Exploring Public Attitudes, Informing Public Policy

Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy

Selected ﬁ ndings from the ﬁ rst three rounds

113369_ESS3369_ESS RRevealingevealing aattitudesttitudes 66.indd.indd 1 111/11/081/11/08 112:33:282:33:28 The European Social Survey has developed a unique scientiﬁ c methodology for mapping changes in social attitudes… providing an authoritative source of EU data for academics and

policy makers ˆ

Janez Potocnik, EU Commissioner for Scienceˆ and Research Janez Potocnik reﬂ ects on the award of the Descartes Prize for ‘excellence in scientiﬁ c collaborative research’ to the ESS, during his opening speech at the Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities in Europe, European Parliament, 2005

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Attitude shifts in a changing Europe

It was in the 1990s that the The ESS has three linked aims: ‘…has generated new insights and European Science Foundation knowledge on key issues, problems, fi rst identifi ed the need for 1 To measure changes in public attitudes and topics within the social sciences’ a new regular and rigorous and behaviour patterns both over time … and… ‘improved standards of Europe-wide survey to and across nations methodological rigour and transparency, chart changes in social raising international standards of fi eldwork, values throughout Europe 2 To improve the quality of comparative questionnaire design and sampling for quantitative measurement in Europe other European social surveys and market This booklet contains summaries of a and beyond research, especially in countries which lack number of fi ndings from the European accumulated expertise in survey research’. Social Survey (ESS), which started in 3 To establish robust attitudinal indicators 2001 and is now in its fourth biennial to stand alongside existing behavioural So the ESS has swiftly become an round. Seed-funded in the 1990s by the and factual indicators of national authoritative source of reliable data European Science Foundation, it has since well-being about Europe’s evolving social fabric been funded by the European Commission and a key vehicle for knowledge transfer. and up to 34 national Research Councils In 2005, the ESS became the fi rst social This booklet focuses on a selection of throughout Europe (26 EU countries science project to win the Descartes Prize published fi ndings from the accumulated and 8 others). None has ever withdrawn for ‘excellence in scientifi c collaborative ESS data sets which are widely quarried from the study. research’. It has subsequently been selected by academics, researchers, politicians, as one of a small number of projects policy-makers and journalists. which form part of the European Roadmap for Research Infrastructures. In 2008 a top-level review commissioned by its 35 funders concluded that the ESS:

Contents

Addressing key issues 2 Education and politics 8 Sex and sexuality 16 The European social model 3 Families and work 10 The training gap 18 Ageing and ﬁ nancial security 4 Keeping the faith 11 Education matters 20 A digital divide? 5 Public responses to migration 12 More than a survey 22 A question of trust 6 What makes a good citizen? 14 ESS institutions and framework 24

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Addressing key issues

The ESS questionnaires ESS questionnaire topics include: Investigating public attitudes in up to 30 cover a wide range of topics European countries every two years and that tap into key issues facing • Citizen involvement and democracy disseminating the results without delay contemporary Europe • Moral and social values enables governments, policy analysts and • Trust in institutions scholars to keep up to date on social trends Some questions are asked in every • Social capital and social trust that affect how democracy is working and round of the survey. Others are asked • Immigration and asylum how European citizens perceive their lives, on a rotating basis by leading academic • Family and working life their nations and the world. specialists in the ﬁ eld in association with • National, ethnic and religious identities questionnaire design specialists within the • Economic morality In an era of falling political participation ESS team. The subjects and authors of • Political values and engagement and low electoral turnout, the ESS is rotating modules are selected following • Health and social care becoming an ever more important aid a Europe-wide competition at each round. • Personal and social well-being to good government at both a national • Perceptions of the life course and European level. Supplementing other • Crime and personal security reliable sources of ofﬁ cial data which chart • Household circumstances changes in people’s social and economic • Attitudes to welfare circumstances or behaviour, the ESS also • Financial circumstances provides rigorous cross-national data about • Attitudes to and experience of ageism shifts in people’s long-term perceptions, • Education and occupation preferences, preoccupations and concerns. • Social exclusion • Socio-demographic characteristics

ESS FACT The EC Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen has derived a set of unique indicators of ‘active citizenship’ based on ESS data

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One of Europe’s most enduring Their key fi ndings are that: contributions has been its model of The welfare provision in which everyone’s • Higher social security spending does not taxes contribute to the health and fi nancial diminish individual acts of social support security of all. But from time to time the European system has come under fi re from those • There is no evidence for the notion that the who argue that societies actually function welfare state ‘crowds out’ social solidarity social better when citizens spontaneously interact with and care for one another. Such activity • The higher the average income in supposedly withers in welfare states where a country, so the more inclined are model formal government provision ‘crowds out’ its citizens to provide for one another Does Europe’s model individual acts of social support because of welfare provision people step aside and leave things to the • Economic security strengthens rather reduce individual acts state. The more this happens, they suggest, than weakens social ties, perhaps of social support? the less frequent will be even the most because individuals more readily turn basic acts of solidarity such as doing their attention to others only once a sick neighbour’s shopping. their own basic needs are met

Tom van der Meer and colleagues from These conclusions were made possible by Radboud University in the Netherlands the scale of the ESS’s large cross-national have investigated these claims by drawing dataset which enabled common patterns on data from the fi rst round of the ESS*. to be identifi ed. The unusually detailed They analysed data on individual help given background data in the ESS enabled the to fellow citizens and linked it to aggregate effects of certain national differences – national data on social security expenditure such as the likelihood of living in a large and average income. family – to be taken into account in the analysis, making it possible to identify the ‘independent’ impact of increases in social security spending and differences ESS FACT in average income between countries. A large programme of methodological research is carried out by the ESS team to investigate and improve questionnaire design, fi eldwork protocols and response rates, and to *Van der Meer, T., Scheepers, P. and te Grotenhuis, M. (2008), ‘Does the state affect the informal connections achieve cost savings without between its citizens? New institutionalist explanations of social participation in everyday life’, in: H. Meulemann (ed), resulting losses in data quality Social capital in Europe: similarity of countries and diversity of people? Multi-level analyses of the European Social Survey 2002, Leiden & Boston: Brill.

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With an ageing population in Europe, how The graph reveals that women in almost well-prepared are people for their retirement, all countries are especially concerned that Ageing especially at a time when occupational and their income in retirement will be too small state pensions are under acute pressure? to see them through their later years, and that these concerns are most marked and What is clear from ESS data is that many in many Eastern European countries – Europeans are worried about whether where there is already more overall concern. ﬁ nancial they will have an adequate income to cover their retirement years. As always, variations Long-term trend data via the ESS will between countries are large, with over enable these issues to be tracked and security half of those in some countries and only be related to actual changes in pension Many people, especially one-tenth of people in others expressing provision in each country. women, are concerned concern. People who are most worried about the adequacy of are also more inclined to see it as ‘the People who are most their pension provision. government’s responsibility’ to provide an worried are also more inclined But these worries are much adequate standard of living for old people. more widespread in some to see it as ‘the government’s countries than in others responsibility’ to provide an adequate standard of living for old people

% very worried about income in old age All Women Men 80

50 ESS FACT 40

The twin objectives of 30

the ESS are to provide 20

rigorous data that contribute 10

to European governance 0

and to improve methods sia

Spain

ulgaria

Rus

Ireland

Austria France Poland

Cyprus

Finland

Estonia

Norway of comparative social Ukrain

Sweden

B Belgium

Slovakia

Slovenia

Portug

herlands

Hungary

Germany

Denmar

Switzerland measurement Net ESS 2006/7 % very worried is derived from those answering between 8 and 10 on a scale where 0 is not worried at all and 10 is extremely worried.

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It is well-known that internet access each country’s daily use of the internet – throughout the world made remarkable highlight the existence of four reasonably A digital gains between 2002 and 2006. But ESS distinct groups of countries. In the highest data reveal that this is by no means the group are Denmark, Norway, Sweden and whole story. The Netherlands, where daily internet use divide? exceeds 45%. In the second group is a Large disparities exist across Although the rate of growth in internet larger cluster including Finland, Switzerland, Europe in online access access has been almost as high in, say, Austria, Estonia, Belgium, France and the and daily internet usage Russia and Ukraine as in the Nordic UK, where it exceeds 30%. In the third countries, the discrepancies between group are Slovenia, Ireland, Germany and nations remain very large because of their Spain, where daily use exceeds 20%. And different starting-points. So, by the time in the lowest group are Poland, Slovakia, of the most recent reading in 2006, fewer Hungary, Portugal, Bulgaria, Cyprus, than 2 in 10 people in Nordic countries had Russia and Ukraine. no internet access, compared to over 7 in 10 Russians or Ukrainians who did not. The Further analysis reveals, however, that four chart provides the evidence that, despite particular countries – France, Spain, Germany massive recent growth, a digital divide in and the UK – are especially polarized by Europe is still clearly in evidence. an internal digital divide. Large proportions of the public in those countries (in France The disparity in the height of the pink up to a third of respondents) are at one bars – representing each country’s level or other pole of the usage scale – that is, of internet penetration – tells its own story. closer to an ‘all or nothing’ pattern. But the height of the blue bars – representing

% internet access No access at home or work Using every day

0 UK Spain Russia Ireland Austria France Poland Cyprus Finland Estonia Norway Ukraine Sweden Bulgaria Belgium Slovakia Slovenia Portugal Hungary Germany Denmark Switzerland Netherlands

ESS 2006/7

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If evidence were needed of the importance to democratic societies of a large measure Individuals with the A question of public trust and confi dence in their greatest trust in their fellow political and economic institutions, then citizens also tend to have the events in 2008 surely provided it. highest levels of confi dence of trust in public institutions such as A connection between The widespread loss of confi dence in the police, the legal system, trust in fellow citizens the banking system among investors, parliament and politicians and confi dence in political depositors and the banks themselves and social institutions created serious instability. But public Now, according to a forthcoming article in has been established confi dence in political and national a leading academic journal, the problem institutions is only part of the story. It is seems to have diminished. The authors also important for citizens broadly to trust describe the ESS as the fi rst international one another. Although political and social study to provide reliable evidence on this trust have long been thought to be linked, elusive link, not just because of ‘the high political scientists have until now found it quality of the ESS data’, but also because it diffi cult to measure whether and to what uses ‘more sensitive measurement scales’*. extent this was true in different societies.

ESS FACT The ESS data website has over 20,000 registered users so far from academic and policy communities, over 12,000 of whom have downloaded all or part of the data sets *Zmerli, S and Newton, K (forthcoming 2009), ‘Social trust and attitudes towards democracy’, Public Opinion Quarterly

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Personal trust in politicians 2002/3 2004/5 2006/7 6

Mean score 0 UK Spain Ireland Austria France Poland Finland Norway Sweden Belgium Slovenia Portugal Hungary Germany Denmark Switzerland Netherlands

Note: Numbers are national average scores from a scale ranging from 0–10, with 10 indicating a high level of trust in politicians. ESS 2002/3, 2004/5 and 2006/7.

ESS data show that such a decline has Despite the widely-held view that public trust in politicians is either greatly reduced or ceased altogether. in long-term (possibly irreversible) decline, ESS data show that In only 2 out of the 17 European countries such a decline has either greatly reduced or ceased altogether represented in the fi gure above was there a marked decline in public trust of politicians Their analysis has revealed a close link The paper goes on to illustrate the extent between 2002 and 2006. The remainder between social and political trust. Whether to which people’s social and institutional of countries have experienced either no in people’s everyday transactions – as trust go together at both an individual and appreciable shift or a modest revival. consumers, in workplaces and in social a societal level. Individuals with the greatest interactions – or in their activities as citizens trust in their fellow citizens also tend to and voters, they conclude that trust helps have the highest levels of confi dence in ‘to sustain a co-operative social climate, public institutions such as the police, the to facilitate collective behaviour and to legal system, parliament and politicians. encourage a regard for the public interest’. And this relationship holds true not only Trust between citizens ‘makes it easier, within but also across European nations. less risky and more rewarding to participate in community and civic affairs and helps Further analysis also provides qualifi ed good to build the social institutions of civil news for politicians. Despite the widely-held society upon which peaceful and stable view that public trust in politicians is in democracy rests.’ long-term (possibly irreversible) decline,

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In a celebrated book, John Kenneth But in an attempt to establish whether Galbraith suggested that there was in or not this was a causal relationship, Education the USA a ‘culture of contentment’, which Borgonovi introduced aggregate data on meant that richer and better-educated national compulsory school leaving age people were more likely to vote in elections alongside ESS data so as to isolate the and politics and participate in politics. Thus, contrary independent effect of longer education. The connection between to the spirit of democracy, the very people Her dramatic conclusions are that every education and political who might most be expected to want political additional year of education raises the interest proves to be change were perversely also the least likelihood of voting in national elections strong and consistent likely to vote or lobby for it.* by a remarkable three percentage points – a fi nding that may give pause to countries The 2008 US election may have changed considering lowering their voting age. all that. In any case, it has always been diffi cult to establish conclusively that extra This is because, regardless of its democratic years of education do actually lead to advantages or disadvantages, its short-term greater electoral and political participation. effect would be likely to reduce aggregate Now a sophisticated analysis of ESS data percentage electoral turnout. by Francesca Borgonovi at the OECD seems to have confi rmed this elusive According to the author, her modelling work causal link.** for this analysis was made possible only by the wide range of indicators of political The table below shows a remarkably participation in the ESS and by its large strong and consistent relationship between number of participating countries, which education and political interest, though a together provided the necessary variation much less consistent relationship between to generate robust conclusions. education and voting.

Education, interest in politics and voting in 22 European Countries

Years of education 6 or fewer 17 or more completed years 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 years % very or fairly interested in politics 25 31 31 35 39 42 43 49 50 56 61 70 % who voted in last national election 81 74 75 74 73 71 75 80 78 81 84 87

Note: The 22 countries in this analysis were: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Denmark, Finland, France, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and the UK. Pooled data ESS 2002/3, 2004/5 and 2006/7. *Galbraith, J. (1992), The Culture of Contentment, Houghton Mifﬂ in Company: Wilmington. **Borgonovi, F. (2008), ‘The relationship between education and civic and social engagement’. Paper presented at the Social Outcomes of Learning Project Experts Group Meeting, Paris, 19 June.

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An unresolved debate among policy makers birth rates (Spain, Greece, Italy, Hungary, and analysts is whether the large growth Poland), and at the opposite end are nations Families in women’s employment rates in recent with high female employment and high birth decades is or is not a disincentive to family rates (the Nordic countries). and work formation. Now the sharply declining birth rate in some countries has given this debate A seemingly obvious explanation is that this The long-term increase in the fresh impetus. Is the fact that women are difference might be due to different levels proportion of women who increasingly working outside the home a or quality of child care. Thus, in countries go out to work does not on barrier to childbirth or does it rather provide where work and child-rearing are especially its own explain the long-term the resources needed to support family life? diffi cult to combine, women may be more fall in birth rates in Europe likely to delay or forego motherhood, and With the help of data from the fi rst round of where there is more affordable childcare the ESS, Analia Torres and her colleagues the confl ict would lessen. But this cannot set out to investigate the issue and fi nd no then explain why there turns out to be a simple answer.* Instead they reveal major third cluster of countries (Ireland, France unexplained variations between nations. and Luxembourg) where low employment As the fi gure below shows, countries range rates for women are accompanied by high along a continuum. At one end are nations birth rates. with low female employment rates and low

Fertility rate versus working mothers 2.0 France 1.9 Ireland Norway 1.8 Luxembourg Finland Denmark 1.7 Netherlands UK Belgium 1.6 Sweden 1.5 Portugal Switzerland 1.4 Spain Italy Germany 1.3 Hungary Greece Poland Austria ESS FACT 1.2 Slovenia Czech Republic All ESS documents and 1.1

methodological protocols Total fertility rate 1.0 are swiftly made available 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% on its websites, including % working mothers

questionnaires and ﬁ eld Note: The total fertility rate is the mean number of children that would be born alive to a woman during her lifetime documents in all languages if she were to pass through her childbearing years conforming to the fertility rates by age of a given year. *Torres, A., Mendes, R. and Lapa, T. (2008), ‘Families in Europe’, Portuguese Journal of Social Science, Volume 7 (1), pp. 49–84.

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Europe’s nations are a diverse blend of religiosity and Keeping secularism. Fairly recent entrants to the EU include the most religious country (Poland) and the least religious (Estonia) the faith While religion retains its prominence in • The six most religious countries in Europe, Most Europeans see the USA, and Islam is said to be the fastest each with more than 80% of people who themselves as belonging growing world religion, Europe is remarkably are active or non-active believers, are, in to a religion, but many secular. But because religiosity is linked to descending order: Turkey, Poland, Greece, are non-active believers other human values, accurate cross-national Ireland, Portugal and Slovenia data on trends in religious engagement provide a context for understanding • Just 2% of Turks are non-believers, changes in the fabric of European societies. while 88% of Poles are active believers

Europe’s nations are a diverse blend • The ﬁ ve most secular countries in of religiosity and secularism. Fairly recent Europe, each with more than 50% entrants to the EU include what is now the of non-believers, are Estonia, Czech most religious country in the Community Republic, Sweden, Belgium and the (Poland) and the least religious (Estonia). Netherlands And in the wings is the candidate country, Turkey, with Islam as its dominant religion. • Almost three-quarters of Estonians are non-believers, while only 15% The ESS provides a nuanced picture of of Swedes attend religious services religious engagement, enabling analysts to classify people into three broad groups: • In countries where religious engagement active believers (who ‘belong’ to a religion is high, it is linked to people’s demographic and attend services at least on holy days), characteristics. Where it is low, this link is inactive believers (who ‘belong’ to a religion weaker, suggesting that individualism and but never attend services), and non-believers. secularism may themselves be related. An analysis of ESS 2004/5 data by As a long-running time series, the ESS researchers at the Catholic University of is able to monitor trends in religious Leuven in Belgium reveals the contrasting afﬁ liation and engagement and investigate ESS FACT patterns in different European countries:* their links with other values. Each biennial round of the ESS consists of at least 40,000 hour-long face-to-face interviews in almost all parts of Europe, carried out in *Billiet, J. and Meuleman, B. (2007), ‘Religious diversity in Europe and its relation to social attitude and value 30 different languages orientations’, ESSHRA Conference Proceedings Citizenship and cultural identities in the EU: old questions, new answers, Istanbul, October, pp. 83–104.

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Several European governments periodically increase inward migration as a means of …the 2003 ESS Public fi lling gaps in their national labour force, provides a rich, detailed often in the face of strong public opposition. set of questions about responses to In other countries, immigration has the immigration issue… increased spontaneously, also accompanied Hainmueller & Hiscox, Harvard University migration on occasions by public disquiet. So it is no surprise that the salience of immigration But the Harvard study discovers another Rises in concern over as a political issue rises and falls. Just factor at work at the individual level: immigration are greater prior to the French Presidency of the in times of economic gloom, EU (2008), the French Prime Minister • Public attitudes to immigration are closely and among citizens who warned that ‘…Europe is being subjected to linked to educational background; people do not have the skills or increasingly large waves of immigration… with less formal education are more likely qualifi cations to adapt and the general public in some countries to oppose all immigration, even of higher is extremely worried about it’. level workers who do not seem to pose any direct threat to their own jobs What determines the extent and the timing of these episodic upturns in public concern? • More highly educated people show greater acceptance of all forms of Since 2001, ESS data provide in-depth immigration, even of workers who might updates on the issue across Europe. Two well provide competition for their own jobs analyses in particular (from Harvard* and Catholic University of Leuven**) use data • The link between education and greater from the ESS to tackle this question. tolerance of immigration arises from the impact of education on people’s overall The Leuven analysis concludes that surges values. Thus more educated people tend in opposition to immigration between to express less xenophobia; feel more 2002 and 2006 were closely associated sympathy for cultural diversity and are with economic fl uctuations. Good more likely to discern the economic ESS FACT economic conditions make people more benefi ts of immigration. They are also In 2008, a high-level accepting of immigration, and vice versa. less likely to believe that immigrants international review team More worryingly, a widespread economic ‘make crime worse’ and more likely commissioned by ESS funders, downturn is likely to be accompanied by to believe that they ‘enrich cultural life’. a sharp rise in opposition to immigrants. concluded unanimously that ‘the importance of ESS… and its clear signals of impact justify fully continuous funding at *Hainmueller, J. and Hiscox, M. (2007), ‘Educated Preferences: Explaining Attitudes Toward Immigration in Europe’, levels necessary to achieve its International Organization 61, Spring 2007, pp. 399–442. vision and maintain its quality’ **Meuleman, B. et al (2008), Changing attitudes toward immigration in Europe, 2002–2007: a dynamic confl ict theory approach [Manuscript].

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To what extent do European countries As far as former East and West Germany are share common conceptions of citizenship concerned, Roßteutscher concludes that: What and civic responsibility? Do, for instance, ‘Fifteen years after reuniﬁ cation, Germany Eastern Europeans with their fairly is not a “republic of two cultures”, but rather recent experience of a different system a normal, ordinary European society’ – makes of government share notions of good a development that nobody would have citizenship with Western Europeans? And dared anticipate in the 1980s? Despite the a good do people from the former East Germany perceived civic virtue of voting, however, share the views of those in former West many European countries in recent years Germany, having not only entered the have – like the US – been experiencing citizen? European Union earlier than other former falling voter turnout and declining Do European countries share Warsaw Pact countries, but also having membership of political parties, and this common conceptions of done so by merging with an established decline appears fastest among young citizenship with one another member state rather than by a prolonged people. Is this a sign of things to come? and with other democracies? process of accession? Moreover, how closely do European expectations of good (There is now) a set citizenship correspond with or differ from, of common European say, US expectations?* expectations as to the

In a chapter in a book devoted to ESS desired qualities of fi ndings, Sigrid Roßteutscher reveals a a good citizen set of common European expectations as to the desired qualities of a good Studies in the US paint a more optimistic citizen, uniting east and west, north and picture, suggesting that it is simply south.** These qualities include above all a the nature of politics that is changing. sense of duty to vote in national elections Young Americans were disillusioned with (participation), a willingness to help people traditional politics and parties and chose who are worse off (solidarity), adherence instead to be active on specifi c social and to the law, and forming one’s own opinions political issues, such as climate change. (autonomy). Most of these priorities are Rather than opting out, young US citizens shared by most Americans too, but – as – especially more educated ones – are the fi gure opposite shows – Europeans are switching to ‘issue politics’ in which they less inclined than their US counterparts can be at least as attentive and active as ESS FACT to give priority to active participation in those in their age group have ever been. voluntary or political organisations. This more optimistic interpretation of recent The ESS is one of only trends had not yet been tested in Europe. three social science projects selected for consideration as *A special US-funded survey ‘The U.S. “Citizenship, Involvement, Democracy” Survey’, a potential European Research replicated questions from ESS 2002/3 to generate inter-continental comparisons of values. **Roßteutscher, Sigrid (2004), “Die Rückkehr der Tugend?” [‘The return of virtue?’]. In: Jan W. van Deth (ed) Infrastructure from 2012 Deutschland in Europa. Ergebnisse des European Social Survey 2002–2003 [Germany in Europe. Results from the European Social Survey 2002–2003]. Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften: pp.197.

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Importance attached to six civic virtues USA Western Europe West Germany East Germany Eastern Europe 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 % Electoral participation Civic participation Political involvement Solidarity Obedience to laws Autonomy

Data from ESS 2002/3 and US Citizen Involvement and Democracy Study 2005 for those aged 18+. The data show percentages giving an importance score of at least 7 out of 10 to each civic virtue. ‘Western Europe’ in this analysis includes: Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain, Denmark, Finland, France, United Kingdom, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and Sweden. Eastern Europe includes: Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic and Slovenia. Chart based on analysis by S Roßteutscher.

Now, using data from the second round of the ESS, scholars from the Catholic University of Leuven have investigated the existence of traditional versus issue politics in Europe

Now, using data from the second round young or particularly highly-educated. of the ESS, scholars from the Catholic The authors conclude instead that rather University of Leuven have investigated than lamenting the alleged lack of political the existence of ‘traditional’ versus ‘issue’ interest among young people, it would be politics in Europe***. more productive to investigate what sorts of changes in the political and party systems They ﬁ nd that those actively engaged in could help to make political parties more ‘traditional’ politics outnumber those involved attractive to an ever expanding group in ‘issue’ politics alone by around two to of young, highly educated Europeans. one, and that – unlike the US – neither group is particularly disillusioned with the political system as a whole. Nor are those involved in issue politics either particularly

***Hooghe, M. and Dejaeghere, Y. (2007), ‘Does the “Monitorial Citizen” exist? An empirical investigation into the occurrence of postmodern forms of citizenship in the Nordic countries’, Scandinavian Political Studies, 30 (2): pp. 249–271. Their analysis was confi ned to fi ve Nordic countries – Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark and Iceland – but their fi ndings have since been shown to apply to the rest of Europe as well.

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Attitudes to sexual morality have always varied by nation, religion and generation. Regardless of nationality, Sex and What is acceptable to some is unacceptable there is a tendency for to others, and a society’s sexual norms tend younger people to hold to refl ect how permissive or ‘traditional’ that more permissive views sexuality society is in its overall moral outlook. Data about homosexuality Permissive attitudes towards from the European Social Survey show that than their elders both the age of fi rst sex opinions about the permissible age of fi rst and the acceptability sex on the one hand and homosexuality • Below what age would you say a man/ of homosexuality vary on the other differ greatly across countries woman is generally too young to have considerably according to and generations, but not as consistently sexual intercourse? (ESS question 2006/7) one’s country and one’s age between religious groups as might have been anticipated. The fi gure opposite illustrates the sharp contrasts between countries and age Two questions from the survey were: groups in the proportions of respondents who are accepting of homosexuality – • Gay men and lesbians should be free with the Danes the most permissive to live their own lives as they wish (ESS and the Russians the least. core question – agree/disagree scale)

ESS FACT The work of the ESS is guided by an eminent group of expert advisers from across Europe and beyond

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Acceptance of homosexuality: 'Gay men and lesbians should be free to live their own lives as they wish’ Under 40 40-59 60+ 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

% Agree or strongly agree 0 UK Spain Russia Ireland Austria France Poland Cyprus Finland Estonia Norway Ukraine Sweden Bulgaria Belgium Slovakia Slovenia Portugal Hungary Germany Denmark Switzerland Netherlands ESS 2006/7

With a few notable exceptions – notably Permissiveness in relation to the age of Ireland, Spain and France – countries with fi rst sex forms a similar pattern, with 9 of mainly Catholic or Orthodox populations the 10 most permissive countries in respect tend to be less permissive, but eight of the of homosexuality coinciding with the most nine least permissive countries are from permissive countries in respect of the age the former Eastern bloc. of fi rst sex (the exception being Ireland). In order to test whether people’s views Regardless of nationality, there is a tendency on the permissible age of fi rst sex varied for for younger people to hold more permissive young men and young women, the question views about homosexuality than their elders. was asked about males to one half of the Even so, there are still clear variations sample in each country and about females across countries. In general people over to the other half. Although men and women and under 40 tended to differ substantially held equally permissive views about the on this issue, but there was no distinct minimum age of fi rst sex overall, men single pattern. For instance, in Western turned out to be more likely than women and Northern Europe there was generally to operate a double standard, accepting little difference between the under-40s a lower age for males than for females. and those between 40 and 59. So the likely increase in tolerance in these countries seems to have taken place only once the over-60s were already set in their values. In Central and Eastern European countries, however, the same gradient in attitudes to homosexuality appears to be more gradual.

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As Europe enters troubled economic times, it will become increasingly important for In every case professional The workers at all levels to be able and willing to workers were much more improve their skills and develop new ones. likely to have benefi ted from training Data from Round 3 of the ESS – mostly training than were those in collected at the end of 2006 – suggest lower status occupations that provision for training is already widely gap available in certain countries, but that a quarter of employed adults had received Provision of training national variation is considerable – any training in the last 12 months. and skills development principally along geographical lines. in the workplace varies But there are also consistent within- across Europe As the fi rst fi gure below shows, in each country differences. As the second fi gure of the Nordic countries around half of all shows, training opportunities seem to be working adults reported having upgraded disproportionately available to workers their skills or knowledge in the previous according to their place in the occupational year. Although this proportion was nearly hierarchy. The bars represent the odds matched in Switzerland and Austria, of non-professional workers acquiring lagging further behind with between 30 employment skills or knowledge in the last and 40% of recently ‘upskilled’ workers 12 months relative to their managerial and was a cluster of mainly western European professional counterparts. In every case countries (but also including Slovenia, professional workers were much more likely Estonia and Slovakia). At the back of the to have benefi ted from training than were fi eld was a group of countries in Eastern those in lower status occupations. and Southern Europe where fewer than

% Respondents upgrading skills/knowledge in last 12 months 60

ESS FACT 40 The ESS is a key provider 30

of research training to future 20 generations of researchers, whether in the form of 10 face-to-face teaching, 0

on-line courses or practitioner UK Spain Russia Ireland Austria France Poland Cyprus Finland Estonia Norway Ukraine Sweden Bulgaria Belgium Slovakia Slovenia Portugal Hungary Germany seminars and conferences Denmark Switzerland Netherlands

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Relative odds of non-professionals receiving skills training in last 12 months (compared with professional and managerial occupations) 0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Odds ratios 0 UK Spain Russia Ireland Austria France Poland Cyprus Finland Estonia Norway Ukraine Sweden Bulgaria Belgium Slovakia Slovenia Portugal Hungary Germany Denmark Switzerland Netherlands

At the back of the ﬁ eld was a group of countries in Eastern and Southern Europe where fewer than a quarter of employed adults had received any training in the last 12 months

France emerges as by far the most egalitarian country in this respect, with Cyprus and Portugal the least so.

So, across the labour markets of Europe, it appears for the moment that managers and professionals not only derive higher status and rewards from their present work, but also possess more immediate opportunities to adapt to an adverse economic climate.

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Education changes people’s lives in many ways above and beyond improving their People under 40 whose formal education lasted Education ability to fi nd better-paid jobs. ESS data demonstrate the impact of extra years 14 years or more... are more matters in full-time education on people’s lifelong likely to describe themselves values, their health, their likelihood of voting, as ‘happy’ Time spent in education their level of tolerance and their overall has a major impact on life satisfaction. • are more likely than their counterparts people’s lives beyond who have spent less time in education greater earning capacity As reported earlier in this booklet: to regard themselves as being in good health; and • According to an OECD analysis of ESS data, each extra year of education tends • are also more likely to describe themselves to increase people’s likelihood of voting as ‘happy’. in national elections Add these impacts to the likely fi nancial • People with less education are more benefi ts from extra years in education, likely to oppose immigration at all and people’s lifetime returns from their levels, regardless of whether it poses investment in education are impressive. any conceivable threat to their own employment opportunities

• In contrast, people with more education are more likely to consider that immigrants enrich rather than threaten their country

• There is a strong and consistent positive relationship between years of education ESS FACT and interest in politics Archived alongside the ESS data sets are ‘events data’, But ESS data also show other links which chart national and between education and aspects of people’s international events just lives. Even if comparisons between those with more and less formal education are before and during each conﬁ ned to people under 40 (so as not to ﬁ eldwork round which risk confounding the impact of education may have an effect on with the effects of being raised in different responses in a particular time periods), ESS 2006/7 data show that year or a particular country people under 40 whose formal education lasted 14 years or more:

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More than a survey

The ESS has become a Academically driven, the ESS’s aim is • ESSTrain – a programme of state-of-the- Research Infrastructure to inform social policy at a national and art training courses for researchers across serving many thousands European level via a series of rigorous Europe in approaches to comparative of users surveys of change and continuity conducted measurement every two years throughout Europe. Four biennial ESS surveys have been Some of the main additional features • EduNet – an online training resource using undertaken covering more than 30 of the ESS Research Infrastructure are: ESS data to guide students through the countries throughout Europe and analysis of large scale cross-national data embracing well over 150,000 individual • Websites, which allow unrestricted interviews. Further rounds are planned to access to the project’s protocols, paint an accurate picture of changes in methods, procedures and data …the ESS has become European attitudes, values and behaviour a major European research patterns both across nations and over time. • A searchable online bibliography allowing facility and an authoritative access to the already wide range of monitor of societal change Funded by the European Commission, publications arising from the project over 30 national Research Councils and ministries, and the European Science Foundation, the ESS has become a major European research facility and an Use of data website Data user sessions Registered users authoritative monitor of societal change. 40000 It employs and disseminates cutting-edge methodology and engages considerable 35000 knowledge transfer, helping to place 30000

Europe at the forefront of quantitative 25000 social measurement. 20000

15000

10000

5000

0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Source: Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD).

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ESS FACT Over 400 separate scientiﬁ c or policy papers, reports, articles, chapters or books based on ESS data or methods are already available and the output is increasing rapidly

• Regular meetings of survey institutes • The ESS data website has over 20,000 and experts convened to promote registered users who have equal and pan-European dialogue about improved immediate access to the data; no standards and harmonisation ‘privileged’ or early access is permitted

• A continuing programme of studies • A variety of data users including to tackle issues such as minimising governments, politicians, private response bias in surveys, increasing enterprise, think tanks, academics the representativeness and equivalence and students of cross-national data, and maximising cost-effectiveness • A major dissemination programme including books in several languages, peer-reviewed journal articles and papers, conference presentations, reports and working documents

The ESS’s aim is to inform social policy at a national and European level via a series of rigorous surveys of change and continuity conducted every two years

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ESS institutions and framework

The people, institutions and More recently, in preparation for the The ESS derives its strength from several structure that make ESS work planned transformation of the ESS important organisational features including: into an offi cial European Research The ESS has been led from the start by Infrastructure, the managing Consortium • National funding for fi eldwork a Central Coordinating Team (CCT), which of the ESS is being expanded to include and coordination includes researchers and managers from Research Councils. So far, the following • EC funding for central coordination and seven European institutions: Research Councils have joined the pan European infrastructure activities consortium and more are anticipated: • European Scientifi c Foundation • City University London, UK (Coordinator) support for scientifi c liaison • GESIS, Germany • European Science Foundation (ESF) • Central design and coordination to ensure • Norwegian Social Science Data Services • German Research Foundation (DFG), cross-national equivalence and rigour (NSD), Norway Germany • Various representative advisory bodies to • ESADE, Ramon Llull University, Spain • Fondation Nationale des Sciences ensure accountability and transparency • Catholic University of Leuven (KUL), Politiques (Sciences Po), France Belgium • Economic and Social Research Council • Social and Cultural Planning Offi ce (ESRC), UK (SCP), Netherlands • Institute of Philosophy and Sociology • University of Ljubljana (UL), Slovenia of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IFiS PAN), Poland • Netherlands Organisation for Social Research (NWO), Netherlands • Swedish Council for Working Life and Social Research (FAS), Sweden • Research Council of Norway (RCN), Norway • Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), Switzerland • Agency for Social Analyses (ASA), Bulgaria • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal

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Iceland Germany Netherlands Slovenia Poland

Bulgaria Hungary Luxembourg Estonia Ukraine Scientiﬁ c Advisory Board and Funders’ Forum Belgium Czech Republic Denmark Austria

Latvia Russia The Central Switzerland Coordinating Sweden Team Turkey Israel

Lithuania France

Slovakia Spain Methods Group and Expert Panels Italy Portugal Romania Ireland Croatia Finland Norway Greece UK Cyprus

13369_ESS Revealing attitudes 7.indd 27 13/11/08 11:46:38 Find out more about the ESS

A number of websites contain ESS Training courses information about the ESS: www.europeansocialsurvey.org

Home website ESS on-line training courses www.europeansocialsurvey.org http://essedunet.nsd.uib.no/

Immediate data access European Strategy Forum and download on Research Infrastructures http://ess.nsd.uib.no/ http://cordis.europa.eu/esfri/

ESS Review panel report Descartes prize award http://www.esf.org/research-areas/ http://ec.europa.eu/research/ social-sciences/activities/research- press/2005/pr0212en.cfm infrastructures/the-european-social -survey-ess.html

Contact the ESS Central Coordinating Team by e-mail: [email protected]

This booklet was produced with support from the European Commission’s Framework Programme 7 (Research Infrastructures Priority).

The EC is not liable for any use that is made of the information contained herein.

Designed and printed by Engage Group www.engagegroup.co.uk

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