Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30

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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

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Cretaceous paleogeography and paleoclimate and the setting of SKI borehole sites in Songliao Basin, northeast China

Chengshan Wang a,b,⁎, Zhiqiang Feng c, Laiming Zhang a,b, Yongjian Huang a,b, Ke Cao d, Pujun Wang e, Bin Zhao a,b a State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China b School of the Earth Science and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China c Institute of Exploration and Development of Daqing Oil field Company Ltd, Daqing, 163712, China d The Key Laboratory of Marine Hydrocarbon Resources and Environment Geology, Qingdao institute of marine geology, Qingdao 266071, China e School of Earth Sciences; Jilin University; Changchun, 130061, China article info abstract

Article history: As a paradigm of greenhouse climate in Earth's history, the provides significant rock records of Received 20 September 2011 global climate changes under conditions of greenhouse climate. The Songliao Basin, among the longest dura- Received in revised form 15 January 2012 tion (85–90 m.y.) of continental sedimentary basins, provides an excellent opportunity to recover a nearly Accepted 21 January 2012 complete Cretaceous terrestrial sedimentary record. Extensive lake deposits, ten-kilometers deep and cover- Available online 10 February 2012 ing an area of 260,000 km2 of the Songliao Basin, provide unique, detailed records that can be tied to the glob- al stratigraphic time scale, thereby improving our understanding of the continental paleoclimate and Keywords: Cretaceous ecological system. The two coreholes at SKIs and SKIn sites were drilled into this basin and completed with Paleogeography a total length of 2485.89 m of recovered core that spanned the complete middle-to-Upper Cretaceous strata Paleoclimate in the basin. The unique geological setting of long-term continuous subsidence within the largest Cretaceous Songliao Basin landmass in the world — makes the Cretaceous Songliao Basin of northeastern China an ideal place to study SKI borehole Cretaceous climate change on the continent. This paper reviews the literature on the paleogeography and paleoclimate of the northern East Asia and the Songliao Basin during the Cretaceous. Based on the climatolog- ically sensitive deposits, oxygen isotope studies, and paleontology, the climate during the Cretaceous in the Songliao Basin was temperate and humid with relatively abundant rainfall. During the period, significant changes – four cooling, three warming, and three semiarid events – are generally consistent with the oxygen isotope data from East Asia, and the four cooling events, in Berriasian–Valanginian, –, early Santonian, and Campanian–Maastrichtian, may be related to potential glaciations in Cretaceous. © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Miller et al., 2005; Bornemann et al., 2008). A detailed record of Cre- taceous climate change has the potential to improve our understand- In contrast to the oscillating glacial–interglacial climates of the ing of modern global warming. However, although the oceanic past few million years, the Cretaceous Period was a time of long- response to Cretaceous climate change is relatively well known term climate stability with warm equable climates resulting from a from oceanic scientific drilling (DSDP, ODP and IODP), knowledge of higher atmospheric greenhouse gas content (Skelton et al., 2003; Cretaceous terrestrial climatic change is at best fragmentary Bice et al., 2006), punctuated by rapid climate change events related (Hasegawa, 1997; Gröcke et al., 1999; Hasegawa, 2003; Heimhofer to perturbations in the global carbon cycle such as ocean anoxic et al., 2005). In this respect, the long-lived Cretaceous Songliao events (OAEs, Schlanger and Jenkyns, 1976; Leckie et al., 2002; Basin, covering roughly 260,000 km2 in Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liao- Jenkyns, 2003) and the deposition of ocean red beds (Hu et al., ning provinces of NE China (42°25′N to 49°23′N, 119°40′Eto 2005; Wang et al., 2005; Hu et al., 2006a, 2006b; Hu et al., 2009; 128°24′E), and located on one of the largest landmasses of this period Wang et al., 2009), or to global hydrological cycle disturbances such (Scotese et al., 1988), is an excellent candidate from which to recover as possible glaciation in polar or mountain areas (Wang et al., 1996; a nearly complete Cretaceous terrestrial sedimentary record of basin- filling history (Chen, 1987; Chen and Chang, 1994). In addition, the Songliao Basin contains rich petroleum reserves; ⁎ Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental the proven oil reserves are over 40 billion barrels, and proven gas Geology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China. Tel.: +86 10 8232 3 fi 1612; fax: +86 10 8232 2171. over 300 billion m (Hou et al., 2009). Daqing oil eld, located in E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Wang). the Songliao Basin, is the biggest oilfield of China, with total oil

0031-0182/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.01.030 18 C. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30 production up to 14 billion barrels over the past 50 years. In recent 350 km wide in the east–west direction; geographically the basin years, large gas fields have been found in synrift volcanic reservoirs is located between 119°40′E to 128°24′E, and 42°25′N to 49°23′N. with proven reserves of more than 200 billion m3 (Feng, 2008; Feng The basin trends in a NNE direction and the basin floor is et al., 2010a). diamond-shaped (Wang et al., 1994; Fig. 1). Transportation condi- In order to better understand Cretaceous continental climate, we tions and geologic knowledge of the area have increased dramati- implemented continental scientific drilling in the Songliao Basin in cally since the discovery of Daqing oilfield in the late 1950s, 2006 under the framework of the International Continental Scientific allowing for a well-designed scientific drilling program to be initiat- Drilling Program. This drilling was divided into two stages; the first ed and conducted here. stage drilling of the SKI has been completed and has recovered nearly Geomorphologically, the area of the Songliao Basin generally coin- 2500 m of cores (Huang et al., 2008). The purpose of this paper is to cides with the modern Songliao Plain. The Songliao Basin underlies introduce the basic paleogeographic and the paleoclimatic framework the Songnen Plain to the north and Liaohe Plain to the south, its during Cretaceous deposition in the Songliao Basin, and to provide an main area is beneath the Chinese Dongbei Plain, with an altitude gen- opportunity for the international earth scientific community to gain a erally lower than 200 m. The basin is surrounded by mountain ranges thorough understanding of the research results (papers in this vol- and hills, is bordered by the Zhangguangcailing Mountains to the east, ume) based on cores acquired. the Daxinganling Mountains to the west, the Xiaoxinganling Moun- Scientific deep drilling provides unique opportunities for the geosci- tains to the north, and by the mountainous lands in Liaoning province ence community to understand the response of terrestrial environ- to the south (Wang et al., 1994; Hou et al., 2009; Fig. 1). Currently the ments to geological events related to the carbon cycle and greenhouse basin includes large scale plains and marshes of two river systems, climate change, based on continuous high-resolution sedimentary re- the Songhua River-Nen River and the Liao River. However, the Creta- cords derived from core and from other Cretaceous terrestrial sedimen- ceous sedimentary basin may be much larger than the Songliao Plain, tary and paleontological records (Wang et al, 2008). It will also address therefore its measured area of 260,000 km2 likely is a minimum esti- important problems, such as the identification of important stratigraph- mate. Consequently, it would be reasonable to believe that the Son- ic boundaries and marine-terrestrial stratigraphic correlation (Wang et gliao Basin, with an area more than fifty times that of China's al., 2002), possible reasons for the biotic response to the terrestrial en- biggest lake (Qinghai Lake), played a significant role in regulating cli- vironmental change (Coolen and Overmann, 2007), terrestrial response mate of East Asia during the Cretaceous. to Cretaceous oceanic anoxic events (Herrle et al., 2003; Cohen et al., 2004; Beckmann et al., 2005; Bornemann et al., 2005), formation of ter- 2.2. Tectonic setting restrial petroleum source rocks (Wan et al., 2005), and mechanisms for the Cretaceous magnetic Normal Super-Chron (CNS) (McFadden and East Asia, where the Songliao Basin is located, is a complex com- Merrill, 2000; Hulot and Gallet, 2003). bination of discontinuous and amalgamated landmasses. This tec- tonic complex is subdivided by suture zones and fold belts, which 2. Geographic location and tectonic setting were formed during continuous continental collisions during the Paleozoic and (Fig. 1)(Şengör and Natal'in, 1996; Yin 2.1. Geographic location and Nie, 1996; Hendrix and Davis, 2001). Hence, East Asia is an ex- cellent area to study continental development and associated defor- The Songliao Basin covers roughly 260,000 km2 in Heilongjiang, mation processes. An extensional rift valley system as large as the Jilin, and Liaoning provinces of NE China. It is approximately Basin and Range province in North America developed in NE China 820 km long in the north–south direction and approximately and southern Mongolia from Late to Cretaceous time

Fig. 1. Location and tectonic map of the Songliao Basin. This area is separated from Siberia by the Mongol–Okhotsk suture zone, consists primarily of eastern and south-central Mon- golia and northern and northeastern China terranes, and is marked by the Yinshan–Yanshan belt on the south and by the Daxinganling belt on the east. B=basin; F=fault. The closed dotted yellow lines are Mesozoic–Cenozoic basins; blue represents flooded areas; yellow is the modern ocean. YGB, Yinggen Basin; OB, Ordos Basin; EB, Erlian Basin; TB, Tamsag Basin; BHB, Bohai Basin; HB, Hailar basin; GB, Genhe Basin; MWB, Mohe Baisn; SLB, Songliao Basin; SW-JYB, Sunwu-Jiaying Basin; HLB, Hulin Basin; SJB, Sanjiang Basin; BLB, Boli Basin. DMF, Dunhua–Mishan Fault; MF, Mudanjiang Fault; DF, Derbugan Fault; YYF, Yilan–Yitong Fault; NKF, Nenjiang–Kailu Fault; TF, Tanlu Fault. A-A’ Location of struc- ture cross section (Fig. 3). Modified after Zhou et al., 2009 and Meng et al., 2010. C. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30 19

(Graham et al., 1996, 2001; Ren et al., 2002). This rift valley system 3.1. Strata and ages overlapped onto several interior contractile orogenic zones, leading to three groups of rift basins in the western, the central and the The Songliao Basin is filled predominantly with volcaniclastic, al- eastern areas. Geomorphologically, the modern western basin luvial fan, fluvial and lacustrine sediments of Late Jurassic, Creta- group is represented by the Erlian Basin and the Hailaer Basin, ceous and Paleogene ages resting on a pre-Mesozoic basement which are separated from the central basin group represented by (Chi et al., 2002; Figs. 2 and 3). The oldest sedimentary cover within the Songliao Basin by Great Khingan Mountain and Taihang Moun- the basin is the Upper Jurassic Huoshiling Formation (J3h). Overly- tain. The eastern basin group is represented by the Sanjiang Basin, ing the Jurassic strata are the Lower Cretaceous Shahezi (K1sh), which is separated from the central group by the Tanlu fault Yingcheng (K1y), Denglouku (K1d) and Quantou (K1q) formations; (Fig. 1). These three basin groups are not only separated by moun- these are overlain by the Upper Cretaceous Qinshankou (K2qn), tains and structural belts, but also in terms of their developmental Yaojia (K2y), Nenjiang (K2n), Sifangtai (K2s), and Mingshui (K2m) stages, sedimentary patterns, and subsequent intensity of tectonic formations. The sedimentary sequence is capped by an unconformi- deformation (Chi et al., 2002), implying that this geomorphology ty between the Cretaceous and Cenozoic, overlain by the Paleogene– may have existed before the formation of the basin floors. Neogene Yi'an (E2-3ya), Da'an (N2da) and Taikang (N2tk) forma- Extensional zones commonly develop upon the contractile oro- tions (Hou et al., 2009). genic belts. An important phenomenon of this environment is an The age of Huoshiling Formation is still controversial, with uncer- older thrust-fault plane reactivated as a normal fault during extension tainty as to whether it spans the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary in the (Gries, 1983; Williams and Powell, 1989; Axen et al., 1993) and the Songliao Basin. We place the formation in the Late Jurassic Tithonian emergence of a high strain extensional zone characterized by a meta- Stage because the majority of radiometric ages are between 150 and morphic core complex (Coney and Harms, 1984; Constenius, 1996). 155 Ma (Hou et al., 2009). The sedimentary thickness is 500–1600 m, Gravitational collapse is considered to be the driving force for the ex- and strata include volcanic flows (mainly andesitic) and volcaniclastics tensional process, and this process occurred where the crust thick- intercalated with clastic fluvial, flood-plain and swamp or mire facies ened simultaneously or soon afterwards, as for example in the Basin (Feng et al., 2010a). Seismic horizon T5 at the base of the formation and Range province in western North America (Coney and Harms, clearly demonstrates that this formation onlaps the underlying 1984; Wust, 1986; Constenius, 1996), the Caledonian orogenic belt basement. in Norway (Seguret et al., 1989), and Southern Tibet (Burchfiel and With typical fossils of the Jehol Biota, the Shahezi Formation over- Royden, 1985; Royden and Burchfiel, 1987; Hodges et al., 1992). Al- lies the Huoshiling Formation. Because the age of this biota is still though the three East Asia Cretaceous rift basins were developed on controversial, we provisionally place this formation in the Berria- older orogenic belts, their origins have long been controversial, espe- sian–Valanginian (Hou et al., 2009). The formation is typically cially the mechanism for formation of the single largest and most 400–1500 m thick, and consists of gray to black lacustrine and flood- long-lived basin, the Songliao Basin. Much evidence indicates that plain mudstone and siltstone interbedded with gray sandstone and its origin was related to back-arc extension associated with west- conglomerate. A thin layer of felsic tuff and tuff breccia occurs at the directed subduction of the paleo-Pacific beneath the Asian margin, base of the formation (Feng et al., 2010a). but because 2000 km separate the Songliao Basin from the Japan Is- Overlying the Shahezi Formation is the Yingcheng Formation, land Arc, the role of plate subduction there is difficult to rationalize which comprises mainly felsic volcanics, which are the main petro- (see discussion in Graham et al., 2001). Alternatively, extensions leum reservoirs, and are interbedded with clastic strata and several may have been related to upwelling of a mantle plume (Okada, discontinuous coal beds, and normally 500–1000m thick (Feng et 2000), or related to the composite subduction of paleo-Pacific and al., 2010a). The zircon U–Pb ages show that the extensive volcanic se- Okhotsk Sea (Feng et al., 2010a). quences found in the northern the Songliao Basin were emplaced be- tween ca. 115 and 109 Ma in the Early Cretaceous (Zhang et al., 2011). As a result, we suggest that the age of Yingcheng Formation 3. Strata and basin structure is Hauterivian–Barremian. Of the ten reservoir levels in the Songliao Basin from shallow to deep (Fig. 2, Hou et al., 2009), the volcanics Cretaceous deposits in China are mostly of non-marine origin; in this formation (known as the Xingcheng gas layer) are the main marine sediments occur only in parts of Tibet and Xinjiang (Chen, target for gas exploration (Fig. 2). Notably, the top of Yingcheng for- 1987; Chen and Chang, 1994). During the Cretaceous, the Songliao mation is bounded by an unconformity, equivalent to seismic horizon Basin in northeastern China was a large rift basin that hosted a T4 (Feng et al., 2010a; Figs. 2 and 3). long-lived deep lake (Chen, 1987). This history caused the basin The Denglouku Formation unconformably overlies the Yingcheng to become the largest oil and gas producing basin in China, with Formation, and comprises interbedded gray to white structureless China's largest oilfield, Daqing, situated in the central part of the sandstone, dark sandy mudstone, mixed-color sandstone and mud- basin (Zhou and Littke, 1999). Large-scale geological investigation stone, conglomerate and a thick argillite (Feng et al., 2010a). The of the Songliao Basin for petroleum began in 1956, and on Sept. thickness of this formation is typically 500–1000 m. The charophyte 26, 1959, the first highly productive oil well (known as the Songji- fossils in the formation are worldwide Aptian fossils (Hou et al., 3 Gusher) was successfully drilled, initiating the history of Daqing 2009), thus we suggest that the age of Denglongku Formation is Oilfield. Since then, extensive exploration has been conducted in Aptian. The formation can be divided into 4 members according to the Songliao Basin. By the end of 2000, over 250,000 km of seismic the lithology, and the 3rd and 4th members comprise the Changde reflection profiles had been completed. The block scale for the seis- gas layer (Fig. 2). mic network is 0.5 × 0.5 to 2× 4 km, and some 3-D seismic reflection Above the Denglouku Formation is the Quantou Formation, data have been acquired. About 50,000 wells have been drilled, with which overlaps the eastern and western basin margins and extends cumulative drill penetration of about 40 million meters (Wang et across the whole basin. Quantou strata are characterized by red- al., 2008). In recent years, more wells have been drilled to the brown, purple and purple-brown mudstone, coarse grayish-white Lower Cretaceous, which offer reference points for the proposed sandstone and conglomerate of fluvial and floodplain origins depos- deeper drilling program, and which form the basis for detailed ited in arid or semi-arid conditions (Feng et al., 2010a). Although, stratigraphic correlation and derivative reconstructions of Creta- this formation has few fossils, previous studies allocated this forma- ceous paleoenvironment, and permit identification of an optimum tion to the Albian Stage (Hou et al., 2009). The Quantou Formation drilling location for scientific objectives. is Albian–-lowermost Turonian in age (see Wan et al., 20 C. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30

2013–this volume; Deng et al., 2013–this volume). The thickness of 3rd and 4th members belong to the Changde and Fuyu oil layers the sequence is typically 550–1200 m, with a maximum of 1650 m. (Fig. 2), which also are called the lower oil-bearing assemblage It can be divided into 4 members according to the lithology, and the (Hou et al., 2009).

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of Songliao Basin modified from Wang et al. (2008). 1, Volcanic; 2, Mudstone; 3, Muddy Siltstone; 4, Siltstone; 5, Sandstone; 6, Conglomerate. C. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30 21

Fig. 3. Structural cross section across the central part of the Songliao Basin based on regional seismic analyses; lithologies and formations derived from geophysical logs and cores tied to seismic sections. Q-Ey, Quaternary/Neogene; K2s, Sifangtai Formation; K2m, Mingshui Formation; K2n, Nenjiang Formation; K2y, Yaojia Formation; K2qn, Qingshankou For- mation; K1q, Quantou Formation; K1d, Denglouku Formation; K1yc,Yingcheng Formation; K1sh, Shahezi Formation; K1h, Houshigou Formation. T03–5, seismic horizons. The red regions indicate oil reservoirs. The yellow bars in SK-In , SK-Is, SK-IIw and SK-IIe are coring intervals and the white bars are un-cored intervals. Modified after Feng et al., 2010a.

The Qingshankou Formation consists of gray, dark gray and black and gray-green sandstone and muddy siltstone. The middle part of mudstone interbedded with oil shale and gray sandstone and silt- the formation consists of gray fine sandstone and siltstone inter- stone. Deltaic and shallow lacustrine facies dominate this formation. bedded with brick-red and mauve shale. Fine clastics dominate the During early deposition of the Qingshankou deep-water, lacustrine, upper part of the formation and comprise red and mauve shale inter- black mudstone with a thickness of 60–100 m was deposited across bedded with gray-green mudstone. The Mingshui Formation is com- the entire central downwarp, forming the most important petroleum posed of gray-green, gray, black and brown-red shale and gray- source rocks in the Songliao Basin (Feng et al., 2010a). Based on abun- green sandstone (Feng et al., 2010a). Various lines of new evidence, dant aquatic fossils found in the formation, such as conchostraca, os- including comprehensive palynological research in SKI (Li et al., tracode, bivalve, and fish, the most recent research determines the 2011), show that the Mingshui is middle Campanian–Maastrichtian, agetobelateTuronian–Coniacian (see Wan et al., 2013–this volume; but also clearly indicate that the top of Mingshui Formation is Paleo- Deng et al., 2013–this volume). It can be divided into 3 members accord- cene in age (see Wan et al., 2013–this volume; Deng et al., 2013–this ing to lithology, and the 2nd and 3rd members belong to the Gaotaizi volume). Seismic horizon T02 is a significant regional unconformity oil layer (Fig. 2). separating the Cretaceous and Cenozoic deposits (Figs. 2 and 3), indi- The seismic marker T11 at the base of the Yaojia Formation (Figs. 2 cating strong structural inversion, including folding and uplift (Feng and 3) is an unconformity and in the western and southeastern and cen- et al., 2010a). tral zones of the basin (Fig. 3), which shows clear evidence of long sub- The drilling of the first stage of the SKI has already achieved a con- aerial exposure and weathering, including mud cracks, caliche, red tinuous sedimentary record from the 3rd member of Quantou Forma- palaeosol, calcareous nodules and plant roots (Feng et al., 2010a). The tion to the Mingshui Formation (Fig. 2). The second stage of this Yaojia Formation comprises red, gray, grayish green and black mud- program is about to begin, and plans to recover a continuous sedi- stone, siltstone and sandstone of lacustrine, fluvial and deltaic origins mentary record from the basement to the 2nd member of Quantou (Feng et al., 2010a). Like the Qingshankou Formation, the Yaojia is Formation (Fig. 2). also rich in fossils, and based on the regional correlation of these fossils, In summary, the Songliao Basin was filled mainly with lacustrine the age is Coniacian–Santonian (see Wan et al., 2013–this volume; Deng deposits beginning about 155–150 Ma and possibly ending in the et al., 2013–this volume). It can be divided into 3 members according to early Danian at 64 Ma, with a time span of up to 85–90 m.y.. Thus, the lithology, and the 1st member is the Putouhua oil layer (Fig. 2). the Songliao Basin is likely the longest-lived lacustrine-dominated The Nenjiang Formation is dominated by deep-water lacustrine sedimentary basin known in the rock record. gray to black mudstone, marl, shelly limestone, and oil shale inter- bedded with gray siltstone and fine sandstone. During deposition of 3.2. Basin structure the first member of the Nenjiang Formation (K2n1), the lake expand- ed rapidly and reached its maximum extent of 20×104 km2, covering The Songliao Basin is an intra-cratonic Cretaceous rift basin, as almost the entire basin (Feng et al., 2010a). The Nenjiang Formation demonstrated by an abundance of data generated by the petroleum has the most abundant and diverse fossils of every kind in the Son- industry, including its subsidence and geothermal history, sedimenta- gliao Basin (see Section 5 for details). The age is Late Santonian- ry facies, crustal underpinnings, and structural style (Song, 1997; early-to-middle Campanian (see Wan et al., 2013–this volume; Deng Khudololey and Sokolov, 1998; Einsele, 2000). The evolution of the et al., 2013–this volume). It can be divided into 5 members according Songliao Basin consists involves 4 stages and 5 structural units: (1) to the lithology, and the 3rd and 4th members belong to the Hetimiao a pre-rift doming stage during the pre-late Jurassic (before 155 Ma). oil layer (Fig. 2), which is the shallowest oil layer in the Songliao Uplift and erosion resulting from mantle doming precluded accumu- Basin. lation of to Middle Jurassic sediments. (2) A synrift stage dur- The Sifangtai and Mingshui formations are the uppermost Creta- ing the latest Jurassic–earliest Cretaceous, forming the structurally ceous units in the Songliao Basin, and because they have very similar deepest unit (T5–T4, Huoshiling, Shahezi and Yingcheng formations). biota, we discuss them together. The Sifangtai Formation consists of During this time interval, over thirty isolated faulted sub-basins were brick-red pebbly sandstone and shale interbedded with brown, gray formed (Feng et al., 2010a; Liu et al., 2011). (3) Downwarping was 22 C. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30 driven by thermal subsidence during the late Early Cretaceous and Table 1 a Late Cretaceous. From a petroleum perspective, this is the most im- Late Cretaceous lithofacies and rock colors in Songliao Basin . portant stage among the four, for up to 4500 m of sediments, includ- Fomation Area Color Special rocks ing two main oil-prone black shale units (the Qingshankou and (km2) Nenjiang formations), were deposited. A regional unconformity oc- Sifangtai– 83,492 Western: black eastern: red curs near the base of Upper Cretaceous strata, equivalent to seismic Mingshui horizon T2 (Figs. 2 and 3). This unconformity divides the thermal sub- the 3rd–5th 89,646 Black and red sidence tectonostratigraphic unit into two parts, each with distinct members of Nenjiang architecture and depositional features (Feng et al., 2010a), including the 1st–2nd >180,343 Black Oil shale and lower unit (T4-T2, Denglouku and Quantou formations) and middle members of biogenic unit (T2-T03, Qingshankou, Yaojia and Nenjiang formations). (4) Nenjiang limestone Basin shrinkage and regional compression. After the late Late Creta- Yaojia 144,666 80% of the area are red Gypsum the 2nd–3rd 162,458 Black and red Gypsum ceous, regional stress became compressional. During this period the members of upper unit (T03-T02, the Sifangtai and Mingshui formations) formed. Qingshankou Based on the structural cross section (Fig. 3) across the Songliao the 1st member 162,458 Black Oil shale and Basin, the basin-filling geometric pattern is a typical ‘steer's-head’ ge- of Qingshankou biogenic ometry. The lower unit is limited to the grabens controlled by faults in limestone Quantou 155,663 Major in red sandstone, the synrift stage, and in the upper part the Yingcheng Formation interbedded by grayish-green (K1yc) locally truncates underlying strata and onlaps the basin- siltstone and mudstone margin faults. The middle and lower stratigraphic units typically ap- Denglouku 62,690 Major in grayish-green and black, pear to have a downwarping sedimentary pattern, their deposits and great deal of red mudstone – overlap on all the graben basins, and the east and west sides of the Huoshiling 90,367 Gray-black conglomerate, Coal Yingcheng sandstone, siltstone and mudstone basin overlap in an onlap pattern. The change from the lower to the a fi upper stratigraphic units, which occurs between the Denglouku For- Modi ed after Zhang and Ren, 2003. mation and the Nenjiang Formation, results in extensive overlap that exceeds the present extent of the Songliao Basin. The upper strat- subsidence while the western basin group stopped filling and the igraphic unit only crops out at the western side of the basin, because eastern basin group rifted and was eroded. The distribution of de- stress from the east during this period not only led to the westward tachment extensional structures extended westward and rift basins migration of depocenter, but also resulted in continuous uplift and occurred abroad in North China and southeastern China. At the erosion on the east. same time, westward subduction of the Izanagi plate caused a 3000–4000 m high coastal mountain chain along the eastern mar- 4. Paleogeography and evolution of basins gin of East Asia (Yano and Wu, 1995; Chen, 1997; Okada, 1997; Yano and Wu, 1997; Okada, 2000), which influenced deposition of 4.1. Cretaceous paleogeography of China many distinctive types of sedimentary facies, including aeolian sandstone, gypsum and calcareous concretions (Xiang et al., Previous paleomagnetic data showed that the North China plate, 2009), in basins in the rain shadow of the coast ranges. the Yangtze plate and the Korean plate formed a single block begin- ning in the Late Jurassic (Gilder and Courtillot, 1997). According to 4.2. Sedimentary facies and environmental evolution of the Songliao paleomagnetic studies of fifty-five Cretaceous lavas in western Liao- Basin ning Province, this area did not move relative to Eurasia (Zhu et al., 2002), which suggests that the Songliao Basin was located at middle During the depositional of the Huoshiling Formation through the latitude similar to where it is now, although a previous study sug- Yingcheng Formations, the Songliao Basin entered a faulted phase. gested that it moved about 2–4 degrees southward migration (Fang More than 30 isolated rift basins composed the Songliao Basin, all et al., 1988). having similar filling sequences and facies combinations. Two sedi- A paleogeographic map of China compiled by Wang et al. (1985a) mentary sequences developed, consisting of volcanic-alluvial fan fa- reveals that eastern China and adjacent areas were dominated by ex- cies and fan delta-shallow lake-fan delta facies. They formed the tensional basins during the Mesozoic (e.g., Chen and Dickinson, first complete cycle from lake transgression to regression. The total 1986). The paleoclimate and paleogeography of the Songliao Basin area of these 30 basins was 90,367 km2, which included a lake area changed over its long life as a sedimentary basin. Understanding of 36,898 km2 (Table 1; Zhang and Ren, 2003). these changes helps to realize the process of its evolution. The Songliao Basin entered a fault-subsidence transition stage Early Cretaceous rift basins mainly occurred in northeastern during the deposition period of the Denglouku Formation (Guo et China, viz. basin group referred in Section 2.2,manyisolatedhalf- al., 2005), when the basin was fully integrated and had several cen- graben basins also occurred in North China and southeastern ters of sediment and subsidence (Feng et al., 2010a). The Denglouku China. They are volcano-sedimentary basins and have similar filling Formation is the second complete cycle, which was filled base to sequences. No sediment was deposited during the Early Cretaceous top by a succession of alluvial plain-delta-shore to shallow lake– in the hinterland of South and North China, which Wang et al. deeper lake – shore to shallow lake – alluvial plain deposits. Climate con- (1985a) termed the North China highland and South China high- ditions during this period were hot, when much of the red mudstone land. The basin group in northeastern China obviously changed in replaced former swamp mudstone. Because of differential subsidence, a theLateCretaceous.TheSongliaoBasinenteredthestageofthermal large area of the Songliao Basin was exposed at the surface, and the

Fig. 4. Late Cretaceous lithofacies and rock colors in the Songliao Basin. K2s, Sifangtai Formation; K2m, Mingshui Formation; K2n, Nenjiang Formation; K2y, Yaojia Formation; and K2qn, the Qingshankou Formation. 1, Mudstone; 2, Siltstone; 3, Sandy conglomerate; 4, Interbedded mudstone and siltstone; 5, Interbedded mudstone and sandy conglomerate; 6, Interbedded siltstone and sandy conglomerate; 7, Mudstone interbedded by siltstone and conglomerate; 8, Siltstone interbedded by mudstone and sandstone; 9, Sandstone inter- bedded with conglomeratic mudstone and siltstone. The gray color represents regions of reducing conditions; the red color represents regions of oxidation; the gold color repre- sents regions of transitional conditions, which include lithofacies of grayish green color, transitional between black and green, transitional between green and red, transitional between red and black, black intermixed with red-green, green intermixed with black-red, and red intermixed with green-black. Modified after Wang et al., 1994. C. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30 23 24 C. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30 area of sediment deposition in the Songliao Basin was reduced to The Sifangtai and Mingshui formations were deposited during 62,689 km2 (Zhang and Ren, 2003). the waning phase of the basin's life, when the eastern Songliao The Quantou and Qingshankou formations were deposited during Basin was uplifted sharply. This displaced the basin center west- the early subsidence phase. They formed the third complete strati- ward and reduced its area to 83,492 km2. These units formed the graphic cycle, which was a sequence of alluvial fan–alluvial plain– fifth stratigraphic cycle, which was a sequence of alluvial plain- shore to shallow lake deposits in the Quantou Formation to deep shore to shallow lake-alluvial plain deposits across most of the lake–shore to shallow lake-transgressive delta–alluvial plain deposits basin, but alluvial plain–alluvial fan occur at the basin margin. The in the Qingshankou Formation. However, marginal facies are absent overall character during this period was a widespread alluvial in the eastern part of the Songliao Basin, which suggests that during plain. Five small but persistent shallow lakes had low accommoda- this period the eastern boundary of the basin extended beyond the tion space and frequently fluctuating lake levels (Han et al., 2009). present boundary. The Quantou Formation was deposited mainly as Red siltstone interbedded with mudstone and sandstone divided red siltstone and mudstone, interbedded with gray greenish siltstone the dark mudstone into two sub-areas (Fig. 4D). and mudstone. The Quantou covers 15,5662 km2, including an area of To sum up, five complete stratigraphic cycles formed in four evo- lacustrine sediment of 23,150 km2 (Zhang and Ren, 2003). When the lutionary stages of the Songliao Basin. Tectonic activity and water first member of the Qingshankou Formation was deposited, the area supply controlled the changing area of the basin, which controlled of sediment extended to 162,458 km2, which contained a lacustrine the distribution and character of sediment facies. During the faulted area of 68,134 km2, with a deep water lacustrine area of 40,000 km2 stage, the basin was in the humid and wet climate zone, and abun- (Fig. 4A), may be influenced by sea-water input during deposition dant organic matter yielded dark sediment and coal-bearing strata. of this member (Xi et al., 2011). Black, gray black shale, limestone During the fault-subsidence transition stage, the basin was integrat- and oil shale are widespread in the middle and eastern parts of the ed, but many residual sediment centers still existed, where dark Songliao Basin. They formed the first major hydrocarbon source deep lacustrine facies were deposited while red strata formed in shal- rocks whose content of organic matter reached 0.53%. When the sec- low water and subaerial environments. During the subsidence stage, ond and third members of the Qingshankou Formation were deposit- the area and depth of the Songliao Basin both reached a peak. An in- ed, a large delta system occurred in northern and western Songliao flux of sea-water during deposition of the first member of the Qing- Basin and a small area of salt-bearing mudstone occurred in the east- shankou Formation and the first and second members of the ern area. The area of lacustrine sediment was reduced to 41,000 km2 Nenjiang Formation, fostering a productive ecosystem and formation (Yang, 1985), with an area of deep-water lacustrine sediment less of dark shale, oil shale and limestone. After the withdrawal of the than 20,000 km2 (Zhang and Ren, 2003). ocean, residual deep water lacustrine depositional systems yielded The Yaojia and Nenjiang formations were deposited during a late dark mudstone and red-green interbedded strata in shore, and shal- subsidence phase. They formed the fourth stratigraphic cycle, which low water lacustrine facies and alluvial plain facies. During the wan- was a sequence of alluvial plain–delta-shore to shallow lake in the ing stage, the area and depth of the Songliao Basin both were Yaojia to deep lake–shallow lake-delta–alluvial plain in the Nenjiang reduced, the sediment color was controlled by water depth, so that Formation. Marginal facies from the Yaojia to the first and second dark sediment formed in deep water and red sediment formed in members of the Nenjiang Formation, missing in the eastern Songliao shallow water. Basin, but they are present in the third through fifth members of the Nengjiang Formation, which indicates that the lacustrine water 5. Paleoclimate and paleoecology level fell during this period. The distribution and sediment sequence of the Yaojia Formation is similar to that of the Qingshankou, the The Cretaceous Period provides significant rock records of global area of which is 144,667 km2,with the deep water lacustrine area re- climate changes under conditions of greenhouse climate (Skelton et duced to 5719 km2, and the area of salt-bearing mudstone enlarged al., 2003; Bice et al., 2006). The Songliao Basin offers a unique oppor- to 22,041 km2. The Yaojia Formation consisted of red, red-green tunity to understand Cretaceous paleoclimate of terrestrial settings interbedded and red-black interbedded mudstone and siltstone because it contains a nearly complete record of lacustrine sediments (Fig. 4B). Red layers occupied 43% of total thickness of the second deposited throughout the Cretaceous (Chen, 1987; Chen and Chang, and third members of Yaojia Formation (Zhang and Ren, 2003). 1994). In the following sections, we review the literature on the The subaerial extent of the Nenjiang Formation was much greater paleoclimate of the Songliao Basin during the Cretaceous, and recon- than is now preserved; its peak extent was during deposition of the struct the paleoclimate in the Songliao Basin in spore/ pollen and first and second members of the Nengjiang, which may have been plant fossils, oxygen isotope data, paleoecology, and climatically sen- 260,000 km2 (Fig. 4C). Both the area and depth of the Songliao sitive deposits. Basin reached peak because of the influence of sea-water input during deposition of the first and second members of the Nenjiang Forma- tion (Xi et al., 2011). Only deep water in the central region and shal- 5.1. Spore/pollen low water lacustrine facies occurred in the marginal. Black mudstone is throughout the basin, with local mudstone and siltstone inter- Fossil spore/pollen from lake deposits provides a record of local bedded. Black shale, limestone and oil shale are widely distributed and regional vegetation, and indirectly, climate (Cohen, 2003). The in the whole basin, with the thickest oil shale up to 650 m. The area large quantities and widespread distribution of spore/pollen fossils of deep water lacustrine facies reached 96,044 km2, or about 53.25% preserved in the different lithology types in the Songliao Basin pro- of the area of the basin. Many sub-lacustrine fans and channel sys- vide an important proxy for paleoclimate reconstruction. Researchers tems covered the slope and base of the Songliao Basin (Feng et al., always employed percent ratios of pollen and spores taxa, to estimate 2010b). The largest channel system is 67 km long, and the widest temperature (ratio of percent pollen from warm-climate trees to per- channel branch is 600 m, extending southward 11.5 km from its cent pollen from cool-climate trees; Liu and Leopold, 1994; White et head. The eastern basin was uplifted during deposition of the third al., 1997; Liu et al., 2002; Larsson et al., 2010), humidity (ratio of per- through fifth members of the Nenjiang, which caused a reduction of cent pollen from humid-climate trees to percent pollen from arid- the lake area. The total area of sediment was reduced to climate trees; van der Zwan et al., 1985; Liu et al., 2002; Barron et 89,646 km2, including deep water lacustrine facies at 2922 km2, shal- al., 2006), as well as ecological environment (such as ratio of percent low water lacustrine facies at 35,925 km2 and delta facies at shrubs-plus-herbs to trees; Hubbard and Boulter, 1983; Kalkreuth et 16,870 km2 (Zhang and Ren, 2003). al, 1993; Larsson et al., 2010). C. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30 25

In this way, Gao et al. (1999) reconstructed the climate history of and warm (semiarid south subtropical) with the development of the Songliao Basin on the basis of more than 20,000 samples from herbs and low broad-leaved evergreens and conifers. The last two more than 500 cores in the Songliao Basin (e.g. Classopollis is regarded semiarid events both lead to an increase in herbaceous floras and to indicate warm climate; Parrish, 1998). The vegetation landscape of adecreaseinbroad-leavedevergreens.Duringtheentiresedimen- the basin in Cretaceous time was mainly conifer forest, and steppe tary history of the Songliao Basin, intense aridity never character- (Fig. 5). The Cretaceous atmospheric temperature changed relatively ized North China and South China (Boucot et al., 2009), which frequently in the Songliao Basin, but was mainly humid to semihumid may reflect the intense uplift of the Yanshan orogenic belt to the subtropical environments. Four cooling events were in the Early and south of the Songliao Basin, and climatologically separated the Son- Late Cretaceous recorded by: (1) the Huoshiling Fomation and the gliao Basin from North China (Haggart et al., 2006). Notably, the 1st and 2nd members of the Shahezi Formation; (2) the 4th member two major petroleum source rocks in the Daqing oilfield, the 1st of the Denglouku Formation; (3) the Nenjiang Formation and (4) the member of the Qingshankou Formation and the 1st and 2nd mem- 2nd member of the Mingshui Formation. Three warming events were bers of the Nenjiang Formation represent different climate zones (1) the 1st and 2nd members of the Denglouku Formation; (2) the because of the climate zones were shifted during that period Qingshankou and Yaojia formations; and (3) the Sifangtai Formation. (Fig. 5); the former was tropical-southern subtropical, whereas Three semiarid events were (1) the 3rd and 4th members of the Sha- the latter was northern subtropical. hezi Formation, (2) the 4th member of the Denglouku Formation, and (3) the Sifangtai Formation. 5.2. Oxygen isotope data The first two warming periods were characterized by humid and warm conditions (humid tropical) with the abundant peak of For nearly half a century, the most significant progress of Cretaceous broad-leaved evergreens. The last warming event happened during climate reconstruction came from the reconstruction of paleotempera- deposition of the Sifangtai Formation, when the climate was arid ture (Lowenstam and Epstein, 1954; Anderson and Schneidermann,

Fig. 5. Cretaceous paleoclimate evolution of the Songliao Basin. Spore/pollen relative abundances, paleotemperature zones and paleohumidity are derived from Gao et al. (1999), climate-sensitive rock types are derived from Wang et al. (1994). The temperature data (black curve, black dots, diamonds) are derived from Zakharov et al. (1999, 2009, 2011). The oxygen isotope data (red curve) are derived from Chamberlain et al. (2013–this volume). The classification of temperature zones is based on the species of spore/pollen spectra that define the tropical, tropical–subtropical, subtropical, tropical-temperate, and temperate (Appendices 1 and 2). The dryness and humidity are based on species of parent plants of spore/pollen fossils subdivided into xerophyte, mesophyte, hygrophyte, helophyte, and hydrophyte, which correspond to arid, semiarid, semihumid and semiarid, semihumid, and humid (Appendices 1 and 3). The red bar represents warming event and the blue bar represents cooling event, and the yellow bar represents the semiarid event. 26 C. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30

1973; Barrera et al., 1987; Huber et al., 1995; McArthur et al., 2007), yet relationship of an organism to its physical and biological environment there is currently no terrestrial isotopic proxy record similar to the Cre- can be controlled principally by climate, and thus the study of paleo- taceous marine record. Chamberlain et al. (2013–this volume) provide ecology has proved useful (Parrish, 1998). Many significant insights the first reported oxygen isotopic results from the SKI of the Songliao derive from extensive drilling data (Zhang and Zhou, 1978; Wang et Basin (Fig. 5), for the most part, diagenesis did not play a major role in al., 1985b; Cui, 1989; Gao et al., 1992, 1999; Gu and Yu, 1999; Ye et the isotopic results, which can be interpreted in terms of global climatic al., 2002), especially the discovery of fossils that provide a substantial and regional hydrologic changes (e.g., Carroll and Bohacs, 1999, 2001). basis for the study of Cretaceous ecosystems. We also collected the marine oxygen isotope data from the Far East Plant fossils and spore/pollen are very abundant and coal is widely (Zakharov et al., 1999, 2009, 2011; Fig. 5). The latitudes are approxi- distributed (Fig. 5) in deepest stratigraphic units of the Songliao Basin mately similar between the Far East and Songliao Basin; hence we sup- in Lower Cretaceous strata, indicating a relatively well-developed pose these data might reflect the trend of Cretaceous temperature in the plant ecosystem (Wang et al., 1995; Gao et al., 1999). In addition, bi- Songliao Basin and would like to make a comparison with other paleo- valves, conchostraca, ostracode, and fish (Zhang and Zhou, 1978; Cui, climate records. 1989; Gu and Yu, 1999; Ye et al., 2002) signal the development of the lake system (see Section. 4 in this paper for detail). The floras re- 5.2.1. The temperature records from the oxygen isotopes of the Far East flect a warm and humid temperate climate, as does the lacustrine Cretaceous climate changed relatively frequently, and mainly in Jehol biota represented by the ostracode Cypridea (Cypridea ) vitimensis, temperate climate, when the temperature commonly was above C. ( Ulwellia ) koskulensis, and the conchostraca Eosestheria, Diestheria, 5 °C and the highest more than 25 °C, commonly the temperature and Liaoningestheria (Huang et al., 1999). range between warming events and cooling events is 5–10 °C, some- As with the deepest stratigraphic unit, a great numbers of plant times they ranged up to nearly 15–20 °C (Fig. 5). In the Early Creta- and spore/pollen fossils occur in the overlying stratigraphic unit ceous, the data show a cooling trend to as low as 5 °C in the (Wang et al., 1995; Gao et al., 1999). Berriasian–Valanginian (Zakharov et al., 2009, 2011). Then the tem- Diverse ecosystems were best developed in the middle strati- perature increased in the Hauterivian–early Aptian (Zakharov et al., graphic unit in the Songliao Basin. The diversity of genera and species 2011). In the late Aptian–Coniacian, the temperatures were relatively reached a maximum. Twenty to thirty classes of fossils and 200–300 stable, except the relatively low temperatures in the Aptian/Albian species (Zhang and Zhou, 1978; Wang et al., 1985b; Cui, 1989; Gao and the relatively high temperatures in the middle Turonian–Conia- et al., 1992, 1999; Gu and Yu, 1999; Ye et al., 2002; Xi et al., 2011) re- cian. Following the relative stable stage, the temperatures decreased flect very well-developed plant and aquatic ecosystems are character- by 5–10 °C in the early Santonian and sharply increased in the late istics of Sungari biota. Many species of foraminifera, chlorophyta and Santonian–early Campanian. Then the temperatures remained high fish first appeared in this period. Fish fossils in Nenjiang Forma- (20–25 °C) until the decrease in the Maastrichtian (Zakharov et al., tion are Hama macrostoma, Jilingichthys rapax, Jilingichthys. sp., 1999, 2011; Fig. 5). A temporary warming event in the middle Maas- Sungarichthys longicephalus, and Manchurichthys sp. in the Qing- trichtian is also documented in the oxygen isotope data of Zakharov shankou Formation and Plesiolycoptera daqingensis in the Yaohjia et al. (2011). Formation (Kong et al., 2006). During deposition of the upper stratigraphic unit, the Songliao 5.2.2. Oxygen isotopes of the Songliao Basin depocenter migrated westerward because of compression and uplift The oxygen isotopic data are from ostracods collected from Songliao to the east (Feng et al., 2010a). The fossils are mainly chlorophyta Basin that cover an interval that extends from the Qingshankou and ostracoda (Wang et al., 1985b; Ye et al., 2002). Compared with Formation through the Mingshui Formation (Chamberlain et al., the middle structural unit, the fossil diversity decreased greatly in 2013–this volume). These data record clearly isotopic trends and oxy- numbers of classes and species, developed the Mingshui biota in the gen isotope shifts. There is a negative oxygen isotope shift within the Late Cretaceous, which implies an associated shrinkage of the basin Qingshankou Formation, the δ18O values change from ~−10‰ to as and a suppression of the whole ecosystem. low as −18‰ (Fig. 5). Following this negative shift, the general oxygen isotopes tend to increase from the Qingshankou Formation through the 5.4. Climatically sensitive deposits Nenjiang Formations. Then the δ18O values decrease in the Sifangtai Formation, and for the most part are more positive thereafter (Fig. 5). Many researchers have attempted to reconstruct climate zones In the broad sense, the trends in the temperature records from Far over geological time by analyzing the distribution of climatically sen- East are similar with the Oxygen data analyzed in Songliao Basin by sitive deposits (Strakhov, 1967; Zharkov, 1981; Bardossy, 1982). Ter- Chamberlain et al. (2013–this volume). There are both the positive restrial red beds would appear to be indicative of climates that are shifts in the Qingshankou and the Sifangtai Formations and negative warm and dry or seasonal with respect to rainfall (Parrish, 1998; Du shifts in the Nenjiang and the Mingshui Formations (Fig. 5). However, et al., 2011), and the distribution of coal indicates a range of humid there are several notable differences between the terrestrial isotopic climates under different temperature conditions (Meyerhoff and record and the marine record. The magnitude of the isotopic values Teichert, 1971; Boucot et al., 2009). is much larger in the Songliao basin than that in the marine sections. Coal beds occur widely in the Shahezi and Yingcheng formations and This difference may be due to the amplification effects of the changes indicate the humid climates of the Early Cretaceous in the Songliao Basin in the relative humidity and temperature at the site of evaporation (Fig. 5). As with the deepest stratigraphic unit, coal is virtually absent over the ocean and changes in temperature in the drainage basin (Wang et al., 1995; Gao et al., 1999), implying a less humid climate. (Horton and Chamberlain, 2006; Chamberlain et al., 2013–this These changes may correspond to the northward migration of arid volume). In a word, the similarity between the terrestrial isotopic re- zones in East Asia during mid-Cretaceous (Boucot et al., 2009). Accord- cord and the marine record may show that the temperatures derived ing to the spore/pollen data, the Cretaceous climate was mainly humid from the Far East can be used to approximate the paleoclimate of the to semihumid, whereas coal beds did not occur during deposition of Songliao Basin. the Denglouku through the Mingshui formations, indicating that the paleoenvironment of Songliao Basin changed from the fluvial facies to 5.3. Paleoecology the lacustrine facies. Terrestrial red beds (Fig. 5) occur widely in the middle Cretaceous Plants and animals can be exquisitely sensitive to climate, and fos- to the Late Cretaceous and appear to correlate with arid climates sils can be excellent paleoclimatic indicators (Parrish, 1998). The (Wang et al., 1995; Du et al., 2011). There were four events of large C. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30 27 scale red beds, in the Quantou Formation, the 2nd to 3rd members of environment. The occurrence of red beds and the absence of coal the Qingshankou and the Yaojia Formations (Du et al., 2011), the beds may indicate a more arid environment than the deepest strati- Sifangtai Formation, and the 2nd member of the Mingshui Formation, graphical unit and the transition from fluvial to lacustrine facies. deposits in the Songliao Basin. The Qingshankou Formation records part of the second warming event in the Songliao Basin, which was a humid subtropical-tropical 5.5. Discussion environment. There was a sharp decrease in conifers and a sharp in- crease in broad-leaved evergreens and herbs in the Yingcheng Forma- Based on all the information above, we conclude that the Songliao tion (Gao et al., 1999). The occurrence of red beds suggests that the Basin was mainly in humid to semihumid subtropical environments. climate changed rapidly. Chamberlain et al. (2013–this volume) ob- The general trends of the spore/pollen data and oxygen isotope data serve that the decrease in δ18O values at the base of the Turonian from the Songliao Basin and Far East are similar. The temperature Qingshankou Formation is different from the marine record of the commonly was above 5 °C and the highest more than 25 °C; com- North Atlantic (Huber et al., 2002), and argue that this interval most monly the temperature range between warming events and cooling likely reflects lake evolution as a result of global changes in the hy- events was 5–10 °C, sometimes it ranged up to nearly 15–20 °C drologic/carbon cycle. We suggest that the same trend of the oxygen (Fig. 5). The global paleovegetation simulations (Upchurch et al., curve in the Far East (Zakharov et al., 1999, 2011) may be also the re- 1998; Sewall et al., 2007) provide the same conclusion. The major sult of global changes in the hydrologic/carbon-cycle and both can be vegetation type of the Songliao Basin was a broad-leaved evergreen used to reflect the climate of Songliao Basin approximately. The cli- forest during the Cretaceous, reflecting a temperate and humid cli- mate of the Yaojia Formation was cooler and more arid than the Qing- mate condition; the southern part was adjacent to arid climate shankou Formation, which is reflected by the spore/pollen data and areas, and had a slightly arid climate during some periods of the Cre- oxygen isotope curves. The Nenjiang Formation was the third cooling taceous. The temperature was above 0 °C throughout the year, and event of the Songliao Basin, and the temperature was about 5–10 °C rainfall was relatively abundant. (Zakharov et al., 1999). The conclusion is also supported by the global paleoclimate recon- The Sifangtai Formation was a semi-humid subtropical environ- struction of climatically sensitive deposits (Boucot et al., 2009). East ment (Gao et al., 1999; Zakharov et al., 1999, 2011; Chamberlain et Asia, including the Songliao Basin, was in the warm temperate zone al., 2013–this volume), which was the last warming event and semi- during most of the Cretaceous and did not experience large changes arid event, with the occurrence of the red beds. The temperature (Boucot et al., 2009). In a greenhouse world without ice caps, ancient was around 20 °C and we can observe a decrease in conifers and in- ocean currents became the primary controls of continental climate crease in broad-leaved deciduous and herbs. The Mingshui Formation changes (DeConto et al., 1999; Hay, 2008, 2011). The Songliao Basin was a semihumid temperate environment (Gao et al., 1999; Zakharov was influenced by warm currents flowing northward from the Pacific et al., 1999, 2011; Chamberlain et al., 2013–this volume), which was equatorial regions and cold currents flowing southward from the Arc- the last cooling event in the Songliao Basin. The δ18O values in the tic region (Puceat et al., 2005; Haggart et al., 2006); these currents ap- lower portion of the 2nd member of the Mingshui Formation are proximately correspond to the modern Kuroshio and Oyashio much more variable than the marine record, and Chamberlain et al. currents, because of Pacific oceanic circulation patterns offshore of (2013–this volume) attribute this difference to be the result of local the Songliao Basin were broadly similar to those of today, keeping a drainage reorganization within the basin. The same trend of the oxy- relative stable state (Gordon, 1973; Klinger et al., 1984). gen curve in the Far East (Zakharov et al., 1999) may suggest that The Huoshiling Formation is represents a humid temperate envi- the more variable continental record can be used to reflect the climate ronment, which is also supported by the paleoecology, and this peri- of Songliao Basin approximately. od was part of the first cooling event in the Cretaceous Songliao Basin. Interest in the hypothesis of Cretaceous glaciations has grown in Because of lack of oxygen isotope data, the climate is mainly inferred recent years. Price (1999) summarized the evidence for polar ice from spore/pollen (Gao et al., 1999; Fig. 5). Overlying the Huoshiling sheets during the Mesozoic in detail, concluding that there were Formation is the Shahezi Formation, which was more arid and was at small and ephemeral glaciations in the Cretaceous. Through com- a low temperature based on the spore/pollen and oxygen isotope data plied evidence from previous publications including dropstone, til- (Gao et al., 1999; Zakharov et al., 2009, 2011), with a decrease in co- lite, glendonites, eustasy fluctuations and δ18Ovalues,Chen et al. nifers and an increase in shrubs and herbs. Furthermore, the 3rd and (2011) suggested 13 potential glaciation intervals in the Creta- 4th members of the Shahezi Formation represent the first semi-arid ceous. Based on spore/pollen data (Gao et al., 1999)andoxygen event in the Songliao Basin (Fig. 5). However, coal beds also occurred data (Zakharov et al., 1999, 2009, 2011; Chamberlain et al., 2013– in this period, indicating a humid condition. We suppose that the rea- this volume), we conclude that the four Asian cooling events are son may be the semi-arid event was the briefest and slightest among consistent with the potential glaciations periods: Berriasian–Valan- the three events. The Yingcheng Formation was a semihumid-humid ginian evidenced by tillite in Australia (Alley and Frakes, 2003); subtropical environment, and the temperature trend (mainly 15– Aptian–Albian evidenced by glendonites in Canada and Norway 20 °C) decreased and became more humid (Gao et al., 1999; (Kemper, 1983), glacial freeze/thaw structure in Australia Zakharov et al., 2009, 2011). Coal beds occur in this formation, with (Constantine et al., 1988), and δ18O(Clarke and Jenkyns, 1999); a decrease in conifers and increase in shrubs and herbs. early Santonian evidenced by eustatic fluctuations (Haq et al., The climate of the Denglouku Formation changed rapidly and 1987); and Campanian–Maastrichtian evidenced by eustatic fluctu- sharply. Based on the spore/pollen data, the 1st and 2nd members ations (Haq et al., 1987; Miller et al., 2005), frost and floating ice in of the Denglouku Formation record the first warming event, while the Arctic (Falcon-Lang et al., 2004; Davies et al., 2009). These po- the 4th member of the formation indicates the second cooling event tential glaciation events generally correspond to the cooling events, and the second semi-arid event (Gao et al., 1999). There was a but we lack the resolution to determine the relative order of cooling sharp decrease in conifers and sharp increase in broad-leaved ever- between continental and marine environment. In order to work out greens and herbs. However, the isotope data does not show the this relationship, we need more deep-time paleoclimate research. same trend, which may be due to the insufficiency of the data. Above the Denglouku Formation is the Quantou Formation, during 6. Conclusions which the temperature and humidity were relatively stable as shown by the spore/pollen data and oxygen isotope curve (Gao et The long-lived Cretaceous Songliao Basin, covering roughly al., 1999; Zakharov et al., 2011), and it was a semihumid subtropical 260,000 km2 of NE China is an excellent candidate from which to 28 C. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 385 (2013) 17–30 recover a nearly complete Cretaceous terrestrial sedimentary record, Anderson, T., Schneidermann, N., 1973. Stable isotope relationships in pelagic lime- stones from the central Caribbean: Leg15, Deep Sea Drilling Project. In: Edgar, which will provide unique opportunities to understand the response N.T., Saundes, J.B., et al. (Eds.), Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 15, of terrestrial environments to geological events related to the carbon pp. 795–803. cycle and greenhouse climate change. 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