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First Published by Notion Press 2016 Copyright © Debajit Deb 2016 All Rights Reserved.

ISBN 978-1-945688-68-3

This book has been published with all efforts taken to make the material error-free after the consent of the author. However, the author and the publisher do not assume and hereby disclaim any liability to any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause.

No part of this book may be used, reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Contents

Foreward ix Preface xi Acknowledgements xiii Geographical Map of xv Anatomical Depiction of the Structures Involved in Speech-Sound Process xvi Classification of Tibeto-Burman (TB) Languages xvii The International Phonetic Alphabet xxiii Abbreviations and Symbols xxv

Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Phonology of Angami 3 Chapter 2: Phonology of Bodo 13 Chapter 3: Phonology of Hmar 25 Chapter 4: Phonology of Hrangkhawl 36 Chapter 5: Phonology of Karbi 52 Chapter 6: Phonology of Khezha 62 Chapter 7: Phonology of Kokborok 74 Chapter 8: Phonology of 84 Chapter 9: Rongmei Phonology 94 Chapter 10: Phonology of Toto 108

Common phonological features Tibeto-Burman languages 123 References 127 Introduction

India is beautiful country where many languages are spoken. It is the only country in the world where 22 scheduled and 100 non-scheduled languages are spoken and the rest languages are unclassified because of its negligible numerical strength. India has the large tribal population in the world. Das and Choudhury (2011) stated that, India has a tribal population of 84.3 million. Which constitutes 8.2 percent of the total population of India There are four major families of languages in India are found viz., Indo-Aryan, Austro- Asiatic, Dravidian and Tibeto-Burman. Interestingly, languages from three major families have been found in the Northeast region namely Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic, and Tibeto-Burman. All the proposed TB languages in the present book belongs to Northeast India under the sub-groups of Bodo-Garo (Benedict, 1972), Bodo-Naga (Grierson, 1903) and Kuki-Chin (Grierson, 1903) except Toto, Jalpaiguri group (Shafer 1974). The Toto is the only Tibeto- Burman language, which is confined to Jalpaiguri District of West Bengal. It is observed that most of the TB languages in India are unexplored, undocumented and undescribed in many respects. Singha (2011) has stated that most of the linguists, social scientists and educationist are well agreed that a sad fact of our times is the loss of the world’s languages at an unprecedented rate. They further concern that linguistic diversity as with cultural diversity and biological diversity is under serious threat around the world. UNESCO’s Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger is also intended to raise awareness about language endangerment and the need to safeguard the world’s linguistic diversity among policy-makers, speakers communities and the general public, and to be a tool to monitor the status of endangered languages and the trends in linguistic diversity at the global level (UNESCO’s interactive Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger). According to the UNESCO’s Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger (2009 edition), there are 196 endangered languages in the Indian sub-continent. Out of 196 Indian languages listed by UNESCO, 89 languages are located in the NE region. Out of 89 endangered languages, 10 languages are studied in the present Introduction book. The main purpose of this study is an attempt to explore the typological features of Tibeto-Burman languages of Northeast India in the domain of phonology. Since phonology has been one of the major domains of language typology to classify the structure of different languages across or within the family. Specifically the present study attempts to assess number of vowels, consonants, tones and syllabic structure in the Tibeto-Burman languages of Northeast and West Bengal, India and establish the common phonological features of the same. The languages which are considered in the present book, describe the basic phonological structures of (1) Angami (2) Bodo (3) Hmar (4) Hrangkhawl (5) Karbi, (6) Khezha, (7) Kokborok (8) Reang (9) Rongmei and (10) Toto.

2 Chapter 1 Phonology of Angami

1. Introduction The Angamis are one of the linguistic groups of the Naga tribes of and they constitute an important identity in the region. They are listed as a Scheduled Tribe, in the 5th schedule of the Indian Constitution. The term Angami denotes both the tribe and the language. Angami is one of the largest tribal language groups of Northeast India. It is mainly spoken in the state of Nagaland of district and forming several villages. The majority of the Angami population is found in the Kohima village, which is the one of the largest Angami village in Asia. (Ravindran 1974). The Angami unlike other hill tribes of Nagaland are found in both urban and rural areas. Generally, they are mostly settled in the rural areas of . However, a good number of Angami speakers are also found in state of . The alternate name of Angami is Tenyidie, Ngami, Tsugumi, Monr, Tsanglo,. According to (2001) Census of India, the total population of Angami (Non-scheduled languages) speakers are 1,32,225. Bradley (1997) classified Angami under the Kuki Naga branches of Southern Naga group of Tibeto-Burman branch of Sino-Tibetan speech family. The majority of Angami speakers are Christians. The present work is a small attempt to describe the phonological structure of . 2. Phonemic Inventory Angami has total of thirty eight phonemes (38) of which thirty four are segmental phonemes and the rest suprasegmental. Of the segmental, six (6) are vowels and twenty eight (28) consonants. The four suprasegmental phonemes are tones. Phonology of Tibeto-Burman Languages

2.1. Vowels The six segmental vowels phoneme in Angami is which is discussed in the following table: /i, e, a, ǝ, o & u/ Front Central Back Close i u Close-mid e ǝ o Open a

2.2. Consonants The twenty eight (28) segmental consonantal phonemes in Angami is /p, ph, b, t, th, d, k, kh, g, , , č, čh, , f, v, s, z, š, ž, h, m, n, ŋ, r, l, w and y/ which are presented below: ʦ ʣ ǰ Labio- Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Dental Stops p b t d k g Stops Asp ph th kh Affricates č Affricates h Asp č ǰ ʦ ʣ Fricatives f v s z š ž h Nasals m n ŋ Lateral l Lateral Asp lh Trill r Trill Asp rh Semivowels w y

4 Phonology of Angami

2.3. Minimal Pairs The minimal pairs of Angami are given below based on the collected data:

2.3.1. Vowel Minimal pairs /i/vs/u/ /si/ ‘wood’ /su/ ‘deep’ /e/vs/o/ /se/ ‘three’ /so/ ‘dry’ / /vs/a/ /s / ‘pain’

ǝ /so/ǝ ‘dry’ /a/vs/o/ /sa/ ‘make’ /sa/ ‘pain’ /o/vs /u/ /so/ ‘dry’ /su/ ‘deep’

2.3.2. Consonantal Contrastive Pairs /p/vs/ph/ /pe/ ‘bridge’ /phe/ ‘shawl’ /p/vs/b/ /be/ ‘to cut hair’ /pe/ ‘bridge’ /t/vs/th/ /ti/ ‘sky’ /thi/ ‘to dye (cloth)’ /t/vs/d/ /ta/ ‘to bite’ /ida/ ‘to chop’ /k/vs/kh/ /ik / ‘to shoot’

h /ikǝ / ‘to break’ / /vs/ / / a/ǝ ‘pain’ ʦ ʣ /ʦ a/ ‘water’ ʣ

5 Phonology of Tibeto-Burman Languages

/č/vs/čh/ /ča/ ‘tea’ /čha/ ‘ray’ /č/vs/ / /ča/ ‘to cook’

ǰ / a/ ‘to wrap up’ /f/vs/v/ /fa/ǰ ‘to fasten’ /va/ ‘to beat’ /s/vs/h/ /sa/ ‘blood’ /ha/ ‘fish’ /m/vs/n/ /ima/ ‘to leave’ /ina/ ‘to put on’ /m/vs/ŋ/ /som/ ‘ten’ /soŋ/ ‘stone’ /l/vs/r/ /ilo/ ‘to go around’ /iro/ ‘slow’ /lh/vs/rh/ /lha/ ‘to search’ /rha/ ‘place’ /w/vs/y/ /wo/ ‘to wrap’ /yo/ ‘strong’

2.3.3. Distribution of vowel phonemes In the production of vowels the lips are rounded and unrounded. The front and the high central vowels are unrounded where as the back and the non-high central vowels are rounded. In Angami, all the seven rounded and unrounded vowels can occur in all three positions of the words. Initial Medial Final /i/ /ide/ ‘cold’ /thiŋ/ ‘wood’ /dolti/ ‘ground’ /e/ /emhal/ ‘itch’ /khol/ ‘cave’ /ide/ ‘cold’ / / / kho/ ‘slope’ /th m/ ‘road’ / th / ‘air’

ǝ ǝ ǝ ǝ ǝ

6 Phonology of Angami

/a/ /atho/ ‘wind’ /padu/ ‘cloud’ / na/ ‘ear’

/o/ /o/ ‘fart’ /non/ ‘wasp’ /no/ǝ ‘mud’ /u/ /uto/ ‘toad’ /himul/ ‘eyelid’ /du/ ‘water’

2.3.4. Distribution of consonant phonemes A two-way division of the state of the vocal cords viz voiced and voiceless. This feature is an interclass features and the contrast exists only for stops, affricates and fricatives. The others are always voiced. Here in the distribution all the stops, affricates, fricatives, semi vowel can occur in word initially and medially except velar nasal /ŋ/ and palatal semi vowel /y/. The lateral, trill and nasal consonants can occur only in all three positions of the words. Initial Medial Final /p/ /p ha/ ‘bird’ /ipom/ ‘swelling’ --

/b/ /baco/ǝ ‘bat’ /abi/ ‘cheek’ -- /ph/ /phe/ ‘face’ /iphil/ ‘twin’ -- /t/ /toku/ ‘tortoise’ /ato/ ‘cane’ -- /d/ /du/ ‘water’ /ade/ ‘dew’ -- /th/ /thal/ ‘nose’ /hith / ‘medicine’ --

h h /c/ /cat un/ ‘barley’ /t iŋcu/ǝ ‘fruit’ -- /ch/ /chipa/ ‘squirrel’ /idil/ ‘to kneel’ -- / / / ondis/ ‘jaundice’ /mi a/ ‘cataract’ --

/k/ɟ /ko/ɟ ‘skin’ /aku/ɟ ‘boat’ -- /g/ /graha/ ‘planet’ -- -- /kh/ /khol/ ‘cave’ /sukhal/ ‘window’ -- /f/ /fuinu/ ‘lime’ /ifu/ ‘to sigh’ -- /v/ /vi/ ‘dog’ /evi/ ‘to talk’ -- /s/ /sa/ ‘blood’ /asaŋ/ ‘bridge’ -- /z/ /zo/ ‘sheep’ /izo/ ‘darkness’ -- /h/ /hi/ ‘eye’ /pinhe/ ‘to fasten’ -- /m/ /mo/ ‘banana’ /umpi/ ‘tiger’ /pathim/ ‘sweat’

7 Phonology of Tibeto-Burman Languages

/n/ /no/ ‘mud’ / na/ ‘ear’ /busun/ ‘puppy’

/ŋ/ -- /aŋol/ǝ ‘epilepsy’ /haŋ/ ‘breath’ /l/ /luru/ ‘skull’ /alu/ ‘potato’ /peal/ ‘belch’ /r/ /ru/ ‘bone’ /phure/ ‘saw’ /iv r/ ‘vision’

/w/ /wadu/ ‘taste’ /kuwacu/ ‘betel nut’ -- ǝ /y/ -- /iyon/ ‘to call’ --

2.3.5. Diphthongs Angami has six diphthongs, all of which are raising diphthongs. All consonants appear as initial consonant (C1). The monophthong V1 has no limitation but whenever the diphthong V1 (V2) occurs, the second vowel (V2) is restricted to either close front unrounded vowel /i/ or close rounded back vowel /u/. The table below shows the diphthongs in Angami: Vowels Front Back Closed iu ui Closed Mid ei oi Open ai au

Initial Medial Final /iu/ -- /piul/ ‘to bury’ -- /ui/ -- /fuinu/ ‘lime’ -- /oi/ -- /zoiru/ ‘to brew’ -- /ai/ -- /kupaiya/ ‘palm’ -- /au/ -- /cau nf / ‘autumn’ --

/ei/ -- /aŋseilo/ǝ ǝ ‘to love’ -- 2.3.6. Consonant clusters A description of clustering habits of the consonants in Angami may begin with the initial clusters of consonant. A feature to be noted about the clusters of C1 and

C2 is that in all instances of the occurrence of C1 C2 at the word initial position,

C1 is invariably a stop and C2 is trill. Given below are a few words illustrating the occurrence at the word initial position of the sequences of C1 C2 .

8 Phonology of Angami

2.3.6.1. Initial Consonant Clusters tr- /trumnu/ ‘twice’ thr- /thromna/ ‘roughly’ pr- /pru/ ‘jump’ phr- /phr / ‘read’

h h k r- /k ri/ǝ ‘an items used in rice beer’

2.3.6.2. Medial Consonant Clusters -tr- /huŋtral/ ‘mica’ -pr- /campra/ ‘lemon’ -phr- /tuphr / ‘duck’

2.3.7. Consonant sequencesǝ It is observed that in consonant sequences the first members are nasal and liquid and the second members are stop, fricative, nasal and liquid in Angami as evident in the following examples: Nasal + Nasal -nn- /sen.nu/ ‘woman’ -mm- /ilum.mele/ ‘games’ Nasal + Stop -mp- /thim.pile/ ‘examination’ -mt- /pam.tum/ ‘country’ -mb- /hem.bu/ ‘hammer’ -mc- /id m.c / ‘dancer’

-ŋk- /tiŋ.kun/ǝ ǝ ‘garden’ -ŋth- /paluŋ.thi/ ‘to get angry’ Nasal + Fricative -mh- /pim.ha/ ‘to erase’ -ms- /bum.secu/ ‘grape’ -nh- /son.ha/ ‘grass’

9 Phonology of Tibeto-Burman Languages

-ŋh- /tiŋ.ha/ ‘earthquake’ -ŋs- /aŋ.seilo/ ‘to love’ Nasal + Liquid -ŋr- /ihaŋ.ri/ ‘to stand up’ -ml- /kom.la/ ‘orange’ Liquid + Stop -lph- / l.pho/ ‘stream’

h -lb- /tǝol.bal/ ‘bronze’ -lt- /dol.tipam/ ‘world’ -lth- /ikhel.th l/ ‘across’

h -ld- /t ol.da/ǝ ‘brass’ -lc- /sol.cu/ ‘coin’ Liquid + Fricative -lf- /duriŋfol.f / ‘case’

-lh- /hal.du/ ǝ ‘egg’ -rh- /ir.ho/ ‘to admit’ Lateral + Lateral -ll- /lal.lukhum/ ‘crown’

2.4. Syllable structures and types A syllable being the smallest unit of recurrent phonemic sequence, may be considered a phonological unit which in turn enters into still large stretches of speech reaching upto a complete utterance. A syllable includes not only the sequential phonemes but also prosodic features like stress, tone etc. The basic syllable structures of Angami are : V, VC, CV, CVV, CVC.

2.4.1. Types of Syllable In Angami mono syllabic words are more. However, disyllabic and tri syllabic words are also found in the language.

10 Phonology of Angami

2.4.1.1. Monosyllabic Words Monosyllabic words open /o/ V ‘fart’ /un/ VC ‘curry’ /piu/ CVV ‘to wither’ /thra/ CCV ‘moon’ /he/ CV ‘poison’ Monosyllabic words closed /non/ CVC ‘wasp’

2.4.1.2. Disyllabic words Disyllabic words open /i.so/ V.CV ‘vomit’ /aŋ.ol/ VC.VC ‘epilepsy’ /i.khel/ V.CVC ‘to overtake’ /s .thu/ CV.CV ‘fever’

Disyllabic ǝwords closed /pim.hal/ CVC.CVC ‘to feed’ /hi.mul/ CV.CVC ‘ember’

2.4.1.3. Trisyllabic words Trisyllabic words open /i.haŋ.ri/ V.CVC.CV ‘to raise’ / .thro.khu/ V.CCV.CV ‘storm’

/mi.se.nu/ǝ CV.CV.CV ‘wife’ /kol.pi.le/ CVC.CV.CV ‘lightening’

11 Phonology of Tibeto-Burman Languages

2.5. Tones Tone is a feature of syllable though it is marked on the vowel of the syllable. Thus, in a tone language, meaning distinction between words can be made by tones. Angami Naga has four tones viz. (i) Rising ( ), (ii) Falling ( ) (iii) Level (-) and (iv) Rising falling ( ).

h /t á/ ˊ ‘pain’ ˋ ̂ /thà/ ‘to stand’ /tha/ ‘hair’ /thâ/ ‘to bargain’

/pé/ ‘to incline’ /rèi/ ‘to tremble’ /pe/ ‘bridge’ /pê/ ‘be fat’

2.6. Conclusions (i) There are thirty eight phonemes (38) phonemes of which thirty four are segmental phonemes and the rest suprasegmental. Of the segmentals, six (6) are vowels and twenty eight (28) consonants. The four suprasegmentals are tones. (ii) In Angami six diphthongs viz/iu ei ai au oi and ui/all diphthongs occure in the word medial positions. (iii) Angami has clusters of two identical or non-identical sound is called cluster. Three consonant clusters do not occur in Angami. Consonant clusters can occur only in the initial and medial positions. But the clusters are very limited in compare with consonant sequences. (iv) In Angami, like many Tibeto-Burman languages only vowels make the nucleus of the syllable with co-occurring tone. Each vowel is the peak of the syllable with one of the four tones.

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