Troff User’s Manual

Joseph F. Ossanna Brian W. Kernighan

[email protected]−labs.com

Introduction Troff =n@ nroff =HA JANJ FHo?AIIoHI JD=J BoHm=J JANJ BoH JOFAIAJJAH- =n@ JOFAMHEJAH-lEkA JAHmEn=lI, HAIFA?JELAlO. 6DAO =??AFJ lEnAI oB JANJ EnJAHIFAHIA@ MEJD lEnAI oB BoHm=J ?onJHol EnBoHm=JEon =n@ BoHm=J JDA JANJ EnJo = FHEnJ=>lA, F=CEn=JA@ @o?KmAnJ D=LEnC = KIAH-@AIECnA@ IJOlA. Troff =n@ nroff oBBAH KnKIK=l BHAA@om En @o?KmAnJ IJOl­ EnC: =H>EJH=HO IJOlA DA=@AHI =n@ BooJAHI; =H>EJH=HO IJOlA BooJnoJAI; mKlJEFlA =KJom=JE? IAGKAn?A nKm>AHEnC BoH F=H=CH=FDI, IA?JEonI, AJ?; mKlJEFlA ?olKmn oKJFKJ; @On=mE? BonJ =n@ FoEnJ-IEzA ?onJHol; =H>EJH=HO DoHEzonJ=l =n@ LAHJE?=l lo?=l moJEonI =J =nO FoEnJ; =n@ = B=mElO oB =KJom=JE? oLAHIJHEkEnC, >H=?kAJ ?onIJHK?JEon, =n@ lEnA-@H=MEnC BKn?­ JEonI. Troff FHo@K?AI EJI oKJFKJ En = @ALE?A-En@AFAn@AnJ BoHm, =lJDoKCD F=H=mAJAHEzA@ BoH = IFA?EBE? @ALE?A; troff oKJFKJ mKIJ >A FHo?AIIA@ >O = @HELAH BoH JD=J @ALE?A Jo FHo­ @K?AFHEnJA@oKJFKJ. Troff =n@ nroff =HADECDlO ?omF=JE>lA MEJD A=?D oJDAH =n@ EJ EI =lmoIJ =lM=OI FoIIE­ >lA Jo FHAF=HA EnFKJ =??AFJ=>lA Jo >oJD. +on@EJEon=l EnFKJ EI FHoLE@A@ Jo An=>lA JDA KIAH Jo Am>A@ EnFKJ ANFHAIIlO @AIJEnA@ BoH AEJDAH FHoCH=m. Nroff ?=n FHAF=HA oKJFKJ @EHA?JlO BoH = L=HEAJO oB JAHmEn=l JOFAI =n@ EI ?=F=>lA oB KJElEzEnC JDA BKll HAIolKJEon oB A=?D JAHmEn=l. Nroff EI JDA I=mA FHoCH=m =I troff ; En B=?J, on 2l=n ' nroff EI = IDAll I?HEFJJD=J?=llI troff MEJDJDA −N =HCKmAnJ.

Background to the Plan 9 Edition 6DA FHEm=HO ?D=nCA Jo troff =n@ nroff BoH 2l=n ' EI IKFFoHJ oB JDA 7nE?o@A 5J=n­ @=H@, MDE?D M=I =@@A@ @KHEnC '' =n@ ''!. 6DAHA =HA JMo HAIKlJI. .EHIJ, JDAHA EI mK?D lAII nAA@ BoH JDA mOHE=@ oB JMo-?D=H=?JAH n=mAI JD=J =HA Io mK?D = F=HJ oB troff loHA; En 2l=n ', BoH AN=mFlA, onA n=JKH=llO KIAI JDA 7nE?o@A ?D=H=?JAH ½ EnIJA=@ oB troff ߣI \(12. 5A?on@,JDAoKJFKJ@ALE?A,JDoKCD?=llA@ utf,EI=lmoIJ =lM=OI = BoHm oB 2oIJ5?HEFJ FHEnJAH; JDA F=noFlO oB IFA?E=l @HELAHI BoH @EBBAHAnJ JOFAIAJJAHI D=I l=HCAlO @EI­ =FFA=HA@. 7nBoHJKn=JAlO, noJ =ll 2oIJ5?HEFJ FHEnJAHI ?=n ?oFA MEJD 7nE?o@A ?D=H=?JAHI, Io JDAHA HAm=EnI = nAA@ BoH FHoCH=mI JD=J IOnJDAIEzA 2oIJ5?HEFJ ?D=H=?JAHI BHom >EJ­ m=FI;JDEIEIAIFA?E=llOJHKABoH)IE=nl=nCK=CAI.

Background to the Second Edition Troff M=IoHECEn=llOMHEJJAn>O JDA l=JA JoA OII=nn= En =>oKJ '%!, En =IIAm>lO l=n­ CK=CA BoH JDA 2,2- , Jo @HELA JDA /H=FDE? 5OIJAmI +)6 JOFAIAJJAH. 1J M=I HAMHEJJAn En + =HoKn@ '%#, =n@ Kn@AHMAnJ IloM >KJ IJA=@O ALolKJEon KnJEl OII=nn=ߣI @A=JD l=JA En '%%. 1n '%', *HE=n KAHnECD=n mo@EBEA@ troff Io JD=J EJ MoKl@ FHo@K?A oKJFKJ BoH = L=HE­ AJO oB JOFAIAJJAHI,MDElAHAJ=EnEnCEJIEnFKJIFA?EBE?=JEonI. OLAHJDA@A?=@ABHom '%'Jo ­ ­

'&', JDA EnJAHn=lI D=LA >AAn mo@AIJlO HALEIA@, JDoKCD mK?D oB JDA ?o@A HAm=EnI =I EJ M=IMDAnOII=nn=MHoJAEJ. Troff HA=@I F=H=mAJAH BElAI A=?D JEmA EJ EI EnLokA@, Jo IAJ L=lKAI BoH m=?DEnA HAIo­ lKJEon, lAC=l JOFA IEzAI =n@ BonJI, =n@ ?D=H=?JAH n=mAI, ?D=H=?JAH ME@JDI =n@ JDA lEkA. Troff oKJFKJ EI )5+11 ?D=H=?JAHI En = IEmFlA l=nCK=CA JD=J @AI?HE>AI MDAHA A=?D ?D=H=?JAH EI Jo >A Fl=?A@ =n@ En MD=J IEzA =n@ BonJ. ) FoIJ-FHo?AIIoH mKIJ >A MHEJJAn BoH A=?D @ALE?AJo?onLAHJJDEIJOFAIAJJAH-En@AFAn@AnJl=nCK=CAEnJoIFA?EBE?EnIJHK?JEonIBoH JD=J @ALE?A. 6DA oKJFKJ l=nCK=CA ?onJ=EnI EnBoHm=JEon JD=J M=I noJ HA=@ElO E@AnJEBE=>lA En JDA ol@AH oKJFKJ. 1n JDA nAMAH l=nCK=CA, JDA >ACEnnEnC oB A=?D F=CA, lEnA, =n@ MoH@ EI m=HkA@, Io FoIJ-FHo?AIIoHI ?=n @o @ALE?A-IFA?EBE? oFJEmEz=JEonI IK?D =I IoHJEnC JDA @=J=LAHJE?=llOoHFHEnJEnCEJ>oKIJHoFDA@onE?=llO,En@AFAn@AnJoB troff . +=F=>ElEJEAI BoH CH=FDE?I D=LA >AAn =@@A@: troff HA?oCnEzAI ?omm=n@I BoH @H=MEnC @E=Con=l lEnAI, ?EH?lAI, AllEFIAI, ?EH?Kl=H =H?I, =n@ GK=@H=JE? *-IFlEnAI. 6DAHA =HA =lIo M=OIJoF=II=H>EJH=HOEnBoHm=JEonJoJDAoKJFKJ,KnFHo?AIIA@>O troff . ) nKm>AH oB lEmEJ=JEonI D=LA >AAn A=IA@ oH AlEmEn=JA@. ) @o?KmAnJ m=O D=LA =n =H>EJH=HO nKm>AH oB BonJI on =nO F=CA EB JDA oKJFKJ @ALE?A FAHmEJI EJ, oB ?oKHIA. .onJI m=O >A =??AIIA@ mAHAlO >O n=mEnC JDAm; ߢߢmoKnJEnCߣߣ EI no lonCAH nA?AII=HO. 6DAHA =HA no lEmEJI on JDA nKm>AH oB ?D=H=?JAHI. +D=H=?JAH DAECDJ =n@ Il=nJ m=O >A IAJ En@A­ FAn@AnJlOoBME@JD. 6DA HAm=En@AH oB JDEI @o?KmAnJ ?onJ=EnI = @AI?HEFJEon oB KI=CA =n@ ?omm=n@- lEnA oFJEonI; = IKmm=HO oB HAGKAIJI, AI?=FA IAGKAn?AI, =n@ FHA-@ABEnA@ nKm>AH HACEI­ JAHI;=HABAHAn?Am=nK=l;JKJoHE=lAN=mFlAI;=n@=lEIJoB?ommonlO-=L=El=>lA?D=H=?JAHI.

Acknowledgements JoA OII=nn=ߣI troff HAm=EnI = HAm=Hk=>lA =??omFlEIDmAnJ. .oH moHA JD=n JMAnJO OA=HI, EJD=IFHoLAn=Ho>KIJJool,J=kEnCKn>AlEAL=>lA=>KIABHom=L=HEAJOoBFHAFHo?AI­ IoHI =n@ >AEnC BoH?A@ EnJo KIAI JD=J MAHA nALAH ?on?AELA@ oB En JDA oHECEn=l @AIECn, =ll MEJD?onIE@AH=>lACH=?AKn@AHBEHA. 4A?AnJ LAHIEonI oB troff D=LA FHoBEJA@ BHom IECnEBE?=nJ ?o@A EmFHoLAmAnJI >O J==F )kkAHDKEI, ,AnnEI 4EJ?DEA, KAn 6DomFIon, =n@ MollO 9=CnAH. 76. B=?ElEJEAI oMA mK?D Jo J==F )kkAHDKEI. )n@HAM 0KmA, ,oKC M?1lHoO, 2AJAH NAlIon =n@ 4=LE 5AJDE m=@A L=lK­ =>lAIKCCAIJEonIonJDAm=nK=l. 1BA=HJD=JJDAHAm=EnEnC>KCI=HAmOB=KlJ. ­!­

Usage Troff oH nroff EIEnLokA@=I troff options files nroff options files MDAHA options HAFHAIAnJI =nO oB = nKm>AH oB oFJEon =HCKmAnJI =n@ files HAFHAIAnJI JDA lEIJ oB BElAI ?onJ=EnEnC JDA @o?KmAnJ Jo >A BoHm=JJA@. )n =HCKmAnJ ?onIEIJEnC oB = IEn­ ClA mEnKI ߢ−ߣ HAFHAIAnJI IJ=n@=H@ EnFKJ. 1B no BElAn=mAI =HA CELAn EnFKJ EI J=kAn BHom JDA IJ=n@=H@ EnFKJ. 6DA oFJEonI, MDE?D m=O =FFA=H En =nO oH@AH Io lonC =I JDAO =FFA=H >ABoHAJDABElAI,=HA:

−mname 4A=@ JDA m=?Ho BElA /sys/lib/tmac.name >ABoHA JDA EnFKJ files. −Tname 5FA?EBEAI JDA JOFA oB JDA oKJFKJ @ALE?A. 5FA?EBE? @ALE?AI =HA IEJA- @AFAn@AnJ. .oH troff , JDA moIJ KIABKl n=mA EI utf. .oH nroff, KIABKl n=mAI En?lK@A 37 BoH JDA @AB=KlJ Mo@Al !% 6AlAJOFA, lp BoH ߢߢ@Km>ߣߣ lEnA FHEnJAH JAHmEn=lI no D=lB-lEnA moJEonI, no HALAHIAmoJEonI,=n@ think BoHJDA026DEnkJAJFHEnJAH. −i 4A=@IJ=n@=H@EnFKJ=BJAHJDAEnFKJBElAI=HAAND=KIJA@. −olist 2HEnJ onlO F=CAI MDoIA F=CA nKm>AHI =FFA=H En list, MDE?D ?on­ IEIJI oB ?omm=-IAF=H=JA@ nKm>AHI =n@ nKm>AH H=nCAI. ) nKm­ >AH H=nCA D=I JDA BoHm N − M =n@ mA=nI F=CAI N JDHoKCD M; = EnE­ JE=l − N mA=nI BHom JDA >ACEnnEnC Jo F=CA N; =n@ = BEn=l N − mA=nIBHom N JoJDAAn@. −nN NKm>AHBEHIJCAnAH=JA@F=CA N. −raN 5AJnKm>AHHACEIJAH a onA-?D=H=?JAHJo N. −sN 5JoF ALAHO N F=CAI. Nroff MEll D=lJ FHEoH Jo ALAHO N F=CAI @AB=KlJ N =  Jo =lloM F=FAH lo=@EnC oH ?D=nCEnC, =n@ MEll HAIKmA KFon HA?AEFJ oB = nAMlEnA. Troff MEll En?lK@A = ߢߢF=KIAߣߣ ?o@A ALAHO N F=CAI;EJImA=nEnC,EB=nO,@AFAn@IonJDAoKJFKJ@ALE?A. −uN 5AJ=moKnJoBAm>ol@AnEnCBoHJDA bd HAGKAIJJo N. −Fpath Look En @EHA?JoHO path BoH BonJ EnBoHm=JEon; JDA @AB=KlJI =HA /sys/lib/troff/font =n@ /sys/lib/troff/term BoH troff =n@ nroff HAIFA?JELAlO. troff OnlO −a 5An@ = FHEnJ=>lA =FFHoNEm=JEon oB JDA HAIKlJI Jo JDA IJ=n@=H@ oKJ­ FKJ. nroff OnlO −e 2Ho@K?A AGK=llO-IF=?A@ MoH@I En =@jKIJA@ lEnAI, KIEnC BKll JAHmE­ n=lHAIolKJEon. −h 7IAJ=>IEnIJA=@oBIF=?AIJoIFAA@KFFHEnJEnC. −q 1nLokAJDAIEmKlJ=nAoKIEnFKJ-oKJFKJmo@AoBJDA rd HAGKAIJ. -=?DoFJEonEI=IAF=H=JA=HCKmAnJ;BoHAN=mFlA,

troff −Tutf −ms −mpictures −o4,6,8−10 file1 file2 HAGKAIJI BoHm=JJEnC oB F=CAI ", $, =n@ & JDHoKCD  oB = @o?KmAnJ ?onJ=EnA@ En JDA BElAI n=mA@ file1 =n@ file2, IFA?EBEAI JDA oKJFKJ En 76., =n@ EnLokAI JDA m=?Ho F=?k=CAI −ms =n@ −mpictures. 8=HEoKI FHA- =n@ FoIJ-FHo?AIIoHI =HA =L=El=>lA BoH KIA MEJD nroff =n@ troff . 6DAIA En?lK@A JDA AGK=JEon FHAFHo?AIIoH eqn BoH troff onlO,JDAJ=>lA-?onIJHK?JEonFHAFHo?AI­ IoH tbl,=n@ pic =n@ grap BoHL=HEoKIBoHmIoBCH=FDE?I. ­"­

Request Summary 1n JDA BolloMEnC J=>lA, JDA noJ=JEon ±N En JDA Request Form ?olKmn mA=nI JD=J JDA BoHmI N, + N,oH− N =HA FAHmEJJA@, Jo IAJ JDA F=H=mAJAH Jo N, En?HAmAnJ EJ >O N,oH @A?HAmAnJ EJ >O N, HAIFA?JELAlO. 2l=En N mA=nI JD=J JDA L=lKA EI KIA@ Jo IAJ JDA F=H=mA­ JAH. Initial Values IAF=H=JA@ >O ; =HA BoH troff =n@ nroff HAIFA?JELAlO. 1n JDA Notes ?ol­ Kmn,

* 4AGKAIJ noHm=llO ?=KIAI = >HA=k. 6DA KIA oB ’ =I ?onJHol ?D=H=?­ JAHEnIJA=@oB .IKFFHAIIAIJDA>HA=kBKn?JEon. , Mo@A oH HAlAL=nJ F=H=mAJAHI =IIo?E=JA@ MEJD ?KHHAnJ @ELAHIEon lALAl. - 4AlAL=nJF=H=mAJAHI=HA=F=HJoBJDA?KHHAnJAnLEHonmAnJ. O MKIJIJ=OEnABBA?JKnJElloCE?=loKJFKJ. 2 Mo@A mKIJ >A IJEll oH =C=En En ABBA?J =J JDA JEmA oB FDOIE?=l oKJ­ FKJ. 6 troff onlO;noABBA?JEn nroff. v, p, m, u ,AB=KlJ I?=lA En@E?=JoH; EB noJ IFA?EBEA@, I?=lA En@E?=JoHI =HA ECnoHA@.

Request Initial If No Form Value Argument Notes Explanation . General Information . Font and Character Size Control .ps ±N  FoEnJ FHALEoKI -,6 2oEnJ IEzA; =lIo \s±N. .ss N /!$m ECnoHA@ -,6 5F=?A-?D=H=?JAH IEzA IAJ Jo N/!$ Am. .cs FNM oBB - 2,6 +onIJ=nJ ?D=H=?JAH IF=?A ME@JD mo@A BonJ F. .bd FN oBB - 2,6 -m>ol@An BonJ F >O N − KnEJI. .bd S FN oBB - 2,6 -m>ol@An 5FA?E=l .onJ MDAn ?KHHAnJ BonJ EI F. .ft F 4om=n FHALEoKI - +D=nCA Jo BonJ F; =lIo \fx, \f(xx, \fN. .fp NFL 4,1,*,...,5 ECnoHA@ - MoKnJ BonJ n=mA@ F on FDOIE?=l FoIEJEon Nࣚ ; lonC n=mA EI L EB CELAn. !. Page Control .pl ±N E E v 2=CA lAnCJD. .bp ±NN= - *,v -jA?J ?KHHAnJ F=CA; nANJ F=CA nKm>AH N. .pn ±NN= ECnoHA@ - NANJ F=CA nKm>AH N. .po ±N E;  FHALEoKI v 2=CA oBBIAJ. .ne N - N = L ,,v NAA@ N LAHJE?=l IF=?A. .mk R nonA EnJAHn=l , M=Hk ?KHHAnJ LAHJE?=l Fl=?A En HACEIJAH R. .rt ±N nonA EnJAHn=l ,,v 4AJKHn KFM=H@ onlO Jo m=HkA@ LAHJE?=l Fl=?A. ". Text Filling, Adjusting, and Centering .br - - * *HA=k. .fi BEll - *,- .Ell oKJFKJ lEnAI. .nf BEll - *,- No BEllEnC oH =@jKIJEnC oB oKJFKJ lEnAI. .ad c =@j, >oJD =@jKIJ - )@jKIJ oKJFKJ lEnAI MEJD mo@A c; c = l, r, c, b,none .na =@jKIJ - - No oKJFKJ lEnA =@jKIJEnC. .ce N oBB N = *,- +AnJAH nANJ N EnFKJ JANJ lEnAI. #. Vertical Spacing .vs N F; /$E FHALEoKI -,p 8AHJE?=l >=IAlEnA IF=?EnC V. .ls NN= FHALEoKI - OKJFKJ N − vߣI =BJAH A=?D JANJ oKJFKJ lEnA. .sp N - N = L *,v 5F=?A LAHJE?=l @EIJ=n?A N En AEJDAH @EHA?JEon. .sv N - N = L v 5=LA LAHJE?=l @EIJ=n?A N. .os - - - OKJFKJ I=LA@ LAHJE?=l @EIJ=n?A. .ns IF=?A - , 6KHn no-IF=?A mo@A on. .rs - - , 4AIJoHA IF=?EnC; JKHn no-IF=?A mo@A oBB. ­#­

$. Line Length and Indenting .ll ±N $.#E FHALEoKI -,m LEnA lAnCJD. .in ±NN=  FHALEoKI *,-,m 1n@AnJ. .ti ±N - ECnoHA@ *,-,m 6AmFoH=HO En@AnJ. %. Macros, Strings, Diversion, and Position Traps .de xx yy - .yy = .. - ,ABEnA oH HA@ABEnA m=?Ho xx; An@ =J ?=ll oB yy. .am xx yy - .yy = .. - )FFAn@ Jo = m=?Ho. .ds xx string - ECnoHA@ - ,ABEnA = IJHEnC xx ?onJ=EnEnC string. .as xx string - ECnoHA@ - )FFAn@ string Jo IJHEnC xx. .rm xx - ECnoHA@ - 4AmoLA HAGKAIJ, m=?Ho, oH IJHEnC. .rn xx yy - ECnoHA@ - 4An=mA HAGKAIJ, m=?Ho, oH IJHEnC xx Jo yy. .di xx - An@ , ,ELAHJ oKJFKJ Jo m=?Ho xx. .da xx - An@ , ,ELAHJ =n@ =FFAn@ Jo xx. .wh Nxx -- v 5AJ lo?=JEon JH=F; nAC=JELA EI M.H.J. F=CA >oJJom. .ch xx N -- v +D=nCA JH=F lo?=JEon. .dt Nxx - oBB ,,v 5AJ = @ELAHIEon JH=F. .it Nxx - oBB - 5AJ =n EnFKJ-lEnA ?oKnJ JH=F. .em xx nonA nonA - -n@ m=?Ho EI xx. &. Number Registers .nr R ±NM - u ,ABEnA =n@ IAJ nKm>AH HACEIJAH R; =KJo-En?HAmAnJ >O M. .af Rc =H=>E? - - )IIECn BoHm=J Jo HACEIJAH R c = 1, i, I, a, A. .rr R - - - 4AmoLA HACEIJAH R. '. Tabs, Leaders, and Fields .ta Nt ... .#E; .&n nonA -,m 6=> IAJJEnCI; lABJ-=@jKIJEnC, KnlAII t = R HECDJ, C ?AnJAHA@. .tc c nonA nonA - 6=> HAFAJEJEon ?D=H=?JAH. .lc c . nonA - LA=@AH HAFAJEJEon ?D=H=?JAH. .fc ab oBB oBB - 5AJ BEAl@ @AlEmEJAH a =n@ F=@ ?D=H=?JAH b. . Input and Output Conventions and Character Translations .ec c \ \ - 5AJ AI?=FA ?D=H=?JAH. .eo on - - 6KHn oBB AI?=FA ?D=H=?JAH mA?D=nEIm. .lg N on; - on 6 LEC=JKHA mo@A on EB N>. .ul N oBB N = - 7n@AHlEnA EJ=lE?EzA En troff  N EnFKJ lEnAI. .cu N oBB N = - +onJEnKoKI Kn@AHlEnA En nroff;Entroff , lEkA ul. .uf F 1J=lE? 1J=lE? - 7n@AHlEnA BonJ IAJ Jo F Jo >A IMEJ?DA@ Jo >O ul. .cc c .. - 5AJ ?onJHol ?D=H=?JAH Jo c. .c2 c ’’ - 5AJ no->HA=k ?onJHol ?D=H=?JAH Jo c. .tr abcd.... nonA - O 6H=nIl=JA a Jo b, AJ?., on oKJFKJ. . Local Horizontal and Vertical Motions, and the Width Function . Overstrike, Bracket, Line−drawing, Graphics, and Zero−width Functions !. Hyphenation. .nh DOFDAn=JA - - No DOFDAn=JEon. .hy N DOFDAn=JA DOFDAn=JA - 0OFDAn=JA; N = mo@A. .hc c \% \% - 0OFDAn=JEon En@E?=JoH ?D=H=?JAH c. .hw word ... ECnoHA@ - )@@ MoH@I Jo DOFDAn=JEon @E?JEon=HO. ". Three−Part Titles. .tl ′l′c′r′ - - 6DHAA-F=HJ JEJlA; @AlEmEJAH m=O >A =nO ?D=H=?JAH. .pc c % oBB - 2=CA nKm>AH ?D=H=?JAH. .lt ±N $.#E FHALEoKI -,m LAnCJD oB JEJlA. #. Output Line Numbering. .nm ±NMSI oBB - NKm>AH mo@A on oH oBB, IAJ F=H=mAJAHI. .nn N - N = - ,o noJ nKm>AH nANJ N lEnAI. ­$­

$. Conditional Acceptance of Input .if c any - - 1B ?on@EJEon c JHKA, =??AFJ any =I EnFKJ; BoH mKlJE-lEnA, KIA \{any \}. .if !c any - - 1B ?on@EJEon c B=lIA, =??AFJ any. .if N any - u 1B ANFHAIIEon N>, =??AFJ any. .if !N any - u 1B ANFHAIIEon Nࣚ [IE?], =??AFJ any. .if ′s ′s ′ any - - 1B IJHEnC s E@AnJE?=l Jo s , =??AFJ any. .if !′s ′s ′ any - - 1B IJHEnC s noJ E@AnJE?=l Jo s , =??AFJ any. .ie c any - u 1B FoHJEon oB EB-AlIA; =ll =>oLA BoHmI lEkA if. .el any - - -lIA FoHJEon oB EB-AlIA. %. Environment Switching .ev NN=  FHALEoKI - -nLEHonmAnJ IMEJ?D FKID @oMn. &. Insertions from the Standard Input .rd prompt - prompt=*-L - 4A=@ EnIAHJEon. .ex - - - -NEJ. '. Input/Output File Switching .so filename - - 5MEJ?D IoKH?A BElA FKID @oMn. .nx filename An@-oB-BElA - NANJ BElA. .sy string - - -NA?KJA FHoCH=m string. OKJFKJ noJ EnJAHFol=JA@. .pi string - - 2EFA oKJFKJ Jo FHoCH=m string. .cf filename - - +oFO BElA ?onJAnJI Jo troff oKJFKJ. . Miscellaneous .mc cN - oBB -,m 5AJ m=HCEn ?D=H=?JAH c =n@ IAF=H=JEon N. .tm string - nAMlEnA - 2HEnJ string on JAHmEn=l IJ=n@=H@ AHHoH. .ab string - nAMlEnA - 2HEnJ string on IJ=n@=H@ AHHoH, ANEJ FHoCH=m. .ig yy - .yy = .. - 1CnoHA EnFKJ KnJEl ?=ll oB yy. .lf Nf - - 5AJ EnFKJ lEnA nKm>AH Jo N =n@ BElAn=mA Jo f. .pm t - =ll - 2HEnJ m=?Ho n=mAI, IEzAI; EB t FHAIAnJ, FHEnJ JoJ=l. .fl - - * .lKID oKJFKJ >KBBAH. . Output and Error Messages . Output Language !. Device and Font Description Files

Alphabetical Request and Section Number Cross Reference ab  ce " ec  ft lg  nh ! pm  so ' tr  ad " cf ' el $ hc ! lf  nm # pn ! sp # uf  af & ch % em % hw ! ll $ nn # po ! ss ul  am % cs eo  hy ! ls # nr & ps sv # vs # as % cu  ev % ie $ lt " ns # rd & sy ' wh % bd da % ex & if $ mc  nx ' rm % ta ' bp ! de % fc ' ig  mk ! os # rn % tc ' br " di % fi " in $ na " pc " rr & ti $ c2  ds % fl  it % ne ! pi ' rs # tl " cc  dt % fp lc ' nf " pl ! rt ! tm  ­%­

Escape Sequences for Characters, Indicators, and Functions

SSeeccttiioonnEEssccaappee RReeffeerreenncceeSSeeqquueenncceeMMeeaanniinngg . \\ \ FHALAnJI oH @Al=OI JDA EnJAHFHAJ=JEon oB \ . \e 2HEnJ=>lA LAHIEon oB JDA ?KHHAnJ AI?=FA ?D=H=?JAH. . \’ ´ =?KJA =??AnJ; AGKEL=lAnJ Jo \(aa . \‘ < CH=LA =??AnJ; AGKEL=lAnJ Jo \(ga . \ߝߝMEnKI IECn En JDA ?KHHAnJ BonJ %. \. 2AHEo@ @oJ IAA de . \space 7nF=@@=>lA IF=?A-IEzA IF=?A ?D=H=?JAH . \0 ,ECEJ ME@JD IF=?A . \| /$ Am n=HHoM IF=?A ?D=H=?JAH zAHo ME@JD En nroff . \^ / Am D=lB-n=HHoM IF=?A ?D=H=?JAH zAHo ME@JD En nroff ". \& Non-FHEnJEnC, zAHo ME@JD ?D=H=?JAH .$ \! 6H=nIF=HAnJ lEnA En@E?=JoH .& \" *ACEnnEnC oB ?ommAnJ; ?onJEnKAI Jo An@ oB lEnA !. \% ,AB=KlJ oFJEon=l DOFDAn=JEon ?D=H=?JAH . \(xx +D=H=?JAH n=mA@ xx %. \*x, \*(xx 1nJAHFol=JA IJHEnC x oH xx %.! \$N 1nJAHFol=JA =HCKmAnJ ࣚNࣚ' '. \a Non-EnJAHFHAJA@ lA=@AH ?D=H=?JAH .! \b’abc...’ *H=?kAJ >KEl@EnC BKn?JEon ". \c +onnA?J Jo nANJ EnFKJ JANJ . \C’xyz’ +D=H=?JAH n=mA@ xyz . \d ,oMnM=H@ / Am LAHJE?=l moJEon  / lEnA En nroff .# \D’c...’ ,H=M CH=FDE?I BKn?JEon c MEJD F=H=mAJAHI ...; c = l, c, e, a, ~ . \fx, \f(xx, \fN +D=nCA Jo BonJ n=mA@ x oH xx, oH FoIEJEon N &. \gx, \g(xx .oHm=J oB nKm>AH HACEIJAH x oH xx . \h’N’ Lo?=l DoHEzonJ=l moJEon; moLA HECDJ N nAC=JELA lABJ .! \H’N’ 0AECDJ oB ?KHHAnJ BonJ EI N .! \kx M=Hk DoHEzonJ=l EnFKJ Fl=?A En HACEIJAH x ." \l’Nc’ 0oHEzonJ=l lEnA @H=MEnC BKn?JEon oFJEon=llO MEJD c  ." \L’Nc’ 8AHJE?=l lEnA @H=MEnC BKn?JEon oFJEon=llO MEJD c  &. \nx, \n(xx +onJAnJI oB nKm>AH HACEIJAH x oH xx . \N’N’ +D=H=?JAH nKm>AH N on ?KHHAnJ BonJ . \o’abc...’ OLAHIJHEkA ?D=H=?JAHI a, b, c, ... ". \p *HA=k =n@ IFHA=@ oKJFKJ lEnA . \r 4ALAHIA Am LAHJE?=l moJEon HALAHIA lEnA En nroff .! \sN, \s±N 2oEnJ-IEzA ?D=nCA BKn?JEon; =lIo \s(nn, \s± (nn . \S’N’ 5l=nJ oKJFKJ N @ACHAAI '. \t Non-EnJAHFHAJA@ DoHEzonJ=l J=> . \u 4ALAHIA KF / Am LAHJE?=l moJEon  / lEnA En nroff . \v’N’ Lo?=l LAHJE?=l moJEon; moLA @oMn N nAC=JELA KF . \w’string’ 9E@JD oB string #. \x’N’ -NJH= lEnA-IF=?A BKn?JEon nAC=JELA >ABoHA, FoIEJELA =BJAH .% \X’string’ OKJFKJ string =I @ALE?A ?onJHol BKn?JEon . \zc 2HEnJ c MEJD zAHo ME@JD MEJDoKJ IF=?EnC $. \{ *ACEn ?on@EJEon=l EnFKJ $. \} -n@ ?on@EJEon=l EnFKJ .& \newline +on?A=lA@ ECnoHA@ nAMlEnA - \ZZ, =nO ?D=H=?JAH noJ lEIJA@ =>oLA

6DA AI?=FA IAGKAn?AI \\, \., \", \$, \*, \a, \n, \t, \g, =n@ \newline =HA EnJAH­ FHAJA@En?oFOmo@A§%. . ­&­

Predefined Number Registers

SSeeccttiioonnRReeggiisstteerr RReeffeerreenncceeNNaammeeDDeessccrriippttiioonn !. % +KHHAnJ F=CA nKm>AH. . ct +D=H=?JAH JOFA IAJ >O \w BKn?JEon. %." dl 9E@JD m=NEmKm oB l=IJ ?omFlAJA@ @ELAHIEon. %." dn 0AECDJ LAHJE?=l IEzA oB l=IJ ?omFlAJA@ @ELAHIEon. - dw +KHHAnJ @=O oB JDA MAAk  -%. - dy +KHHAnJ @=O oB JDA monJD  -! . #. ln OKJFKJ lEnA nKm>AH. - mo +KHHAnJ monJD  - . ". nl 8AHJE?=l FoIEJEon oB l=IJ FHEnJA@ JANJ >=IAlEnA. . sb ,AFJD oB IJHEnC >AloM >=IAlEnA CAnAH=JA@ >O \w BKn?JEon. . st 0AECDJ oB IJHEnC =>oLA >=IAlEnA CAnAH=JA@ >O \w BKn?JEon. - yr L=IJ JMo @ECEJI oB ?KHHAnJ OA=H.

Predefined Read−Only Number Registers

SSeeccttiioonnRReeggiisstteerr RReeffeerreenncceeNNaammeeDDeessccrriippttiioonn '. $$ 2Ho?AII E@ oB troff oH nroff. %.! .$ NKm>AH oB =HCKmAnJI =L=El=>lA =J JDA ?KHHAnJ m=?Ho lALAl. #. .a 2oIJ-lEnA ANJH= lEnA-IF=?A moIJ HA?AnJlO KIA@ En \x’N ’. - .A 5AJ Jo En troff ,EB − a oFJEon KIA@; =lM=OI En nroff. .! .b -m>ol@AnEnC lALAl. . .c NKm>AH oB lEnAI HA=@ BHom ?KHHAnJ EnFKJ BElA. %." .d +KHHAnJ LAHJE?=l Fl=?A En ?KHHAnJ @ELAHIEon; AGK=l Jo nl, EB no @ELAHIEon. . .f +KHHAnJ BonJ nKm>AH. . .F +KHHAnJ EnFKJ BElA n=mA [IE?]. ". .h 6ANJ >=IAlEnA DECD-M=JAH m=Hk on ?KHHAnJ F=CA oH @ELAHIEon. . .H )L=El=>lA DoHEzonJ=l HAIolKJEon En >=IE? KnEJI. $. .i +KHHAnJ En@AnJ. ". .j +KHHAnJ ad mo@A. ". .k +KHHAnJ oKJFKJ DoHEzonJ=l FoIEJEon. $. .l +KHHAnJ lEnA lAnCJD. #. .L +KHHAnJ ls L=lKA. ". .n LAnCJD oB JANJ FoHJEon on FHALEoKI oKJFKJ lEnA. !. .o +KHHAnJ F=CA oBBIAJ. !. .p +KHHAnJ F=CA lAnCJD. %.# .R NKm>AH oB KnKIA@ nKm>AH HACEIJAHI. - .T 5AJ Jo En nroff,EB−T oFJEon KIA@; =lM=OI  En troff . .! .s +KHHAnJ FoEnJ IEzA. %.# .t ,EIJ=n?A Jo JDA nANJ JH=F. ". .u -GK=l Jo En BEll mo@A =n@  En noBEll mo@A. #. .v +KHHAnJ LAHJE?=l lEnA IF=?EnC. . .V )L=El=>lA LAHJE?=l HAIolKJEon En >=IE? KnEJI. . .w 9E@JD oB FHALEoKI ?D=H=?JAH. - .x 4AIAHLA@ LAHIEon-@AFAn@AnJ HACEIJAH. - .y 4AIAHLA@ LAHIEon-@AFAn@AnJ HACEIJAH. %." .z N=mA [IE?] oB ?KHHAnJ @ELAHIEon. ­'­

Reference Manual

1. General Explanation 11..11.. FFoorrmmooffiinnppuutt.. 1nFKJ ?onIEIJI oB text lines, MDE?D =HA @AIJEnA@ Jo >A FHEnJA@, EnJAHIFAHIA@ MEJD control lines, MDE?D IAJ F=H=mAJAHI oH oJDAHMEIA ?onJHol IK>IAGKAnJ FHo?AIIEnC. +onJHol lEnAI >ACEn MEJD = control characterߞnoHm=llO . FAHEo@ oH ’ IEn­ ClA GKoJAߞBolloMA@ >O = onA oH JMo ?D=H=?JAH n=mA JD=J IFA?EBEAI = >=IE? request oH JDA IK>IJEJKJEon oB = KIAH-@ABEnA@ macro En Fl=?A oB JDA ?onJHol lEnA. 6DA ?onJHol ?D=H­ =?JAH ’ IKFFHAIIAI JDA break BKn?JEonߞJDA BoH?A@ oKJFKJ oB = F=HJE=llO BEllA@ lEnAߞ ?=KIA@ >O ?AHJ=En HAGKAIJI. 6DA ?onJHol ?D=H=?JAH m=O >A IAF=H=JA@ BHom JDA HAGKAIJ/m=?Ho n=mA >O MDEJA IF=?A IF=?AI =n@/oH J=>I BoH =AIJDAJE? HA=IonI. N=mAI IDoKl@ >A BolloMA@ >O AEJDAH IF=?A oH nAMlEnA. +onJHol lEnAI MEJD KnHA?oCnEzA@ n=mAI =HAECnoHA@. 8=HEoKI IFA?E=l BKn?JEonI m=O >A EnJHo@K?A@ =nOMDAHA En JDA EnFKJ >O mA=nI oB =n escape ?D=H=?JAH, noHm=llO \. .oH AN=mFlA,JDABKn?JEon \nR ?=KIAIJDAEnJAHFol=JEonoB JDA ?onJAnJI oB JDA number register R En Fl=?A oB JDA BKn?JEon; DAHA R EI AEJDAH = IEnClA ?D=H=?JAH n=mA =I En \nx, oH = JMo-?D=H=?JAH n=mA EnJHo@K?A@ >O = lABJ-F=HAnJDAIEI, =I En \n(xx. 11..22.. FFoorrmmaatttteerraannddddeevviicceerreessoolluuttiioonn.. Troff EnJAHn=llO IJoHAI =n@ FHo?AIIAI @EmAn­ IEonI En KnEJI JD=J ?oHHAIFon@ Jo JDA F=HJE?Kl=H @ALE?A BoH MDE?D oKJFKJ EI >AEnC FHA­ F=HA@; L=lKAI BHom ! Jo /En?D =HA JOFE?=l. 5AA § !.Nroff EnJAHn=llO KIAI " KnEJI/En?D, ?oHHAIFon@EnC Jo JDA lA=IJ ?ommon mKlJEFlA oB JDA DoHEzonJ=l =n@ LAHJE?=l HAIolKJEonI oB L=HEoKI JOFAMHEJAH-lEkA oKJFKJ @ALE?AI. Troff HoKn@I DoHEzonJ=l/LAHJE?=l nKmAHE?=l F=H=mAJAH EnFKJ Jo JDA =?JK=l DoHEzonJ=l/LAHJE?=l HAIolKJEon oB JDA oKJFKJ @ALE?A En@E?=JA@ >O JDA −T oFJEon @AB=KlJ post. Nroff IEmEl=HlO HoKn@I nKmAHE?=l EnFKJJoJDA=?JK=lHAIolKJEonoBEJIoKJFKJ@ALE?A@AB=KlJMo@Al!%6AlAJOFA. 11..33.. NNuummeerriiccaallppaarraammeetteerriinnppuutt.. *oJD nroff =n@ troff =??AFJ nKmAHE?=l EnFKJ MEJD JDA =FFAn@A@ I?=lA En@E?=JoHI IDoMn En JDA BolloMEnC J=>lA, MDAHA S EI JDA ?KHHAnJ JOFA IEzA EnFoEnJI=n@ V EIJDA?KHHAnJLAHJE?=llEnAIF=?EnCEn>=IE?KnEJI. ______ 5?=lA   ______1n@E?=JoH MA=nEnC      i  1n?D   c  +AnJEmAJAH   P  2E?== /$En?D   m  -m= S FoEnJI    -n=-m/   n    p  2oEnJ= /% En?D   u  *=IE?KnEJ   v  8AHJE?=llEnAIF=?A V     ______nonA ,AB=KlJ,IAA>AloM  1n nroff, >oJD JDA Am =n@ JDA An =HA J=kAn Jo >A AGK=l Jo JDA nomEn=l ?D=H=?JAH ME@JD, MDE?D EI oKJFKJ-@ALE?A @AFAn@AnJ; ?ommon L=lKAI =HA /  =n@ / En?D. )?JK=l ?D=H=?JAH ME@JDI En nroff nAA@ noJ >A =ll JDA I=mA =n@ ?onIJHK?JA@ ?D=H=?JAHI IK?D =I -> ࢐ =HA oBJAn ANJH= ME@A. 6DA @AB=KlJ I?=lEnC EI m BoH JDA DoHEzonJ=llO-oHEAnJA@ HAGKAIJI =n@ BKn?JEonI ll, in, ti, ta, lt, po, mc, \h, \l, =n@ DoHEzonJ=l ?ooH@E­ n=JAI oB \D; v BoH JDA LAHJE?=llO-oHEAnJA@ HAGKAIJI =n@ BKn?JEonI pl, wh, ch, dt, sp, sv, ne, rt, \v, \x, \L, =n@ LAHJE?=l ?ooH@En=JAI oB \D; p BoH JDA vs HAGKAIJ; =n@ u BoH JDA HAGKAIJI nr, if, =n@ ie. All oJDAH HAGKAIJI ECnoHA =nO I?=lA En@E?=JoHI. 9DAn = nKm>AH HACEIJAH ?onJ=EnEnC =n =lHA=@O =FFHoFHE=JAlO I?=lA@ nKm>AH EI EnJAHFol=JA@ Jo FHoLE@A nKmAHE?=l EnFKJ, JDA KnEJ I?=lA En@E?=JoH u m=O nAA@ Jo >A =FFAn@A@ Jo FHALAnJ =n =@@EJEon=l En=FFHoFHE=JA @AB=KlJ I?=lEnC. 6DA nKm>AH, N, m=O >A IFA?EBEA@ En @A?Em=l-BH=?JEon BoHm >KJ JDA F=H=mAJAH BEn=llO IJoHA@ EI HoKn@A@ Jo =n EnJACAH nKm>AH ­ ­

oB>=IE?KnEJI. 1nJAHn=l?omFKJ=JEonI=HAFAHBoHmA@EnEnJACAH=HEJDmAJE?. 6DA absolute position En@E?=JoH | m=O >A FHABENA@ Jo = nKm>AH N Jo CAnAH=JA JDA @EIJ=n?A Jo JDA LAHJE?=l oH DoHEzonJ=l Fl=?A N. .oH LAHJE?=llO-oHEAnJA@ HAGKAIJI =n@ BKn?­ JEonI, |N >A?omAI JDA @EIJ=n?A En >=IE? KnEJI BHom JDA ?KHHAnJ LAHJE?=l Fl=?A on JDA F=CA oH En = diversion §%." Jo JDA LAHJE?=l Fl=?A N. .oH all oJDAH HAGKAIJI =n@ BKn?­ JEonI, |N >A?omAI JDA @EIJ=n?A BHom JDA ?KHHAnJ DoHEzonJ=l Fl=?A on JDA input lEnA Jo JDADoHEzonJ=lFl=?A N. .oHAN=mFlA, .sp |3.2c MEllIF=?AEnJDAHAGKEHA@@EHA?JEonJo!. ?AnJEmAJAHIBHomJDAJoFoBJDAF=CA. 11..44.. NNuummeerriiccaalleexxpprreessssiioonnss.. 9DAHALAH nKmAHE?=l EnFKJ EI ANFA?JA@, =n ANFHAIIEon EnLolLEnC F=HAnJDAIAI, JDA =HEJDmAJE? oFAH=JoHI +, −, /, ∗, % mo@, =n@ JDA loCE?=l oFAH­ =JoHI <, >, <=, >=, = oH ==, & =n@, : oH m=O >A KIA@. -N?AFJ MDAHA ?onJHollA@ >O F=HAnJDAIAI, AL=lK=JEon oB ANFHAIIEonI EI lABJ-Jo-HECDJ; JDAHA EI no oFAH=JoH FHA?A@An?A. 1n JDA ?=IA oB ?AHJ=En HAGKAIJI, =n EnEJE=l + oH − EI IJHEFFA@ =n@ EnJAHFHAJA@ =I =n En?HA­ mAnJ oH @A?HAmAnJEn@E?=JoHHAIFA?JELAlO. 1nJDAFHAIAn?AoB@AB=KlJI?=lEnC,JDA@AIEHA@ I?=lAEn@E?=JoH mKIJ >A =JJ=?DA@ Jo every nKm>AH En =n ANFHAIIEon BoH MDE?D JDA @AIEHA@ =n@ @AB=KlJ I?=lEnC @EBBAH. .oH AN=mFlA, EB JDA nKm>AH HACEIJAH x ?onJ=EnI =n@ JDA ?KH­ HAnJFoEnJIEzAEI ,JDAn

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2. Font and Character Size Control 22..11.. CChhaarraacctteerrsseett.. 6DA troff ?D=H=?JAH IAJ EI @ABEnA@ >O = @AI?HEFJEon BElA IFA?EBE? Jo A=?D oKJFKJ @ALE?A § !. 6DAHA =HA noHm=llO IALAH=l HACKl=H BonJI =n@ onA oH moHA IFA?E=l BonJI. +D=H=?JAHI =HA EnFKJ =I JDAmIAlLAI, =I \(xx,=I\C’name ’,oH=I \N’n’. 6DA BoHm \C’name’ FAHmEJI = n=mA oB =nO lAnCJD; JDA BoHm \N’n’ HABAHI Jo JDA n-JD?D=H=?JAHonJDA?KHHAnJBonJ,MDAJDAHn=mA@oHnoJ. NoHm=llOJDAEnFKJ?D=H=?JAHI ‘, ’,=n@ − =HAFHEnJA@=Iߢ,ߣ,=n@-HAIFA?JELAlO; \‘, \’, =n@ \− FHo@K?A <, ´, =n@ ߝ. 1B JDA ?D=H=?JAH @oAI noJ ANEIJ En JDA BonJ, troff =IIKmAI JDA ME@JD EI Am =n@ oKJFKJI JDA ?D=H=?JAH MEJD = C n=mA =I @ABEnA@ En 5A?­ JEon . 6DEIEIEn@AFAn@AnJoBDoMJDA@ALE?AD=n@lAI?D=H=?JAHIKnknoMnJoEJ. Nroff D=I =n =n=loCoKI, >KJ @EBBAHAnJ, mA?D=nEIm BoH @ABEnEnC lAC=l ?D=H=?JAHI =n@ DoM Jo FHEnJ JDAm. *O @AB=KlJ =ll ?D=H=?JAHI =HA L=lE@. 6DAHA =HA IK?D =@@EJEon=l ?D=H=?­ JAHI =I m=O >A =L=El=>lA on JDA oKJFKJ @ALE?A, IK?D ?D=H=?JAHI =I m=O >A ?onIJHK?JA@ >O oLAHIJHEkEnC oH oJDAH ?om>En=JEon, =n@ JDoIA JD=J ?=n HA=Ion=>lO >A m=FFA@ EnJo oJDAH FHEnJ=>lA ?D=H=?JAHI. 6DA AN=?J >AD=LEoH EI @AJAHmEnA@ >O = @HELEnC J=>lA FHAF=HA@ BoH A=?D@ALE?A. 22..22.. FFoonnttss.. Troff >ACEnI ANA?KJEon >O HA=@EnC EnBoHm=JEon BoH = IAJ oB @AB=KlJI BonJI, ­ ­

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9. Tabs, Leaders, and Fields 99..11.. TTaabbssaannddlleeaaddeerrss.. 6DA )5+11 DoHEzonJ=l J=> ?D=H=?JAH =n@ JDA )5+11 5O0 ?onJHol- ), DAHA=BJAH ?=llA@ JDA leader ?D=H=?JAH ?=n >oJD >A KIA@ Jo CAnAH=JA AEJDAH DoHEzonJ=l moJEon oH = IJHEnC oB HAFA=JA@ ?D=H=?JAHI. 6DA lAnCJD oB JDA CAnAH=JA@ AnJEJO EI CoL­ AHnA@ >O EnJAHn=l tab stops IFA?EBE=>lA MEJD ta. 6DA @AB=KlJ @EBBAHAn?A EI JD=J J=>I CAn­ AH=JA moJEon =n@ lA=@AHI CAnAH=JA = IJHEnC oB FAHEo@I; tc =n@ lc oBBAH JDA ?DoE?A oB HAFA=JA@ ?D=H=?JAH oH moJEon. 6DAHA =HA JDHAA JOFAI oB EnJAHn=l J=> IJoFIߞleft =@jKIJ­ EnC, right =@jKIJEnC, =n@ centering. 1n JDA BolloMEnC J=>lA, D EI JDA @EIJ=n?A BHom JDA ?KHHAnJ FoIEJEon on JDA input lEnA MDAHA = J=> oH lA=@AH M=I BoKn@ Jo JDA nANJ J=> IJoF, next−string ?onIEIJI oB JDA EnFKJ ?D=H=?JAHI BolloMEnC JDA J=> oH lA=@AH KF Jo JDA nANJ J=>oHlA=@AHoHAn@oBlEnA,=n@ W EIJDAME@JDoB next−string. ______ 6=> LAnCJDoBmoJEonoH Lo?=JEonoB  ______JOFA HAFA=JA@?D=H=?JAHI  next−string       LABJ  D  .olloMEnC D   4ECDJ  D−W  4ECDJ=@jKIJA@MEJDEn D  ______+AnJAHA@  D−W/  +AnJAHA@onHECDJAn@oB D  6DA lAnCJD oB CAnAH=JA@ moJEon EI =lloMA@ Jo >A nAC=JELA, >KJ JD=J oB = HAFA=JA@ ?D=H=?­ JAH IJHEnC ?=nnoJ >A. 4AFA=JA@ ?D=H=?JAH IJHEnCI ?onJ=En =n EnJACAH nKm>AH oB ?D=H=?­ JAHI, =n@ =nO HAIE@K=l @EIJ=n?A EI FHAFAn@A@ =I moJEon. 6=>I oH lA=@AHI BoKn@ =BJAH JDA l=IJJ=>IJoF=HAECnoHA@,>KJm=O>AKIA@=I next−string JAHmEn=JoHI. 6=>I =n@ lA=@AHI =HA noJ EnJAHFHAJA@ En ?oFO mo@A. \t =n@ \a =lM=OI CAnAH=JA = non-EnJAHFHAJA@ J=> =n@ lA=@AH HAIFA?JELAlO, =n@ =HA AGKEL=lAnJ Jo =?JK=l J=>I =n@ lA=@­ AHIEn?oFOmo@A. 99..22.. FFiieellddss.. ) field EI ?onJ=EnA@ >AJMAAn = F=EH oB field delimiter ?D=H=?JAHI, =n@ ?on­ IEIJI oB IK>IJHEnCI IAF=H=JA@ >O padding En@E?=JoH ?D=H=?JAHI. 6DA BEAl@ lAnCJD EI JDA @EIJ=n?A on JDA input lEnA BHom JDA FoIEJEon MDAHA JDA BEAl@ >ACEnI Jo JDA nANJ J=> IJoF. 6DA @EBBAHAn?A >AJMAAn JDA JoJ=l lAnCJD oB =ll JDA IK>IJHEnCI =n@ JDA BEAl@ lAnCJD EI En?oHFoH=JA@ =I DoHEzonJ=l F=@@EnC IF=?A JD=J EI @ELE@A@ =monC JDA En@E?=JA@ F=@@EnC Fl=?AI. 6DA En?oHFoH=JA@ F=@@EnC EI =lloMA@ Jo >A nAC=JELA. .oH AN=mFlA, EB JDA BEAl@ ­ ­

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10. Input and Output Conventions and Character Translations 1100..11.. IInnppuuttcchhaarraacctteerrttrraannssllaattiioonnss.. 9=OI oB EnFKJJEnC JDA L=lE@ ?D=H=?JAH IAJ MAHA @EI­ ?KIIA@ En § . . 6DA )5+11 ?onJHol ?D=H=?JAHI DoHEzonJ=l J=> §'. , 5O0 §'. , =n@ >=?k­ IF=?A § .! =HA @EI?KIIA@ AlIAMDAHA. 6DA nAMlEnA @AlEmEJI EnFKJ lEnAI. 1n =@@EJEon, 56:, -6:, -N3, )+K, =n@ *-L =HA =??AFJA@, =n@ m=O >A KIA@ =I @AlEmEJAHI oH JH=nIl=JA@ EnJo=CH=FDE?MEJD tr § .#. )lloJDAHI=HAECnoHA@. 6DA escape ?D=H=?JAH \ EnJHo@K?AI escape sequences, MDE?D ?=KIA JDA BolloMEnC ?D=H=?JAH Jo mA=n =noJDAH ?D=H=?JAH, oH Jo En@E?=JA IomA BKn?JEon. ) ?omFlAJA lEIJ oB IK?D IAGKAn?AI EI CELAn En JDA 5Kmm=HO on F=CA %. 6DA AI?=FA ?D=H=?JAH \ IDoKl@ noJ >A ?onBKIA@ MEJD JDA )5+11 ?onJHol ?D=H=?JAH -5+. 6DA AI?=FA ?D=H=?JAH \ ?=n >A EnFKJ MEJD JDA IAGKAn?A \\. 6DA AI?=FA ?D=H=?JAH ?=n >A ?D=nCA@ MEJD ec, =n@ =ll JD=J D=I >AAn I=E@ =>oKJ JDA @AB=KlJ \ >A?omAI JHKA BoH JDA nAM AI?=FA ?D=H=?JAH. \e ?=n >A KIA@ Jo FHEnJ MD=JALAH JDA ?KHHAnJ AI?=FA ?D=H=?JAH EI. 6DA AI?=FA mA?D=nEIm m=O >A JKHnA@oBBMEJD eo,=n@HAIJoHA@MEJD ec. .ec c \\- 5AJAI?=FA?D=H=?JAHJo \,oHJo c,EBCELAn. .eo on - - 6KHnAI?=FAmA?D=nEImoBB. 1100..22.. LLiiggaattuurreess.. 6DA IAJ oB =L=El=>lA lEC=JKHAI EI @ALE?A =n@ BonJ @AFAn@AnJ, >KJ EI oBJAn = IK>IAJ oB fi, fl, ff, ffi, =n@ ffl. 6DAO m=O >A EnFKJ >O \(fi, \(fl, \(ff, \(Fi, =n@ \(Fl HAIFA?JELAlO. 6DA lEC=JKHA mo@A EI noHm=llO on En troff , =n@ =KJom=JE­ ?=llOEnLokAIlEC=JKHAI@KHEnCEnFKJ. .lg N on;oBB on - LEC=JKHA mo@A EI JKHnA@ on EB N EI =>IAnJ oH non-zAHo, =n@ JKHnA@ oBB EB N = . 1B N = , onlO JDA JMo-?D=H=?JAH lEC=JKHAI =HA =KJom=JE?=llO EnLokA@. LEC=JKHA mo@A EI EnDE>EJA@ BoH HAGKAIJ, m=?Ho, IJHEnC, HACEIJAH, oH BElA n=mAI, =n@En?oFOmo@A. NoABBA?JEn nroff. 1100..33.. BBaacckkssppaacciinngg,,uunnddeerrlliinniinngg,,oovveerrssttrriikkiinngg,,eettcc.. 7nlAII En ?oFO mo@A, JDA )5+11 >=?kIF=?A ?D=H=?JAH EI HAFl=?A@ >O = >=?kM=H@ DoHEzonJ=l moJEon D=LEnC JDA ME@JD oB JDA IF=?A ?D=H=?JAH. 7n@AHlEnEnC =I = BoHm oB lEnA-@H=MEnC EI @EI?KIIA@ En § .". ) CAnAH=lEzA@oLAHIJHEkEnCBKn?JEonEI@AI?HE>A@En§ . . ­ ­

Nroff =KJom=JE?=llOKn@AHlEnAI?D=H=?JAHIEnJDA underline BonJ, IFA?EBE=>lA MEJD uf, noHm=llO JD=J on BonJ FoIEJEon . 1n =@@EJEon Jo ft =n@ \fF, JDA Kn@AHlEnA BonJ m=O >A IAlA?JA@ >O ul =n@ cu. 7n@AHlEnEnC EI HAIJHE?JA@ Jo =n oKJFKJ-@ALE?A-@AFAn@AnJ IK>IAJ oBHA=Ion=>lA?D=H=?JAHI. .ul N oBB N = - 1J=lE?EzA En troff Kn@AHlEnA En nroff JDA nANJ N EnFKJ JANJ lEnAI. )?JK=llO, IMEJ?D Jo Kn@AHlEnA BonJ, I=LEnC JDA ?KHHAnJ BonJ BoH l=JAH HAIJoH=JEon; oJDAH BonJ ?D=nCAI MEJDEn JDA IF=n oB = ul MEll J=kA ABBA?J, >KJ JDA HAIJoH=JEon MEll Kn@o JDA l=IJ ?D=nCA. OKJFKJ CAnAH=JA@ >O tl § " EI =BBA?JA@ >O JDA BonJ ?D=nCA, >KJ @oAI noJ @A?HAmAnJ N.1BN> , JDAHA EI JDA HEIk JD=J = JH=F EnJAHFol=JA@ m=?Ho m=O FHoLE@A JANJ lEnAI MEJDEn JDA IF=n; AnLEHonmAnJ IMEJ?DEnC?=nFHALAnJJDEI. .cu N oBB N = - +onJEnKoKI Kn@AHlEnA. ) L=HE=nJ oB ul JD=J ?=KIAI every ?D=H=?JAH Jo >A Kn@AHlEnA@En nroff. 1@AnJE?=lJo ul En troff . .uf F 1J=lE? 1J=lE? - 7n@AHlEnABonJIAJJo F.1nnroff, F m=OnoJ>AonFoIEJEon . 1100..44.. CCoonnttrroollcchhaarraacctteerrss.. *oJDJDA?onJHol ?D=H=?JAH . =n@ JDA no−break ?onJHol ?D=H­ =?JAH ’ m=O >A ?D=nCA@. 5K?D = ?D=nCA mKIJ >A ?omF=JE>lA MEJD JDA @AIECn oB =nO m=?HoIKIA@EnJDAIF=noBJDA?D=nCA,=n@F=HJE?Kl=HlOoB=nOJH=F-EnLokA@m=?HoI. .cc c ..- 6DA>=IE??onJHol?D=H=?JAHEIIAJJo c,oHHAIAJJoߢߢ.ߣߣ. .c2 c ’’- 6DA no−break ?onJHol?D=H=?JAHEIIAJJo c,oHHAIAJJoߢߢ’ߣߣ. 1100..55.. OOuuttppuuttttrraannssllaattiioonn.. OnA ?D=H=?JAH ?=n >A m=@A = IJ=n@-En BoH =noJDAH ?D=H=?­ JAH KIEnC tr. )ll JANJ FHo?AIIEnC A.C., ?D=H=?JAH ?omF=HEIonI J=kAI Fl=?A MEJD JDA EnFKJ IJ=n@-En ?D=H=?JAH, MDE?D =FFA=HI Jo D=LA JDA ME@JD oB JDA BEn=l ?D=H=?JAH. 6DA CH=FDE?JH=nIl=JEono??KHI=JJDAmomAnJoBoKJFKJEn?lK@EnC@ELAHIEon. .tr abcd.... nonA - O 6H=nIl=JA a EnJo b, c EnJo d, AJ?. 1B =n o@@ nKm>AH oB ?D=H=?JAHI EI CELAn, JDA l=IJ onA MEll >A m=FFA@ EnJo JDA IF=?A ?D=H=?JAH. 6o >A ?onIEIJAnJ, = F=HJE?­ Kl=HJH=nIl=JEonmKIJIJ=OEnABBA?JBHom input Jo output JEmA. 1100..66.. TTrraannssppaarreenntttthhrroouugghhppuutt.. )n EnFKJ lEnA >ACEnnEnC MEJD = \! EI HA=@ En ?oFO mo@A =n@ transparently oKJFKJ MEJDoKJ JDA EnEJE=l \!; JDA JANJ FHo?AIIoH EI oJDAHMEIA Kn=M=HA oB JDA lEnAߣI FHAIAn?A. 6DEI mA?D=nEIm m=O >A KIA@ Jo F=II ?onJHol EnBoHm=­ JEonJo=FoIJ-FHo?AIIoHoHJoAm>A@?onJHollEnAIEn=m=?Ho?HA=JA@>O=@ELAHIEon. 1100..77.. TTrraannssppaarreennttoouuttppuutt 6DA IAGKAn?A \X’anything’ ?oFEAI anything Jo JDA oKJ­ FKJ, =I = @ALE?A ?onJHol BKn?JEon oB JDA BoHm xXanything § . -I?=FA IAGKAn?AI En anything =HAFHo?AIIA@. 1100..88.. CCoommmmeennttssaannddccoonncceeaalleeddnneewwlliinneess.. )n Kn?omBoHJ=>lO lonC EnFKJ lEnA JD=J mKIJ IJ=O onA lEnA A.C., = IJHEnC @ABEnEJEon, oH noBEllA@ JANJ ?=n >A IFlEJ EnJo IALAH=l FDOIE?=l lEnAI >O An@EnC =ll >KJ JDA l=IJ onA MEJD JDA AI?=FA \. 6DA IAGKAn?A \newline EI =lM=OI ECnoHA@, AN?AFJ En = ?ommAnJ. +ommAnJI m=O >A Am>A@@A@ =J JDA An@ oB =nO lEnA >O FHAB=?EnC JDAm MEJD \". 6DA nAMlEnA =J JDA An@ oB = ?ommAnJ ?=nnoJ >A ?on?A=lA@. ) lEnA >ACEnnEnC MEJD \" MEll =FFA=H =I = >l=nk lEnA =n@ >AD=LA lEkA .sp 1; = ?ommAnJ ?=n>Aon=lEnA>OEJIAlB>O>ACEnnEnCJDAlEnAMEJD .\". ­ !­

11. Local Horizontal and Vertical Motions, and the Width Function 1111..11.. LLooccaallMMoottiioonnss.. 6DA BKn?JEonI \v’N’ =n@ \h’N’ ?=n >A KIA@ BoH local LAHJE?=l =n@ DoHEzonJ=l moJEon HAIFA?JELAlO. 6DA @EIJ=n?A N m=O >A nAC=JELA; JDA FoIEJELA @EHA?­ JEonI =HA HECDJM=H@ =n@ @oMnM=H@. ) lo?=l moJEon EI onA ?onJ=EnA@ MEJDEn = lEnA. 6o =LoE@ KnANFA?JA@ LAHJE?=l @EIlo?=JEonI, EJ EI nA?AII=HO JD=J JDA nAJ LAHJE?=l lo?=l moJEon MEJDEn = MoH@ En BEllA@ JANJ =n@ oJDAHMEIA MEJDEn = lEnA >=l=n?A Jo zAHo. 6DA AI?=FA IAGKAn?AIFHoLE@EnClo?=lmoJEon=HAIKmm=HEzA@EnJDABolloMEnCJ=>lA. ______ 8AHJE?=l -BBA?JEn 0oHEzonJ=l -BBA?JEn  ______Lo?=lMoJEon  troff nroff Lo?=lMoJEon  troff nroff        \v’N ’  MoLA@EIJ=n?A N      MoLA@EIJ=n?A     \h’N ’  N    ______7nF=@@=>lAIF=?A-IEzAIF=?A     \space   ½AmKF ½lEnAKF ,ECEJ-IEzAIF=?A  \u   ______\0     ½Am@oMn ½lEnA@oMn    \d    \r  AmKF lEnAKF  \|  /$AmIF=?A ECnoHA@         \^ / AmIF=?A ECnoHA@ ______      )I =n AN=mFlA, E2 ?oKl@ >A CAnAH=JA@ >O = IAGKAn?A oB IEzA ?D=nCAI =n@ moJEonI: E\s−2\v’−0.4m’2\v’0.4m’\s+2; noJA JD=J JDA ." Am LAHJE?=l moJEonI =HA =J JDA Im=llAHIEzA. 1111..22.. WWiiddtthhFFuunnccttiioonn.. 6DA width BKn?JEon \w’string’ CAnAH=JAI JDA nKmAHE?=l ME@JD oB string En >=IE? KnEJI. 5EzA =n@ BonJ ?D=nCAI m=O >A Am>A@@A@ En string, =n@ MEll noJ =BBA?J JDA ?KHHAnJ AnLEHonmAnJ. .oH AN=mFlA, .ti −\w’\fB1. ’u ?oKl@ >A KIA@ JoJAmFoH=HElOEn@AnJlABJM=H@=@EIJ=n?AAGK=lJoJDAIEzAoBJDAIJHEnCߢߢ1. ߣߣ EnBonJ B. 6DA ME@JD BKn?JEon =lIo IAJI JDHAA nKm>AH HACEIJAHI. 6DA HACEIJAHI st =n@ sb =HA IAJ HAIFA?JELAlO Jo JDA DECDAIJ =n@ loMAIJ ANJAnJ oB string HAl=JELA Jo JDA >=IAlEnA; JDAn, BoH AN=mFlA, JDA JoJ=l DAECDJ oB JDA IJHEnC EI \n(stu−\n(sbu.1ntroff JDA nKm>AH HACEIJAH ct EI IAJ Jo = L=lKA >AJMAAn  =n@ !. 6DA L=lKA  mA=nI JD=J =ll oB JDA ?D=H=?­ JAHI En string MAHA IDoHJ loMAH ?=IA ?D=H=?JAHI MEJDoKJ @AI?An@AHI lEkA e; mA=nI JD=J =J lA=IJ onA ?D=H=?JAH D=I = @AI?An@AH lEkA y; mA=nI JD=J =J lA=IJ onA ?D=H=?JAHEIJ=ll lEkA H; =n@ ! mA=nI JD=J >oJD J=ll ?D=H=?JAHI =n@ ?D=H=?JAHI MEJD @AI?An@AHI =HA FHA­ IAnJ. 1111..33.. MMaarrkkhhoorriizzoonnttaallppllaaccee.. 6DA BKn?JEon \kx ?=KIAI JDA ?KHHAnJ DoHEzonJ=l FoIEJEon En JDA input line Jo >A IJoHA@ En HACEIJAH x. .oH AN=mFlA, JDA ?onIJHK?JEon \kxword\h’|\nxu+3u’word MEll Am>ol@An word >O >=?kEnC KF Jo =lmoIJ EJI >ACEn­ nEnC=n@oLAHFHEnJEnCEJ,HAIKlJEnCEn word.

12. Overstrike, Bracket, Line−drawing, Graphics, and Zero−width Functions 1122..11.. OOvveerrssttrriikkiinngg.. )KJom=JE?=llO ?AnJAHA@ oLAHIJHEkEnC oB KF Jo nEnA ?D=H=?JAHI EI FHoLE@A@ >O JDA overstrike BKn?JEon \o’string ’. 6DA ?D=H=?JAHI En string =HA oLAH­ FHEnJA@ MEJD ?AnJAHI =lECnA@; JDA JoJ=l ME@JD EI JD=J oB JDA ME@AIJ ?D=H=?JAH. string m=O noJ ?onJ=En lo?=l LAHJE?=l moJEon. )I AN=mFlAI, \o’e\’’ FHo@K?AI ´A, =n@ \o’\(mo\(sl’ FHo@K?AI∈/ . 1122..22.. ZZeerroo−−wwiiddtthhcchhaarraacctteerrss.. 6DA BKn?JEon \zc MEll oKJFKJ c MEJDoKJ IF=?EnC oLAH EJ, =n@ ?=n >A KIA@ Jo FHo@K?A lABJ-=lECnA@ oLAHIJHK?k ?om>En=JEonI. )I AN=mFlAI, \z¡+ MEll FHo@K?A ¡+, =n@ \(br\z\(rn\(ul\(br MEll FHo@K?A = Im=ll >=@lO ?onIJHK?JA@ >oN_. 1122..33.. LLaarrggeeBBrraacckkeettss.. 6DA 5FA?E=l .onJ KIK=llO ?onJ=EnI = nKm>AH oB >H=?kAJ ?on­ IJHK?JEon FEA?AI    JD=J ?=n >A ?om>EnA@ EnJo L=HEoKI >H=?kAJ IJOlAI. 6DA BKn?JEon \b’string ’ m=O >A KIA@ Jo FElA KF LAHJE?=llO JDA ?D=H=?JAHI En string JDA BEHIJ ?D=H=?JAH on JoF =n@ JDA l=IJ =J JDA >oJJom; JDA ?D=H=?JAHI =HA LAHJE?=llO IAF=H=JA@ ­ "­

>O Am =n@ JDA JoJ=l FElA EI ?AnJAHA@ / Am =>oLA JDA ?KHHAnJ >=IAlEnA ½ lEnA En nroff. .oHAN=mFlA, \b’\(lc\(lf’E\b’\(rc\(rf’\x’−0.5m’\x’0.5m’   FHo@K?AI -. 1122..44.. LLiinneeddrraawwiinngg.. 6DA BKn?JEon \l’Nc’ >=?kIl=ID-All @H=MI = IJHEnC oB HAFA=JA@ cߣI JoM=H@I JDA HECDJ BoH = @EIJ=n?A N.1Bc lookI lEkA = ?onJEnK=JEon oB =n ANFHAIIEon BoH N, EJ m=O >A EnIKl=JA@ BHom N MEJD \&.1Bc EI noJ IFA?EBEA@, JDA _ >=IAlEnA HKlA EI KIA@ Kn@AHlEnA ?D=H=?JAH En nroff. 1B N EInAC=JELA,=>=?kM=H@DoHEzonJ=lmoJEonoBIEzA N EI m=@A>ABoHA@H=MEnCJDAIJHEnC. )nOIF=?AHAIKlJEnCBHom N/IEzAoB cD=LEnC= HAm=En­ @AH EI FKJ =J JDA >ACEnnEnC lABJ An@ oB JDA IJHEnC. 1B N EI lAII JD=n JDA ME@JD oB c, = IEn­ ClA c EI ?AnJAHA@ on = @EIJ=n?A N. 1n JDA ?=IA oB ?D=H=?JAHI JD=J =HA @AIECnA@ Jo >A ?on­ nA?JA@, IK?D =I >=IAlEnA-HKlA_ , Kn@AH-HKlA_ , =n@ HooJ-An , JDA HAm=En@AH IF=?A EI ?oLAHA@>OoLAHl=FFEnC. )I=nAN=mFlA,=m=?HoJoKn@AHI?oHA=IJHEnC?=n>AMHEJJAn

.de us \\$1\ l ’|0\(ul’ .. oHonAJo@H=M=>oN=HoKn@=IJHEnC

.de bx \(br\|\\$1\|\(br\ l ’|0\(rn’\ l ’|0\(ul’ .. IK?DJD=J

.ul "underlined words" =n@

.bx "words in a box" OEAl@Kn@AHlEnA@MoH@I______=n@______MoH@IEn=>oN. 6DA BKn?JEon \L’Nc’ @H=MI = LAHJE?=l lEnA ?onIEIJEnC oB JDA oFJEon=l ?D=H=?JAH c IJ=?kA@ LAHJE?=llO =F=HJ Am  lEnA En nroff, MEJD JDA BEHIJ JMo ?D=H=?JAHI oLAHl=FFA@, EB nA?AII=HO,JoBoHm = ?onJEnKoKI lEnA. 6DA @AB=KlJ ?D=H=?JAH EI JDA box rule   \(br; JDA oJDAH IKEJ=>lA ?D=H=?JAH EIJDA bold vertical   \(bv. 6DAlEnAEI>ACKnMEJDoKJ=nOEnE­ JE=l moJEon HAl=JELA Jo JDA ?KHHAnJ >=IAlEnA. ) FoIEJELA N IFA?EBEAI = lEnA @H=Mn @oMn­ M=H@ =n@ = nAC=JELA N IFA?EBEAI = lEnA @H=Mn KFM=H@. )BJAH JDA lEnA EI @H=Mn no ?om­ ______FAnI=JEnCmoJEonI=HAm=@A;JDAEnIJ=nJ=nAoKI>=IAlEnAEI=JJDAAn@oBJDAlEnA.  6DA DoHEzonJ=l =n@ LAHJE?=l lEnA @H=MEnC BKn?JEonI m=O >A KIA@ En ?om>En=JEon Jo    FHo@K?A l=HCA >oNAI. 6DA zAHo-ME@JD box−rule =n@ JDA ½-Am ME@A under−rule MAHA  @AIECnA@JoBoHm?oHnAHIMDAnKIEnC -AmLAHJE?=lIF=?EnCI. .oHAN=mFlAJDAm=?Ho    .de eb   .sp −1 \"compensate for next automatic baseline spacing   .nf \"avoid possibly overflowing word buffer    \h’−.5n’\L’|\\nau−1’\l’\\n(.lu+1n\(ul’\L’−|\\nau+1’\l’|0u−.5n\(ul’   .fi   ..  MEll @H=M = >oN =HoKn@ IomA JANJ MDoIA >ACEnnEnC LAHJE?=l Fl=?A M=I I=LA@ En nKm>AH   ______HACEIJAH a A.C.,KIEnC .mk a=IM=I@onABoHJDEIF=H=CH=FD.  1122..55.. GGrraapphhiiccss.. 6DA BKn?JEon \D’c...’ @H=MI = CH=FDE? o>jA?J oB JOFA c =??oH@EnC Jo =IAGKAn?AoBF=H=mAJAHI,MDE?D=HACAnAH=llOF=EHIoBnKm>AHI. \D’l dh dv’ @H=MlEnABHom?KHHAnJFoIEJEon>O dh, dv \D’c d’ @H=M?EH?lAoB@E=mAJAH d MEJDlABJIE@A=J?KHHAnJFoIEJEon \D’e d d ’ @H=MAllEFIAoB@E=mAJAHI d =n@ d ­ #­

\D’a dh dv dh dv ’@H=M=H?BHom?KHHAnJFoIEJEonJo dh + dh , dv + dv , MEJD?AnJAH=J dh , dv BHom?KHHAnJFoIEJEon \D’~ dh dv dh dv ...’@H=M*-IFlEnABHom?KHHAnJFoIEJEon>O dh , dv , JDAn>O dh ,dv ,JDAn>O dh ,dv ,JDAn... .oH AN=mFlA, \D’e0.2i 0.1i’ @H=MI JDA AllEFIA , =n@ \D’l.2i −.1i’\D’l.1i .1i’ JDA lEnA .)\D MEJD =n KnknoMn c EI FHo?AIIA@ =n@ ?oFEA@ JDHoKCD Jo JDA oKJFKJ BoH KnIFA?EBEA@ EnJAHFHAJ=JEon; ?ooH@En=JAI =HA EnJAHFHAJA@ =lJAHn=JAlO=IDoHEzonJ=l=n@LAHJE?=lL=lKAI. NKm>AHI J=kAn =I DoHEzonJ=l BEHIJ, JDEH@, AJ?. D=LA @AB=KlJ I?=lEnC oB AmI; LAHJE?=l nKm>AHI IA?on@, BoKHJD, AJ?. D=LA @AB=KlJ I?=lEnC oB V I § .!. 6DA FoIEJEon =BJAH = CH=FDE?=lo>jA?JD=I>AAn@H=MnEI =J EJI An@; BoH ?EH?lAI =n@ AllEFIAI, JDA ߢߢAn@ߣߣ EI =J JDA HECDJIE@A.

13. Hyphenation. )KJom=JE? DOFDAn=JEon m=O >A IMEJ?DA@ oBB =n@ on. 9DAn IMEJ?DA@ on MEJD hy, IALAH=l L=HE=nJI m=O >A IAJ. ) hyphenation indicator ?D=H=?JAH m=O >A Am>A@@A@ En = MoH@ Jo IFA?EBO @AIEHA@ DOFDAn=JEon FoEnJI, oH m=O >A FHABENA@ Jo IKFFHAII DOFDAn­ =JEon. 1n=@@EJEon,JDAKIAHm=OIFA?EBO=Im=lllEIJoBAN?AFJEonMoH@I. OnlO MoH@I JD=J ?onIEIJ oB = ?AnJH=l =lFD=>AJE? IJHEnC IKHHoKn@A@ >O KIK=llO nKll non-=lFD=>AJE? IJHEnCI =HA ?=n@E@=JAI BoH =KJom=JE? DOFDAn=JEon. 9oH@I JD=J ?onJ=En DOFDAnI mEnKI, Am-@=IDAI \(em, oH DOFDAn=JEon En@E?=JoH ?D=H=?JAHI =HA =lM=OI IK>jA?JJoIFlEJJEnC=BJAHJDoIA?D=H=?JAHI,MDAJDAH=KJom=JE?DOFDAn=JEonEIonoHoBB. .nh DOFDAn=JA - - )KJom=JE?DOFDAn=JEonEIJKHnA@oBB. .hy N on, N = on, N = - )KJom=JE? DOFDAn=JEon EI JKHnA@ on BoH Nࣛ , oH oBB BoH N = . 1B N = , l=IJ lEnAI onAI JD=J MEll ?=KIA = JH=F =HA noJ DOFDAn=JA@. .oH N = " =n@ &, JDA l=IJ =n@ BEHIJ JMo ?D=H=?JAHI HAIFA?JELAlO oB = MoH@ =HA noJ IFlEJ oBB. 6DAIA L=lKAI=HA=@@EJELA;E.A., N = "MEllEnLokA=llJDHAAHAIJHE?JEonI. .hc c \% \% - 0OFDAn=JEon En@E?=JoH ?D=H=?JAH EI IAJ Jo c oH Jo JDA @AB=KlJ \%. 6DA En@E?=­ JoH@oAInoJ=FFA=HEnJDAoKJFKJ. .hw word ... ECnoHA@ - 5FA?EBO DOFDAn=JEon FoEnJI En MoH@I MEJD Am>A@@A@ mEnKI IECnI. 8AHIEonI oB = MoH@ MEJD JAHmEn=l s =HA EmFlEA@; E.A., dig−it EmFlEAI dig−its. 6DEI lEIJ EI AN=mEnA@ EnEJE=llO =n@ =BJAH A=?D IKBBEN IJHEFFEnC. 6DA IF=?A =L=El=>lA EIIm=ll.

14. Three−Part Titles. 6DA JEJlEnC BKn?JEon tl FHoLE@AI BoH =KJom=JE? Fl=?AmAnJ oB JDHAA BEAl@I =J JDA lABJ, ?AnJAH, =n@ HECDJ oB = lEnA MEJD = JEJlA lAnCJD IFA?EBE=>lA MEJD lt. tl m=O >A KIA@ =nO­ MDAHA, =n@ EI En@AFAn@AnJ oB JDA noHm=l JANJ ?ollA?JEnC FHo?AII. ) ?ommon KIA EI En DA=@AH=n@BooJAHm=?HoI. .tl ’left’center’right’ -- 6DA IJHEnCI left, center, =n@ right =HA HAIFA?JELAlO lABJ-=@jKIJA@, ?AnJAHA@, =n@ HECDJ-=@jKIJA@ En JDA ?KHHAnJ JEJlA lAnCJD. )nO oB JDA IJHEnCI m=O >A AmFJO, =n@ oLAHl=FFEnC EI FAHmEJJA@. 1B JDA F=CA-nKm>AH ?D=H=?JAH EnEJE=llO % EI BoKn@ MEJDEn =nO oB JDA BEAl@I EJ EI HAFl=?A@ >O JDA ?KHHAnJ F=CA nKm>AH En JDA BoHm=J =IIECnA@ Jo HACEIJAH %. )nO ?D=H=?JAH m=O >A KIA@ En Fl=?A oB ’ =IJDAIJHEnC@AlEmEJAH. ­ $­

.pc c % oBB - 6DA F=CA nKm>AH ?D=H=?JAH EI IAJ Jo c, oH HAmoLA@. 6DA F=CA nKm>AH HACEI­ JAHHAm=EnI %. .lt ±N $.# En FHALEoKI -,m LAnCJD oB JEJlA EI IAJ Jo ±N. 6DA lEnA lAnCJD =n@ JDA JEJlA lAnCJD =HA En@AFAn­ @AnJ. 1n@AnJI@onoJ=FFlOJoJEJlAI;F=CAoBBIAJI@o.

15. Output Line Numbering. )KJom=JE? IAGKAn?A nKm>AHEnC oB oKJFKJ lEnAI m=O >A HAGKAIJA@ MEJD nm. 9DAn En ABBA?J, = JDHAA-@ECEJ, =H=>E? nKm>AH FlKI = @ECEJ-IF=?A EI FHABENA@ Jo oKJ­ ! FKJ JANJ lEnAI. 6DA JANJ lEnAI =HA JDKI oBBIAJ >O BoKH @ECEJ-IF=?AI, =n@ oJDAHMEIA HAJ=En JDAEH lEnA lAnCJD; = HA@K?JEon En lEnA lAnCJD m=O >A @AIEHA@ Jo kAAF JDA HECDJ m=HCEn =lECnA@ MEJD =n A=HlEAH m=HCEn. *l=nk lEnAI, oJDAH LAHJE?=l IF=?AI, =n@ lEnAI $ CAnAH=JA@ >O tl =HA noJ nKm>AHA@. NKm>AHEnC ?=n >A JAmFoH=HElO IKIFAn@A@ MEJD nn, oH MEJD =n .nm BolloMA@ >O = l=JAH .nm +0. 1n =@@EJEon, = lEnA nKm>AH En@AnJ I, =n@ JDA nKm>AH-JANJ IAF=H=JEon S m=O >A IFA?EBEA@ En @ECEJ-IF=?AI. .KH­ ' JDAH, EJ ?=n >A IFA?EBEA@ JD=J onlO JDoIA lEnA nKm>AHI JD=J =HA mKlJEFlAI oB IomA nKm>AH M =HAJo>AFHEnJA@JDAoJDAHIMEll=FFA=H=I>l=nknKm>AHBEAl@I. .nm ±N M S I oBB - LEnA nKm>AH mo@A. 1B ±N EI CELAn, lEnA nKm>AHEnC EI JKHnA@ on, =n@ JDA nANJ oKJFKJ lEnA nKm>AHA@ EI nKm>AHA@ ±N. ,AB=KlJ L=lKAI =HA M = , S = , =n@ I = . 2=H=mAJAHI ?oHHAIFon@EnC Jo mEIIEnC =HCKmAnJI =HA Kn=BBA?JA@; = non-nKmAHE? =HCKmAnJ EI ?onIE@AHA@ mEIIEnC. 1n JDA =>IAn?A oB =ll =HCK­ mAnJI, nKm>AHEnC EI JKHnA@ oBB; JDA nANJ lEnA nKm>AH EI FHAIAHLA@ BoH FoIIE­ >lABKHJDAHKIAEnnKm>AHHACEIJAH ln. .nn N - N = - 6DAnANJ N JANJoKJFKJlEnAI=HAnoJnKm>AHA@. )I =n AN=mFlA, JDA F=H=CH=FD FoHJEonI oB JDEI IA?JEon =HA nKm>AHA@ MEJD M= !: .nm 1 3 M=I Fl=?A@ =J JDA >ACEnnEnC; .nm M=I Fl=?A@ =J JDA An@ oB JDA BEHIJ F=H=CH=FD; =n@ .nm +0 M=I Fl=?A@ En BHonJ oB JDEI F=H=CH=FD; =n@ .nm BEn=llO Fl=?A@ =J JDA An@. LEnA lAnCJDI MAHA =lIo ?D=nCA@ >O \w’0000’uJo # kAAF JDA HECDJ IE@A =lECnA@. )noJDAH AN=mFlA EI .nm +5 5 x 3, MDE?D JKHnI on nKm>AHEnC MEJD JDA lEnA nKm>AH oB JDA nANJ lEnA Jo >A # CHA=JAH JD=n JDA l=IJ nKm­ >AHA@lEnA,MEJD M = #,MEJDIF=?EnC S KnJoK?DA@,=n@MEJDJDAEn@AnJ I IAJJo!.

16. Conditional Acceptance of Input 1nJDABolloMEnC, c EI=onA-?D=H=?JAH>KElJ-En condition n=mA, ! IECnEBEAI not, N EI = nKmAHE?=l ANFHAIIEon, string1 =n@ string2 =HA IJHEnCI @AlEmEJA@ >O =nO non->l=nk, non- nKmAHE? ?D=H=?JAH noJ En JDA IJHEnCI, =n@ anything HAFHAIAnJI MD=J EI ?on@EJEon=llO =??AFJA@. .if c anything -- 1B ?on@EJEon c JHKA, =??AFJ anything =I EnFKJ; En mKlJE-lEnA ?=IA KIA \{any- thing \}. .if !c anything -- 1B?on@EJEon c B=lIA,=??AFJ anything. .if N anything - u 1BANFHAIIEon N >,=??AFJ anything. .if !N anything - u 1BANFHAIIEon N ࣘ [IE?],=??AFJ anything. ­ %­

.if ’string1’string2’ anything - 1B string1 E@AnJE?=lJo string2,=??AFJ anything. .if !’string1’string2’ anything - 1B string1 noJE@AnJE?=lJo string2,=??AFJ anything. .ie c anything - u 1BFoHJEonoBEB-AlIA;=lloBJDABoHmIBoH if =>oLA=HAL=lE@. .el anything -- -lIAFoHJEonoBEB-AlIA. 6DA>KElJ-En?on@EJEonn=mAI=HA: ______ +on@EJEon   ______N=mA 6HKA1B      o  +KHHAnJF=CAnKm>AHEIo@@   e  +KHHAnJF=CAnKm>AHEIALAn   t  .oHm=JJAHEI troff     ______n  .oHm=JJAHEI nroff  1B JDA ?on@EJEon c EI JHKA, oH EB JDA nKm>AH N EI CHA=JAH JD=n zAHo, oH EB JDA IJHEnCI ?om­ F=HA E@AnJE?=llO En?lK@EnC moJEonI =n@ ?D=H=?JAH IEzA =n@ BonJ, anything EI =??AFJA@ =I EnFKJ. 1B = ! FHA?A@AI JDA ?on@EJEon, nKm>AH, oH IJHEnC ?omF=HEIon, JDA IAnIA oB JDA =??AFJ=n?AEIHALAHIA@. )nO IF=?AI >AJMAAn JDA ?on@EJEon =n@ JDA >ACEnnEnC oB anything =HA IkEFFA@ oLAH. 6DA anything ?=n >A AEJDAH = IEnClA EnFKJ lEnA JANJ, m=?Ho, oH MD=JALAH oH = nKm>AH oB EnFKJ lEnAI. 1n JDA mKlJE-lEnA ?=IA, JDA BEHIJ lEnA mKIJ >ACEn MEJD = lABJ @AlEmEJAH \{ =n@ JDAl=IJlEnAmKIJAn@MEJD=HECDJ@AlEmEJAH \}. 6DA HAGKAIJ ie EB-AlIA EI E@AnJE?=l Jo if AN?AFJ JD=J JDA =??AFJ=n?A IJ=JA EI HAmAm>AHA@. ) IK>IAGKAnJ=n@m=J?DEnC el AlIAHAGKAIJJDAnKIAIJDAHALAHIAIAnIA oBJD=JIJ=JA. ie-el F=EHIm=O>AnAIJA@. 5omAAN=mFlAI=HA:

.if e .tl ’ Even Page %’’’ MDE?DoKJFKJI=JEJlAEBJDAF=CAnKm>AHEIALAn;=n@

.ie \n%>1 \{\ ’ sp 0.5i . tl ’Page %’’’ ’ sp |1.2i \} .el .sp |2.5i MDE?DJHA=JIF=CA @EBBAHAnJlOBHomoJDAHF=CAI.

17. Environment Switching. ) nKm>AH oB JDA F=H=mAJAHI JD=J ?onJHol JDA JANJ FHo?AIIEnC =HA C=JDAHA@ JoCAJDAH EnJo =n environment, MDE?D ?=n >A IMEJ?DA@ >O JDA KIAH. 6DA AnLEHonmAnJ F=H=mAJAHI =HA JDoIA =IIo?E=JA@ MEJD HAGKAIJI noJEnC - En JDAEH Notes ?olKmn; En =@@EJEon, F=HJE=llO ?ollA?JA@ lEnAI =n@ MoH@I =HA En JDA AnLEHonmAnJ. -LAHOJDEnC AlIA EI Clo>=l; AN=mFlAI =HA F=CA-oHEAnJA@ F=H=mAJAHI, @ELAHIEon-oHEAnJA@ F=H=mAJAHI, nKm>AH HACEIJAHI, =n@ m=?Ho =n@ IJHEnC @ABEnEJEonI. )ll AnLEHonmAnJI =HA EnEJE=lEzA@ MEJD @AB=KlJ F=H=mAJAH L=lKAI. .ev NN=  FHALEoKI - -nLEHonmAnJ IMEJ?DA@ Jo AnLEHonmAnJ ࣚNࣚ . 5MEJ?DEnC EI @onA En FKID- @oMn B=IDEon Io JD=J HAIJoHEnC = FHALEoKI AnLEHonmAnJ must >A @onA MEJD ­ &­

.ev H=JDAH JD=n IFA?EBE? HABAHAn?A. NoJA JD=J MD=J EI FKIDA@ @oMn =n@ HAIJoHA@EIJDAAnLEHonmAnJ number, noJEJI?onJAnJI.

18. Insertions from the Standard Input 6DA EnFKJ ?=n >A JAmFoH=HElO IMEJ?DA@ Jo JDA IOIJAm IJ=n@=H@ EnFKJ MEJD rd, MDE?D MEll IMEJ?D >=?k MDAn JMo ?onIA?KJELA nAMlEnAI =HA BoKn@ JDA ANJH= >l=nk lEnA EI noJ KIA@. 6DEI mA?D=nEIm EI EnJAn@A@ BoH EnIAHJEonI En BoHm-lAJJAH-lEkA @o?KmAnJ=JEon. 6DAIJ=n@=H@EnFKJ?=n>AJDAKIAHߣIkAO>o=H@,=FEFA,oH=BElA. .rd prompt - prompt=*-L - 4A=@ EnIAHJEon BHom JDA IJ=n@=H@ EnFKJ KnJEl JMo nAMlEnAI En = HoM =HA BoKn@. 1B JDA IJ=n@=H@ EnFKJ EI JDA KIAHߣI kAO>o=H@, prompt oH= *-LEIMHEJ­ JAn onJo JDA IJ=n@=H@ oKJFKJ. rd >AD=LAI lEkA = m=?Ho, =n@ =HCKmAnJI m=O >AFl=?A@=BJAH prompt. .ex --- -NEJ BHom nroff/troff . 6ANJ FHo?AIIEnC EI JAHmEn=JA@ AN=?JlO =I EB =ll EnFKJ D=@An@A@. 1B EnIAHJEonI =HA Jo >A J=kAn BHom JDA JAHmEn=l kAO>o=H@ MDElA oKJFKJ EI >AEnC FHEnJA@ on JDA JAHmEn=l, JDA ?omm=n@ lEnA oFJEon −q MEll JKHn oBB JDA A?DoEnC oB kAO­ >o=H@ EnFKJ =n@ FHomFJ onlO MEJD *-L. 6DA HACKl=H EnFKJ =n@ EnIAHJEon EnFKJ ?=nnoJ IEmKlJ=nAoKIlO?omABHomJDAIJ=n@=H@EnFKJ. )I =n AN=mFlA, mKlJEFlA ?oFEAI oB = BoHm lAJJAH m=O >A FHAF=HA@ >O AnJAHEnC JDA EnIAHJEonI BoH =ll JDA ?oFEAI En onA BElA Jo >A KIA@ =I JDA IJ=n@=H@ EnFKJ, =n@ ?=KIEnC JDA BElA ?onJ=EnEnC JDA lAJJAH Jo HAEnLokA EJIAlB MEJD nx § '; JDA FHo?AII MoKl@ KlJEm=JAlO >AAn@A@>O=n ex EnJDAEnIAHJEonBElA.

19. Input/Output File Switching .so filename -- 5MEJ?D IoKH?A BElA. 6DA JoF EnFKJ BElA HA=@EnC lALAl EI IMEJ?DA@ Jo filename. 9DAn JDA nAM BElA An@I,EnFKJEI=C=EnJ=kAnBHomJDAoHECEn=lBElA. soߣIm=O >AnAIJA@. .nx filename An@-oB-BElA - NANJ BElA EI filename. 6DA ?KHHAnJ BElA EI ?onIE@AHA@ An@A@, =n@ JDA EnFKJ EI EmmA@E=JAlOIMEJ?DA@Jo filename. .sy string -- -NA?KJA FHoCH=m BHom string, MDE?D EI JDA HAIJ oB JDA EnFKJ lEnA. 6DA oKJFKJ EI noJ ?ollA?JA@ =KJom=JE?=llO. 6DA nKm>AH HACEIJAH $$, MDE?D ?onJ=EnI JDA FHo?AII E@ oB JDA troff FHo?AII, m=O >A KIABKl En CAnAH=JEnC KnEGKA BElA­ n=mAIBoHoKJFKJ. .pi string -- 2EFA oKJFKJ Jo string, MDE?D EI JDA HAIJ oB JDA EnFKJ lEnA. 6DEI HAGKAIJ mKIJ o??KH>ABoHA=nOFHEnJEnCo??KHI;JOFE?=llOEJEIJDABEHIJlEnAoBEnFKJ. .cf filename -- +oFO ?onJAnJI oB BElA filename Jo oKJFKJ, ?omFlAJAlO KnFHo?AIIA@. 6DA BElA EI=IIKmA@Jo?onJ=EnIomAJDEnCmA=nEnCBKlJoIK>IAGKAnJFHo?AIIAI. ­ '­

20. Miscellaneous .mc c N - oBB -,m  5FA?EBEAI JD=J = margin ?D=H=?JAH c =FFA=H = @EIJ=n?A N Jo JDA HECDJ oB JDA  HECDJ m=HCEn =BJAH A=?D non-AmFJO JANJ lEnA AN?AFJ JDoIA FHo@K?A@ >O tl.  1BJDAoKJFKJlEnA EI Joo lonC =I ?=n D=FFAn En noBEll mo@A JDA ?D=H=?JAH MEll  >A =FFAn@A@ Jo JDA lEnA. 1B N EI noJ CELAn, JDA FHALEoKI N EI KIA@; JDA EnEJE=l  N EI . En?DAI En nroff =n@ Am En troff . 6DA m=HCEn ?D=H=?JAH KIA@ MEJD  JDEIF=H=CH=FDM=I= -FoEnJ>oN-HKlA.  .tm string - nAMlEnA - )BJAH IkEFFEnC EnEJE=l >l=nkI, string HAIJ oB JDA lEnA EI HA=@ En ?oFO mo@A =n@MHEJJAnonJDAIJ=n@=H@AHHoH. .ab string - nAMlEnA - )BJAH IkEFFEnC EnEJE=l >l=nkI, string HAIJ oB JDA lEnA EI HA=@ En ?oFO mo@A =n@MHEJJAnonJDAIJ=n@=H@AHHoH. Troff oH nroff JDAnANEJ. .ig yy - .yy=.. - 1CnoHA EnFKJ lEnAI. ig >AD=LAI AN=?JlO lEkA de §% AN?AFJ JD=J JDA EnFKJ EI @EI?=H@A@. 6DA EnFKJ EI HA=@En?oFOmo@A,=n@=nO=KJo-En?HAmAnJA@HACEI­ JAHIMEll>A=BBA?JA@. .lf N filename -- 5AJ lEnA nKm>AH Jo N =n@ BElAn=mA Jo filename BoH FKHFoIAI oB IK>IAGKAnJ AHHoH mAII=CAI, AJ?. 6DA nKm>AH HACEIJAH [IE?] .F ?onJ=EnI JDA n=mA oB JDA ?KHHAnJ EnFKJ BElA, =I IAJ >O ?omm=n@ lEnA =HCKmAnJ, so, nx,oHlf. 6DA nKm>AH HACEIJAH .c ?onJ=EnI JDA nKm>AH oB EnFKJ lEnAI HA=@ BHom JDA ?KH­ HAnJBElA,=C=EnFAHD=FI=Imo@EBEA@>O lf. .pm t - =ll - 2HEnJ m=?HoI. 6DA n=mAI =n@ IEzAI oB =ll oB JDA @ABEnA@ m=?HoI =n@ IJHEnCI =HA FHEnJA@ on JDA IJ=n@=H@ AHHoH; EB t EI CELAn, onlO JDA JoJ=l oB JDA IEzAI EI FHEnJA@. 6DAIEzAIEICELAnEn>lo?kIoB &?D=H=?JAHI. .fl --* .lKID oKJFKJ >KBBAH. .oH?A oKJFKJ, En?lK@EnC =nO FAn@EnC FoIEJEon EnBoHm=­ JEon.

21. Output and Error Messages. 6DA oKJFKJ BHom tm, pm, =n@ JDA FHomFJ BHom rd, =I MAll =I L=HEoKI AHHoH mAI­ I=CAI, =HA MHEJJAn onJo JDA IJ=n@=H@ AHHoH. 6DA l=JJAH EI @EBBAHAnJ BHom JDA IJ=n@=H@ oKJ­ FKJ, MDAHA BoHm=JJA@ JANJ CoAI. *O @AB=KlJ, >oJD =HA MHEJJAn onJo JDA KIAHߣI JAHmEn=l, >KJJDAO?=n>AEn@AFAn@AnJlOHA@EHA?JA@. 8=HEoKIAHHoH?on@EJEonIm=Oo??KH@KHEnCJDAoFAH=JEonoB nroff =n@ troff . +AHJ=En lAII IAHEoKI AHHoHI D=LEnC onlO lo?=l EmF=?J @o noJ ?=KIA FHo?AIIEnC Jo JAHmEn=JA. 6Mo AN=mFlAI =HA word overflow, ?=KIA@ >O = MoH@ JD=J EI Joo l=HCA Jo BEJ EnJo JDA MoH@ >KBBAH En BEll mo@A, =n@ line overflow, ?=KIA@ >O =n oKJFKJ lEnA JD=J CHAM Joo l=HCA Jo BEJ En JDA lEnA >KBBAH. 1n >oJD ?=IAI, = mAII=CA EI FHEnJA@, JDA oBBAn@EnC AN?AII EI @EI­ ?=H@A@, =n@ JDA =BBA?JA@ MoH@ oH lEnA EI m=HkA@ =J JDA FoEnJ oB JHKn?=JEon MEJD = ࢩ En nroff =n@ = En troff . 2Ho?AIIEnC ?onJEnKAI EB FoIIE>lA, on JDA CHoKn@I JD=J oKJFKJ KIABKl BoH @A>KCCEnC m=O >A FHo@K?A@. 1B = IAHEoKI AHHoH o??KHI, FHo?AIIEnC JAHmE­ n=JAI, =n@ = mAII=CA EI FHEnJA@, =lonC MEJD = lEIJ oB JDA m=?Ho n=mAI ?KHHAnJlO =?JELA. -N=mFlAI oB IAHEoKI AHHoHI En?lK@A JDA En=>ElEJO Jo ?HA=JA, HA=@, oH MHEJA BElAI, =n@ JDA AN?AA@EnCoB?AHJ=EnEnJAHn=llEmEJIJD=Jm=kABKJKHAoKJFKJKnlEkAlOJo>AKIABKl. ­!­

22. Output Language Troff FHo@K?AI EJI oKJFKJ En = l=nCK=CA JD=J EI En@AFAn@AnJ oB =nO IFA?EBE? oKJFKJ @ALE?A, AN?AFJ JD=J JDA nKm>AHI En EJ D=LA >AAn ?omFKJA@ on JDA >=IEI oB JDA HAIolKJEon oB JDA @ALE?A, =n@ JDA IEzAI, BonJI, =n@ ?D=H=?JAHI JD=J JD=J @ALE?A ?=n FHEnJ. NALAHJDA­ lAII EJ EI GKEJA FoIIE>lA Jo EnJAHFHAJ JD=J oKJFKJ on = @EBBAHAnJ @ALE?A, MEJDEn JDA l=JJAHߣI ?=F=>ElEJEAI. sn IAJFoEnJIEzAJo n fn IAJBonJJo n cc FHEnJ?D=H=?JAH c Cname FHEnJJDA?D=H=?JAH?=llA@ name;JAHmEn=JA name >OMDEJAIF=?A Nn FHEnJ?D=H=?JAH n on?KHHAnJBonJ Hn CoJo=>IolKJADoHEzonJ=lFoIEJEon n nࣛ Vn CoJo=>IolKJALAHJE?=lFoIEJEon n nࣛ,@oMnEIFoIEJELA hn Co n KnEJIDoHEzonJ=llO; n<EIJoJDAlABJ vn Co n KnEJILAHJE?=llO; n<EIKF nnc moLAHECDJ nn,JDAnFHEnJ 76. ?D=H=?JAH c; nn mKIJ>AAN=?JlO @ECEJI pn nAMF=CA n >ACEnIߞIAJLAHJE?=lFoIEJEonJo nba An@oBlEnAEnBoHm=JEononlOߞno=?JEon; b =IF=?A>ABoHAlEnA, a ==BJAH w F=@@=>lAMoH@IF=?AEnBoHm=JEononlOߞno=?JEon Dc ...\n CH=FDE?IBKn?JEon c;IAA>AloM x ...\n @ALE?A?onJHolBKn?JEonI;IAA>AloM # ...\n ?ommAnJ )ll FoIEJEon L=lKAI =HA En KnEJI. 5AGKAn?AI JD=J An@ En @ECEJI mKIJ >A BolloMA@ >O = non-@ECEJ. *l=nkI, J=>I =n@ nAMlEnAI m=O o??KH =I IAF=H=JoHI En JDA EnFKJ, =n@ =HA m=n@=JoHO Jo IAF=H=JA ?onIJHK?JEonI JD=J MoKl@ oJDAHMEIA >A ?onBKIA@. /H=FDE?I BKn?­ JEonI, @ALE?A ?onJHol BKn?JEonI, =n@ ?ommAnJI ANJAn@ Jo JDA An@ oB JDA lEnA JDAO o??KH on. 6DA @ALE?A ?onJHol =n@ CH=FDE?I ?omm=n@I =HA EnJAn@A@ =I oFAn-An@A@ B=mElEAI, Jo >A ANF=n@A@ =I nAA@A@. 6DA CH=FDE?I BKn?JEonI ?oEn?E@A @EHA?JlO MEJD JDA \D IAGKAn?AI: Dl dh dv @H=MlEnABHom?KHHAnJFoIEJEon>O dh, dv Dc d @H=M?EH?lAoB@E=mAJAH d MEJDlABJIE@ADAHA De dh dv @H=MAllEFIAoB@E=mAJAHI dh =n@ dv Da dh dv dh dv @H=M=H?BHom?KHHAnJFoIEJEonJo dh + dh , dv + dv , ?AnJAH=J dh , dv BHom?KHHAnJFoIEJEon D~ dh dv dh dv ... @H=M*-IFlEnABHom?KHHAnJFoIEJEonJo dh , dv , JDAnJo dh , dv ,JDAnJo... Dzdh dv dh dv ... BoH=nOoJDAH z EIKnEnJAHFHAJA@ 1n =ll oB JDAIA, dh, dv EI =n En?HAmAnJ on JDA ?KHHAnJ DoHEzonJ=l =n@ LAHJE?=l FoIEJEon, MEJD@oMn=n@HECDJFoIEJELA. )ll@EIJ=n?AI=n@@EmAnIEonI=HAEnKnEJI. 6DA @ALE?A ?onJHol BKn?JEonI >ACEn MEJD x, JDAn = ?omm=n@, JDAn oJDAH F=H=mA­ JAHI. x T s n=mAoBJOFAIAJJAHEI s x r n h v HAIolKJEonEI n KnEJI/En?D; h =mEnEmKmDoHEzonJ=lmoJEon, v =mEnEmKmLAHJE?=l x i EnEJE=lEzA x f n s moKnJBonJ s onBonJFoIEJEon n x p F=KIAߞ?=nHAIJ=HJ x s IJoFߞ@onABoHALAH x t CAnAH=JAJH=ElAHEnBoHm=JEon,EB=nO x H n IAJ?D=H=?JAHDAECDJJo n x S n IAJIl=nJJo n ­! ­

x X any CAnAH=JA@>OJDA \X BKn?JEon x any Jo>AECnoHA@EBnoJHA?oCnEzA@ 5K>?omm=n@IlEkAߢߢiߣߣ m=O>AIFAllA@oKJlEkAߢߢinitߣߣ. 6DA ?omm=n@I xT, xr..., =n@ ximKIJ o??KH BEHIJ; BonJI mKIJ >A moKnJA@ >ABoHAJDAO?=n>AKIA@; x s ?omAIl=IJ. 6DAHA=HAnooJDAHoH@AHHAGKEHAmAnJI. 6DA BolloMEnC EI JDA oKJFKJ BHom ߢߢhello, worldߣߣ BoH = JOFE?=l FHEnJAH, =I @AI?HE>A@En§ !:

x T utf x res 720 1 1 x init V0 p1

x font 1 R x font 2 I x font 3 B x font 4 BI x font 5 CW x font 6 H x font 7 HB x font 8 HX x font 9 S1 x font 10 S

s10 f1 H0 s10 f1 V0 H720 V120 ch 50e44l28l28o50,w58w72o50r33l28dn120 0 x trailer V7920 x stop

Troff oKJFKJ EI noHm=llO noJ HA@Kn@=nJ; IEzA =n@ BonJ ?D=nCAI =n@ FoIEJEon EnBoH­ m=JEon =HA noJ En?lK@A@ KnlAII nAA@A@. NALAHJDAlAII, A=?D F=CA EI IAlB-?onJ=EnA@, BoH JDA>AnABEJoBFoIJFHo?AIIoHIJD=JHA-oH@AHF=CAIoHFHo?AIIonlO=IK>IAJ.

23. Device and Font Description Files 6DA F=H=mAJAHI JD=J @AI?HE>A = oKJFKJ @ALE?A name =HA HA=@ BHom JDA @EHA?JoHO /sys/lib/troff/font/devname, A=?D JEmA troff EI EnLokA@. 6DA @ALE?A n=mA EI FHoLE@A@ >O @AB=KlJ, >O JDA AnLEHonmAnJ L=HE=>lA TYPESETTER, oH >O = ?omm=n@-lEnA =HCKmAnJ −Tname. 6DA @AB=KlJ @ALE?A n=mA EI utf, BoH 76.-An?o@A@ 7nE?o@A ?D=H=?­ JAHI. 6DA FHA-@ABEnA@ IJHEnC .T ?onJ=EnI JDA n=mA oB JDA @ALE?A. 6DA −F ?omm=n@- lEnAoFJEonm=O>AKIA@Jo?D=nCAJDA@AB=KlJ@EHA?JoHO. 2233..11.. DDeevviicceeddeessccrriippttiioonnffiillee.. /AnAH=l F=H=mAJAHI oB JDA @ALE?A =HA IJoHA@, onA FAH lEnA, En JDA BElA /sys/lib/troff/font/devname/DESC, =I = IAGKAn?A oB n=mAI =n@L=lKAI. Troff HA?oCnEzAIJDAIAF=H=mAJAHI,=n@ECnoHAI =nO oJDAHI JD=J m=O >A FHA­ IAnJBoHIFA?EBE?@HELAHI:

fonts nF F ... Fn sizes s s ...0 ­! ­

res n hor n vert n unitwidth n charset list of multi−character character names (optional)

6DA F i =HABonJn=mAIJo>AEnEJE=llOmoKnJA@. 6DAlEIJ oB IEzAI EI = IAJ oB EnJACAHI HAFHA­ IAnJEnC IomA oH =ll oB JDA lAC=l IEzAI JDA @ALE?A ?=n FHo@K?A, JAHmEn=JA@ >O = zAHo. 6DA res F=H=mAJAH CELAI JDA HAIolKJEon oB JDA m=?DEnA En KnEJI FAH En?D; hor =n@ ver CELA JDAmEnEmKmnKm>AHoBKnEJIJD=J?=n>AmoLA@DoHEzonJ=llO=n@LAHJE?=llO. +D=H=?JAH ME@JDI BoH A=?D BonJ =HA =IIKmA@ Jo >A CELAn En m=?DEnA KnEJI =J FoEnJ IEzA unitwidth. 1n oJDAH MoH@I, = ?D=H=?JAH MEJD = ME@JD oB n EI n KnEJI ME@A =J IEzA unitwidth. )llME@JDI=HAEnJACAHI=J=llIEzAI. ) lEIJ oB L=lE@ ?D=H=?JAH n=mAI m=O >A EnJHo@K?A@ >O charset; JDA lEIJ oB n=mAI EIoFJEon=l. ) lEnA MDoIA BEHIJ non->l=nk ?D=H=?JAH EI # EI = ?ommAnJ. -N?AFJ JD=J charset mKIJo??KHl=IJ,F=H=mAJAHIm=O=FFA=HEn=nOoH@AH. 0AHAEI=IK>IAJoBJDA DESC BElABoH=JOFE?=l2oIJI?HEFJFHEnJAH: # Description file for Postscript printers.

fonts 10RIBBICWHHBHXS1S sizes 4567891011121314151617181920212223 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 38 40 44 48 54 60 72 0 res 720 hor 1 vert 1 unitwidth 10 charset hy ct fi fl ff Fi Fl dg em 14 34 12 en aa ga ru sc dd −> br Sl ps cs cy as os =. ld rd le ge pp −+ ob vr sq bx ci fa te ** pl mi eq ~= *A *B *X *D *E *F *G *Y *I *K *L *M *N *O *P *R *H *S *T *U *W *C *Q *Z ul rn *a *b *x *d *e *f *g *y *i *k *l *m *n *o *p *h *r *s *t *u *w *c *q *z

2233..22.. FFoonnttddeessccrriippttiioonnffiilleess.. -=?D BonJ EI @AI?HE>A@ >O =n =n=loCoKI @AI?HEFJEon BElA, MDE?D >ACEnI MEJD F=H=mAJAHI oB JDA BonJ, onA FAH lEnA, BolloMA@ >O = lEIJ oB ?D=H=?JAHI =n@ME@JDI. 6DABElABoHBonJ f EI /sys/lib/troff/font/devname/f. name str n=mAoBBonJEI str ligatures . . . 0 lEIJoBlEC=JKHAI spacewidth n ME@JDoB=IF=?AonJDEIBonJ special JDEIEI=IFA?E=lBonJ charset list of character name, width, ascender/descender, code,J=>IAF=H=JA@ 6DA name =n@ charset BEAl@I =HA m=n@=JoHO; charset mKIJ >A l=IJ. +ommAnJI =HA FAHmEJJA@,=I=HAoJDAHKnHA?oCnEzA@F=H=mAJAHI. -=?D lEnA BolloMEnC charset @AI?HE>AI onA ?D=H=?JAH: EJI n=mA, EJI ME@JD En KnEJI =I @AI?HE>A@ =>oLA, =I?An@AH/@AI?An@AH EnBoHm=JEon, =n@ = @A?Em=l, o?J=l oH DAN=@A?E­ m=l L=lKA >O MDE?D JDA oKJFKJ @ALE?A knoMI EJ JDA \N ߢߢnKm>AHߣߣ oB JDA ?D=H=?JAH. 6DA ?D=H=?JAH n=mA EI =H>EJH=HO, AN?AFJ JD=J −−− IECnEBEAI =n Knn=mA@ ?D=H=?JAH. 1B JDA ME@JD BEAl@ ?onJ=EnI ", JDA n=mA EI = IOnonOm BoH JDA FHALEoKI ?D=H=?JAH. 6DA =I?An@AH/@AI?An@AH BEAl@ EI EB JDA ?D=H=?JAH D=I = @AI?An@AH D=nCI >AloM JDA ­!!­

>=IAlEnA, lEkA y, EI EB EJ D=I =n =I?An@AH EI J=ll, lEkA Y, EI ! EB >oJD, =n@ EI  EB nAEJDAH. 6DAL=lKAEIHAJKHnA@EnJDA ct HACEIJAH,=I?omFKJA@>OJDA \w BKn?JEon§ . . 0AHA =HA AN?AHFJI BHom = JOFE?=l BonJ @AI?HEFJEon BElA BoH JDA I=mA 2oIJI?HEFJ FHEnJAH.

hy 33 0 45 hyphen \(hy − " − is a synonym for \(hy Q72381 a44097 b50298 c44099 d 50 2 100 y 50 1 121 em 100 0 208 −−− 44 2 220 Pound symbol £, \N’220’ −−− 36 0 221 centered dot \N’221’ 6DEI I=OI, BoH AN=mFlA, JD=J JDA ME@JD oB JDA lAJJAH a EI "" KnEJI =J FoEnJ IEzA , JDA L=lKA oB unitwidth. 2oEnJ IEzAI =HA I?=lA@ lEnA=HlO =n@ HoKn@A@, Io JDA ME@JD oB a MEll>A""=JIEzA ,"=JIEzA',!#=JIEzA&,=n@Ioon. ­!"­

Tutorial Examples

Introduction 1J EI =lmoIJ =lM=OI nA?AII=HO Jo FHAF=HA =J lA=IJ = Im=ll IAJ oB m=?Ho @ABEnEJEonI Jo @AI?HE>A = @o?KmAnJ. 5K?D ?ommon BoHm=JJEnC nAA@I =I F=CA m=HCEnI =n@ BooJnoJAI =HA @AlE>AH=JAlO noJ >KElJ EnJo nroff =n@ troff . 1nIJA=@, JDA m=?Ho =n@ IJHEnC @ABEnEJEon, nKm>AH HACEIJAH, @ELAHIEon, AnLEHonmAnJ IMEJ?DEnC, F=CA-FoIEJEon JH=F, =n@ ?on@EJEon=l EnFKJmA?D=nEImIFHoLE@AJDA>=IEIBoHKIAH-@ABEnA@EmFlAmAnJ=JEonI. .oH moIJ KIAI, = IJ=n@=H@ F=?k=CA lEkA −ms oH −mm EI JDA HECDJ ?DoE?A. 6DA nANJ IJ=CA EI Jo =KCmAnJ JD=J, oH Jo IAlA?JELAlO HAFl=?A m=?HoI BHom JDA IJ=n@=H@ F=?k=CA. 6DA l=IJ IJ=CA, mK?D D=H@AH, EI Jo MHEJA onAߣI oMn BHom I?H=J?D. 6DEI EI noJ = J=Ik BoH JDAnoLE?A. 6DAAN=mFlAI @EI?KIIA@ DAHA =HA EnJAn@A@ Jo >A KIABKl =n@ IomAMD=J HA=lEIJE?, >KJ MEll noJ nA?AII=HElO ?oLAH =ll HAlAL=nJ ?onJEnCAn?EAI. -NFlE?EJ nKmAHE?=l F=H=mAJAHI =HA KIA@ En JDA AN=mFlAI Jo m=kA JDAm A=IEAH Jo HA=@ =n@ Jo EllKIJH=JA JOFE?=l L=lKAI. 1n m=nO ?=IAI, nKm>AH HACEIJAHI MoKl@ >A KIA@ Jo HA@K?A JDA nKm>AH oB Fl=?AI MDAHA nKmAHE?=l EnBoHm=JEon EI kAFJ, =n@ Jo ?on?AnJH=JA ?on@EJEon=l F=H=mAJAH EnEJE=lEz=JEon lEkAJD=JMDE?D@AFAn@IonMDAJDAH troff oH nroff EI>AEnCKIA@.

Page Margins )I @EI?KIIA@ En §!, DA=@AH =n@ BooJAH m=?HoI =HA KIK=llO @ABEnA@ Jo @AI?HE>A JDA JoF =n@ >oJJom F=CA m=HCEn =HA=I HAIFA?JELAlO. ) JH=F EI Fl=nJA@ =J F=CA FoIEJEon  BoH JDA DA=@AH, =n@ =J −N N BHom JDA F=CA >oJJom BoH JDA BooJAH. 6DA IEmFlAIJ IK?D @ABE­ nEJEonImECDJ>A

.de hd \"define header ’sp 1i .. \"end definition .de fo \"define footer ’bp .. \"end definition .wh 0 hd .wh −1i fo MDE?D FHoLE@A >l=nk En?D JoF =n@ >oJJom m=HCEnI. 6DA DA=@AH MEll o??KH on JDA first F=CA onlO EB JDA @ABEnEJEon =n@ JH=F ANEIJ FHEoH Jo JDA EnEJE=l FIAK@o-F=CA JH=nIEJEon §!. 1n BEll mo@A, JDA oKJFKJ lEnA JD=J IFHEnCI JDA BooJAH JH=F M=I JOFE?=llO BoH?A@ oKJ >A?=KIA IomA F=HJ oH MDolA MoH@ @E@nߣJ BEJ on EJ. 1B =nOJDEnC En JDA BooJAH =n@ DA=@AH JD=J Bol­ loMI ?=KIAI = >HA=k, JD=J MoH@ oH F=HJ MoH@ MEll >A BoH?A@ oKJ. 1n JDEI =n@ oJDAH AN=m­ FlAI, HAGKAIJI lEkA bp =n@ sp JD=J noHm=llO ?=KIA >HA=kI =HA EnLokA@ KIEnC JDA no- >HA=k ?onJHol ?D=H=?JAH ’ Jo =LoE@ JDEI. 9DAn JDA DA=@AH/BooJAH @AIECn ?onJ=EnI m=JA­ HE=l HAGKEHEnC En@AFAn@AnJ JANJ FHo?AIIEnC, JDA AnLEHonmAnJ m=O >A IMEJ?DA@, =LoE@EnC moIJEnJAH=?JEonMEJDJDAHKnnEnCJANJ. )moHAHA=lEIJE?AN=mFlAMoKl@>A ­!#­

.de hd \"header .if \\n%>1 \{\ ’sp 0.5i−1 \"tl base at 0.5i .tl ’’− % −’’ \"centered page number .ps \"restore size .ft \"restore font .vs \} \"restore vs ’sp 1.0i \"space to 1.0i .ns \"turn on no−space mode .. .de fo \"footer .ps 10 \"set footer/header size .ft R \"set font .vs 12p \"set baseline spacing .if \\n%=1 \{\ ’sp \\n(.pu−0.5i−1 \"tl base 0.5i up .tl ’’− % −’’ \} \"first page number ’bp .. .wh 0 hd .wh −1i fo MDE?D IAJI JDA IEzA, BonJ, =n@ >=IAlEnA IF=?EnC BoH JDA DA=@AH/BooJAH m=JAHE=l, =n@ KlJE­ m=JAlO HAIJoHAI JDAm. 6DA m=JAHE=l En JDEI ?=IA EI = F=CA nKm>AH =J JDA >oJJom oB JDA BEHIJF=CA=n@=JJDAJoFoBJDAHAm=EnEnCF=CAI. 6DA spߣIHABAHJo =>IolKJA FoIEJEonI Jo =LoE@ @AFAn@An?A on JDA >=IAlEnA IF=?EnC. )noJDAH HA=Ion BoH @oEnC JDEI En JDA BooJAH EI JD=J JDA BooJAH EI EnLokA@ >O FHEnJEnC = lEnA MDoIA LAHJE?=l IF=?EnC IMAFJ F=IJ JDA JH=F FoIEJEon >O FoIIE>lO =I mK?D =I JDA >=IAlEnA IF=?EnC. No-IF=?A mo@A EI JKHnA@ on =J JDA An@ oB hd Jo HAn@AH EnABBA?JELA =??E@AnJ=l o??KHHAn?AI oB sp =J JDA JoF oB JDA HKn­ nEnCJANJ. 6DEI mAJDo@ oB HAIJoHEnC IEzA, BonJ, AJ?., FHAIKFFoIAI JD=J IK?D HAGKAIJI JD=J IAJ previous L=lKA =HA not KIA@ En JDA HKnnEnC JANJ. ) >AJJAH I?DAmA EI Jo I=LA =n@ HAIJoHA >oJDJDA?KHHAnJ and FHALEoKIL=lKAI=IIDoMnBoHIEzAEnJDABolloMEnC: .de fo .nr s1 \\n(.s \"current size .ps .nr s2 \\n(.s \"previous size . −−− \"rest of footer .. .de hd . −−− \"header stuff .ps \\n(s2 \"restore previous size .ps \\n(s1 \"restore current size .. 2=CA nKm>AHI m=O >A FHEnJA@ En JDA >oJJom m=HCEn >O = IAF=H=JA m=?Ho JHECCAHA@ @KH­ EnCJDABooJAHߣIF=CAAjA?JEon:

.de bn \"bottom number .tl ’’− % −’’ \"centered page number .. .wh −0.5i−1v bn \"tl base 0.5i up

Paragraphs and Headings 6DA DoKIAkAAFEnC =IIo?E=JA@ MEJD IJ=HJEnC = nAM F=H=CH=FD IDoKl@ >A ?ollA?JA@ En = F=H=CH=FD m=?Ho JD=J, BoH AN=mFlA, @oAI JDA @AIEHA@ FHAF=H=CH=FD IF=?EnC, BoH?AI JDA ?oHHA?J BonJ, IEzA, >=IAlEnA IF=?EnC, =n@ En@AnJ, ?DA?kI JD=J AnoKCD IF=?A HAm=EnI BoH ­!$­ more than one lEnA,=n@HAGKAIJI=JAmFoH=HOEn@AnJ. .de pg \"paragraph .br \"break .ft R \"force font, .ps 10 \"size, .vs 12p \"spacing, .in 0 \"and indent .sp 0.4 \"prespace .ne 1+\\n(.Vu \"want more than 1 line .ti 0.2i \"temp indent .. 6DA BEHIJ >HA=k En pg MEll BoH?A oKJ =nO FHALEoKI F=HJE=l lEnAI, =n@ mKIJ o??KH >ABoHA JDA vs. 6DA BoH?EnC oB BonJ, AJ?., EI F=HJlO = @ABAnIA =C=EnIJ FHEoH AHHoH =n@ F=HJlO Jo FAHmEJ JDEnCI lEkA IA?JEon DA=@EnC m=?HoI Jo IAJ F=H=mAJAHI onlO on?A. 6DA FHAIF=?EnC F=H=m­ AJAH EI IKEJ=>lA BoH troff ; = l=HCAH IF=?A, =J lA=IJ=I>EC=IJDAoKJFKJ@ALE?ALAHJE?=lHAIo­ lKJEon, MoKl@ >A moHA IKEJ=>lA En nroff. 6DA ?DoE?A oB HAm=EnEnC IF=?A Jo JAIJ BoH En JDA ne EI JDA Im=llAIJ =moKnJ CHA=JAH JD=n onA lEnA JDA .V EI JDA =L=El=>lA LAHJE?=l HAIolK­ JEon. )m=?HoJo=KJom=JE?=llOnKm>AHIA?JEonDA=@EnCImECDJlooklEkA:

.de sc \"section . −−− \"force font, etc. .sp 0.4 \"prespace .ne 2.4+\\n(.Vu \"want 2.4+ lines .fi \\n+S. .. .nr S 0 1 \"init S 6DA KI=CA EI .sc, BolloMA@ >O JDA IA?JEon DA=@EnC JANJ, BolloMA@ >O .pg. 6DA ne JAIJ L=lKA En?lK@AI onA lEnA oB DA=@EnC, ." lEnAEnJDABolloMEnC pg,=n@onAlEnAoBJDAF=H=­ CH=FD JANJ. ) MoH@ ?onIEIJEnC oB JDA nANJ IA?JEon nKm>AH =n@ = FAHEo@ EI FHo@K?A@ Jo >ACEnJDADA=@EnClEnA. 6DABoHm=JoBJDAnKm>AHm=O>AIAJ>O af §&. )noJDAH ?ommon BoHm EI JDA l=>AlA@, En@AnJA@ F=H=CH=FD, MDAHA JDA l=>Al FHo­ JHK@AIlABJEnJoJDAEn@AnJIF=?A.

.de lp \"labeled paragraph .pg .in 0.5i \"paragraph indent .ta 0.2i 0.5i \"label, paragraph .ti 0 \t\\$1\t\c \"flow into paragraph .. 6DA EnJAn@A@ KI=CA EI ߢߢ.lp label ߣߣ; label MEll >ACEn =J . En?D, =n@ ?=nnoJ AN?AA@ = lAnCJD oB .! En?D MEJDoKJ EnJHK@EnC EnJo JDA F=H=CH=FD. 6DA l=>Al ?oKl@ >A HECDJ =@jKIJA@ =C=EnIJ ." En?D >O IAJJEnC JDA J=>I EnIJA=@ MEJD .ta 0.4iR 0.5i. 6DA l=IJ lEnA oB lp An@I MEJD \c Io JD=J EJ MEll >A?omA = F=HJ oB JDA BEHIJ lEnA oB JDA JANJ JD=J Bol­ loMI.

Multiple Column Output 6DA FHo@K?JEon oB mKlJEFlA ?olKmn F=CAI HAGKEHAI JDA BooJAH m=?Ho Jo @A?E@A MDAJDAH EJ M=I EnLokA@ >O oJDAH JD=n JDA l=IJ ?olKmn, Io JD=J EJ MEll >ACEn = nAM ?olKmn H=JDAH JD=n FHo@K?A JDA >oJJom m=HCEn. 6DA DA=@AH ?=n EnEJE=lEzA = ?olKmn HACEIJAH JD=J JDA BooJAH MEll En?HAmAnJ =n@ JAIJ. 6DA BolloMEnC EI =HH=nCA@ BoH JMo ?olKmnI, >KJ EI A=IElOmo@EBEA@BoHmoHA. ­!%­

.de hd \"header . −−− .nr cl 0 1 \"init column count .mk \"mark top of text ..

.de fo \"footer .ie \\n+(cl<2 \{\ .po +3.4i \"next column; 3.1+0.3 .rt \"back to mark .ns \} \"no−space mode .el \{\ .po \\nMu \"restore left margin . −−− ’bp \} .. .ll 3.1i \"column width .nr M \\n(.o \"save left margin 6OFE?=llO = FoHJEon oB JDA JoF oB JDA BEHIJ F=CA ?onJ=EnI BKll ME@JD JANJ; JDA HAGKAIJ BoH JDA n=HHoMAH lEnA lAnCJD, =I MAll =I =noJDAH .mk MoKl@ >A m=@A MDAHA JDA JMo ?olKmn oKJFKJM=IJo>ACEn.

Footnotes 6DA BooJnoJA mA?D=nEIm Jo >A @AI?HE>A@ EI KIA@ >O Am>A@@EnC JDA BooJnoJAI En JDA EnFKJ JANJ =J JDA FoEnJ oB HABAHAn?A, @Am=H?=JA@ >O =n EnEJE=l .fn =n@ = JAHmEn=l .ef: .fn Footnote text and control lines... .ef 1n JDA BolloMEnC, BooJnoJAI =HA FHo?AIIA@ En = IAF=H=JA AnLEHonmAnJ =n@ @ELAHJA@ BoH l=JAH FHEnJEnC En JDA IF=?A EmmA@E=JAlO FHEoH Jo JDA >oJJom m=HCEn. 6DAHA EI FHoLEIEon BoH JDA ?=IA MDAHA JDA l=IJ ?ollA?JA@ BooJnoJA @oAInߣJ ?omFlAJAlO BEJ En JDA =L=El=>lA IF=?A.

.de hd \"header . −−− .nr x 0 1 \"init footnote count .nr y 0−\\nb \"current footer place .ch fo −\\nbu \"reset footer trap .if \\n(dn .fz \"leftover footnote ..

.de fo \"footer .nr dn 0 \"zero last diversion size .if \\nx \{\ .ev 1 \"expand footnotes in ev1 .nf \"retain vertical size .FN \"footnotes .rm FN \"delete it

.if "\\n(.z"fy" .di \"end overflow di .nr x 0 \"disable fx .ev \} \"pop environment . −−− ’bp .. ­!&­

.de fx \"process footnote overflow .if \\nx .di fy \"divert overflow ..

.de fn \"start footnote .da FN \"divert (append) footnote .ev 1 \"in environment 1 .if \\n+x=1 .fs \"if 1st, separator .fi \"fill mode ..

.de ef \"end footnote .br \"finish output .nr z \\n(.v \"save spacing .ev \"pop ev .di \"end diversion .nr y −\\n(dn \"new footer position, .if \\nx=1 .nr y −(\\n(.v−\\nz) \ \"uncertainty correction .ch fo \\nyu \"y is negative .if (\\n(nl+1v)>(\\n(.p+\\ny) \ .ch fo \\n(nlu+1v \"didn’t fit ..

.de fs \"separator \l’1i’ \"1 inch rule .br ..

.de fz \"get leftover footnote .fn .nf \"retain vertical size .fy \"where fx put it .ef ..

.nr b 1.0i \"bottom margin size .wh 0 hd \"header trap .wh 12i fo \"footer trap−>temp pos .wh −\\nbu fx \"fx at footer position .ch fo −\\nbu \"conceal fx with fo

6DA DA=@AH hd EnEJE=lEzAI = BooJnoJA ?oKnJ HACEIJAH x, =n@ IAJI >oJD JDA ?KHHAnJ BooJAH JH=F FoIEJEon HACEIJAH y =n@ JDA BooJAH JH=F EJIAlB Jo = nomEn=l FoIEJEon IFA?EBEA@ En HACEIJAH b. 1n =@@EJEon, EB JDA HACEIJAH dn En@E?=JAI = lABJoLAH BooJnoJA, fz EI EnLokA@ Jo HAFHo?AII EJ. 6DA BooJnoJA IJ=HJ m=?Ho fn >ACEnI = @ELAHIEon =FFAn@ En AnLEHon­ mAnJ , =n@ En?HAmAnJI JDA ?oKnJ x; EB JDA ?oKnJ EI onA, JDA BooJnoJA IAF=H=JoH fs EI EnJAHFol=JA@. 6DAIAF=H=JoHEIkAFJEn=IAF=H=JAm=?HoJoFAHmEJKIAHHA@ABEnEJEon. 6DA BooJnoJA An@ m=?Ho ef HAIJoHAI JDA FHALEoKI AnLEHonmAnJ =n@ An@I JDA @ELAH­ IEon =BJAH I=LEnC JDA IF=?EnC IEzA En HACEIJAH z. y EI JDAn @A?HAmAnJA@ >O JDA IEzA oB JDA BooJnoJA, =L=El=>lA En dn; JDAn on JDA BEHIJ BooJnoJA, y EI BKHJDAH @A?HAmAnJA@ >O JDA @EBBAHAn?A En LAHJE?=l >=IAlEnA IF=?EnCI oB JDA JMo AnLEHonmAnJI, Jo FHALAnJ JDA l=JA JHEC­ CAHEnC oB JDA BooJAH JH=F BHom ?=KIEnC JDA l=IJ lEnA oB JDA ?om>EnA@ BooJnoJAI Jo oLAH­ BloM. 6DA BooJAH JH=F EI JDAn IAJ Jo JDA loMAH on JDA F=CA oB y oH JDA ?KHHAnJ F=CA FoIEJEonnlFlKIonAlEnA,Jo=lloMBoHFHEnJEnCJDAHABAHAn?AlEnA. 1B En@E?=JA@ >O x, JDA BooJAH fo HAHA=@I JDA BooJnoJAI BHom FN En noBEll mo@A En AnLEHonmAnJ , =n@ @AlAJAI FN. 1B JDA BooJnoJAI MAHA Joo l=HCA Jo BEJ, JDA m=?Ho fx MEll ­!'­

>A JH=F-EnLokA@ Jo HA@ELAHJ JDA oLAHBloM EnJo fy, =n@ JDA HACEIJAH dn MEll l=JAH En@E?=JA JoJDADA=@AHMDAJDAH fy EIAmFJO. *oJD fo =n@ fx =HA Fl=nJA@ En JDA nomEn=l BooJAH JH=F FoIEJEon En =n oH@AH JD=J ?=KIAI fx Jo >A ?on?A=lA@ KnlAII JDA fo JH=F EI moLA@. 6DA BooJAH JDAn JAHmEn=JAI JDA oLAHBloM @ELAHIEon, EB nA?AII=HO, =n@ zAHoI x Jo @EI=>lA fx, >A?=KIA JDA Kn?AHJ=EnJO ?oH­ HA?JEon JoCAJDAH MEJD = noJ-Joo-l=JA JHECCAHEnC oB JDA BooJAH ?=n HAIKlJ En JDA BooJnoJA HAHA=@EnCBEnEIDEnC>ABoHAHA=?DEnCJDA fx JH=F. ) Coo@ ANAH?EIA BoH JDA IJK@AnJ EI Jo ?om>EnA JDA mKlJEFlA-?olKmn =n@ BooJnoJA mA?D=nEImI.

The Last Page )BJAH JDA l=IJ EnFKJ BElA D=I An@A@, nroff =n@ troff EnLokA JDA end macro §%, EB =nO, =n@ MDAn EJ BEnEIDAI, AjA?J JDA HAm=En@AH oB JDA F=CA. ,KHEnC JDA AjA?J, =nO JH=FI An?oKnJAHA@ =HA FHo?AIIA@ noHm=llO. )J JDA An@ oB JDEI l=IJ F=CA, FHo?AIIEnC JAHmE­ n=JAI KnlAII = F=HJE=l lEnA, MoH@, oH F=HJE=l MoH@ HAm=EnI. 1B EJ EI @AIEHA@ JD=J =noJDAH F=CA>AIJ=HJA@,JDAAn@-m=?Ho

.de en \"end−macro \c ’bp .. .em en MEll@AFoIEJ=nKllF=HJE=lMoH@,=n@FHo@K?A=noJDAHl=IJF=CA. ­"­

Special Character Names 6DA BolloMEnC J=>lA lEIJI n=mAI BoH = IAJ oB ?D=H=?JAHI, moIJ oB MDE?D D=LA JH=@E­ JEon=llO >AAn FHoLE@A@ >O troff KIEnC JDA ߢIFA?E=lߣ oH ߢIOm>olߣ BonJ. M=nO oB JDAIA IAGKAn?AI =HA ol@ M=OI Jo CAJ MD=J =HA noM 7nE?o@A ?D=H=?JAHI; LK?E@= 5=nI, BoH AN=m­ FlA, D=I ClOFDI ?oHHAIFon@EnC Jo m=nO oB JDAIA >KJ @oAI noJ D=LA JDA IFA?E=l IAGKAn?AI. 6DAHABoHA JDA troff IAGKAn?A \(*F CELAI JDA ?D=H=?JAH Φ BHom JDA 6EmAI BonJ EnIJA=@ oB JDA ?D=H=?JAH ¦ BHom JDA ?KHHAnJ BonJ, En JDEI ?=IA LK?E@= 5=nI. NoJ =ll IAGKAn?AI FHEnJ on =nO F=HJE?Kl=H @ALE?A, En?lK@EnC JDEI onA; 2AJAH B=?AI =FFA=H En JDAEH Fl=?A.

´ \’ µ \(*m ࣃ \(|= < \‘ ν \(*n ∼ \(ap ߞ \(em ξ \(*c ࣔ \(!= ߝ \(en ο \(*o ࢐ \(−> ­ \(hy π \(*p ࢎ \(<− ߝ \− ρ \(*r ࢏ \(ua ࢫ \(bu σ \(*s ࢑ \(da ¡ \(sq ς \(ts × \(mu _ \(ru τ \(*t ÷ \(di \(14 υ \(*u ± \(+− \(12 φ \(*f * \(cu \(34 χ \(*x ࢵ \(ca \(fi ψ \(*q ࣪ \(sb \(fl ω \(*w ࣫ \(sp \(ff Α \(*A ࣮ \(ib \(Fi Β \(*B ࣯ \(ip \(Fl Γ \(*G  \(if ° \(de ∆ \(*D ࢚ \(pd ߤ \(dg Ε \(*E ࢟ \(gr ′ \(fm Ζ \(*Z ¬ \(no \(ct Η \(*Y + \(is ® \(rg Θ \(*H  \(pt  \(co Ι \(*I ࢝ \(es + \(pl Κ \(*K ∈ \(mo − \(mi Λ \(*L  \(br = \(eq Μ \(*M ߥ \(dd ࢩ \(** Ν \(*N \(rh \(sc Ξ \(*C \(lh ´ \(aa Ο \(*O \(bs < \(ga Π \(*P | \(or _ \(ul Ρ \(*R Ë \(ci / \(sl Σ \(*S  \(lt α \(*a Τ \(*T  \(lb β \(*b Υ \(*U  \(rt γ \(*g Φ \(*F  \(rb δ \(*d Χ \(*X  \(lk ε \(*e Ψ \(*Q  \(rk ζ \(*z Ω \(*W  \(bv η \(*y  \(sr  \(lf θ \(*h  \(rn  \(rf ι \(*i ࣛ \(>=  \(lc κ \(*k ࣚ \(<=  \(rc λ \(*l ࣕ \(== \(LH