A Visual Literacy Strategy - Why not?

Abstract such as observation, aesthetic awareness, The paper asserts that the National discrimination and critical thinking and Curriculum subjects of 'art and design' and furthermore that they could and should do this 'design and technology' have a fundamental through a common rationale and approach to connection that has not been fully recognised the development of visual literacy. or exploited in primary schools. The two Aims subjects help children to develop important skills of aesthetic awareness, discrimination In this paper I therefore hope to achieve the and critical thinking and that they could do following: this through a common rationale and approach to define and offer a rationale for the to the development of visual literacy. inclusion of visual literacy within the The paper goes on to review the term 'visual primary curriculum literacy'. A new term - 'visual field' is to explore the connections between offered as a way of connecting objects and pedagogic frameworks currently in use to artefacts of both broadly functional and support the development of visual literacy broadly aesthetic natures. Pedagogic skills in design and technology and art frameworks in current use by primary teachers contexts. intended to promote critical discussion are ana lysed with reference to the visual field. It So what is it to be visually literate? is concluded that each framework has a "Young people who are visually literate different emphasis yet each is concerned with have more control over their own work and Senior Lecturer in and therefore connected by the visual field. are better able to understand, enjoy and The paper concludes that a coherent strategy discriminate between images and objects Primary Education, to ensure all children have the opportunity to that appear both in familiar environments Bath Spa University become visually literate should be developed. of the home and neighbourhood, and in College less familiar places such as galleries and museums." Introduction Can you think of two subjects in the primary school that have more in common than 'art In the 1995 orders for art, craft and design we (craft) and design' and 'design and have: technology'? Both are foundation subjects "In order to develop visual literacy, pupils which pupils and teachers enjoy and see as a should be taught about the different ways contrast to 'academic' subjects. 'Making' in which ideas, feelings and meanings are activities are central to each subject, indeed it communicated in visual form." is sometimes difficult to define an activity in DFE 1995 subject terms. Both subjects are struggling to maintain curriculum time in the face of the Visual literacy is a somewhat problematic introduction of new and apparently time term. It is often taken as a shorthand for the consuming 'strategies' in literacy and capacity to 'read' or 'interpret' or to 'find numeracy. meaning in' the visual as opposed to textual world. Yet the analogy would suggest that the "the two subjects facilitate ability to manipulate a visual language to development in children make images and artefacts which communicate meaning or message is also an important, life enhancing skills aspect of visual literacy. Visual literacy will such as observation, aesthetic therefore entail thinking critically about the awareness, discrimination and visual and perhaps making use of the critical thinking" information to inform one's own making activities.

You might say that the similarities identified Language has a broadly accepted 'correct' above are simplistic or superficial. I am going usage, whereas a whole set of valid on to argue in this paper that art and design alternatives are possible, and are yet to be and design and technology have a possible in visual communication. Raney fundamental connection that has not been (1999) suggests that: fully recognised or exploited. We see both "Coupling 'visual' with 'literacy' does two subjects battling for their very existence in a things. First, it introduces the metaphor of primary curriculum increasingly dominated by language, provoking debates about the two 'core' subjects. Now is the time to make a value of linguistic metaphors for getting to claim in the strongest terms - that between grips with visual things ... second. them, the two subjects facilitate development 'Literacy' suggests entitlement or in children important, life enhancing skills necessity, and the need to seek out This relates to other things that T have deficiencies and remedy them." seen. p41 There are ways that I can describe and Raney claims that by using the term, status is ways to classifY this. attributed to the visual in a word dominated The artist/designer/maker seemed to have world. these intentions. "[visual literacy] implies that the entire The artist/designer/maker will have been visible world is the purview of visual working under certain constraints or literacy ... art education becomes a influences. subcategory of visual education, art becomes a subcategory of visual culture, The artist/designer/maker has worked in and visual literacy is what is needed to these ways. navigate around it." ibid. p44 These statements relate to the application of knowledge and understanding, of the aesthetic In the same terms take design and technology and functional in order to investigate roles and as contributor to visual education so design intentions. becomes a subcategory of visual culture. This visually literate person would then go on Visual awareness is another term in use. This to say... does not go far enough. To be aware is a passive act, whereas within visual literacy I have a reasoned opinion on this - this is there needs to be an active phase. It involves what I have found out and what T think. also the creation of the artefact. The visual can affect the way I feel - this Neither term is present in the latest versions is how [ have been affected. (QCA 1999) of the National Curriculum for What I have learnt can inform my own art and design or design and technology. The work. fact that a term is absent from these slim, vestigial documents should not be taken as a I could interrogate my own work in some reason for thinking it unimportant. What we similar ways. do find are a number of references in the These statements relate to the application of curriculum documents to important aspects of knowledge and understanding, the affective education such as the need to encourage domain and to critical thinking 'critical reflection', 'evaluation trom a variety of perspectives' and 'exploration of meanings To illustrate this, carry out the following and interpretations'. Puplis should be exercise: 'engaging critically with a rapidly changing Mentally (or actually) choose a sculpture that culture', developing an 'understanding of you know well, and a textile artefact such as aesthetics and function' and 'asking and some clothing you are wearing, and apply to answering questions'. I will not provide you them the statements below. with exact references here - if you can work out for yourself which subjects are the source The above ideas and insights are, I shall of each quote, then my argument for common argue, important, worthwhile and relevant to ground between subjects is perhaps not a the primary school child. Furthermore, there good one. is potential to develop such skills in a number of subject areas, or in a cross-curricular way. Let me clarifY for the reader what I mean by this problematic term. Why should the development of visual literacy be worthy of considerable My usage of 'visual literacy' will encompass all the below. [ would say that a visually curriculum time? literate person, when experiencing something "Young people need to be visually literate that is primarily visual - would be able to say, ... pupils can become visually literate by in response to an artefact or art work: employing visual perception in the solution of a range of practical tasks and through T am curious about this and I can learn regular reference to the work of others ... something from examining this in a Pupils' understanding of the possibilities variety of ways. of visual language and of the variety of forms of expression available is This statement relates to the asking and significantly expanded through the study answering of questions, of evaluating from a of the work of artists, craftworkers and variety of perspectives. designers." DFE 1991 Para 3. 17 Visual Literacy in an art context - looking at Visual literacy in a design and technology a sculpture context - looking at a textile artefact I can examine this sculpture in a number of ways I can examine this textile in a number of ways such as ... such as ... I can learn about the material, the process of I can learn about the material, the process of making, the artisVmaker, myself. making, the designer/maker, myself. I can describe this sculpture in terms of formal I can describe this textile in terms of form, elements, materials and techniques used in its function, materials and techniques used in its creation, similarities with other works I have seen. creation, similarities with other artefacts I have seen. It seems that the maker was concerned with ... It seems that the maker was concerned with ... intended to ... intended to... The maker may have been influenced by others The maker may have been influenced by others working in a similar way and constrained by the working in a similar way and constrained by the limitations of the material. limitations of the material.

The sculpture has a certain effect on me - it has The textile has a certain effect on me - it has given rise to these thoughts and feelings. given rise to these thoughts and feelings. I have enjoyed looking at this sculpture and learnt I have enjoyed looking at this textile and learnt something new. something new. The knowledge I have gained can be used in my The knowledge I have gained can be used in my own work. own work.

We are in danger of over emphasising in our In Datanews (January 1999) there is a call schools a limited number of ways in which we that the National Curriculum should: communicate and come to understand. The 'Enable pUpl.S to bccome dlscnmlnating Qualifications and Curriculum Authority citizens and customers .. by haVing a (QCA 1998) demands a 'broad and balanced' better understanding of products dnd the curriculum yet time available to teach subjects assocIated \ r lues." beyond the core curriculum seems to be in practice reduced with the current emphasis on The article goes on to say that through design the core subjects through the introduction of and technology pupils will: numeracyand literacy strategies. "develop sk Ills In product analysis and "We are in danger of over evaluation and combine this with emphasising in our schools a associated values related to social, environmental. spiritual. moral. aesthetic limited number of ways in which and economic. aspects of products and we communicate and come to systems,"

understand." Meanwhile the National Society for Education The recent report from the National Advisory in Art and Design, in their recently published Committee on Creative and Cultural 'Manifesto for Arts in Schools' (Swift and Education (DfEE 1999) has found that: Steers 1998) demand that there should be a clear rational for the inclusion of the aspect of "opportunities to promote creativc and art education known as Critical Studies based cultural education are being incrcasingly on 'cultural transmission, real critical thought restricted by thc cumulative effects ... of and reaction'. thc National Curriculum". para 112 Critical studies can be seen as a combination of studies in art history, art production, The report goes on to argue that now, more aesthetic, critical and contextual studies of art than ever, it is vital to encourage all areas of and design practice (Thistlewood (ed.) 1989) young people's intellectual and personal approached in such a way as to enrich capabilities and to recognise that doing this is children's own making. Taylor (1992) explains not at odds with their academic development. that:

Many have argued that visual literacy is a "The Cntlcal Studies in Art Education 'basic' requirement if one is to understand the (CSAE) ProJect demonstrated that this made world in the broadest sense, to include close relationship between the study of the built environment, art, artefacts, design, artists' work and pupils' own practicc can visual communications (graphics, open up a wide range of possibilities, advertisements) etc. rather than cause young people to produce predictable art because it was done in The brief imitation". The brief, which depends on specifics such as page 27 the location of towns, nature of traffic to use the bridge and the local weather conditions Other projects such as 'Art in the Built that a structure will need to withstand. Environment' (Schools Council, 1982) and Arts 5-16 (Arts in Schools, 1990) added Causes of form weight to the shift in thinking and practice in A certain number of solutions to a problem order to include in the curriculum the so are usually possible. Baxendall describes these called 'missing element' of critical study of as 'cultural facts' i.e. art and artefacts. Arts 5-16 noted that: physical media available at the time, in "Best practice in primary as well as this case steel as a new alternative to secondary schools gives equal weight to wrought iron developing young people's critical understanding of other people's work and historical precedence - designs, successes their knowledge of different cultural and disasters practices and traditions." aesthetic taste - e.g. monumentality, The above initiatives were among the elegance, decorative elements influences that resulted in the shape of the the decision-maker - the designer's National Curriculum. A critical studies preference, experience and knowledge. approach to teaching art at Key Stages 1 and 2 was implicit in the curriculum and the Baxendall concludes by saying that given a development of visual literacy one of its aims. three cornered relationship between the solution, the problem and the possibilities The connections between the disciplines of art then we can determine the intention of the critical studies and design and technology's 'decision maker'. 'investigation, disassembly and evaluation activities' (DfEE 1995b) may be clarified by Turning to the work of Picasso, and a cubist reference to Michael Baxendall's (1985) book portrait entitled Portrait of Daniel-HenlY Patterns of Intention. In the book he writes Kahnweiler (1910), Baxendall applies similar about two very recognisable products of the thinking. In some respects there are clear modern era - the Forth Bridge and Picasso's parallels. Causes of form, in the case of the Portrait of Kahnweiler, drawing fascinating painting would be items such as the pigments parallels between these two products of and colours available (media), a new way of human imagination and endeavour. Crucially representing objects introduced by Cezanne, he seeks to explore the artist's or designer's knowledge about African sculpture from a intentions through analysis of the artefact or recent exhibition and the critical reception of art work as a product its time, place and Picasso's earlier work Demoiselles d'Avignon culture. (precedence), a reaction against the pre- occupations of the impressionists (aesthetic "Both are purposeful objects and are not taste). necessarily different. The differences seem more of degree and of balance, particularly The charge and brief are more elusive to the balance of our interests and of our identify. In Picasso's era, the charge and brief critical priorities." were personally constructed within a cultural page 40 framework. In other words - no client is involved, no negotiation with others is needed Baxendall (1985) argues that in coming to and yet Picasso's contact with his society, his understand the two objects, and ultimately the circle of friends and critics, the long tradition mind of the artist or designer from another of painting as a human endeavour, will time or culture, a common process of coming influence his work. Of course many artists do to an understanding is evident. Baxendall uses not have the luxury of constructing an entirely a structure to frame an analysis of the work of personal brief. More often concerns such as bridge builder Benjamin Baker, principle critical acclaim, commercial appeal, even the designer of the Forth Bridge, which can be demands of a client will feature in many summarised as: artists', craftworkers' and designers' work.

The charge We have seen that objects as diverse as a In the case of the Forth Bridge, the charge, bridge and a portrait can be understood using quite evidently was 'Bridge the Gap'. the same framework and by asking the same questions. In individual cases the concerns of the viewer may be different and the information that the object reveals will differ. To link them, can these objects be located Functional causes of form

Aesthetic causes of form

along a continuum? At one end the output of used? Where did the artist start? How the archetypal western 20th century artist long did the work take? working alone in his or her garret, via an Mood e.g. does the work affect you? Does individual commission produced by an artist it capture a mood or feeling or emotion or designer working for a client on to a you have already experienced? craftsperson producing traditional functional ware. A more sophisticated model might be a Taylor's approach has now reached the status visualjield in which artefacts and art works of 'tried and tested'. In my experience it is are located according to axes of brief (from effective in 'scaffolding' children's thinking internal to external) and causes of form and learning to aid the development of their (aesthetic to functional) (see Figure 1). It knowledge and understanding of art (Howe seems reasonable to suppose that objects or 1995 MA dissertation, Bath Spa University artefacts that can be located within this field College). Although very applicable for use by can be interrogated using a common the generalist primary teacher the framework framework, although the location of the object does not cover aspects of social, historical and and the interests of the interrogator will cultural understanding but rather elicits a determine the parts of the framework that will personal response drawing implicitly on prior be used. experiences. It can be an effective springboard for the introduction of new knowledge by the Do we have a framework to interrogate teacher to move into socio-cultural analysis. objects within the visual field that can be used in primary school? Taylor claims to have devised this framework A brief review of some published frameworks in response to, among other things, another offered to primary teachers to allow children prevalent 'way of looking' - that of Feldman's to interrogate objects reveals the scope and (1970 - see Taylor 1992) Description, limitations of current advice. Taylor (1986 Analysis, Interpretation, Judgement model, and 1992) offers a framework of four types of seen as hierarchical and rigid. Taylor stresses questions that can be used with and by that his model is not hierarchical, that each children. The four areas of concern category might carry equal weighting or a represented are content, form, process and judgement may be made about selecting mood. They can be summarised thus: categories to emphasise.

Content e.g. what is the work about? In Ritchie (1995) a framework of questions What is its subject matter? Was the for design and technology contexts has subject matter observed, remembered or headings of: imagined?

Form e.g. how has the work been Process of making. arranged? Is this in keeping with its content? What kinds of colour schemes Human factors (with values implicit). have been used? Are there recurring Aesthetics. shapes, lines, forms etc.? Is the work pleasing in parts or as a whole? Future developments (including evaluation of design success). Process e.g. how was the work made and what was it made with? What materials, Future evaluations (and connections with tools, processes, and techniques were own making). Approaches derived from Investigative, So what does each framework Disassembly and Evaluative Activities evident emphasise? in DATA (1996) The Primary Coordinators We can see that each framework investigates File and DATA (1998) Planning into Practice different aspects of the made world and can be summarised thus: emphasises different concerns, yet I argue that the artefacts they focus upon can all be relate to children's experiences located within the visual field defined in focus discussion of artefacts/collection: Figure 1. Taylor's framework is concerned with visual arts whose 'causes of form' are generally aesthetic in nature. Functions might be couched in terms of visual communication. Brief may be internal - as in fine art, or external in the case of book illustration. The encourage investigation of components, intended scope of Taylor's framework in elements of system relation to the visual field can be represented thus (Figure 2): allow children to develop for criteria for own design. Morris's framework investigates elements of functional and aesthetic causality. Portraits are Susan Morris (1989) in A Teachers Guide to traditionally a compromise between the Using Portraits advises teachers to focus in personal and the external brief. There is turn on: acknowledgement of the complex interaction between client and maker. Ritchie's list is Within the portrait concerned primarily with the functional! Costume external quadrant of our field, yet there are Expression aspects of the aesthetic and internal. DATA's Pose concerns are primarily functional and leading Background to an 'external' design brief. In some respects Accessories this is limiting and the framework needs to be Colour refined and extended if aesthetic aspects of Size design are to be given due consideration Abstraction/caricature (Figure 3). Flattery We can see the frameworks have emphases Presentation of the portrait and limitations yet none are mutually Frame exclusive. They are each capable of The 'Hang' facilitating enquiry in the visual field and thus Alterations informing action. The process Conclusions Medium The first aim of this paper was' to define and Techniques offer a rationale for the inclusion of visual Social context literacy within the primary curriculum'. To Prevalent aesthetic taste. know through the visual is a powerful way of knowing. Activities that develop visual

Functional causes of form Internal brief External brief

Aesthetic causes of form Functional causes of form

Internal brief

Aesthetic causes of form

literacy are worthwhile and desirable in a common features of approaches in design and primary curriculum that purports to be broad, technology or art have not been recognised. balanced and relevant. We have seen that such Educators and advisers need to help primary activities, such learning objectives, cannot be teachers identify the merits and confined to a single subject in the ational appropriateness of the various strategies on Curriculum. If we are to help children to offer. Integration is possible, if based on the understand how the way they feel is connected notion of enquiry within the visual field. Yet or even controlled by those that can ultimately, the teacher herself must reconcile manipulate environments and artefacts we advice that emphasises different concerns must go beyond subject boundaries. Critical, consistent and progressive teaching is to discriminating and questioning individuals, ensue. empowered to contribute to the made world should be the eventual outcome. Where next? One question remains - how do we move The second aim was' to explore the forward from here? Gardner (1990) neatly connections between pedagogic frameworks sums up an educational approach that is currently in use to support the development of difficult to argue against: visual literacy skills in design and technology and art contexts'. A number of initiatives and "If one wants to enhance an individual's curriculum developments have led to a variety understanding, the most likely route is to of ways in which the made world, in its involve her deeply over a significant broadest sense, can be interrogated. All can be period of time with the symbolic realm in seen as belonging to a 'collection of question, to encourage her to interact strategies' that examine artefacts located regularly with individuals who are within the visual field' as defined. All rely on somewhat (rather than greatly) more the skill of the teacher in their selection and sophisticated than she is, and to give her application and are based on open-ended ample opportunity to reflect on her own questioning in order to facilitate careful emerging understanding of the domain." observation and the gaining of knowledge and Gardner (1990) page 17 understanding through engagement with the If we were to take Gardner's advice, it seems a made world through the visual. A prerequisite number of things need to happen. of all is the need for children to draw on experiences of similar encounters with art and I. 'Visual literacy' needs to remain in the artefacts. primary curriculum. It should not be left out or until a later phase. The current The strategies have emanated from two trend to reduce the National Curriculum 'camps' or 'cultures'. I have attempted to requirements of the foundation subjects show that there is much common ground seems to put this at risk. Those that between these with regards to visual literacy. believe such activity to be relevant and There is no 'fault line' between art and design worthwhile need to continue to promote and technology teachers in primary schools - its importance. That will include advisers, they are usually one and the same person. If subject organisations, such as DATA and there is a discontinuity it is because the NSEAD, and primary teachers themselves. 2. There needs to be a regular opportunity for References children to consider the made and the Arts in Schools Project Team (1990) Arts 5-16 London: Oliver & Boyd visual in a structured way and to become familiar with different ways of looking and Baxendall (1985) Patterns of Intention London: Yale University Press knowing. Any future statutory curriculum will need to be clear about this. DATA (1996) The D& T Primary Coordinators' File Warwickshire: DATA 3. Children will need to be supported in DATA (1998) Planning into Practice Warwickshire: developing their visual literacy by DATA 'somewhat more sophisticated individuals' DATA (1999) 'National Curriculum Review', (the primary teacher), selecting and using Datanews 10, January 1999, 1-5 appropriate strategies, which leads to ... DfEE (1995a) Art in the National Curriculum London: HMSO 4. The need to continue to introduce visual literacy strategies to teachers during their DfEE (1995b) Design and Technology in the National Curriculum London: HMSO training and professional development. Indeed, returning to the previously cited Department of Education and Science (1991) Art for Ages 5 to 14 Proposals of the Secretary of NACCCE report (DfEE 1999), the State for Education and Science and the committee has demanded that teachers Secretary of State for Wales London: HMSO should be trained to use methods and Gardner, H (1990) Art Education and Human materials which help develop young Development Los Angeles: Getty Center for people's creative abilities and cultural Education in the Arts understanding. The current trend of Howe, A (1995) An exploration into aspects of shorter foundation subject courses must knowledge and understanding in art in the primary be reversed. Common ground between school MA dissertation Bath Spa University approaches needs to be highlighted - College anything other than that risks accusation Morris, S (1989) A Teacher's Guide To Using of 'another thing' for teachers to consider. Portraits English Heritage A perception amongst teachers that National Advisory Committee on Creative and primary art and design and technology Cultural Education (1999) All Our Futures: Creativity, Culture and Education DfEE activities can contribute to a common goal Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (1998) needs to be fostered. Maintaining breadth and balance at Key Stages 1 If that sounds like a call for a 'National Visual and 2 Middlesex: QCA Publications Literacy Strategy', then so be it. QCA (1999) The review of the National Curriculum in England Suffolk: QCA Raney, K (1999) 'Visual Literacy and the Art Curriculum', Journal of Art and Design Education, 18,1,41-47. Ritchie, R (1995) Primary Design and Technology - A Process for Learning London: David Fulton Schools Council (1982) Art in the Built Environment Essex: Longman Swift, J and Steers J (1998) 'A Manifesto for Art in Schools', Journal of Art and Design Education, 18, 1,7-14. Taylor, R (1986) Educating for Art Essex: Longman Taylor, R (1992) Visual Ads in Education London: Falmer Press Thistlewood, D (Ed.) (1989) Critical Studies in Art and Design Education Essex: Longman