMA which are considered to be reliable High  sources that are regularly updated.

Impact Area Literature Gap availability significance Key Identified Gaps Notes/ Comments Technology Innovations Technological 1) Environmental impacts are not addressed Literature focuses on product innovation (namely innovations in flush mechanisms). Innovation from a life cycle perspective. Literature coverage is good on the feasibility of retrofitting conventional WCs or drainage systems, and the effectiveness of new WC products in terms of functionality and reduced water consumption. Sources include the MTP, BMA and EA, all of which are reputable sources, but limited literature addresses the life cycle impacts of technological innovations. For example, literature on the retrofitting of WCs with water efficiency devices deals with environmental benefits from reduced water Medium  consumption but does not address the environmental impacts of the entire life cycle. Water Efficiency Initiatives Water consumption 1) Environmental impacts are not addressed Literature relating to UK water efficiency initiatives is abundant and focuses on water reduction from a life cycle perspective; and consumption reduction, rainwater/ greywater harvesting and water metering. 2) Literature is generally written by the owners High  of the initiative so bias cannot be excluded. Rainwater/ As above. Literature on each initiative generally focuses on one aspect of WC use without greywater taking account of impacts prior to or subsequent to this. For example, initiatives harvesting based on reducing water consumption do not address the associated economic and environmental impacts required to implement the initiative. The MTP’s report ‘Alternative sources of water – greywater and rainwater reuse’ (MTP, 2007) does not include analysis on the impacts of biological treatment of water prior to reuse, of a new drainage infrastructure, or of the energy requirements of pumping and treating High  the greywater/ rainwater system. Environmental and Social Impacts Resource 1) Gaps in literature relating to energy Gaps in resource consumption are attributable to difficulties in apportioning general consumption consumption for all phases; and energy consumption data to specific life cycle stages. Information available does not 2) Literature for raw materials extraction and relate specifically to WCs or does not relate to an appropriate geographic location. WC production phases do not necessarily refer to geographic locations of the manufacture of Medium  WCs for the UK market. GHG emissions 1) Limited literature relating to energy N/A consumption for all phases, which is not presented in terms of GHG emissions; and 2) Literature does not relate specifically to Medium  WCs.

Impact Area Literature Gap availability significance Key Identified Gaps Notes/ Comments Solid wastes 1) Gaps in literature relating to solid wastes for N/A all phases; and 2) Data relating to solid waste disposal in the Medium  use phase does not relate specifically to WCs. Soil degradation 1) No literature is available relating specifically The limited literature available refers to general mining operations and does not to soil degradation and WC production as focus on extraction of raw materials for WC production. Low  result of WC production or consumption. Land use 1) No literature relating specifically to WC Literature relating to land use and associated impacts is generally limited to the Medium  production. extractive industries as a whole. Worker rights 1) Literature does not relate specifically to WC Literature on worker rights in the lead countries that manufacture WCs for the UK production. market is abundant, but information relating specifically to WC production is not High  available. Worker health and 1) Literature does not relate specifically to WC Literature on worker health and safety in the main countries that manufacture WCs safety production. for the UK market is abundant, but information relating specifically to WC production High  is not available. Resettlement 1) Literature does not relate specifically to WC Limited information is available relating to resettlement with regard to the production; and sanitaryware industry and whether or not this is an issue. Literature that is available 2) Literature does not relate to countries is limited to the extractive industries as a whole. Low  producing WCs for the UK market. Community health 1) Literature does not relate specifically to WC The majority of information on the social/ heath impacts of vitreous china production production; and is EU based. These impacts are transferable to any context where vitreous china is 2) Literature does not relate to countries produced, but labour and health and safety standards may be different from EU producing WCs for the UK market. countries. Further evidence is required on community health in areas that produce the majority of sanitaryware products imported into the UK (namely China and Low  Turkey).

Annex C: References

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13. Consumer Council for Water (2006), ‘Using Water Wisely: Quantitative research to determine consumers’ attitudes to water use and water conservation’, Consumer Council for Water in association with WRc, England. 14. Coombes, Peter and Kuczera, George (2006), ‘Sustainable Water Use in the Built Environment: EDS Special Issue’. 15. Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australia (2004), ‘REGULATION IMPACT STATEMENT: Proposed National System of Mandatory Water Efficiency Labelling for Selected Products’, George Wilkenfeld and Associates Pty Ltd for Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australia. 16. Defra (2002), ‘Sewage Treatment in the UK: UK Implementation of the EU Waste Water Treatment Directive’, downloaded from: http://www.defra.gov.uk/Environment/water/quality/uwwtd/report02/default.htm 17. Defra (2007), ‘Waste Strategy for England 2007: Annex C3 Construction, demolition and excavation waste’, downloaded from: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/strategy/strategy07/index.htm 18. Department for Communities and Local Government: London (2007), ‘Survey of Arisings and Use of Alternatives to Primary Aggregates in England 2005: Construction, Demolition and Excavation Waste’, downloaded from: www.communities.gov.uk/publications/planningandbuilding/survey. 19. Downing, Theodore E. (2002), ‘Avoiding New Poverty: Mining-Induced Displacement and Resettlement’, for International Institute for Environment and Development and World Business Council for Sustainable Development. 20. Environment Agency (2008), ‘Water-efficient WCs and retrofits: Conserving water in buildings’, downloaded from: www.interflush.co.uk/water_eff%5B1%5D._wcs_890010.pdf 21. Environment Agency (2008a), ‘Less Water to Waste: Impacts of reductions in water demand on wastewater collection and treatment systems’, Environment Agency, England, 22. Environment Agency, (2007a), Conserving Water in Buildings – A Practical Guide, Environment Agency, England, downloaded from: http://environment- agency.resultspage.com/search?p=Q&ts=english&mainresult=mt_mainresult_ yes&w=macerator+toilet.. 23. Environment Agency (2007b), Survey of Arisings and Use of Alternatives to Primary Aggregates in England 2005: Construction, Demolition and Excavation Waste, The Environment Agency, England. 24. Environment Agency (2007c), ‘Towards water neutrality in the Thames Gateway: Summary report’, The Environment Agency, England.

25. Enviros Consulting et al., (2004), Review of Environmental and Health Effects of Waste Management: Municipal Solid Waste and Similar Wastes, Defra Publications, UK. 26. ERM (2007), based on comprehensive knowledge of subject. 27. European Union (EU) (2008), EU Energy Labelling Scheme, downloaded from: http://www.eceee.org/news/news_2007/2007-05-29d/ 28. Heath, R.G.M (2005), ‘Small-scale mines, their cumulative environmental impacts and developing countries best practice guidelines for water management’, in Journal of Water and Environment Technology, Vol.3, No.2. 29. International Finance Corporation (2007), ‘Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines for Ceramic Tile and Sanitary Ware Manufacturing’, downloaded from: http://www.ifc.orf.ifcext/enviro.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui_EHSGuidelines200 7_CeramicTile/$FILE/Final+-+Ceramic+Tile+and+Sanitary+Ware.pdf. 30. International Finance Corporation (2007), ‘EHS Guidelines – Construction Materials Extraction’ downloaded from: http://www.ifc.org.ifcext/enviro.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui_EHSGuidelines200 7_ConstructionMaterialsExtraction/$FILE/Final+- +Construction+Materials+Extraction.pdf. 31. International Standards Organisation (ISO) (2006), available at www.iso.org 32. Lazrova, V; Hills, S. and Birks R (2003), ‘Using recycled water for non- potable, urban uses: a review with particular reference to toilet flushing’, in Water Science and Technology: Water Supply (Vol 3 No 4 pp 69-77). 33. Market Transformation Programme (2008), Improving the Water Efficiency of WCs, downloaded from: www.mtprog.com/ApprovedBriefingNotes/pdf.aspx?intBriefingNoteID=360 34. MTP (2007b), BNWAT18: Accounting for the trade-off between energy and water use - Innovation Briefing Note, downloaded from: www.mtprog.com/ApprovedBriefingNotes/pdf.aspx?intBriefingNoteID=464 35. MTP (2008), BN DW WC: Actions to improve water closet design and efficiency - Briefing Note relating to policy scenario objectives in Policy Brief, downloaded from: www.mtprog.com/ApprovedBriefingNotes/pdf.aspx?intBriefingNoteID=340 36. MTP (2007d) BNWAT20: Very low water use water closets - Innovation Briefing Note, downloaded from: www.mtprog.com/ApprovedBriefingNotes/pdf.aspx?intBriefingNoteID=488

37. MTP (2007e) BNWAT19: Alternative sources of water - greywater and rainwater reuse: Innovation Briefing Note, downloaded from: www.mtprog.com/ApprovedBriefingNotes/pdf.aspx?intBriefingNoteID=517 38. Matsumoto, Akio and Nishikawa, Akio (1994), ‘United States Patent No. 5,372,976 – Vitreous China, Method for Preparing the Vitreous China, Saintary Ware Produced therefrom and glaze therefrom’, downloaded from: www.freepatentsonline.com/5372976.html 39. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister & British Geological Society (2006), ‘Minerals Planning Factsheet: Ball clay’, downloaded from: www.mineralsuk.com/britmin/mpfball_clay.pdf 40. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (2005), ‘Survey of Arisings and Use of Construction, Demolition and Excavation Waste as Aggregate in England in 2003’, downloaded from: www.communities.gov.uk/publications/planningandbuilding/surveyarisings 41. OFWAT, (2007), June 2007 Return, OFWAT, UK, 2007. 42. Padmalal, K et al (2004), ‘Tile and Brick Clay Mining and Related Environmental Impacts in the Chalakudy Basin, Central Kerala (Discussion Paper No. 96)’ for Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development, downloaded from: www.krpcds.org/publication/downloads/96.pdf 43. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (2007), ‘Energy and Sewage’, (April 2007, No.282), downloaded from: www.alphagalileo.org/images/pdf.pdf 44. Propelair, downloaded from: http://www.propelair.com/Propelair%20News%20May%2007.pdf 45. Rylander, R. (1999), 'Health effects among workers in sewage treatment plants,' (abstract only) in Occupational and Environmental Medicine (Vol 56, pp.354-357) 46. Sammer, K and Wüstenhagen, R (2005), ‘The Influence of Eco-Labelling on Consumer Behaviour – Results of a Discrete Choice Analysis’, Business Strategy & the Environment (forthcoming). Version: Sept. 1, 2005 47. Schlunke A, Lewis J and Fane S (2008), ‘Analysis of Australian Opportunities for More Water-Efficiency Toilets’, for the Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, 2008. 48. South Staffordshire Water, email communication between Steve Colella (South Staffordshire Water) and Simon Gandy (ERM) on 20 February 2008. 49. Takala, J (2005), ‘Introductory Report – Decent Work, Safe Work’, for International Labour Organisation.

50. The Times (2007), ‘Mandatory water meters a step closer’, The Times, August 2007, dowmloaded from http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/utilities/article2 274821.ece 51. Veiga, Marcello; Scoble, Malcolm and McAllister, Mary Louise (2001), ‘Mining with Communities’ in Natural Resources Forum (Vol 25 pp.191-202). 52. Water UK (2006), ‘Towards Sustainability 2005-2006’, downloaded from: www.water.org.uk/home/policy/reports/sustainability/indicators-2005- 06/towards-sustainability-2005-2006.pdf. 53. Water UK (2008), ‘Chlorine and disinfection by-products’, downloaded from: http://www.water.org.uk/home/policy/positions/chlorine. 54. Waterwise (2008), ‘Toilet flushing’, downloaded from: http://www.waterwise.org.uk/reducing_water_wastage_in_the_uk/house_and_ garden/toilet_flushing.html 55. Water Regulations Advisory Committee (WRAC) (2003), ‘A review of the enforcement of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 from 1 April 2000 to 31 March 2001’, downloaded from: www.defra.gov.uk/ENVIRONMENT/water/industry/wrac/pdf/wrac-final- june03.pdf 56. WRAP (2004), ‘Site Waste Management Plans: Guidance for Construction Contractors and Clients – Voluntary Code of Practice,’ downloaded from: www.wrap.org.uk/document.rm?id=2323. 57. Water Regulations Advisory Scheme (WRAS) (2006), ‘WRAS Review of the Water Fittings Regulations’, downloaded from: www.wras.co.uk/PDF_Files/Regs_Review/Report%20Regulations%20Review %20-%20main%20proposals.pdf 58. WRc, email communication between Carmen Waylen (WRc) and Simon Gandy (ERM) on 18 February 2008. 59. HM Revenue and Customs (2008), Trade Information, downloaded from: http://www.uktradeinfo.com/index.cfm 60. BRE (2008), telephone communication with Sylvia Zakar and Saori Smith, February 2008. 61. Enviros Consulting (2004), ‘Sectoral Mass Balance Study for the UK Ceramics Industry’, downloaded from: http://www.epolitix.com/NR/rdonlyres/45519241-4666-4AB2-B7F0- 4D158A977522/0/BiffawardProgrammeonSustainableResourceUse113.pdf.

62. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (2008), ‘Kaolin Mineral Planning Factsheet’, downloaded from: www.mineralsuk.com/britmin/mpfkaolin.pdf. 63. Index Mundi (2008), ‘Kaolin: World Production, By Country’, downloaded from: http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/clays/clays_t27.html. 64. All Parliamentary Water Group (2008), ‘The Future of the UK Water Sector’, downloaded from: http://www.water.org.uk/home/news/press-releases/appwg- sector-report/appwg---inquiry-report---the-futue-of-the-uk-water-sector--- formatted----1-april.pdf. 65. Defra (2007), ‘Guidelines to Defra’s GHG conversion factors for company reporting: Annexes updated June 2007’, downloaded from: www.defra.gov.uk/environment/business/envrp/pdf/conversion-factors.pdf 66. Defra (2006), ‘Municipal Waste Statistics – tables for November 2006 release’, downloaded from: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/index.htm 67. WRc (2008), Steering Group comment from Carmen Waylen, based on MTP data. 68. Grant, N. (undated), ‘Water Conservation Projects: A preliminary review’, Elemental Solutions, downloaded from: http://www.elementalsolutions.co.uk/publications.htm#h 69. Waterwise (2008), ‘Annual Waterwise Water Efficiency Conference 2008: The Road to Water Efficiency in the UK – Waterwise Conference Report’, Waterwise UK, downloaded from: www.waterwise.org.uk/images/site/conference/waterwise%20conference%20 2008%20review.pdf 70. Institute for International and European Environmental Policy (2007), ‘EU water-saving potential – Part 1 report’, Ecologic, downloaded from: www.eugris.info/displayresource.asp?ResourceID=6211&Cat=document

Annex D: Results of Comparative Analysis

D1.1 This annex presents the results of the comparative analysis. The first step was to model the environmental impacts associated with the production, distribution and eventual disposal of one WC (Table D1), compared with the use of one cubic metre of water by a WC (Table D2). As discussed in Chapter 9 Comparative Analysis of this report (section 9.3), the impacts associated with heat loss have been excluded. D1.2 The material composition of a WC was determined from communication with the BMA, which identified the quantities of material for different WC models and the relative proportions of WC models within the UK (Ref 5). A weighted material composition for one WC was modelled as follows: Total mass of 37.33 kg, comprising:

• 33.55 kg of ceramic;

• 2.53 kg of plastic; and

• 1.25 kg of MDF.

D1.3 The quantity of metal in relation to fittings and fixtures for one WC is of nominal value (Ref 5). D1.4 Statistics for the import of WCs into the UK obtained from HM Customs was used to determine average distances that WCs are transported by sea and by road as follows (Ref 59): • 3,164 km transported by sea; and

• 554 km transported by road.

D1.5 Further to advice from the BRE, at end of life the WC ceramic is assumed to be 100% recycled as aggregate (Ref 60). Average UK waste management route statistics were used to determine the waste disposal routes of the plastic and MDF components of the WC. For plastics, average UK waste management is 3% recycled, 81% landfill and 16% incinerated. For MDF, average UK waste management is 84% landfill and 16% incinerated. D1.6 The comparative analysis was undertaken in Sima Pro using ‘CML 2 baseline 2000 v2.04/ World, 1990’ as the impact assessment method. Sima Pro is an LCA software program which houses several inventory databases, along with the most important impact assessment methods. The software enables the analysis and modelling of products, processes and services across their life cycle.

D1.7 The CML 2 baseline method used in this study uses the mid-point1 approach. The impact assessment reflects potential, not actual impacts and takes no account of the local receiving environment. The CML method has been selected for use in this study as it has been justified by a scientific background document and is based on ISO 14040 standards. The best available characterisation methods have been selected based on an extensive review of existing methodologies worldwide.

Table D1 Environmental Impacts of the Life Cycle of One WC

Total for Ceramic Other Distri- Impact category One WC for WC Materials bution Disposal Units

Abiotic depletion 0.672 0.509 0.136 0.041 -0.014 kg Sb eq

Acidification 0.271 0.181 0.040 0.055 -0.005 kg SO2 eq

3- Eutrophication 0.056 0.043 0.006 0.008 -0.001 kg PO4 eq

Global warming 76.46 60.56 10.48 5.83 -0.40 kg CO2 eq

Ozone layer depletion 1.85e-05 1.04e-05 1.87e-06 8.76e-07 5.35e-06 kg CFC-11 eq

Human toxicity 14.238 10.242 2.474 1.687 -0.164 kg 1,4-DB eq

Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity 8.422 7.568 0.702 0.209 -0.057 kg 1,4-DB eq

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity 13,117 11,897 1,098 504 -383 kg 1,4-DB eq

Terrestrial ecotoxicity 0.162 0.123 0.028 0.012 -0.002 kg 1,4-DB eq

Photochemical oxidation 0.016 0.011 0.003 0.002 0.000 kg C2H4

Table D2 Environmental Impacts of the Life Cycle of 1m3 of WC Water

Total for Water Detergent Sewage Impact category 1m3 Water treatment usage treatment Units

Abiotic depletion 0.0083 0.0039 0.0002 0.0042 kg Sb eq

Acidification 0.0052 0.0025 0.0001 0.0026 kg SO2 eq

3- Eutrophication 0.0040 0.0002 0.0000 0.0037 kg PO4 eq

Global warming 1.14 0.54 0.02 0.58 kg CO2 eq

Ozone layer depletion 9.46e-08 3.37e-08 2.62e-08 3.47e-08 kg CFC-11 eq

Human toxicity 0.340 0.157 0.016 0.167 kg 1,4-DB eq

Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity 0.068 0.032 0.003 0.033 kg 1,4-DB eq

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity 165 77 5 82 kg 1,4-DB eq

Terrestrial ecotoxicity 0.0140 0.0065 0.0003 0.0071 kg 1,4-DB eq

Photochemical oxidation 0.0002 0.0001 0.0000 0.0001 kg C2H4

1 ‘Mid-point’ refers to assessment of the phenomenon (eg. global warming or stratospheric ozone depletion) as opposed to ‘end-point’ which looks at the effects (eg. sea level rise or skin cancer).

D1.8 To combine these numbers, we must determine the total amount of water used during one WC’s life. According to the MTP (Ref 33 & 35), the average flush volume of UK WCs is currently 6.3 litres, and they have an average lifespan of 15 years (see Chapter 2 Market Trends, section 3.8). The MTP estimate that one WC is used 2,825 times per year (Ref 33 & 35). This implies that a typical WC consumes [6.3 x 2825 x 15 =] 266,963 litres (267 m3) of water during its use phase. For this typical WC, the overall impacts of its life cycle are presented in Table D3. Table D3 Environmental Impacts of a Typical WC

Use of 267 m3 Total Impact category One WC of Water Impacts Units

Abiotic depletion 0.672 2.222 2.894 kg Sb eq

Acidification 0.271 1.396 1.667 kg SO2 eq

3- Eutrophication 0.056 1.067 1.123 kg PO4 eq

Global warming 77 303 380 kg CO2 eq

Ozone layer depletion 1.85e-05 2.53e-05 4.38e-05 kg CFC-11 eq

Human toxicity 14.2 90.9 105.1 kg 1,4-DB eq

Fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity 8.42 18.0 26.5 kg 1,4-DB eq

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity 13,117 43,960 57,076 kg 1,4-DB eq

Terrestrial ecotoxicity 0.162 3.740 3.902 kg 1,4-DB eq

Photochemical oxidation 0.016 0.056 0.072 kg C2H4

D1.9 This analysis can be taken a step further. Knowing the number of times the typical WC is flushed per year, we can work out how soon after an inefficient WC has been replaced that the impacts associated with the switch have been exceeded by the subsequent benefits. D1.10 A first round of calculations indicated that, for example, if a house swapped from a WC with a 6-litre flush to one with a 4.5-litre flush, it would be 16 years before that 1.5-litre reduction resulted in a net benefit to global warming. D1.11 This should be considered in the context of the typical life span of a WC being 15 years. The benefits in terms of reducing flush volume were being compared with the entire life cycle production and disposal costs. In truth, it is unlikely that brand new WCs would be replaced, and the older the WC being replaced, the less of the burdens of production and disposal should be allocated to this intervention. In extremis, we would allocate no burden to the replacement of a WC at its end of life with a new and more efficient model.

D1.12 On balance, therefore, it seems fair to assess the payback for a WC halfway through its lifetime, and the results for each environmental indicator are presented in Table D4. For the previous example, swapping from a WC with a 6-litre flush to one with a 4.5-litre flush, it would be 8 years before that 1.5- litre reduction resulted in a net benefit to global warming. Table D4 Number of Years to Payback as a Function of Flush Reduction, for WC Replaced Midway Through its Lifetime Change in Change volume / l Abiotic depletion Acidification Eutrophication Global warming Ozone layer depletion Human toxicity Fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Terrestrial ecotoxicity Photochemical oxidation

0.5 29 18 5 24 69 15 44 28 4 26 1.0 14 9 2 12 35 7 22 14 2 13 1.5 10 6 2 8 23 5 15 9 1 9 2.0 7 5 1 6 17 4 11 7 1 7 2.5 6 4 1 5 14 3 9 6 1 5 3.0 5 3 1 4 12 2 7 5 1 4 3.5 4 3 1 3 10 2 6 4 1 4 4.0 4 2 1 3 9 2 6 4 1 3 4.5 3 2 1 3 8 2 5 3 0 3

D1.13 This is not the end of the discussion either because it should be borne in mind that this analysis did not include the heat losses from the flushing. Early calculations (see Annex E) have suggested that this impact could be significant, and would certainly foreshorten these payback times further. D1.14 The Market Transformation Programme on WC Water Efficiency (Ref 33) reports that at least 70% of new purchases are motivated by water efficiency features. This is further supported by the BMA who estimate that 90% to 95% of new WCs are 6/4l dual flush, and the remaining are other designs such as single (4.5l) or other dual flush (5/3l, 4/2.6l) (Ref 5). Existing properties, which account for 26 million homes, could be flushing on 6+ litres, and as much as 13 litres, in older or unmodernised properties (Ref 33).

Annex E: Model Heat Loss During Flushing

Background

E1.1 From the outset of this project, it was thought that one significant source of environmental impacts from the use of UK WCs might be the heat lost when the WC is flushed. Incoming mains water is at a relatively low temperature, and it is proposed that the water in the cistern/ toilet bowl might be brought up to the room’s ambient temperature before being flushed away, as the system tends towards achieving thermal equilibrium in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics. This heat transfer from the room to the relatively colder water would be compensated for by the room’s heating system. ERM has estimated the amount of heat that might be required by the use of a custom-designed model. Description of Model

E1.2 The system modelled is shown schematically in Figure E1. At the end of this annex, a sheet is provided detailing the mathematical theory underpinning the

model. This concludes that the final water temperature in the cistern (2) is

related to its initial temperature (1) and the ambient room temperature (0) by the following equation.

2 = 0 – (0 - 1) exp (-Rt)

where t = time for heat transfer, and R = constant

E1.3 The constant R is made up of a number of factors, such as the heat transfer distances, coefficients of heat transfer, heat transfer area and mass of water.

Figure E1 Schematic Diagram of Model Temp

kA kC m c

 0 C dQ

W W + d

Air Cistern Water Air Boundary a x Distance

E1.4 The heat energy in the ambient temperature of the room has to pass through a small boundary layer, thickness ‘a’, of air, and then the cistern wall (thickness ‘x’), before reaching the water. It is assumed that the water temperature is uniform (i.e. that the heat conductivity of water is relatively good). E1.5 Nearly all of the parameters (all the temperatures, the time between flushes, the thermal conductivity of the air boundary and cistern, the width of the air boundary and the dimensions of the cistern) are variables, making a definitive assessment impossible. To overcome this, ERM generated probability distributions describing the parameters (see Table E1), and then used Monte Carlo analysis to determine the likely total heat transferred through to the cistern water between each flush. Table E1 Monte Carlo Parameter Distributions

Parameter Min Max Distribution Unit

Thermal conductivity of cistern kC 0.8 1.2 Linear W/m°C Thermal conductivity of air kA 0.024 0.026 Linear W/m°C Width of air boundary a 0.0014 0.0026 Linear m Surface area of cistern for heat transfer A 0.4073 0.5511 Normal m2 Mass of water in cistern m 2 6 Normal kg Specific heat capacity of water c 4186 4186 Linear J/kg°C Width of HT boundary x 0.0099 0.0121 Linear m Time between flushes t 1800 86400 Normal s

External temperature 0 10 20 Normal °C Incoming water temperature 1 5 9 Normal °C

Results

E1.6 Several of these parameters were shown to have little effect on the final heat transferred to the cistern water. Apart from the various temperatures set and the time between flushes, the main parameter that affected the heat transferred was the mass of water in the cistern. ERM’s calculations deduced that the heat lost by flushing was directly proportional to the mass of water (m, in kg) in the cistern, according to the following equation: Q (in kJ) = 33.5 m E1.7 When this equation was used in the comparative analysis, the heat loss effects were seen to swamp the other impacts. The pay-back times (in years) for all the environmental indicators in Table D4 fell to one year or (usually) less. This was a surprising conclusion, and led ERM to reconsider the assumptions inherent in the above theory and calculations. Limitations of the Analysis

E1.8 The most serious concern about this first round of calculations was the inherent assumption that the ambient temperature around the cistern remains

constant between flushes. WCs are left for the longest periods between flushes both overnight and during the middle of the day (during the week), when it can be assumed that most houses’ central heating is switched off. Under these conditions, the central heating does not continue to provide heat to the cistern water, which cools down again with the house temperature. A second round of modelling was therefore undertaken, to investigate this issue further, by building a more detailed model. Second Round of Heat Loss Modelling

Model Design

E1.9 In the second round of work, the goal was to build a heat loss model that would be able to respond to different ambient conditions during the course of the day, and take account of the irregular pattern of flushing. E1.10 The new model consisted of a large spreadsheet, with a row assigned for every minute of the day. Temperatures of the incoming water (if the WC is flushed), the external room and the cistern water are all calculated based on the values of the previous minute, unless any changes take place. The main interventions are to toggle the home’s central heating system (on/off) or to flush the WC. However, the modeller can also vary the incoming mains water temperature. E1.11 Another variable that was added to the modelling was insulation. If heat loss from WCs is a major influence, then lagging the cistern may be a good idea. The life cycle impacts were researched for the production of some insulation materials, and added the option of including them instead of the air boundary layer in the above model. Empirical Testing

E1.12 Some experiences were performed to test the output of the model. Ice was dissolved in water, to make the water artificially cold, and that was added to a cistern as it refilled after a flush. The change in the cistern temperature and the ambient temperature were then recorded four times over the next hour, and then for the following three hours, to see how the cistern temperature changed. E1.13 In two rounds of experiences, a temperature gradient of about 10°C was halved with the first 90 minutes. This amounts to the transfer of about 21kJ per kg of water, a little less than the model predicted. The model was adjusted to reflect this discrepancy, by widening the air boundary layer to 4mm, which produced about the same delay in heat loss.

Scenario Testing

E1.14 With the model reproducing empirical results satisfactorily, various scenarios were then tested, with different temperatures, flush patterns and insulation designs. A graphical representation of the results was developed, and this is reproduced for one scenario in Figure E2. Briefly, the ambient temperature was assumed to be 12°C, the mains water 6°C, and the thermostat on the central heating was set to 22°C, and to come on twice a day (06:00-08:00; 18:00-21:00). The WC was flushed seven times – twice in the morning and five times during the course of the evening and night; the cistern volume was 6.3 litres; and, in this instance, it was unlagged.

Figure E2 Temperature Results for One Heat Loss Scenario

25 800

700 20

600 Cumulative HeatLoss / kJ

500 15

400

10 300 Temperature / °C / Temperature

200 5 100

0 0 00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 00:00 Time / hours

Mains Water Room Temperature Cistern Flush Event Heat

E1.15 The green line in the plot shows the cumulative heat loss through the day, and does actually fall around 9am in the morning, as the cistern cools back to ambient after the central heating is turned off. For this particular scenario, the total heat lost during the course of one day is 725kJ. The addition of an insulator (such as expanded polystyrene (EPS)) halved that figure to 355kJ. The production impacts of the insulators were insignificant in comparison to the heat saving over their lifetimes. E1.16 To put these figures back into the comparative analysis, it is necessary to determine the average heat lost per litre of water used. In the original scenario above, that figure is (725 / 7 / 6.3 =) 16.4kJ, which falls to 8.1kJ with lagging. However, we also have to consider that heat loss can only be

charged when the central heating is on. If we assume that is the case for every day during four months during the year (another variable that can be tested with sensitivity analysis), the heat losses fall to 5.5kJ and 2.7kJ respectively. Results

E1.17 The pie-chart of relative contributions to the total life-cycle impacts of WCs, by phase, is reproduced a number of times in Figure E3. The first chart shows the original results, in which heat loss is disregarded altogether. E1.18 In the second chart, heat loss is included, with central heating running all year and no insulation. For subsequently plots, central heating runs for four months per year, with no insulation (third plot) or EPS (fourth plot). The final plot shows the impact if the loss of heat amounts to 1kJ/litre – equivalent to the cistern water gaining about ¾°C between flushes when the central heating is on. E1.19 In all of the heat loss scenarios, the heat loss contribution completely swamps the other effects. The margin of the impact varies, but even in the most conservative scenario, where only 1kJ of heat is lost per litre during the four months of the year that the central heating is on, the heat loss accounts for 80% of the environmental impacts. E1.20 The heat loss occurs during the use phase, of course, so any interventions that reduce the impact of the use phase become much more favourable under these conditions. In particular, the pay-back times for cistern volume reduction, previously reported in Table D4, are very significantly foreshortened under the above scenarios. Table E1 presents the results for the conservative 1kj/litre heat loss. Table E1 Number of Years to Payback When Heat Loss is Included Change in Change volume / l Abiotic depletion Acidification Eutrophication Global warming Ozone layer depletion Human toxicity Fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Terrestrial ecotoxicity Photochemical oxidation

0.5 1½ 3¼ 3¼ 1¼ 2¾ 1½ 11½ 3¼ 1 2¼ 1.0 ¾ 1½ 1½ ¾ 1½ ¾ 5¾ 1¾ ½ 1¼ 1.5 ½ 1¼ 1¼ ½ 1 ½ 3¾ 1¼ ¼ ¾ 2.0 ¼ ¾ ¾ ¼ ¾ ¼ 2¾ ¾ ¼ ½ 2.5 ¼ ¾ ¾ ¼ ½ ¼ 2¼ ¾ ¼ ½ 3.0 ¼ ½ ½ ¼ ½ ¼ 2 ½ ¼ ½ 3.5 ¼ ½ ½ ¼ ½ ¼ 1¾ ½ ¼ ¼ 4.0 ¼ ½ ½ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1½ ½ ¼ ¼ 4.5 ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

E1.21 Only for Freshwater Aquatic Ecotoxicity does the payback time remain any possible consideration, and even this only applies for the 1kJ/litre scenario.

Figure E3 Share of Impacts Across the Life Cycle of a WC1 No Heat Loss Heat Loss (No Insulation) (*)

Production and Production and Disposal Disposal Phases Phases

Use Use Phase Phase

Heat Loss (No Insulation) Heat Loss (EPS Insulation)

Production and Production and Disposal Disposal Phases Phases

Use Use Phase Phase

Heat Loss of 1kJ/litre Key

Production and Disposal Ceramic for WC Phases Other Materials Distribution Water treatment Heat Loss WC detergent usage Sewage treatment Use Phase Disposal

(*) The first heat-loss plot assumes the central heating is on all year. Subsequent plots just have the central heating on for four months per year.

Conclusions

E1.22 The modelling work shows that heat loss is the dominant environmental impact associated with WCs in the UK. Even under highly conservative assumptions, an average heat loss of 1kJ/litre for four months of the year accounts for 80% of the environmental impact of a WC, across its life cycle.

E1.23 On this basis, any intervention that reduces heat loss is highly beneficial. Lagging the cistern can make a big contribution, but so can flush-volume reduction, as this reduces the water available to accept the heat. E1.24 One further point worth mentioning is that the analysis above does not examine the heat lost to the water in the toilet bowl itself. The bowl has a smaller volume, and the water will already be warmer, but there will be further heat loss at this stage, too.

Mathematical Theory

Heating equation Q=m c   where Q = energy used J m = mass of material kg c = specific heat capacity of material J/kg°C  = temperature change °C

Heat Transfer equation

Q / t = k A ) / x  where Q = energy used J t = time period s k = thermal conductivity W/m°C A = surface area m2

 = external temperature °C  = water temperature °C

so ) = temperature gradient °C x = width of transfer surface m

The heat flow through the two layers must be the same, so Q/t for both is constant

 Q / t = kA A C) / a = kC A (C - ) / x

Rearrange to C =(0 kA x +  kC a) / (kC a + kA x)

so (C - )=(0 kA x +  kC a -  kC a -  kA x) / (kC a + kA x)

=(0 - ) kA x / (kC a + kA x)

Q / t = kC A (C - ) / x

=(0 - ) kA kC A / (kC a + kA x)

Let k' = kA kC / (kC a + kA x)

Q / t = k' A )

For a small change in temperature over a small time

 dQ = m c d 

 dQ / dt = k' A ) 

 m c d / dt =k' A ) 

Rearrange d / ) = [ k' A / (m c) ] dt 

Let R = k' A / (m c) 

=kA kC A / [(kC a + kA x) (m c)]

 d / )=R dt 

 Integrate 2 d t   =dtR ( 0  )  1 0

    where 1 = incoming water temperature °C ln 0 2   =R t 2 = final water temperature °C  0 1 

Rearrange  = ) exp (-Rt)

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