A Study Towards the Improvement of Water Supply in Kibuku-Kadama Rural Growth Centre Kibuku District

A STUDY TOWARDS THE IMPROVEMENT OF WATER SUPPLY IN KIBUKU-KADAMA RURAL GROWTH CENTRE KIBUKU DISTRICT

FINAL YEAR PROJECT SUBMITTED TO KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULLFIILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE

Of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MPYANGU MUBARAKA

BSCE/43915/143/DU

KAPTA CALEB

BSCE/44495/143/DU

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCES

SEPTEMBER, 2018

DECLARATION We hereby declare that this project on the study towards improvement of water supply is our original work and have never been submitted to any academic institution for the award of a degree.

MPYANGU MUBARAKA BSCE/ 43915/143/DU

SIGN………………………

KAPTA CALEB BSCE/44495/143/DU

SIGN…………………………

CERTIFICATION I the undersign, do here by certify that I have read and forwarded for acceptance to Kampala International University, school of Engineering and Applied science, department of civil Engineering a project report entitled “THE STUDY TOWARDS THE IMPROVEMENT OF WATER SUPPLY IN KIBUKU-KADAMA RURAL GROWTH CENTRE” in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of Bachelor of science in Civil Engineering.

Signed ……………………………………

Date ………………………………………

(Supervisor)

Dr. LAWAL TUNJI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT There are many people to thank for their tireless efforts in the preparation of the report but first we thank Almighty ALLAH for the gift of life and love that has passed us through preparation of this report. Secondly, we want to thank our supervisor, Dr. LAWAL TUNJI for his advice, ideas, and skills that have greatly been a motivation in the preparation of the report. Thirdly, we want to thank all the group members for all their efforts especially in terms of finances, academics, research, and co –operation. Last, we want to thank everyone who helped us to finish the report in one way or another and may the ALLAH bless them.

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CONTENTS DECLARATION ...... i CERTIFICATION ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iii CONTENTS ...... iv LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii LIST OF TABLES ...... ix ACRONYMS ...... x ABSTRACT ...... xi

CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION: ...... 1 1.1 Studies carried out ...... 2 1.2 Background: ...... 4 1.3 Problem Statement; ...... 5 1.4 Main Objective of the study; ...... 6 1.4.1 Specific Objectives; ...... 6 1.5 Justification; ...... 6 1.6 Significance of the project: ...... 7 1.7 Scope of Study; ...... 7 1.7.1 Content scope ...... 7 1.7.2 Geographical scope ...... 7

CHAPTER TWO ...... 9 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 9 2.1 Introduction; ...... 9 2.2 LACK OF SAFE WATER GLOBALLY ...... 9 2.3 Types of Water Supply Systems; ...... 11 2.4 Water Demand; ...... 11 2.5 Design Period; ...... 11 2.6 Non-Revenue Water (NRW) ...... 11

2.7 Demand Variations and Demand Factors ...... 12 2.8 Water Sources: ...... 12 2.8.1 Warranty against Defects of Boreholes ...... 14 2.9 Intake Facility ...... 14 2.9.1 Selection of Power Source ...... 15

CHAPTER THREE ...... 16 METHODOLOGY ...... 16 3.1 Introduction; ...... 16 3.2 Socio-Economic Survey; ...... 16 3.3 Design Period; ...... 16 3.4 Domestic Population; ...... 16 3.5 Commercial, Industrial and Institutional Population ...... 17 3.6 Population Growth Rate ...... 17 3.7 Population Projections ...... 17 3.8 Water Demand Assessment; ...... 18 3.8.1 Domestic Consumption Rates ...... 18 3.8.2 Non-Domestic Consumption Rates...... 18 3.8.3 Non-Revenue Water (NRW) ...... 20 3.8.4 Unit Consumptions ...... 20 3.9 Water Demand ...... 20 3.9.1 Water Demand Pattern ...... 20 3.9.2 Capacity and Height of Elevated Tanks ...... 21 3.10 Hydrological data ...... 22 3.10.1 Identification of Water source ...... 22 3.10.2 Ground water quantification; ...... 22 3.10.3 Aquifer test: ...... 23 3.11 Other sources of water to supplement the existing (estimating yields of other sources) ...... 26 3.12 Other sources of water ...... 27 3.12.1 Rooftop rainwater harvesting ...... 27 3.12.2 Dug well ...... 28

CHAPTER FOUR ...... 30 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...... 30 4.1.1 Domestic Populations Projection; ...... 30 4.2 Design Horizon ...... 31 4.2.1 Peak Factors ...... 31 4.3 Water Demand ...... 31 4.4 Water Supply Options ...... 32 4.5 Water yields...... 35 4.6 Supplementary analysis of other sources. (Estimating yields) ...... 38 4.4.1 Components of Piped Water Supply Facility ...... 42 4.5 Pipe Flow Velocities ...... 43 4.6 Storage Capacity ...... 43 4.7 System Operation Duration ...... 43 4.8 Operating Pressures ...... 43 4.9 Materials ...... 43 4.10 Design Economic Life ...... 44 4.11 Pipeline hydraulics ...... 44 4.11.1 Pressure ...... 44 4.11.2 Head Losses ...... 45 4.11.3 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) ...... 45 4.12 Design of water Transmission and Distribution Systems ...... 46 4.12.1 Methods of water transmission and distribution ...... 46 4.12.1 Transmission system ...... 47 4.12.2 Distribution system ...... 47 4.13 Pipe Fittings and Control Boxes ...... 47 4.14 Service Pipes ...... 47 4.14.1 Private Connections ...... 47 4.14.2 Public Water Points ...... 48 4.15 Design of a reservoir ...... 48 4.16 Power Options ...... 48 4.17 Solar Design ...... 49

4.17.1 Solar Array Tilting ...... 49 4.18 Environmental Impact Assessment ...... 49 4.18.1 Anticipated Project Benefits...... 50 4.18.2 Direct Environmental Impacts ...... 51 4.18.3 Mitigation Measures for the Identified Impacts ...... 54

CHAPTER FIVE ...... 58 CHALLENGES FACED, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 58 5.1 Challenges Faced ...... 58 5.2 Conclusion ...... 58 5.3 Recommendation ...... 58 REFERENCES ...... 59 APPENDICES ...... 60

Appendix 1: A map of Kibuku District showing areas without safe water supply 60

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Long queues at one of the borehole...... 5 Figure 1.2 : One of dry borehole in kadama ...... 6 Figure 1.3 : resident fetching water at the swamp ...... 6 Figure 4.1 Water level curve over time ...... 33 Figure 4.2: The drawdown curve of the aquifer ...... 34 Figure 4.1: Hydraulic grade line ...... 46

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LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Population Distribution in KADAMA Rural Growth Centre...... 16 Table 3.2: Non Domestic population ...... 17 Table 3.3: Comparison of Unit Demands for Domestic Consumption ...... 18 Table 3.4: Summary of Proposed Consumption Rates ...... 19 Table 3.5 Peak Hour Factor of Water Demand in Rural Areas ...... 20 Table 4.1: Domestic populations ...... 30 Table 4.2: Non - Domestic Population Projections ...... 30 Table 4.3 : Aquifer test data sheet ...... 32 Table 4.4: Annual Maintenance and Economic Life of Design Components ...... 44 Table 4.5: Recommended pipe C –Values (New Pipes) ...... 45 Table 4.6 Showing Summary of Key Mitigation Actions for the Project ...... 54

ACRONYMS WHO World Health Organization SDLC System Development Life Cycle NRW Non- Revenue Water NWSC National Water and Sewerage Corporation DWD Directorate of Water Development MWE Ministry of Water and Environment ADD Average Day Demand PHD Peak Hour Demand HGL Hydraulic Grade line HDPE High Density Polyethylene Pipes UNBS Uganda National Bureau of Statistic

ABSTRACT This report is part of our final year project II that only focuses on the water improvement. The study was done to determine the water demand, water quantity and the yields. Other sources were done using soil map, land use map of the study area and run it in to ARCGIS to determine the catchment area and soil type of the area. This report has been arranged in chapters whose contents are as below; Chapter one: Introduction which give the general background of the study introduction, definition of key terms, statement of the problem, significance of the project, project objectives and scope of the project Chapter two: Literature review which reviewed documents related to the study topic; Chapter three: Methodology which contains the tools and techniques used in the study. Chapter four: results, discussion and findings which are the presentation of the results obtained their analysis and discussion. Chapter five: Conclusions and recommendations which gave conclusions with Reference to the findings and the recommendations.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION: Water is an indispensable natural resource for the survival and wellbeing of human kind. It is also essential for production of food, energy that contributes to the economic and industrial development of a society. Safe and reliable supply of water is therefore essential for individual welfare and for community development. The first and foremost consequence of lack of safe water for community consumption can cause diseases. Infectious diseases, affected by the availability or the lack of protected water supply systems, may take the following forms:  Infections spread through water supplies (water-borne diseases such as typhoid, cholera, gastroenteritis).  Infections transmitted through living carriers found in water bodies (water-based diseases such as schistosomiasis, which is through an aquatic snail that burrows through skin).  Infections spread by insects that depend on water (water-related diseases such as malaria, yellow fever spread through mosquitoes).  Infections due to the lack of sufficient water for personal hygiene (water-washed diseases such as scabies, trachoma). World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that as much as 80% of all diseases in the world is associated with water. Available evidences indicate that most of the health benefits from safe water are attainable at service levels of 30–40 liters per capita per day. Hence, the role of organized water supply in the prevention of water-borne diseases and in the promotion of public health can be well appreciated. It has been established that this role is best fulfilled when every house in a given community is connected to the public water supply system. But for most developing countries, this ideal is still unattainable due to financial and other constraints. According to the Human Development Report of United Nations Development Program (UNDP), as of 1996, more than 31% of the populations in developing countries are yet to have access to safe water and more than three-fourths of this population lives in the rural areas. (Salzman, 2006).Furthermore, the aim and scope of the study as well as the outline of the thesis are presented

1.1 Studies carried out Globally

The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) report, Progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: 2017 update and Sustainable Development Goal baselines, presents the first global assessment of “safely managed” drinking water and sanitation services. The overriding conclusion is that too many people still lack access, particularly in rural areas. Water is the most essential natural resource on the planet earth and it is as well one of the basic needs of human life. Thus, it should be carefully monitored, assessed and purified to make it portable and fit for various purposes such as domestic, commercial and industrial use.

In Africa; In Africa, it is estimated at 62% with 47% in rural areas (Mathew 2004) have access to safe water.

Northern Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa even though in one continent, have made different levels of progress towards the Millennium Development Goal on water. North Africa has 92% coverage and is on track to meet its 94% target before 2015. However, Sub-Saharan Africa experiences a contrasting case with 40% of the 783 million

2 people without access to an improved source of drinking water from the region. Sub- Saharan Africa is off track from meeting the MDG on water with just 61% water coverage and with the current pace cannot reach the 75% target set for the region.

An analysis of data from 35 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (representing 84% of the region’s population) shows significant differences between the poorest and richest fifths of the population in both rural and urban areas. Over 90% of the richest quintile in urban areas use improved water sources, and over 60% have piped water on premises. In rural areas, piped-in water is non-existent in the poorest 40% of households, and less than half of the population use any form of improved source of water.

Drinking water coverage by wealth quintiles, urban and rural residence, sub- Saharan Africa, based on population-weight averages from 35 countries (percentage).

Source: Millennium Development Goals Report 2012.UN, July 2012.

In Uganda;

Water is central to humanity’s social and economic existence (Agnew and Woodhouse 2011). Not having access to safe water therefore, is a form of deprivation that threatens life, destroys opportunity and undermines human dignity (UNDP 2006). Cognizant of the importance of water, the United Nations General Assembly recognized the human right to water and sanitation. Despite such aspirations, safe water to access is still a challenge. In Uganda, national safe water coverage is estimated at 66% with 42% coverage in rural areas (DWD 2011a) and nearly 90 percent of Uganda’s 35 million

3 people live in small towns and rural areas, and roughly two thirds of them lack access to safe water.

The actual water coverage levels are considered much lower given the hypothetical statistical procedures of deriving the coverage and the fact that most dysfunctional water sources are not controlled for (Carter et al. 1999). The continued water supply deficit, both in Uganda and elsewhere, has been attributed to a water governance crisis (GWP 2002; Asingwire 2008; Mugumya 2013; Starkl et al. 2013). GWP (2002) defines water governance as the range of political, social, economic and administrative systems that are in place to regulate the development and management of water resources and provision of water services at different levels of society. The response to the water governance crisis has taken different forms in developing countries. In situations of insufficient public budgets, corruption and public mismanagement, private sector mechanisms like competition and the efficiency imperative were considered to be a panacea to state failures (McGranahan and Owen 2006; Golooba-Mutebi 2012).

1.2 Background: Kibuku-Kadama growth Centre has low access to safe water currently and the Centre relies on a few functional boreholes fitted with hand pumps as the only source of good quality water (GLOBAL H2O - clean drinking water for everyone Report, 2015) and due to the inadequate supply of safe water and the ever increasing population, this has resulted into high water demand culminating into long queues (fig.) at the water points and also increased cases of water and sanitation related diseases. Water supplied to

KADAMA Rural Growth Centre is abstracted from an underground well (borehole) located within the trading centre and the one at KADAMA Primary School.

Figure 1.1 Long queues at one of the borehole.

1.3 Problem Statement; Despite the availability of water in KADAMA Rural Growth Centre, its quantity does not meet the potable water standards set by WHO, its unreliable and not even enough to serve the ever increasing population of the area.

Considering the present situation of this rural community, where water from polluted sources are carried over long distances and used directly, currently Kibuku-Kadama community is challenged with water quantity. Safe water for the domestic use has been a Problem in this community where people have entirely depended on rain water, swamp and borehole water. The existing boreholes were bored on poorly traced wells and they dry off in dry seasons especially during the months of December to January.

Figure 1.2 : One of dry borehole in kadama Figure 1.3 : resident fetching water at the swamp

1.4 Main Objective of the study;

The main objective of the study was to improve water supply for Kibuku-Kadama rural growth centre

1.4.1 Specific Objectives;  To determine the water demand for Kadama rural growth centre.  To identify the available water sources, their yields and supplement other sources of water.  To evaluate other sources of water in Kadama rural growth centre.

1.5 Justification; Water being one of the most essential needs of human life should be accessed by each individual when it’s safe and potable.

Kadama rural growth centre being an area with an ever increasing community should be availed with safe water in order to maintain high standards of sanitation and hygiene to promote good health of the students and the community at large.

With the improved water supply system in place, high quality water will be availed to the community in required amounts at all times which will go a long way in improving communities welfare plus time management for the case of students leading to the achievement of the university motto ‘Pursuing Excellency’.

Due to the socio-economic study conducted by the different stakeholders including Kibuku District Water Office (DWO) for establishing the optimum service level desired by

6 the community and their willingness to pay for the improve service, the technological option for the supply of water to the community would be piped water supply system through production well.

1.6 Significance of the project: The National water policy of Uganda provides an elaborate set of strategy and approaches to be used in the water and sanitation sector. The policy of the government in respect to the water and environment is to ensure that 75% of the population has access to safe drinking water and environmental sanitation ultimately reducing water and faecal borne diseases.

The project study will have the following;

Contributing towards the target 10 under the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which is to halve by 2020 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.

Contributing towards the national goal of providing safe drinking water and improve environmental and personal hygiene due to adequacy of water and so productive output of people of Kibuku-Kadama community.

Alleviating poverty and improving the life or welfare of women, youth, children and the aged in particular.

1.7 Scope of Study;

1.7.1 Content scope The study is limited to improving water supply and sanitation systems which will avail clean and safe water in Kadama Rural Growth Centre.

1.7.2 Geographical scope Location

Kibuku district is located approximately 180km east of Kampala. The project is to be carried out in KADAMA RURAL GROWTH CENTRE which is located in KADAMA Sub County, KABWERI County in KIBUKU District along TIRINYI-MBALE road. KIBUKU district is located in Eastern Uganda and borders the districts of BUDAKA in the east- PALLISA in the north–NAMUTUMBA in the west – BUTALEJA in the south.

Figure 1: location of the study area

Climate KIBUKU district has evenly distributed rainfall and amount to average between 1200mm to 1400mm per year. There are two rainfall peaks between the month of March and May, and between august and October. The driest months of the year are December, January, and February. The temperatures of kibuku district are similar to those of the rest of the country, with an average temperature range of 23oc – 260c.

Topography

The topography of kibuku district is flat in the west, with altitudes ranging from 1040m to 1130m and flat to undulating in the east, with altitudes ranging from 1040m to 1280m.

Hydrogeology

Kibuku district is located in the basement complex- a Precambrian crystalline rock system. It is characterized by among other rocks, granites, granite-gneisses, granodiorites, syenites and diorites intruded by amphibolitic, pegmatitic, and quartzitic dykes and veins.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction; This chapter gives the full explanation regarding the project including the definition of a water supply system and the function of every component related with the water supply system, such as water demand, water source, water quality, transmission and distribution mains, reservoirs as well as pumping stations.

Water supply is the provision of water by public and/or private utilities, commercial organizations, community endeavors or by individuals usually via a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components that may consist of channels, pumps, pipes, containers or tanks, pulley lift mechanisms among others.

The primary functions of water supply systems is to easily access water for domestic, commercial, agricultural, industrial and fire protection uses. Processing or treatment facility is a basic component in the systems; hence, water supply systems ensure delivery of clean water.

2.2 LACK OF SAFE WATER GLOBALLY

Some 3 in 10 people worldwide, or 2.1 billion, lack access to safe, readily available water at home, and 6 in 10, or 4.5 billion, lack safely managed sanitation, according to a new report by WHO and UNICEF. The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) report, Progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: 2017 update and Sustainable Development Goal baselines, presents the first global assessment of “safely managed” drinking water and sanitation services. The overriding conclusion is that too many people still lack access, particularly in rural areas.

“Safe water, sanitation and hygiene at home should not be a privilege of only those who are rich or live in urban centres,” says Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, WHO Director General. “These are some of the most basic requirements for human health, and all countries have a responsibility to ensure that everyone can access them.”

Billions of people have gained access to basic drinking water and sanitation services since 2000, but these services do not necessarily provide safe water and sanitation. Many homes, healthcare facilities and schools also still lack soap and water for hand washing. This puts the health of all people but especially young children at risk for diseases, such as diarrhea.

As a result, every year, 361 000 children under 5 years of age die due to diarrhea. Poor sanitation and contaminated water are also linked to transmission of diseases such as cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A, and typhoid.

“Safe water, effective sanitation and hygiene are critical to the health of every child and every community and thus are essential to building stronger, healthier, and more equitable societies,” said UNICEF Executive Director Anthony Lake. “As we improve these services in the most disadvantaged communities and for the most disadvantaged children today, we give them a fairer chance at a better tomorrow.” (Uganda bureau of statistics)

In Uganda, Data and projections from Uganda Bureau of Statistics indicate a population of 36.86 million as of June 2016 with 30.08 million (81.6%) living in rural areas.

Rural water supply provision covers communities or villages (at the level of Local Council 1 (LC1)) with scattered population in settlements up to 1,500 people, and Rural Growth Centres (RGCs) with populations between 1,500 and 5,000.

The main technology options used for water supply improvements in rural areas include protected springs (18%), shallow wells (23%), deep boreholes (44%), piped water schemes (gravity-fed) and piped water schemes (pumped) (11%), valley tanks and rainwater tanks Boreholes are the most predominant water supply technology in our rural communities. Whereas the number of point sources is more than the number of villages in the country, there are still villages in water-stressed areas that do not have water sources while some have more than one source. The size of villages also varies substantially in the country, where people in some villages in Eastern and Northern Uganda walk much longer distances than the minimum walking distance for a safe water source. Key programs and projects.

2.3 Types of Water Supply Systems; There are various types of water supply systems which are used in Uganda and they majorly depend on the topography of the area. They include;

 Gravity flow system

Water flows from the water source to the intended destination by the natural force of gravity. This system restricts the source of water to a fixed point as it is only possible when the source is at a higher elevation than the intended destination of water.

 Pumped transmission line system

Water is delivered from the source to the storage device by a pump through a pipeline. Pumping on the other hand provides great flexibility in locating water source and can deliver greater quantities of water consistently.

 The combined pumped transmission line-gravity system

This is a combination of pumped transmission line system and gravity flow system. It includes distribution reservoirs which are put at elevated points, then water is pumped from the source to the reservoirs which then flows by gravity through the distribution line to the final consumers.

2.4 Water Demand; Water demand is the quantity of how much water needed by the design population. The water to be supplied should be sufficient to cover both the existing and future projected water demand.

2.5 Design Period; Design period is period adopted for the design of various projects. The design period signifies the time for which the project is expected to still be viable.

2.6 Non-Revenue Water (NRW) Non-revenue water is the amount of water that is produced but not billed as a result of leaks, pilferages, free water and utility usages. An allowance should be made for this category during design otherwise, the designed source capacity would not be sufficient to supply the required consumption of paying customers.

In actual operation, the NRW should be a cause of concern and should be subject to measures to keep it as low as possible. For planning purposes, however, a conservative approach should be adopted. The water demand projection should assume that the NRW of the new system will be fifteen percent (15%) of the estimated consumptions (according to the NWSC and MWE-DWD).

2.7 Demand Variations and Demand Factors Water demand varies within the day and also within the year. This demand variation is dependent on the consumption pattern of the locality and is measured by four demand conditions which are: • Minimum day demand: The minimum amount of water required in a single day over a year. • Average day demand: The average of the daily water requirement spread in a year. • Maximum day demand: The maximum amount of water required in a single day over a year. • Peak hour demand: The highest hourly demand in a day. Each of the above demand conditions is designated a demand factor to define its value based on the average day demand. The following demand factors are recommended for every water supply system.

2.8 Water Sources: Basically, all sources of freshwater originate from rainfall, which is slightly acidic due to dissolution of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In the form of surface run-off, it will gather considerable amounts of organic and mineral matters, soil particles, microorganisms, etc. When the surface run-off infiltrates into subsoil it forms groundwater. As the groundwater level increases and rises above surface level due to varying land formations, it oozes out as springs. Perennial springs are the fountainheads of surface water bodies such as streams, rivers and lakes. The source of water has a major effect on water system design and hence costs. Water from different sources varies in quality and hence requires varying degrees of treatment. The process of choosing the most suitable source for water supply largely depends on the local conditions. A source of water supply can be identified at any of the above stages of

12 water cycle, provided it can supply in sufficient quantities for most periods of the time in a year. (RURAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS, M. Sundaravadivel) After the demand has been estimated, the next step is to look for a source that passes both the quantity and quality requirements. This presents an overview of the possible water supply sources that can be utilized for rural and other small water supply systems. In the selection of a source or sources of water supply, adequacy and Reliability, Quality, Cost, Legality and reliability of the available supply could be considered the overriding criteria. Without these, the water supply system cannot be considered viable Water sources are generally classified according to their relative location on the surface of the earth. Thus, water supply for rural communities can be organized with use of rainwater, groundwater, and surface water. These are characterized as follows: i. Rainwater: Rainwater, or atmospheric water, is a product of water vapour that has risen due to evaporation and accumulated in the atmosphere, which condenses and falls on the Earth's surface. As the water vapour that has accumulated in cloud formations condenses, it forms drops of rain that fall to the Earth. ii. Surface Water: Surface water is exposed to the atmosphere and subject to surface runoff. It comes from rains, surface runoff and groundwater, and includes rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, impounding reservoirs, seas, and oceans. The quality of surface water is determined by the amount of pollutants and contaminants picked up by the water in the course of its travel. While flowing over the ground, surface water collects silt, decaying organic matter, bacteria and other microorganisms from the soil. iii. Groundwater: Groundwater is that portion of rainwater which has percolated beneath the ground surface to form underground deposits called aquifers. The upper surface of ground water is the water table. Examples of ground water sources include:-Springs and wells.

2.8.1 Warranty against Defects of Boreholes In the implementation stage, the contractor has to install submersible motor pumps, etc. after cleaning and removing dropped objects in the existing boreholes. In case there are any defects in such existing boreholes after completion, the contractor warrants only defects caused by pumping equipment to be installed by them. The test boreholes were handed over to Ugandan side after the confirmation of yields and water qualities, etc. Therefore, Ugandan side is considered responsible for their maintenance until the construction starts. In addition, in case the existing boreholes are utilized as water source of the Project, these boreholes have belonged to the Ugandan side, and it is considered that the Ugandan side should warrant such defects as may be found in boreholes. It is necessary to clarify with the contractors of this matter at the time of contract during the implementation stage.

2.9 Intake Facility The intake is an existing borehole yielding 6.0m³/h. Base on the projection and secondary data, will be enough to satisfies the demand. The test pumping results of the borehole yield is attached to the appendix. The intake facility consists of the deep borehole and the submersible motor pump, and the yard of intake facility is surrounded by the security fence. The submersible motor pump for deep boreholes is to be applied for the Project.

Intake Borehole Facility

2.9.1 Selection of Power Source Though the commercial power supply is requested by the government of Uganda, the comparative study is made for i) commercial power supply, ii) solar power generation, and iii) Commercial power supply +diesel generation (stand-by). Solar Power Supply In case that the safe yield of borehole is considered high enough, the solar power generation is adopted for power source. Solar power generation is available only for about eight (8) hours in daytime, and out of eight (8) hours, about six (6) hours are considered effective for power generation getting enough radiation. If the pumping hours obtained by dividing the day demand by the safe yield are not more than six (6) hours, the solar power generation is adopted. However, if the total head for lifting water calculated as a sum of elevation difference between dynamic water level of borehole and high water level of elevated tank is estimated higher than that available in the specification of ordinary type of DC motor pump, it is not possible to adopt the solar power generation

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction; This chapter covers the detailed explanation of methodology that has been carried out to achieve the objective of the project work. In order to evaluate this project, the methodology based on System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) has been used; generally three major steps, which are; investigating, improving on the design and Analysis.

3.2 Socio-Economic Survey; The socio-economic survey is conducted in KADAMA RURAL GROWTH CENTRE to establish the socio-economic status of the community living in the area by the group members and obtaining the baseline data used in the analysis. The survey was largely quantitative and captured a number of socio-economic variables at household and consultancy basis. The gathered information was to help us understand the neighborhood, the site, the users of the building, any existing households. This was done through interviewing the local community as well as the local council members.

3.3 Design Period;

A design period of 15 years has been adopted for the proposed water supply system and the design horizon will be the year 2032 assuming a base year of 2017.

3.4 Domestic Population;

The present domestic population data are presented in the table below.

Table 3.1: Population Distribution in KADAMA Rural Growth Centre.

Estimated Number of Parish Village 2014 heads per Households household.

KIBUKU KADAMA 1169 320 4

Source: Field surveys from KIBUKU-KADAMA

local town authorities.

3.5 Commercial, Industrial and Institutional Population

These establishments in KADAMA are given in table below.

Table 3.2: Non Domestic population

No. of individuals in Demand category Unit 2014 Institutions

Schools Primary pupils No 400 Secondary No 500 students Commercial / Industrial

Hotels No 4 Clinics No 5 Abattoirs No 2 Markets No 1 Milling machines No 3

3.6 Population Growth Rate

The 2014 census reported the national growth rate to be 3.2%, annual population growth rate for Eastern Region as 3.5% and that of KIBUKU where KADAMA is located was reported to be 2.7% (Uganda Bureau of Statistics). For design purposes the growth rate of 2.7% for KADAMA town is to be adopted.

3.7 Population Projections

By using Geometrics Progression method; A constant percentage growth is assumed for equal periods of time. Thus, the population at the end on n years is given by: P  P 1 r n n   Where r=the percentage rate of increase P=is the current population

Pn= is the future population (Pual.R.Ehrlich, 1971).

3.8 Water Demand Assessment;

3.8.1 Domestic Consumption Rates

In determining the rates of consumption for the domestic water demand, a review was carried out of the rates in current use in the Uganda, including site measurements carried out to determine actual unit consumption rates. These are summarized in the table below.

Table 3.3: Comparison of Unit Demands for Domestic Consumption

House Yard Tap Standpipe Source Connectio (l/c/d) (l/c/d) ns (l/c/d)

DWD Design Manual, 2000 100 40 20

Eastern Centre’s WSP, 2000 100 40 20

Rural Growth Centre’s Policy, 100 40 15 2007

Adopted Unit Consumption 100 40 20 Rates

3.8.2 Non-Domestic Consumption Rates.

This category covers the commercial, institutional and industrial demand. For these, rates have been adopted from the design manual, rates used in other similar schemes designed recently, and in some cases modified to suit the site conditions. The proposed consumption rates are given in the table. For easy comparison, the rates proposed in the DWD design manual and DWD policy is also included.

Table 3.4: Summary of Proposed Consumption Rates

Average Day Demand Design DWD Adopted Demand Category Unit Manual Policy Rates Institutional Schools Day l/c/d 5 5 5 Boarding l/c/d 50 / 20 20 20

Hospitals / Health Centre’s In patients l/bed/d 100 100 100 Out patients l/bed/d 10 0 5 Non-resident staff l/bed/d 0 0

Commercial / Industrial Hotels / Lodges High class l/bed/d Medium class l/bed/d 100 100 100 Low class l/bed/d 50 40 40 Bars / restaurants l/d 200 250 250 Shops l/d 25 50 50 Dry processing mills l/mill/d 30 30 30 Markets l/market/d 500 500 Abattoir l/animal/d 45 Church l/c/d 5 5 5 Butcheries l/d 50 50 Mosques l/d 20

Source: Published studies and Project estimates.

3.8.3 Non-Revenue Water (NRW)

A figure of 15% has been used in the design of this project as stated in ministry of water and environment.

3.8.4 Unit Consumptions Unit consumption for domestic water demand is expressed in per capita consumption per day. The commonly used unit is litres per capita per day (lpcd). According to (water supply design manual 2013 second edition, MWE), the rural setup of the domestic water use is limited to 20 lcpd. Therefore, if the current population is 1169 people,

The population after 15 years will be 1743 persons,

3.9 Water Demand

3.9.1 Water Demand Pattern The water demand patterns are discussed in the Water Supply Design Manual (2013) as stated below. - In rural areas, it can be assured that the bulk of the water used in a day is drawn between 7:00AM and 7:00PM, but with hourly variations. Generally, two peak periods will be observed, one in the morning and the other in the evening. The same pattern can be assumed to apply for private connections and public standpipes. - The peak hour factor for the population over 1,000 is 2.0.

Table 3.5 Peak Hour Factor of Water Demand in Rural Areas

Population (Pe) Peak Hour Factor (Phf)

1,000 or more 2.0

500 2.5

200 3.0

100 3.5

50 4.5 Source: Water Supply Design Manual, MOWE

Based on the above discussions, the water demand pattern is set as follows:  Service Hour: The water is sold by water kiosks to the population in RGC. Open and close of water kiosks are managed by the kiosk attendant. The operation hour is set for 12hr from 7:00AM to 7:00PM.  Peak Hour Demand: The Peak Hour Demand of 12hr operation is calculated considering the Peak Hour Factor and the average hourly demand for 12hr operation calculated from the Maximum Day Demand as follows: Average hourly demand (m3/hr) = Maximum day demand (m3/day)/ Operation hour (15hr) Peak hourly demand (m3/hr) = Average hourly demand (m3/hr) x Peak hour factor (2.0) - The water demand pattern set as above-mentioned is presented below.

Water Supply Time ( 12hr )

Conditions: Operation hour is 15 hr from 7:00 AM to 9:00PM. The peak hour factor is set at 2.0 for the Morning And Evening, and the Factor for Other time is set at 0.5. ( Time)

Water Demand Pattern

3.9.2 Capacity and Height of Elevated Tanks RGCs using solar Power Generation

The capacities of elevated tanks for the RGCs using the solar power generation are determined taking into account the following items.

 Min. Required Volume: The operation hour of submersible motor pump is set for six (6) hour from 10:00 to 16:00. The volume of water to be supplied out of the pump operation hour has to be stored in the elevated tank as mentioned below, and this volume is considered as that required at minimum equivalent to 70% of the maximum day demand.

Min. required volume = Demand after pump operation (16:00 - 19:00)

+ Demand before pump operation for next day

 Volume provided against decrease of pumped water due to weather conditions: The solar power generation tends to be affected by the weather conditions. Generally, the power generation is decreased to 40 - 60% in cloudy weather and 12 - 20% in rainy weather. It is, therefore, considered to spare some volume of water in the elevated tank to provide against the decrease of water in the rainy season.

 Considering the above items, the residual time of the elevated tanks for RGCs using solar power generation is set at 1.0 day, and the variations of stored water volume of RGCs using solar power generation.

3.10 Hydrological data

3.10.1 Identification of Water source KADAMA RURAL GROWTH CENTRE is strategically located in a place where there are enough ground water endowments and it is currently abstracting water from a well. We considered the use of ground water as the sources of water supply. The number of wells tapping into this aquifer will be used to compute the available water; this will be compared to the demand on the population. Selecting a water source involved site visit, making detailed site map which shows changing elevations, layout of the land, and available water resources within the site or near the site, present water system structures and the sanitation situation within a diameter of 10 square meters and aquifer drilling test results.

3.10.2 Ground water quantification; Groundwater recharge represents a major component of the overall hydrologic cycle in most terrestrial environments. Recharge dynamics are influenced by many factors including surficial soil and subsurface conditions, topography, land use and climatic conditions. As such, its spatial and temporal quantification has proven to be challenging (Dripps and Bradbury, 2010; Fleckenstein et al., 2006). Both the timing and magnitude of recharge control annual groundwater storage replenishment and the introduction of surface-sourced contaminants to the subsurface, which in turn dictates sustainable aquifer yields, base flow and the quality of the groundwater resources. Recharge processes in cold climatic regions such as Canada, the northern United States and northern Europe for example, are influenced by extreme seasonal variability, which

22 include frozen soil conditions, temporary snow cover and highly variable cycles of evapotranspiration. Under these conditions, groundwater recharge is highly transient and seasonally dependent. This is especially evident during the spring melt period. Most of the areas in Canada are covered by glacial drift that vary spatially in both thickness and sediment characteristic. Conventional approaches to evaluating annual average groundwater recharge rates are often based on the monitoring of groundwater level fluctuations, catchment flows and inverse modelling (Batlle-Aguilar and Cook, Healy and Cook, 2002a, 2002b). Although average annual recharge rates are of interest in considering regional water balances and groundwater resource development, the seasonal variability of the recharge cycle dictates the spatial distribution of recharge flux and the timing of the recharge events. This transient nature of recharge, particularly in cold regions, can be a critical factor in determining the regional availability of the groundwater resource and the vulnerability of aquifer systems and public supply wells. Identifying and quantifying transient recharge phenomena regionally, such as at the sub- watershed scale, has proven to be challenging due to the high degree of spatial and temporal variability and also as a result of the difficulty in field estimation (Iwata et al., 2010; Sophocleous, 2002). Numerical modeling tools that either couple or fully integrate surface water hydrology with the groundwater systems are routinely used to estimate regional recharge as the residual component of the water balance through a calibration process (Wiebe et al., 2015; Chung et al., 2010; Finch, 1998; Hornero et al., 2016). Direct field measurements of event-based recharge that could be used to ground truth the modeling results and identify vulnerable landscape settings, represents the focus of the current study.

3.10.3 Aquifer test: Aquifer tests is carried out to determine whether there is sufficient groundwater available for the proposed use. The most important information that was collected as part of an aquifer test is the depth to groundwater and how that varies in response to pumping the well of interest, and how well water levels vary seasonally; The most common and dependable way of establishing this is by pumping a well and measuring its response. This procedure is known as a pump test or aquifer test. A typical aquifer test involves pumping a well at a constant rate for a certain period of time. The change in aquifer level at the pumped well, and in neighboring wells is

23 measured. From these measurements the aquifer or well hydraulic properties can be evaluated. It will usually be obvious during the drilling process if a well will provide the volumes required for a domestic supply, without the need to carry out an aquifer test. However where larger volumes are required at certain times of the year, such as for frost protection, crop irrigation or town supply, it may not be as clear-cut. In this case detailed seasonal test information may be needed to select the most efficient pump type and to prove reliable flows exist. The most frequently conducted tests are those carried out by drilling contractors following the successful completion of a new well. These tests generally involve pumping the well for several hours to test the well’s capacity. The test results can also be used to assess the value of the aquifer hydraulic properties of transmissivity and storativity. Knowledge of these wider aquifer parameters allows the performance of a well to be forecast into the future. Basing on the secondary data that was done by the contractor, Icon projects ltd, the water drawdown was determined from the aquifer test results. Water well drawdown occurs during groundwater withdrawal through the well screen. The natural water level in the aquifer depresses from the stress of the pumping in the aquifer and removal of the water. You can measure the water level in the well at different times to determine the drawdown that occurs during pumping activities. Some aquifers recharge more quickly than others; therefore, the drawdown in identical wells in different aquifers may not be the same. A few quick measurements will help you determine how much drawdown your well will exhibit over time, as shown in the table below. Selection of Pipeline Diameter The best possible diameter of a pipeline system for a pumping unit depends on the system characteristic. The various pipeline systems which could be considered as matching the pump characteristic are shown in Figure below. It must be noted that, each operational point corresponds to a particular efficiency of the pump, and the system selection largely depends on the discharge-head requirements and on pump

(Uganda water supply design manual, 2000)

3.11 Other sources of water to supplement the existing (estimating yields of other sources)

Land use Soil map DEM

ARC GIS

Length of the catchment Land use shape

areas, Flow length (elevation

Total area, A difference)

TTTT Intensity, i Slope = elevation

Catchment Area, A difference/catchment

length

Run off coefficient, C

Discharge, Q = CIA/3.6

3.12 Other sources of water

3.12.1 Rooftop rainwater harvesting Rooftop catchment systems gather rainwater from the roofs of houses, schools, etc., using gutters and downpipes (made of local wood, bamboo, galvanized iron or PVC), and lead it to storage containers that range from simple pots to large Ferro cement tanks. If properly designed, a foul-flush device or detachable downpipe can be fitted that allows the first 20 litres of runoff from a storm to be diverted from the storage tanks. The runoff is generally contaminated with dust, leaves, insects and bird droppings. Sometimes the runoff is led through a small filter of gravel, sand and charcoal before entering the storage tank. Water may be abstracted from the storage tank by a tap, hand pump, or bucket-and-rope system.

Operation and maintenance

Operations consist of taking water from the storage tank by tapping, pumping or using a bucket and rope. Where there is no foul-flush device, the user or caretaker has to divert away the first 20 litres at the start of every rainstorm, and keep the rooftop clean. Just before the start of the rainy season, the complete system has to be checked for holes and for broken or affected parts, and repaired as necessary. Taps or hand pumps (if used) have to be serviced. During the rainy season, the system should be checked regularly and cleaned when dirty. The system should be also checked and cleaned after every dry period of more than one month. The outsides of metal tanks may need to be painted about once a year. Leaks have to be repaired throughout the year, especially from leaking tanks and taps, as they present health risks. Chlorination of the water may be necessary. All O&M activities can normally be carried out by users of the system. Major repairs, such as a broken roof or tank, can usually be carried out by a local

27 craftsman using locally-available tools and materials. Maintenance is simple, but should be given careful attention.

Potential problems with rainfall harvesting in this place

 Corrosion of metal roofs, gutters, etc.  The foul-flush diverter fails because maintenance was neglected.  Taps leak at the reservoir and there are problems with the hand pumps.  Contamination of uncovered tanks, especially where water is abstracted with a rope and bucket.  Unprotected tanks may provide a breeding place for mosquitoes, which may increase the danger of vector-borne diseases.  During certain periods of the year, the system may not fulfill drinking-water needs, making it necessary to develop other sources, or to go back to traditional sources during these periods.  Often, households or communities cannot afford the financial investment needed to construct a suitable tank and adequate roofing.

3.12.2 Dug well A dug well gives access to a groundwater aquifer and facilitates its abstraction. Dug wells can be entered for cleaning or deepening, and they will rarely be less than 0.8 m in diameter. There are two main types of dug wells: Unprotected wells. These are hand- dug holes that are not usually lined and have no effective protection above ground. As a result, they are very susceptible to contamination. Unprotected wells will not be further discussed in this Fact Sheet.

Protected wells. These are wells that are dug by hand or by machinery, and consist of the following main parts: a stone, brick or concrete apron, a headwall (the part of the well lining above ground) at a convenient height for collecting water,a lining that prevents the well from collapsing.

Potential problems

 The well collapses because it is not lined, is old, or is not properly maintained  The well runs dry, or yields fall, because their construction did not take into account the lower water levels during the dry season  Water is abstracted at a higher rate than the natural recharge rate of the well  The lower lining of the well becomes clogged, reducing the inflow of groundwater;  The groundwater becomes contaminated, either directly via the well, or by pollutants seeping into the aquifer through the soil.  The construction of the well can depend on hydro geological conditions, such as the presence, depth and yield of an aquifer, and whether rock formations are above them  Tells should not be constructed too far from the users’ households, or be too difficult to reach, or they will not be used sufficiently or maintained.

Rivers and streams

There are no potential rivers in this area while the few streams tend to lower their water tables so much and even dry up during the dry season (especially months from November till March)

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1.1 Domestic Populations Projection;

The domestic population projections basing on the formula above are contained in Table below:

Table 4.1: Domestic populations Parish Village Future Population Figures

2014 2019 2024 2029

KIBUKU KADAMA 1,169 1,336 1,526 1,743

Non Domestic Population Projections

The future non-domestic population in the project area is summarized in table below.

Table 4.2: Non - Domestic Population Projections

Future Years

Demand category 2014 2019 2024 2029 Institutions Primary 400 457 522 597 pupils Schools secondary 500 171 196 224 students Commercial / Industrial Hotels 4 5 5 6 Clinics 5 6 7 8 Abattoirs 2 2 3 3 Bars / restaurants 6 7 8 9 Markets 1 1 1 1 Milling machines 3 3 4 4

4.2 Design Horizon

A design horizon of 15 years (1.e. 2032) with the base year as year 2017 has been maintained.

4.2.1 Peak Factors The rate of water consumption varies on a daily and hourly basis. The following peak factors were adopted.

 Peak day factor 1.2  Peak Hour Factor 2.0

4.3 Water Demand

In the study, the system will be sized basing on the water demand of 35m3/day.

The average daily water demand, also known as the average day demand, is calculated (in m3/day or lps) from the estimated water consumptions and the allowance for the NRW. This helps to determine the hours to be run by the pump using the formula below,

The average daily demand (ADD) is and since the source capacity is supposed to satisfy the maximum day demand which should be 1.2 of ADD,

33.6/(15*3600)=0.00062m3/s Minimum demand

8.4/(15*3600)=0.00016m3/s

After 15 years;

51.84/(15*3600)=0.00095m3/s

86.4/(15*3600)=0.0016m3/s

4.4 Water Supply Options

The maximum day’s demand in the project area is 35m3/day (1814400m3/s). There are several options investigated in order to satisfy this demand. Basing on our project area, Ground water source is chosen and from the secondary data, aquifer tests was carried out to determine the water levels and the drawdown of the aquifer as shown below.

Table 4.3 : Aquifer test data sheet

TIME DEPTH TO DRAWDOWN REMARKS ELAPSED WATER (In meters) DISCHARGE ( In LEVEL Q(M3/hr) (Meters) Minutes) 0 8.32 0.00 (20 L/s) 1 10,20 1.88 7.65 Water slightly 2 11.80 3.48 Clear 3 13.20 4.88 4 14.55 6.23 5 15.90 7.58 6 16.33 8.07 7 16.60 8.28 8 16.78 8.46 4.37 9 16.95 8.63 10 17.13 8.81 12 17.26 8.94 14 17.40 9.08 4.37 16 17.50 9.18 18 17.60 9.28 20L/hr 20 17.65 9.33 25 17.85 9.53

30 18.00 9.68 35 18.15 9.83 40 18.30 9.98 4.37 45 18.38 10.06 50 18.37 10.15 55 18.53 10.21 60 18.60 10.28 20L/hr 70 18.73 10.41 80 18.86 10.54 4.37 90 18.93 10.61 100 18.98 10.66 120 19.12 10.80 140 19.21 10.89 4.37 20L/hr 160 19.28 10.91 180 19.33 11.01

Figure 4.1 Water level curve over time

Figure 4.2: The drawdown curve of the aquifer

From the results of the drawdown data, we evaluated the aquifer data, drawdown data in to drawdown discharge as below to compare it with the aquifer yields. From the table of drawdown

In the 1st 7mins elapse time the draw down discharge is 7.65m3 /hr

7.65/(15*3600)

= 0.00014m3/s

Then the rest of the discharge time the drawdown discharge remains constant at 4.37m3/hr

=4.37/(15*3600)

=0.000081m3/s

From the aquifer test analysis, the discharge is 6.0m3/hr

=6.0/(3600*15)

=0.000111m3/s

From the average daily demand analysis above,

The maximum day demand = 28*1.2

Since the water pump runs for 15hours per day

=33.6m3/day

=0.000062m3/s

4.5 Water yields. A Safe yield was calculated as 80% of a critical yield which was estimated from step drawdown test.

Basing on the secondary data, the yields of the chosen borehole was 6.0m3/hr at a depth of 50.6m and the aquifer properties, as shown blow.

4.6 Supplementary analysis of other sources. (Estimating yields) Using the ARGIS software engineering application, the soil map of Kadama and land use of our study area of KADAMA SUBCOUNTY.

So from ARGIS the table below shows the land use shape areas of Kadama

LAND USE NAME SHAPE AREA PERCENTAGE Broad leaved tree plantations 335913.517809 0.014 Built up Areas 593,227.034128 0.024 Commercial farmland 42344282.9066 1.55 Wetland 1560321993.98 57.37 Subsistence farming 1120428391.52881 41.042 TOTAL 2730023808.96734 100

From the ARGIS MAP, we were able to find the difference in elevation and the length of the catchment area using DEM map which is 1143(upper length)-1054(lower length) =89m The length of the catchment area =6852.1m

Slope= [elevation difference/catchment length]*100 SLOPE= 1.3% So from the road design drainage manual vol.2

We are to calculate the surface water discharge using Rational Method. Since our intension is to find the amount of discharge of surface water in Kadama sub county Q= [CIA/3.6] (from drainage design manual volume 2) Where C=Runoff coefficient I= Rainfall intensity A=Catchment Area

Basing on the conditions of our study area with a slope less than 3.5% and flat and the type of soils from the soil map of Kadama as shown the figure below

CS=0.03

CK=0.16 (Semi-permeable soils)

CV=0.11 (cultivated land) From the road drainage design manual

C=0.8*(CS+CK+CV) =0.8*(0.03+0.16+0.11) =0.24

Rainfall intensity, i From the road drainage design manual vol.2 table 4.6

Then considering the constants a, c from the design manual and b which has a constant of 0.33

Where, a=99.80 b=0.33 c=0.97 td is the time of concentration (drainage design manual volume 2)

0.77 -0.385 td = 0.06628*(L^ )*(S^ ) Where, L-length of the watershed S-slope of the Area t- time of concentration t= 0.06628(6852.1) ^0.77 * (89/6852.1)^-o.385 = 317.1346mins Therefore the intensity i = 0.37366mm/hr AREA of the catchment = 2730.0238km2 Q= CIA/3.6 = (0.24*0.37366*2730.0238)/ (3.6) Q=68.0067m3/s

4.4.1 Components of Piped Water Supply Facility

The piped water supply facility is composed of water source borehole, transmission and distribution pipelines, elevated tanks, service pipes and water kiosks as illustrated in the following figure.

Typical Piped Water Supply Facility

4.5 Pipe Flow Velocities

As far as possible, the flow velocities in the pipes will be maintained within the range of 0.8-1.8m/s.

4.6 Storage Capacity The storage capacity has been taken as 30% of the maximum day demand to ensure at least 15hours of supply to ensure continuous supply during routine servicing of the scheme. MDD = 1743X20 = 34860lpd = MDDx30/100 = 35x0.3/(15x60x60) = 0.00019m3/s Volume of the reservoir = 20m3 from manual recommended reservoir capacity. According to the manual, the height of the reservoir should not exceed 5m. So our h=3.5m By using circular tank reservoir

25=

r=1.5m D=2r =2x1.5 =3m diameter

4.7 System Operation Duration

The distribution system is assumed to operate 24 hours per day. The pumping stations will however operate for a maximum of 15 hours per day.

4.8 Operating Pressures The water pressure in the distribution network at any point will not exceed 6 bars and not less than 1 bar. The pumping mains pressure will be 16 bars while test pressure will be 25 bars.

4.9 Materials

More and more PVC and HDPE pipes are now being used. Flexible plastic pipes are preferred because they are more corrosion resistant and their flexibility protects the system against uneven settlement. Pipes of 110mm diameter and below are to be HDPE

43 unless site conditions dictate otherwise. Pipes of diameters more than 90mm will be UPVC. Ductile Iron (DI) or Galvanized Iron (GI) pipes will be used for river crossings and rough terrain.

4.10 Design Economic Life

Annual maintenance cost factors of the various design components have been adopted from the DWD Design manual, 2000. Economic life has been adopted from previous studies. They are summarized below.

Table 4.4: Annual Maintenance and Economic Life of Design Components

Economic Life Maintenance cost Component (Years) (% of capital cost)

Mechanical and Electrical 10 5% items

Pipelines 50 1%

Structures and Site 50 1% works

Solar Items 10 1%

4.11 Pipeline hydraulics

4.11.1 Pressure This is a force applied perpendicular to a body that is in contact with a fluid, in this case, with water. In the SI units system, pressure has units of N/m2, also called Pascal. Because of the level or amount of pressure in a water supply system, pressure is commonly expressed in kilopascals (kPa) or simply in meters (m) as pressure head. Pressure increases linearly with the depth of water. For water at rest, the variation of pressure over depth is linear. The pressure exerted by a column of water is called pressure head, and can be calculated using the formula below:

Where: h = depth of water above the datum p = pressure

= specific weight of water

4.11.2 Head Losses Shear stress is developed between the water and the pipe wall when water is flowing. The shear stress is the result of friction, and is dependent on the flow rate, the roughness of the pipe, and the length and diameter of the pipe. In this project, the Hazen-Williams formula will be used. In terms of head loss due to friction, the formula is:

Where:

120 for Steel Pipes, 140 for HDPE and UPVC

The C-value is a carrying capacity factor that is sometimes referred to as the roughness coefficient, which varies depending on the pipe material being considered. Table 4.2 presents the recommended C-values for various pipe materials.

Table 4.5: Recommended pipe C –Values (New Pipes) Pipe material Diameter Recommended C- values Plastic 300mm 150 < 300mm 140 Iron 300mm 140 < 300mm 130

4.11.3 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) Water in a pressurized pipe possesses three forms of energy which are: • Kinetic energy – energy due to the water’s movement; • Potential energy – energy due to elevation; • Pressure energy – energy due to internal pressure.

The total energy per unit weight of water is called head. The kinetic energy is called the velocity head; the potential energy is called elevation head, and the internal pressure energy is called pressure head. The SI unit for head is meter (m). An imaginary line corresponding to the sum of the elevation heads and pressure heads versus distance is the hydraulic grade line (HGL) of the pipeline. The HGL corresponds to the height that water will rise vertically in a tube attached to the pipe that is open to the atmosphere. The HGL is determined using the Bernoulli equation which is shown below and it is essential in the design of transmission lines.

Where; ,

Figure 4.1: Hydraulic grade line

4.12 Design of water Transmission and Distribution Systems Transmission and distribution systems vary in size and complexity but they all have the same basic purpose, which is to deliver water from the source(s) to the customer.

4.12.1 Methods of water transmission and distribution Water can be transported from the source to the treatment plant, if any, and the distribution system, and eventually reach consumers through one of the following methods: • Through gravity flow: This is the ideal set-up when the location of the water source is at a considerably higher elevation than the area to be served.

• Through pumping with storage: Water is either (a) pumped to a distribution pipe network, then to consumers, with excess water going to a storage tank, or (b) pumped to a storage tank first, then water is distributed by gravity from the tank to the consumers. • Through direct pumping to the distribution system: In this system, water is pumped directly from the source to the distribution system to the consumers. Where capital cost for a reservoir is not affordable at the initial stage of the water system, direct pumping to the distribution is usually resorted to. Variable speed or variable frequency drive pumps are most ideal for direct pumping operations.

4.12.1 Transmission system

The transmission system’s function is to transport water from source to the reservoir, for this project, pressured pipelines are used. The transmission of water will be under pumping where water will be pumped from the storage water tank to the reservoir at an elevation of 25m using HDPE pipes.

4.12.2 Distribution system

The distribution system pipe work is designed as a mix of UPVC and HDPE of different sizes, ranging from OD 40mm to OD 160mm with the minimum size of the distribution mains set at 100mm. All pipes are to maximum flow pressure class PN 10

4.13 Pipe Fittings and Control Boxes

The system has been designed to include all appropriate pipe fittings to ensure proper functioning of the system. All vital fittings including valves and meters will be housed in lockable inspection chambers/manholes constructed in masonry brickwork. The water supply system will consist of the following components: - Air Release Valves, Washouts, Gate Valves, and Water Meters.

4.14 Service Pipes

4.14.1 Private Connections

These include house connections and yard taps. The private connection pipe will be not less than OD 40mm in diameter and 50-100m in length, with the most preferred length being 50m. The desired discharge will be 15litres/minute.

4.14.2 Public Water Points

Public water points refer to stand pipes (Water Kiosks). These are used to serve a maximum of 250 people and the maximum walking distance to these points is kept within 250m. These stand pipes will be equipped with a stopcock and a meter and may have one or more taps. Typically, taps of 25mm size and 25litres/minute discharge are proposed for this type of service points.

4.15 Design of a reservoir The storage capacity has been taken as 30% of the maximum day demand to ensure at least 12 hours of supply and continuous supply during routine servicing of the scheme such as general cleaning.

The storage reservoirs will be made of brick and reinforced concrete wall and the elevated reservoir will be made of cold pressed sectional steel plates. The reservoir pipe fittings will include an inlet pipe made of galvanized iron pipe DN 75mm fitted with a ball float valve and the outlet pipe shall be made of galvanized iron of OD 160mm and shall have a gate valve of OD 160mm and a strainer. The washout pipe made of galvanized iron with a gate valve, all of OD 150mm, and an overflow shall be installed to drain into an appropriate outfall.

4.16 Power Options There are a number of power options that can be used for KADAMA RURAL GROWTH CENTRE water supply system. Before any analysis of energy options is done, the energy requirement should be determined. The energy package should power the pump according to the water source yield so as to meet the ultimate maximum daily demand. For a given head, discharge and system efficiency Energy requirements, E are calculated as follows. Q    h  g  k E  3 ------(ii) 1  2 10

In equation (ii), k = Energy Correction Factor for system losses approximated to 1.1

ρ = Density of water (~ 1,000kg/m3) g = Acceleration due to gravity constant (~ 9.81 m/s2),

Q = water flow or pump discharge (m3/s) h = total head (m) inclusive friction losses

η1 = efficiency of the pump

η2 = efficiency of the electric motor

Power(kW) PowerFactor  ------(iii) Power(kVA)

A power factor of 0.8 and equation (iii) has been applied to get the energy requirement in kVA. The startup power for the pump has been taken as 2.5 times the power requirement.

4.17 Solar Design A factor of 1.25 times the pump wattage requirements is used as a general estimation for sizing of the required array (Pelt 2007).

4.17.1 Solar Array Tilting The PV array needs to be mounted securely to a tilted rack that is fixed to the ground. The selection of the mount should include all factors of maintenance, latitude of region, wind, and the project budget. If the modules are fixed, the orientation of the tilt is to the south and should be equal to the site latitude. If they are on an adjustable mount, the tilt should be the latitude minus 10 to 15 degrees in the summer and the latitude plus 10 to 15 degrees in the winter.

4.18 Environmental Impact Assessment The main environmental issues relating to water supply and sanitation activities will arise during construction phase, the operational phase and the maintenance of the facilities. Water supply and sanitation projects consider such potential environmental impacts such as; depletion of fresh water sources, bacteriological or chemical contamination of aquifers and surface water, creation of standing and stagnant water, soil erosion and siltation of water sources, degradation of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and associated wildlife, displacement of communities through land uptake, waste material

49 generation, spoil material generation, social disturbance, food insecurity, as well as construction material shortage.

4.18.1 Anticipated Project Benefits It is anticipated that the implementation of the different components of the project will have the following positive impacts and benefits for the end users:

 Increasing the level of service concerning water supply and sanitation in addition to providing adequate provisions for storm water drainage and solid waste management

 Achieving appropriate water treatment measures to produce water complying with governing standards, thus preventing disease related to contaminated water consumption;

 Increasing the rate of per capita water supply, thus increasing the level of service for the served population;

 Achieving an overall protection and enhancement of public health within the project area through controlled supply of better quality water;

 Providing additional measures of sanitation facilities through the construction of composting toilets (Ecosan) to be located at adequate walking distances in central areas and within residential community as to encourage easy access and use of such facilities;

 Preventing disease propagation through encouraging the use of public and household toilets;

 An overall enhancement in environmental conditions will ensure fewer incidences due to disease transmission, enhanced public health of the served communities, and higher productivity of the working force within the served towns. This will indirectly affect incomes and standards of living within these communities.

4.18.2 Direct Environmental Impacts i. Impacts Due to Construction Activities

 Land Take

It is anticipated that the water source for KADAMA will be ground water. This will necessitate the sinking of production wells from where the water will be pumped to reservoirs before it can be distributed.

 Spoil Material Generation

Construction projects such as the establishment of water supply systems involve preparation of construction sites and rehabilitation of existing structures. In the process of construction activities, spoil materials resulting from clearing of vegetation and digging trenches will occur. Spoil material has the potential of leading to blockage of drainage and silting of valleys and the seasonal springs found within KADAMA if not mitigated against. It is anticipated however that for the proposed water supply system project in KADAMA, limited spoil materials will be generated. There is need to mitigate regardless of the problems that might occur.

 Slopes, Erosion and Drainage

 KADAMA is on a relatively flat ground with restricted drainage in places. Erosion is expected to be minimal during construction. On the other hand, impeded drainage can be another problem, especially at times of construction during the rainy season. At standpipes (especially public ones), impeded drainage can lead to stagnant water - a breeding ground for various water-borne infections.

 Destruction of Road Surfaces

The roads in KADAMA are made of murram and asphalt road. Nevertheless, there is potential for road damage as the pipe lines are likely to cross from one side of the roads to the other. This will destroy the fabric of the roads.

 Depletion of Fresh Water Source

The proposed source for the water works in KADAMA is ground water. So far, there was no evidence that the KADAMA ground water aquifer tends to dry out during the drought/dry seasons. Nevertheless, there is always a potential for the depletion of the water resources when there is excessive abstraction of underground water through boreholes.

ii. Potential Impacts due to System Operations

 Land Degradation at Public and Stand Pipes

If care is not taken, areas around public or communal stand pipes and boreholes may be degraded leading to increased tendency to soil erosion and blockage of drainage. Besides, at boreholes and public stand pipes, the unused water tends to collect in pools at the end of the drainage channel. Unless care is taken, the pools will turn out to be mud holes of stagnant water - a breeding ground for water-borne vectors.

 Water Source Sustainability

In the longer term, with increasing population, there is some possibility that during the drought years whose frequency is 3-5 years, water from both the small diameter boreholes and the production wells can be unsustainable. Considering that the present margin between the expected abstraction and recharge rate is high, this impact can be realized only in the long term. It is worth noting that General Circulation Climate Models indicate that the North Eastern region is among those where the precipitation is likely to decrease due to the phenomena of climate change.

 Sanitation

It is likely that a number of households are likely to adapt water-borne sanitation with the construction of in situ septic tanks after water has been introduced in the region. Septic tanks fill frequently and will need to be emptied from time to time. Unless this is done, there is likelihood that they can pollute the environment. There is need therefore to provide a cesspool emptier to evacuate sewage from the septic tanks and take it to the designated dumping sites.

It is likely that increased water use will lead to an increase in wastewater. Wastewater may lead to stagnant pools which are a breeding ground for water-borne pathogens.

 Environmental / Water Related Diseases

In the project area, malaria is endemic. There is a high potential that increased wastewater and poor drainage will increase the incidences of malaria causing mosquitoes.

iii. Social Impacts

 Escalation of Slum Areas

There is a high potential that piped water will attract an additional number of people to move in to the Township. As a result, accommodation needs will increase leading to expansion of the slum area. Already most of the residences throughout the project area are mostly unplanned.

 Urban Agriculture

As a consequence of urban migration, unplanned urban agriculture may increase contrary to both the Public Health Act and the country and Urban Planning Act.

 Increased Presence of Underage Children at Water Sources

Small children will increasingly visit the water source either to collect water or as observers. Infants will be a source of pollution at the sources.

 Lack of Male Participation in Water Related Decisions

Men have, for the most part, relegated water responsibilities to women. This will/may overburden the women more.

 Social Disturbance

Developing new water schemes as proposed in KADAMA may be associated with some social disturbances. These can sometimes affect individuals or whole community settlements. For the moment, KADAMA has so far not indicated with certainty any proposed sites for sewage works (lagoon). When such a site is eventually proposed and sited, there is likelihood for creating social disturbance.

 Risk of Sewage Spills/Leakage

Since the project also aims at evacuating sewage from the communities, there is a high potential risk of accidental sewage spillages/leakages either from septic tanks or from the septic emptier along the road or at the dumping lagoon. Since it is an operational phase problem, extra care will have to be taken during the operational phase to avoid sewage leakages/accidents as they may lead to extensive social discomfort and community health risks.

 Impact on Water User Rights:

Modern water development schemes have often become areas of multiple conflicts. For example, conflicts amongst water users worth noting include; water allocation, water charges, and management and maintenance issues. It is necessary to regulate water use rights as a means of assisting the communities in managing their proposed water schemes affectively. iv. Other Indirect Impacts

Most of the indirect impacts are beneficial to the community. There may be a few negative ones which will require attention. It was indicated in the survey that the availability of water will generate additional businesses, some of which may be unplanned. These include:

 Increased small scale industries;  Bars/drinking places without adequate sanitation; and  Lodges and hotel accommodations.

4.18.3 Mitigation Measures for the Identified Impacts

Table 4.6 Showing Summary of Key Mitigation Actions for the Project

Causative Direct Mitigation measures/ Comments/analysis factor Impacts

Impacts due Land Take Compensation equivalent to the market value of the land, any to standing crops and trees will be paid; KADAMA RURAL Construction GROWTH CENTRE will require land titles for the project sites Activities Spoil Materials It is proposed that generated spoil such as the vegetation materials be utilized as mulch materials while the earth

Causative Direct Mitigation measures/ Comments/analysis factor Impacts

materials may be used to fill any existing pits within the township. Fortunately spoil materials originating from construction materials are anticipated to be insignificant since only the required hardcore, sand and aggregate will be brought on sites and compacted or stabilized in preparation for structural laying. Slopes, erosion At the communal boreholes and standpipes, vegetation and drainage growth should be encouraged within an enclosure around a borehole or stand pipe. With respect to drainage, the drainage channel at boreholes and standpipes should be high enough (on the outside >> 8 cm) and lead into a soak-pit. A drainage system for KADAMA should be put in place; so that wastewater can be channeled off the site. Depletion of Control of water losses or wastes during conveyance and Fresh Water utilization; and Sources Sustainable water yields shall be determined and observed during the operation phase of the project to ensure sustainability of the water source.

Destruction of Only a few points should be chosen where the water pipes Road Surfaces may cross.

Water Quality The water quality will be regularly tested for contaminant levels. Water treatment chemicals will be stored in accordance with the manufactures instructions. They will always be used only within the limits of their expiry period. Impacts due Land Shade trees of the quick maturing type should be planted in System Degradation at the neighborhood of public and standpipes. Tree species, Operation Public and which have a tap root system, should be selected. Stand Pipes Strong live fence should be planted to discourage livestock from invading the source;

Number of households per water source should be a minimum.

Subsidence of Production bore-holes be put outside of the core zone of

Causative Direct Mitigation measures/ Comments/analysis factor Impacts

Land Surface KADAMA where there is limited infrastructure (heavy and buildings,…etc.) which can trigger subsidence; Contamination Extraction should be limited to not more than 50% of the of Ground recharge rate. Pit latrines should conform to the health guidelines as opposed to the current practice where many of them are as deep as the water table. Sanitation and The district should consider providing for a dumping site to Water Pollution cater for solid wastes generated in the town. Boreholes should not be sunk in the core region. Sustainability Water Supply and Sanitation Board should be put in place and of the Water a PWO procured to operate the system as a business entity. Source

Social Social Recruit local workforce, as a means of countering any social Impacts Disturbance conflicts between existing communities and immigrants in search of employment; Ensure local participation of both government agencies and communities; if they became part of the project in its early stages and they will be aware of potential problems, and will be better prepared to assist in mitigation and monitoring. Public Utilities Utility providers to alert the concerned public of any disconnection as their duration and timing may sufficiently inconvenience the consumers/users; and Provide a traffic management plans detailing how the traffic will be handled during project activities, especially when digging trenches across and along the roads.

Water use Provision of water use monitoring and metering systems, rights ration pumped water use and train communities on the sustainable use of water and; Provide waste water collection systems. Loss of Give priority to pre-existing water vendors when recruiting Employment caretakers. for Water

Causative Direct Mitigation measures/ Comments/analysis factor Impacts

Vendors

Increased Sensitize parents regarding the need to keep water sources Presence of clean. Underage Children at Water Sources

CHAPTER FIVE

CHALLENGES FACED, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Challenges Faced  Time was a limiting factor to this project, otherwise if given enough ample time, this project would be an example for the future designers on the same project.  Language barrier during oral interviews with the local in the project area thus causing delays.

5.2 Conclusion If this project is implemented, it will reduce on the time and energy spent by community in collecting water from very long distances and the usage of few borehole which are unreliable. This will also allow time for doing other developmental activities.

The project will also have a profound reduction in water borne diseases that result from contaminated surface/subsurface water thus improving on community health and sanitation.

The yield of the water available is 6.0m3/hr(0.00167m3/s) and this shows that ground water is not sufficient enough to satisfy the demand of the population, therefore a recommendation of surface water with a discharge of 68m3/s can be used to supplement the existing source and so it will be sufficient but delete.

5.3 Recommendation It is recommended that further information be obtained before the project moves forward.

Since the water available in the aquifer is not sufficient enough to satisfy the water demand, hence other sources of water should be supplemented such as surface water

REFERENCES 1. Ministry of Water and Environment, “January 2013- Second Edition”, Water Supply Design Manual. 2. Ministry of Water and Environment, Directorate of Water Development, “June 2013,” Water Supply Design Guidelines. 3. Ministry of Water and Environment, “April 2014”, Operations Manual for Water and Sanitation Development Facility. 4. Water Transmission and Distribution (Water Supply Operations Training) by Awwa (Hardcover – Dec 2003) 5. Water Transmission & Distribution (Student Workbook) by Awwa (Paperback - Mar 1996) 6. Water Transmission & Distribution, Student Workbook (Water Supply Operations Training Series) by AWWA Staff (Paperback - Nov 10, 2006) 7. Losses in Water Distribution Networks by Malcolm Farley and S. Trow (Print on Demand - April 25, 2007) – Import

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: A map of Kibuku District showing areas without safe water supply

Sub-counties in Kibuku District