Knowledge Improvement Models of Communicative Competence: Implications for and Educators

Ahmad Reza Eghtesadi Assistant Professor of ELT Farhangian University Shahid Beheshti Campus of Mashhad Email: [email protected]

چکیده با اجرای سند تحول بنیادین آموزشوپرورش، بر اساس سند برنامه درسی ملی، هدف آموزش زبانهای خارجی در ایران عبارت اســت از: آموزش و رشــد مهارتهای چهارگانة زبانی از طریق رویکرد ارتباطی آموزش زبان. ميدانيم كه آموزش زبان از طریق رویکرد ارتباطی که در پی پرورش توانش ارتباطی میباشــد خود به معلماني با مهارتها و تواناییهای خاص نياز دارد. لذا این مقاله به بررسی مدلهای مختلف اين توانش میپردازد و برخی از انتظاراتی را که از معلم زبان می رود متذکر میشود. همچنین این مقاله به بیان مشــکالت معلمانی ميپردازد که به روشهای تدریس سنتیخو گرفتهاند و ممکن است در تدریس با رویکرد ارتباطی مواجه شوند. باالخره آموزههای تغییر در رویکرد آموزش زبان به رویکرد ارتباطی برای دستاندرکاران دورههای پیش از خدمت و ضمنخدمت آموزش معلمان نیز در اين مقاله مورد بحث قرار میگیرند.

کلیدواژهها: توانش ارتباطی، رویکرد ارتباطی آموزش زبان، مدرسان زبان، تربیت معلم Abstract With the implementation of the Fundamental Reform in in Iran, and development of the National Curriculum, foreign in Iran aims to develop four language skills through Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). However, CLT, which aims to develop communicative competence, make certain demands on teachers in terms of teaching skills and competences. This papers reviews the major models of communicative competence in the literature of CLT, and in the light of these models, clarifies some of the expectations from CLT teachers. It also pinpoints the difficulties teachers accustomed to traditional methods may have. Implications of the change in the system of language education are also highlighted for teacher educators in pre-service and in-service programs.

Key Words : communicative competence, CLT, teachers, teacher educators

Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 | | 40 | 40 Introduction Curriculum, p. 37), or on page 38 it One of the turning points in the history is stated “The approach of foreign of foreign language teaching in Iran is the language teaching is an active and development of the National Curriculum self-relying communicative approach”. (2012), based on the Fundamental Reform And based on these guidelines of the Document in Education, in which foreign National Curriculum, the Bureau of language teaching has found a position. It Textbook Compilation has developed an is a turning point because while previously 88 page curriculum framework for the the goals and objectives of foreign Foreign Language Teaching Program at language teaching had never been stated High School which is yet to be formally in any formal document (Safarnavadeh, approved. Asgari, Moosapour & Anani Sarab, 2009), Although the aim of the previous in the National Curriculum, two pages language teaching program was not stated (pages 37 and 38) have been devoted to clearly in formal documents, content the domain of foreign language teaching analysis of the textbooks implies that the and learning. There, it is clearly stated aim was to teach language components “Language teaching lays emphasis on or structures (Safarnavadeh et al. 2009) communicative ability and problem solving or these components and the skill of so that after instruction, the individual is reading comprehension (Vosoughi, capable of conveying and interpreting 1992). In a recent interview, Birjandi, meaning using all language skills including who was the main author of the Iranian listening, speaking, school textbooks maintained that he reading and aimed to develop books based on writing” (The audiolingualism for junior high National schools and books based on reading comprehension approach for high schools (Anani Sarab, 2012). Therefore, it can be claimed that the change toward a Communicative Approach Program or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which “marks the beginning of a major paradigm shift within language teaching in the twentieth century” (Richards & Rodgers, 2014, p. 81), is a dramatic change, which

39 | 39 | | Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 demands different responsibilities from the educators are stated. teachers and students. Communicative Approach or Hymes’ model of communicative Communicative Language Teaching competence seeks to help learners develop and Before explaining the concept of operationalize the notion of communicative communicative competence as presented competence in the foreign or second by Hymes, the word “competence” itself language (Brown, 2014; Kumaravadivelu, requires some clarification. The word 2006; Richards & Rodgers, 2014) and competence or was to accomplish this aim, teachers are first first used by Chomsky (1965) to refer to and foremost required to be familiar with knowledge of language as different from the core concepts of communicative performance which he sees as the actual competence. use of language. Although this dualism between knowledge and use of language Models of Communicative was not new and it was already noticed by Competence the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure The phrase “communicative (1817-1913), who distinguished langue competence” was first coined in 1967 “the linguistic competence of the speaker by the American sociolinguist and as a member of a speech community” anthropologist Dell H. Hymes (1927- and parole “the actual phenomena or 2009) in reaction to Chomsky’s notion data of ” (Robins, 1997, p. 225), of linguistic competence. He defines Chomsky is known for “reinterpreting in communicative competence as what a psychological context the comparable “enables a member of the community to sociological distinction that de Saussure know when to speak and when to remain had drawn between langue and parole” silent, which code to use, when, where (Howatt, 1986, p. 270). and to whom, etc. (Hymes, 1967, p. 13). Since then, the concept has developed One of the turning points over years and different models of in the history of foreign communicative competence have been language teaching in Iran offered by different scholars. Major models of communicative competence can be is the development of the listed as follows: National Curriculum (2012), • Hymes’ model (1967, 1972) based on the Fundamental • Canale and Swain’s model (1980) Reform Document in • Canale (1983) • Bachman’s model (1990) Education, in which foreign • Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell’s language teaching has found model (1995) a position • Littlewood’s model (2011) In what follows, each of these models is described and in the rest of the More explicitly, Chomsky’s competence paper, the implications of these models is concerned with “an ideal speaker– for language teachers and teacher listener, in a completely homogeneous

Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 | | 38 | 38 speech community who knows its psycholinguistic (i.e., implementational language perfectly and is unaffected by feasibility), sociocultural (contextual such grammatically irrelevant conditions appropriateness) and de facto (i.e., actual as memory limitations, distractions, occurrence) sectors. In summarizing shifts of attention and interest, and Hymes’ model, Munby (1978) maintains errors” (Chomsky, 1965, p. 3). In other the goal of the model is “to show the ways words, Chomsky’s competence is a in which the systematically possible, the decontextualized notion and the ideal feasible, and the appropriate are linked to speaker-hearer he is talking about, is produce and interpret actually occurring “an artificially constructed cultural behavior” (p. 16). idealized person; not an actual language user” Canale and Swain’s model of (Kumaravadevilu, communicative competence 2006, p. 6). Another model of communicative Hymes (1972), competence was presented by the two while accepting Canadian applied linguists, Michael the superiority Canale and Merrill Swain in 1980 in the of Chomsky’s first issue of Applied Linguistics. Referring terminology over to the weak or neural and strong versions de Saussure’s, of Chomsky’s competence recognized contends: by Campbell and Wales (1970), Canale “Such a theory and Swain agree with Hymes’ criticism of competence of Chomsky’s notion of competence posits ideal objects –performance distinction in that it in abstraction from “provides no place for consideration of the sociocultural features” (p.271). appropriateness [emphasis is original] of A linguistically competent person, who is sociocultural significance of an utterance master of fully grammatical sentences, in the situational and verbal context is at best a bit odd because “some in which it is used” (p.4). Furthermore, occasions call for being appropriately referring to two views regarding the ungrammatical” (p.277). Hymes adds, relationship between grammatical in addition to knowledge of grammatical competence and communicative sentences, a person should acquire the competence, they advocate Munby’s knowledge of appropriate sentences (1978) stance which sees grammatical that is, he or she should know “when competence a subpart of communicative to speak, when not, and as to what to competence and not something separate talk about with whom, when; where, in from it. They emphasize: “Just as Hymes what manner”. He continues, “There (1972) was able to say that there are rules are rules of use without which the rules of grammar that would be useless without of grammar would be useless” (p.277). rules of language use, so we feel that there Grammatical competence described by are rules of language use that would be Chomsky, Hymes believes, is only one useless without rules of grammar” (p.5). sector of communicative competence, the However, they believe their notion of other ones mentioned by Hymes are the communicative competence is different

37 | 37 | | Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 from that of Hymes because first, unlike common to those communication skills Hymes, they do not incorporate the notion required in the . of ability for use into their definition of 5. The primary objective of a communicative competence. communication-oriented second language programme must be to provide The word competence or the learners with the information, practice, linguistic competence was and much of the experience needed to meet their communicative needs in the first used by Chomsky (1965) second language. (pp. 27-28) to refer to knowledge of language as different from Then, taking these principles into performance which he sees account, Canale and Swian propose a model of communicative competence as the actual use of language which includes three main competencies of grammatical competence, Reviewing theories of basic sociolinguistic competence, and strategic communication skills, sociolinguistic competence. perspectives on communicative Grammatical competence, and integrative theories of competence communicative competence, Canale and includes Swain, suggest five guiding principles for a “knowledge communicative approach. These include: of lexical 1. Communicative competence is items composed minimally of grammatical and competence, sociolinguistic competence, and communication strategies, or what we will refer to as strategic competence. 2. A communicative approach must be based on and respond to the learner's communication needs. 3. The second language learner must have the opportunity to take part in meaningful communicative interaction with highly competent speakers of the language, i.e. to respond to genuine communicative needs in realistic second language situations. 4. Particularly at the early stages of second language learning, optimal use must be made of those aspects of communicative competence that the learner has developed through acquisition and use of the native language and that are

Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 | | 36 | 36 of rules of , , sentence- model and proposed a four-component grammar semantics, and ”. framework. Sociolinguistic competence is made up Prior to introducing his new model, of sociocultural rules of use as well as Canale reminds the reader that in the rules of discourse. Sociocultural rules of communicative competence model, use help language users to produce and communication is meant to be “the understand appropriately language data exchange and negotiation of information based on the speaking components of between at least two individuals through communicative events outlined by Hymes the use of verbal and non-verbal (1967). Rules of emerging discourse symbols, oral and written/visual modes, include cohesion and coherence principles and production and comprehension which focus on communicative functions of processes” (p.4). The four components of the combination of utterances. the revised framework are grammatical Strategic competence also is made up competence, sociolinguistic competence, of verbal and nonverbal communication discourse competence and strategic strategies that may be called into competence. action to compensate for breakdowns Grammatical competence, as in the in communication due to performance previous model, is concerned with variables or to insufficient competence. “features and rules of the language such as vocabulary, word formation, sentence Reviewing the major formation, pronunciation, spelling and linguistic semantics” (p. 7). Sociolinguistic models of communicative competence in this model, unlike the competence in the literature Canale and Swain’s model, which shows that despite some addressed both sociocultural rules and slight terminological rules of discourse, “addresses the extent to which utterances are produced and differences, they share the understood appropriately in different same general concepts and sociolinguistic contexts depending on with the passage of time, contextual factors such as status of researchers have tried to participants, purposes of the interaction, and norms or conventions of interaction” enhance and develop the (p. 7), appropriateness of both form and models proposed by previous meaning. Appropriateness of meaning scholars also includes kinesics and proxemics. Discourse competence concerns mastery of how to combine grammatical forms and Canale’s model of communicative meanings to achieve a unified spoken or competence written text in different genres, achieved Three years after the communicative through cohesion and coherence. competence model proposed by Canale Strategic competence in this model and Swain, Canale (1983), based on the has expanded to include mastery of work carried out at the Ontario Institute for verbal and non-verbal communication Studies in Education (OISE), revised the strategies that may be called into action

35 | 35 | | Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 not only to compensate for breakdowns heuristic, instrumental, regulatory and in communication but also to enhance the imaginative functions. Similar to Canale’s effectiveness of communication. conceptualization, sociolinguistic Canale believes this theoretical competence, as Bachman puts it “is the framework is not a model of sensitivity to, or control of the conventions communicative competence, because of language use that are determined by a model “implies some specification the features of the specific language use of the manner and order in which the context; it enables us to perform language components interact and in which the functions in ways that are appropriate various competences are normally to that context” (p.94), and it includes acquired” (p.12). sensitivity to differences in dialect or variety, to differences in register and to Bachman’s model of naturalness, and the ability to interpret communicative competence cultural references and figures of speech. Another model of communicative The second major component of competence or a “theoretical framework communicative competence in Bachman’s of communicative language ability” as he framework is strategic competence. puts it, is the one proposed by Bachman Unlike Canale and Swain’s and Canale’s (1990), which has been presented model, where strategic competence for measurement purposes. This is at the same level as grammatical framework includes three components and sociolinguistic competences, in of language competence, strategic Bachman’s model, strategic competence competence, and psychophysiological is a major component at the same level mechanisms. Language competence as language competence. The reason, as includes organizational and pragmatic Bachman states, is that previous models competences. Organizational competence, imply that communicative strategies in turn includes grammatical and textual are necessarily linguistic or verbal ones abilities or competences, which are but his model shows that strategic involved in producing and comprehending competence is a competence at the level language. In other words, textual of language competence not a subpart competence correspond to discourse so it may include strategies which are not competence in Canale’s model. Pragmatic linguistic. Moreover, he believes strategic competence is concerned with “the competence is “an important part of all relationship between utterances and communicative language use, not just that the acts or functions that speakers (or in which language abilities are deficient writers) intend to perform through these and must be compensated for by other utterances” (Bachman, 1990, p. 89). means” (p. 100). Pragmatic competence in Bachman’s model encompasses illocutionary Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and competence and sociolinguistic Thurrell’s model competence. Illocutionary competence Celece-Murcia, Dornyei and Thurrell entails knowledge and skill in using (1995) propose another model of language functions proposed by Halliday communicative competence, which (1970) such as ideational, manipulative, as they maintain, is the continuation of

Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 | | 34 | 34 Canale and Swain’s (1980) and Canale’s addition to morphology and syntax. The (1983) work. Their model includes five second difference is their use of the term competences of linguistic competence, "sociocultural competence" instead of strategic competence, sociocultural "sociolinguistic competence” so that they competence, actional competence can better distinguish it from actional and discourse competence. This competence. The reason they give is that Hymes used the term "communicative CLT teachers need to have competence" to challenge Chomsky's good knowledge of grammar (1965) notion of "linguistic competence" from a sociolinguistic perspective, and and vocabulary as well as therefore “originally the sociolinguistic good pronunciation. In other dimension of language proficiency was words, a CLT teacher needs to associated with everything that was be a skillful proficient teacher missing from linguistic competence” (p. who can serve as a model of communicatively competent speaker for the learners model intended to elaborate sociolinguistic competence, which was separated from discourse competence and Celce-Murcia et al. divide it into two competences of sociocultural and actional competence.

As Celce-Murcia et al. indicate, there are two terminological differences between their model and Canale and Swain's. The first is that they prefer the term "linguistic competence" 10). So, all other competences are derived to "grammatical competence" to from sociolinguistic dimension. indicate clearly that this component Linguistic competence comprises the also includes lexis and phonology in basic elements of communication i.e.,

33 | 33 | | Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 the sentence patterns and types, the the overall social and cultural context of constituent structure, the morphological communication, in accordance with the inflections, and the lexical resources, as pragmatic factors related to variation in well as the phonological and orthographic language use. systems needed to realize communication Strategic competence in this model as speech or writing. is the knowledge of communication Discourse competence concerns the strategies and how to use them. This selection, sequencing, and arrangement conceptualization follows that of Canale of words, structures, sentences and and Swain (1980); but the focus of this utterances to achieve a unified spoken model is on communication strategies or written text with components such as because these have been described most cohesion, deixis, coherence, generic explicitly and also because they are most structure, and the conversational structure relevant to communicative language use inherent to the turn-taking system in and CLT. conversation, which is believed to be highly relevant to communicative Littlewood’s model of competence and language teaching. communicative competence Actional competence is defined The final and the most recent framework as competence in conveying and or model of communicative competence understanding communicative intent, reviewed here is the one presented by that is, matching actional intent with Littlewood (2011). He also takes Canale linguistic form based on the knowledge and Swains’ (1980) and Canale’s (1983) of an inventory of verbal schemata that model as the initial model and develops carry illocutionary force (speech acts it by adding a fifth component as well as and sets). Celce Murcia et al. adapting the terminology. The components emphasize that their conceptualization of communicative competence in of actional competence is mainly Littlewood’s model are as follows: restricted to oral communication; ë Linguistic competence includes the rhetorical competence would be the knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, parallel of actional competence in written semantics and phonology that have been communication. They maintain the the traditional focus of second language motivation for adding actional competence learning. to the Canale & Swain's model was the ë Discourse competence enables fact that they were not able to include the speakers to engage in continuous functional taxonomies developed by CLT discourse, e.g. by linking ideas in longer theoreticians logically under any of the four written texts, maintaining longer spoken traditional constituent competencies. In turns, participating in interaction, opening their view, actional competence is divided conversations and closing them. into two main components, knowledge ë Pragmatic competence enables of language functions and knowledge of second language speakers to use their speech act sets. linguistic resources to convey and interpret Sociocultural competence refers to meanings in real situations, including the speaker's knowledge of how to those where they encounter problems due express messages appropriately within to gaps in their knowledge.

Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 | | 32 | 32 ë Sociolinguistic competence consists primarily of knowledge of how to use language appropriately in social situations, e.g. conveying suitable degrees of formality, directness and so on. ë Sociocultural competence includes awareness of the cultural knowledge and assumptions that affect the exchange of meanings and may lead to misunderstandings in intercultural communication.(p.547) This last component introduces psycholinguistic aspects of second language proficiency that are not included in the Canale and Swain's framework but are fundamental to communicative language use.

Implications of Communicative Competence Models for Teachers and Teacher Education Reviewing the major models of phonology communicative competence in the and literature shows that despite some slight vocabulary or terminological differences, they share lexis. Therefor, the same general concepts and with the a CLT teacher who aims to help learners passage of time, researchers have tried develop communicative competence, to enhance and develop the models should first and foremost have already proposed by previous scholars. One of developed these components of his or the competences which is shared by her communicative competence. That is all models is grammatical or linguistic to say, CLT teachers need to have good competence. While in Canale and Swain’s knowledge of grammar and vocabulary (1980), Canale’s (1983) and Bachman's as well as good pronunciation. In other (1990) models it is called grammatical words, a CLT teacher needs to be a skillful competence, Celce-Murcia et al. name proficient teacher who can serve as a it linguistic competence “to indicate model of communicatively competent unambiguously that this component also speaker for the learners. This is important includes lexis and phonology in addition to because there exists a misconception morphology and syntax” (p.11). Littlewood among some teachers that CLT deals only also uses the term linguistic competence. with speaking and the focus is no meaning The important point is that all models agree not form, and therefore, grammar is not that communicative competence includes a important in CLT (Thompson, 1996; Wu, grammatical or linguistic component, which 2008). In addition to grammar knowledge, entails knowledge of syntax, morphology,

31 | 31 | | Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 CLT teachers studies done in the Asian context and are required to maintains that among common themes have a good in all studies are “teachers’ own lack of command of confidence in using English” (p. 551). This vocabulary. also has an implication for pre-service This is teacher education programs in that they something need to take this necessity into account felt by many and design and handle general English teachers and courses of prospective teachers more some, despite seriously. admitting the Another common feature of these necessity of models of communicative competence is wide storage of that they all include a discourse or textual vocabulary, believe component. This textual or discourse they need help to do component implies that a CLT teacher it in in-service training should have the ability to produce and courses (Hassanabadi, comprehend cohesive and coherent texts 2013). Some other studies both oral and written and should help his have also shown that teachers students to develop such a competence feel they need general English in- too. This is important again, because service classes to improve their language another misconception among some competence (Birjandi & Derakhashan, teachers is that CLT is about speaking 2010; Hashemian & Azadi, 2014; Kazemi and listening (Thompson, 1996; Wu, & Ashrafi, 2014; Razi & Kargar, 2014). 2008) and therefore reading and writing Littlewood (2011) also refers to various are not important. This is at odds with what, Widdowson (1978) has mentioned “What the learners need to know how Another common feature to do is to compose in the act of writing, of these models of comprehend in the act of reading, and communicative competence to learn techniques of reading by writing is that they all include and techniques of writing by reading” (P. 144, cited in Wu, 2008). Moreover, paying a discourse or textual attention to discourse competence means component. This textual or that teachers should provide opportunities discourse component implies for learners to develop unified coherent that a CLT teacher should texts in the form of creative and innovative dialogs or in higher levels, write creative have the ability to produce compositions. This is important because and comprehend cohesive some teachers even in CLT classes and coherent texts both oral emphasize memorizing the dialogs as an and written and should help end in itself. This, in addition to ignoring the development of discourse competence his students to develop such leads to students’ dissatisfaction a competence too (Hasanabadi, 2013).

Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 | | 30 | 30 Sociolinguistic or sociocultural traditional methods. Shifting from competence is another common teacher-centered to student-centered competence in different models. This CLT is in fact a “quantum competence requires CLT teachers to leap”, as Littlewood (2011) calls it using possess a high level of cultural awareness Chow and Mok-Cheung’s (2004) words. of both L1 and L2 cultural norms and rules, He summarizes the changes that CLT so that they can help learners to develop teachers in Asian contexts are expected to such competence. This competence comply with as follows: implies that a good CLT teacher is not one • change their views about language who only possesses a good grammatical teaching from a knowledge-based one to and discourse competence. A CLT a competence-based one; teacher needs to have good intercultural • change their traditional role as a competence too. The National Curriculum knowledge transmitter to a multi-role also emphasizes that the purpose of educator; foreign language education is to enable • develop new teaching skills; learners “to communicate with other • change their ways of evaluating students; communities at regional and international • develop the ability to adapt the textbooks; levels” (The National Curriculum, 2012, • use modern technology; and p. 37). The point is how CLT teachers in • improve their own language proficiency. a foreign language context can develop (p. 551) their sociolinguistic and sociocultural competence. This is an issue which should be taken into consideration by teacher Sociolinguistic or education programs. sociocultural competence is Strategic competence which has been another common competence named differently in different models is another component of communicative in different models. This competence. Literature on learning and competence requires CLT communicative strategies also indicate teachers to possess a high the significant role of strategy instruction level of cultural awareness of in helping learners to be good strategy users. Therefore, CLT teachers themselves both L1 and L2 cultural norms also need to know and be familiar with a and rules, so that they can range of active communicative strategies, help learners to develop such which are essential to the communicative competence competence. These requirements are in addition to other roles which a CLT teacher should Concluding Remarks adopt such as needs analyst, counselor, Teaching CLT requires certain group process manager (Richards & capabilities and skills. Teachers who Rodgers, 2014). All these indicate that CLT have taught through traditional teacher- teachers have numerous responsibilities fronted methods, most often a form of which might be overloading for teachers modified grammar translation method, who are accustomed to teach through need to develop many competences to

29 | 29 | | Vol. 31, No. 3, Spring 2017 teach CLT effectively. Therefore, teacher seventh grade English Package for Iranian Schools and its preparatory in-service training education programs should also undergo courses. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Hakim a change to prepare prospective teachers Sabzevari University—Iran. for the hard task they have ahead of Howatt, A.P.R. (1984). A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University them and inservice programs also should Press. be designed more judiciously taking Hymes, H.D. (1967). Models of the interaction of into account the needs of CLT teachers language and social setting. Journal of Social and support these teachers in teaching Issues, XXIII (2), 8-28. through the newly adopted paradigm in the Hymes, H.D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J.B. Pride and J. Holmes country. If this is not taken into account, (eds.) . Selected Readings. the experience of other eastern countries Harmondsworth: Penguin, pp. 269-293. might be repeated where teachers Kazemi, A., & Ashrafi, M. (2014). In-service training courses for Iranian EFL teachers report they “comply with government revisited. International Journal of Asian Social recommendations while continuing to Science, 4(10), 1062-1076. practise examination-oriented classroom Kumaravadivelu, B. (2006). Understanding instruction” (Shim and Baik, 2004, p. 246, language teaching: From method to postmethod. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. cited in Littlewood, 2011). Littlewood, W. (2011). Communicative language teaching: An expanding concept for a changing References world. In E. Hinkel (Ed). Handbook of research Anani Sarab, M.H. (2012). A to Z of textbook in second language teaching and learning: compilation: An interview with Dr. Parviz Volume II. pp. 541-557. UK: Routledge. Birjandi. Roshd Foreign Language Teaching Journal, 27(2), 9-14. Razi, N., & Kargar, A.A. (2014). Evaluation of in-service foreign language teacher education Birjandi, P., & Derakhshan, A. (2010). Teachers’ program in Iran. International Journal of perceptions of the present and optimum status Language Learning and Applied Linguistics of the in-service EFL teacher preparation World, 5 (1), 221-236. programs. English Language Teaching 3 (4), 47-57. Richards, J.C.,& Rodgers, T.S. (2014). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. (3rd ed.). Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental considerations Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. in language testing. New York: Oxford University Press. Robins, R.H. (1997). A short history of linguistics (4th ed.). Essex: Addison Wesley. Brown, H.D. (2014). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching: A course in second Safarnavadeh, Kh., Asgari, M.A., Moosapour, N., language acquisition. (6th ed.). USA: Pearson. & Anani Sarab, M.R. (2009). Evaluation of high school English language textbook based on the Canale, M. (1983). From communicative criteria derived from communicative approach competence to communicative language to teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, pedagogy. In J. Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), 5(17), 86-114. Language and communication (pp. 2-27). London: London Group Ltd. The National Curriculum (In Persian), (2012). Ministry of Education of the Islamic Republic of Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases Iran. of communicative approaches to second language teaching. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1-47. Thompson, Geoff (1996). Some misconceptions about communicative language teaching. ELT Celce-Murcia, M., Dornyei, Z., & Thunrrel, S. Journal, 50(1), 9–15. (1995). Communicative competence: A pedagogically motivated model with content Vosoughi, H. (1992). Reading method in language specifications. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 6 teaching. Kerman University Journal of Faculty (2), 5-35. of Letters and Humanities, 3(2), 114-119. Hashemain, M., & Azadi, G. (2014). EFL teachers’ Wu, W. (2008). Misunderstandings of understanding of the teaching portion of INSET communicative language teaching. English programs. RALs, 5(1), 61-76. Language Teaching, 1 (1), 50-53. Hassanabadi, S. (2013). An evaluation of the

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