Environmental Issues in the Superior Basin A LAKE IN THE BALANCE

Environmental Issues in the Basin

by

Robert M. Korth

A Thesis

submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in

Natural Resources

College of Natural Resources

UNIVERSITY OF

at

Stevens Point, Wisconsin

June, 1990 APPROVED BY THE GRADUATE COMMITTEE OF:

Tu.Lowe~.:L~ ittee Chairman Professor of Resource Management

Professor of Soil Science and of Water Science

Ron Zimmerman Instructor of Resource Management

r.Randall Champeau Associate Professor of Resource Management

11. ABSTRACT

Lake Superior is a lake steeped in legend. Tall tales rise from her misty past and span the centuries: from the accounts of the Red Men, who literally stepped out of prehistory to pull Brule's canoe from the icy lake in 1622 - to the wreck of Mesquite whose "final port of call" was the jagged spine of the Keweenaw in December of 1989. Many people consider Lake Superior a pristine place. They see its wild beauty and its ocean-like expansiveness. They sense its latent power. These very attributes have placed the lake in ecological peril. This inland sea is still relatively clean and its watershed sparsely populated. Therefore, Lake Superior has not received necessary attention. Population, development pressure, habitat destruction, introduction of exotic species, and accumulation of toxic chemicals are still increasing throughout the system. The· purpose of this thesis is to help raise the general public's level of understanding of Lake Superior and the environmental issues facing the Lake Superior basin. This objective was accomplished by the development and distri­ bution of a slide-tape program called "A Lake In The Balance." The program is accompanied by a studyguide that expands on the issues presented in the slide program. The intent of the program is to raise the level of concern over the environmental health of Lake Superior. The program also aspires to motivate people to take an active role in the environmental future of Superior, thereby assuring that this lake will remain everything its name suggests. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The desire to appear clever often prevents our being so. La Rochefoucauld

Recently while in Madison I overheard two gentleman (who had paid the academic price and had been compensated with PHD' s) discuss the acknowledge­ ment section of their graduate students' theses. They joked about how silly acknowledgements were and laughed about recognizing everyone from your mother to your dog. They concluded that the only acknowledgement worth its salt was the one their students gave them as members of their graduate committee or as a major professor. "Oh, how soon we forget where we came from." I have to admit, at first I felt uncomfortable when I started writing this. But I feel no embarrassment in recgonizing those I've met along the way. Folks that took the time to give a helping hand without recompense. Like many students here, I didn't have a "clue" as to the best people for my graduate committee. Luck was with me. I couldn't have wished for better friends: Lowell Klessig, my mentor and guardian angel; Ron Zimmerman, as laid back as they get and a brilliant speaker and writer; Randy Champeau, a man who doesn't know when to quit and one ofthe best educators I've ever met; and Byron Shaw, whose modesty is outshined only by his genius. Thank You! Mark Peterson, who shared his knowledge and love ofLake Superior. Rob Murphy, who believed in me and shared the adventure. Nancy Miller hyphen

IV. Korth who put up with me. Char Pingel and Diane Lueck who know the secrets of turning thoughts into the written word. Thank You! The most incredible aspect of this entire affair was the number of people who volunteered their time and money. When I told them the project was working toward making "Superior" a wilder, cleaner place, they said one thing: "How can I help!" Pete Rogers, Larry and Patty Darling, Bill Cole, Ralph Kennedy, Greg LeClerge, TomBrown,BruceTaughner,LizJones,AprilLehman, Terry Daulton Dunn, and the staff at WXPR public radio. Much Obliged! To the many old friends and new friends in and around the Lake Superior region, because ofyour concern, your vision, your resolve, and your helping hand, the prospects for the future of this region are encouraging. For this, God Bless You!

v. TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... iii.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv.

LIST OF TABLES ...... vii.

LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii.

PRELUDE ...... ix.

CHAP'rER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1

CHAP'rER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 6

CHAP'rER III: METHODS AND PROCEDURES ...... 48

CHAP'rER IV: STUDY GUIDE TO THE SLIDE-TAPE PROGRAM ...... 60

CHAP'rER V: SCRIPT - A Lake in the Balance ...... 88

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 97

VI. LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Toxics in Lake Superior ...... 13

Table 2. Ten Airborne "Critical Pollutants" Identified by the International Joint Commission ...... 14

Table 3. Atmospheric Loading in Lake Superior ...... 16

Table 4. Concentrations of Organochlorines in Lake Superior ...... 19

Table 5. Metal Concentrations in Lake Superior ...... 20

Table 6. Contaminant Levels in Lake Superior Zoobenthos ...... 21

Table 7. Sources of Non-point Pollution ...... 23

Table 8. Issues in the Lake Superior Region Questionnaire ...... 60

vu. LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Lake Superior Map ...... 8

Figure 2. Surface Wind Flows Across Lake Superior ...... 12

Figure 3. Seven Areas of Concern on Lake Superior ...... 18

Figure 4. Phosphorus Loads for the Great ...... 25

Figure 5. Commercial Harvest of Selected Species from Lake Superior ...... 34

Figure 6. Stocking of Selected Species in Lake Superior ...... 35

Figure 7. Spawning Lamprey in Tributaries to Lake Superior ...... 37

Figure 8. Fish Stocked in Lake Superior ...... 38

viii. PRELUDE

I had fallen in love, I couldn't help myself - She was always on my mind - She became a passion - _ She was wild and elusive - I was mesmerized by her cold stare - She radiated a sense of oneness - A sense of timelessness -

Her eyes told the tales of all those that had come to know her - Of the weight from the great ice that been lifted from her shoulders - Of the ancient ones who had come to understand her - Of the voyageurs whose paddles had felt her icy grip - Of the sturdy ships and crew whose final nightmare was her gelid belly­ Ofthose that were addicted to her treasures and left poison in her veins -

I could not look away, I had seen the Medusa - It was all there in her eyes - The raw power and gray fury - The magic and mist - The complexity and fragility -

A lake of memories and dreams - A Superior lake -

- R. Korth~

IX. CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION To say that Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world, or that its watershed is rich in natural resources and scenic beauty is the epitome ofthe understatement. It is like calling the rising orb ofa full moon, glowing over the lake, a nocturnal light source. It is like describing humans as carbon-based life forms. All these definitions are accurate but do not convey the bewildering complexity, the power, or the emotion these subjects can evoke. Lake Superior is the largest of a group of lakes called the which are located in the center ofthe North American continent. In surface area, Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world, containing ten percent of the world's surface fresh water. The lake borders two countries: and the , three states: , Minnesota, and Wisconsin, and the province of . Lake Superior is 350 miles (563 kilometers) long, 160 miles (257 kilometers) wide. The lake is the deepest ofthe Great Lakes with a sounding off Munising, Michigan of 1,333 feet (405 meters). This icy body of water con­ tains 2,900 cubic miles (12,100 cubic kilometers) of fresh water. Major and rapid changes began in the Lake Superior basin with the arrival of Europeans in the early 1600's. The natural resources that previously had fulfilled the needs of the few tens of thousands of native people living in the Lake Superior region, soon were used to satisfy the needs of millions. With what seemed like an unlimited supply of raw materials, technologies bloomed. Machines and engineering skills allowed incredible alterations to the lake and the land. Problems arose from the unintended consequences of some of these alterations. Insidiously, the environment was degraded. Since the 1940's, there has been a tremendous increase in the use of synthetic chemicals. These chemicals have been used to develop convenient products for our consumer societies and have dramatically increased our ability

1 to produce food, but at a cost. The environmental health of the Lake Superior basin can no longer be considered a regional issue. The residue ofchemicals used in other parts of the world ride the global winds and are deposited in Lake Superior. Much like Lake Superior's economic linkages, actions taken around the globe can affect the quality of the environment in the Lake Superior basin. There is no reason to despair, Lake Superior is still in relatively good en­ vironmental condition. But we cannot afford to be complacent. We stand at a crossroad to the environmental future ofthe lake and the land. We have the good fortune of historical hindsight that was not afforded our ancestors. Anticipatory management techniques must be developed. Future generations deserve their share of options. It is difficult to deal with problems if most of the possible solutions are closed by our predecessors. The problems that face the Lake Superior region are not unique, they are common around the planet. This region could become a global model of interna­ tional cooperation and long range, whole ecosystem planning. The decisions that need to made are not clearly visible, or easy to make. Their impacts may not be felt for many decades. Much of the spirit ofthe lake and the special places we treasure today are legacies from those who walked this path before. They were a few resolute individuals, with vision, who cared about the lake, the land, and those that followed.

2 The Issue Lake Superior is considered by many to be a pristine wilderness with icy and clear waters. Lake Superior is still relatively clean; and, therefore, the lake has not always received the attention it needs. The Lake Superior basin's health is still in question despite regulations to stop polluters and clean-up efforts since the early 1970's by citizen groups and government agencies in Canada and the United States. Population growth, de­ velopment pressures, habitat destruction, and accumulation of toxic chemicals are still increasing throughout the system. Our governing style tends to be one of crisis management. But we cannot afford to wait for crisis to overtake Lake Superior. Long-range planning that looks beyond political boundaries and treats the Lake Superior basin as a whole may help us avoid the debilitating and costly problems encountered elsewhere. It takes over 190 years for Lake Superior to exchange its water once; today's toxins will certainly become the problems of those that follow us. Entering the next millennium provides us with a convenient, if artificial marker, to be used in judging our impact on Lake Superior. We can "try" to predict the probable and practical direction of the environmental health of Lake Superior. There is, however, one fact we can count on: that as long as humans are here, they will need to use the natural resources of the area and there will be changes. We can predict the future of the lake and help determine its environ­ mental destiny. The lake can be preserved in a healthy and diverse state. Economic and environmental concerns must be equally weighed when decisions on the region's future are made. A sustainability level must be reached. Those that follow us deserve to be left their share of options. The fate of Lake Superior is inevitably linked to how we perceive our environmental responsibility.

3 Goals The purpose of this thesis is to raise the general public's level of under­ standing of Lake Superior and the environmental issues facing the Lake Superior basin as we enter the Twenty-first Century. This will be accomplished by the development and distribution of a slide­ tape program with an accompanying guide. The educational materials briefly introduce the viewer to the lake, its geography, history, and its spirit. The program also addresses many of the environmental and political issues facing the Lake Superior region. The distribution of this program and accompanying guide is managed through the Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute. Copies will be made avail­ able to the general public, educational organizations, agencies, and any other groups that are interested in Lake Superior. Making this program available to the public will hopefully help raise the level of concern over the Lake Superior basin environmental health. The program also tells viewers what they can do to help change the course of events on the lake. Those that view the program should develop a better understand­ ing of the lake and the issues facing it. And they should be motivated to take an active role in assuring that the environmental future of Lake Superior is bright.

4 Educational Intent of the Program It is the intent of this program to motivate those who view it to become advocates for a cleaner Lake Superior. Hopefully, the people who see "A Lake in the Balance" will come away with the following attitudes and insights. The audience will understand that: • because the region is still relatively uninhabited and the lake relatively clean, it has not received the environmental attention it deserves. • although progress has been made in some areas of protecting the lake, problems remain. The environmental health of the region is still in question. • as long as humans live in the region they will need to use the natural resources. • we must consider the concept of sustainable development (the economy and the environment can coexist). • these goals will call for management techniques with vision. Management that avoids crisis, not management that is guided by it. It will also call for un­ precedented international and interagency cooperation. The problems con­ fronting Lake Superior are global in scale. • curtailing the negative effect of human activities may require a major shift in society's values. • the intangible qualities of Lake Superior are very important. • the environmental issues facing the Lake Superior basin are not unique, but are common around the planet. • there are no easy answers to these issues.

5 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter is divided into two sections. The first section looks briefly at the physical geography and history of the Lake Superior region. The second section examines some ofthe environmental issues and policies currently consid­ ered important in the Lake Superior basin. This thesis does not give a complete review of the huge body of information that has been accumulated on the Lake Superior region. Rather, it attempts to give an overview of the "state of the lake" at the close of the Twentieth Century.

Lake Superior Facts Lake Superior is the largest of a group oflakes found in the middle of the North American continent called the Great Lakes. The five Great Lakes contain 20 percent of the world's surface fresh water and 95 percent of the fresh water in the United States (Frerich, 1988). Even though they aare a system, each lake is unique. In total surface area, Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world. Lake Superior holds ten percent of the world's fresh surfacewater (Bell, 1989). Superior is surpassed only by Lake Baikal in the Soviet Union for total volume. It could hold all the other Great Lakes combined plus three more Lake Eries (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1988). Lake Superior contains about 2,900 cubic miles of water (12,100 cubic kilometers); Lake Superior is 350 miles (563 kilometers) long and 160 miles (257 kilometers) wide. The lake has a shoreline length of 2,726 miles (12,100 kilome­ ters). Lake Superior is the deepest of the Great Lakes, 1,330 feet (405 meters) deep. Lake Superior has an average depth of 498 feet (14 7 meters), almost twice

6 that of any of the other Great Lakes (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1988) (see Figure 1). Lake Superior's watershed is the least populated of all the Great Lakes with approximately 147,000 people in Canada and 558,000 in the United States. The population averages about 14 people per square mile compared to 183 for the rest of the Great Lakes. Along with the region's low population is a high percentage ofundeveloped land. Forests cover 91 percent ofthe land in the lake's watershed (Great Lakes Water Quality Board,.1987). Because the Lake Superior basin is the least inhabited and developed, it is also the cleanest of the Great Lakes. It is also the most fragile. Superior's retention time (the time it takes for water to move through the lake) is 191 years (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1988). This interval means that toxic substances entering the lake will be there for a long time and possibly have a greater effect.

A Brief History "Lake Superior has remained largely unchanged from the Wisconsin ad­ vance ofthe glacier about 10,000 years ago until the arrival ofthe first Europeans around 1622. The French embarked from , upriver in bark canoes that skimmed the shallow water like water bugs. In these tough, light crafts, they undertook journeys that would rival in distance and hardship the sail from Europe to Quebec itself. And in these fabulous journeys of sail and paddle, they met a new race of men--men who literally stepped out of prehistory to help haul their boats ashore" (Mason, 1981, p. 1). During the ensuing two and one-half centuries, indigenous societies shifted both socially and culturally. Europeans brought with them new concepts,

7 CANADA

NipigonBay

Thunder Bay Pukaskwa National Park 0 Isle Royale MINNESOTA Lake Superior

Apostle Islands National @Lakeshore

'? Pictured Rocks Duluth National Lakeshore Superior Marquette Sault St. Marie

Munising

WISCONSIN

MICHIGAN Figure 1. Lake Superior Region. superior products, and disease. Native people found their way of life redirected if not terminated. The 1800's represented a period ofunchecked extraction ofthe natural re­ sources from Lake Superior. Technology and the industrialization that followed allowed humans to improve their lot in life and increase their numbers. Resources became easier to remove; remote areas became accessible; impossible engineering projects became feasible. The driving forces were eco­ nomic expansion and increasing population. Timber, iron ore, sandstone, gold, silver, and fish were shipped to more developed parts of a young and expanding nation. In 1891 alone, 15,000 vessels locked through the Sault canal hauling ten million tons of freight, 30,000 passengers, 50,000 tons of building stone, 5,000 tons of silver, 50,000 tons of copper, 6,000,000 tons ofiron ore, and 400,000,000 feet oflumber. The cargos had a total value of $125,000,000 in 1891 dollars (Ashland Daily Press, 1892). Vast supplies ofnatural resources located on the rim ofa 2,200 mile water­ way.This was the perfect formula for economic expansion. From the end of the 19th Century till after World War II, the economy of the region boomed. Record levels ofiron ore and copper were shipped from the basin to feed the mills of the lower Great Lakes states. Superior's treasures ofraw material played a key role in our winning effort during World War II. "Beginning in 1950 and accelerating in the 1960's and 1970's, a number of changes began to take place in the national economy as it moved from an economy dominated by manufacturing into a post-industrial era. For industry, many of the traditional advantages associated with location in the industrial Midwest began to change. A new awareness of environmental problems caused new tough and expensive regulations to be placed on industry.This raised the cost of doing business and eliminated many blue collar jobs" according to Pierce.

9 Population concentrations started to shift to the West and South for reasons of climate and amenities. Many household-serving industries looked to new markets in these new growth areas outside of the region. "Many kinds of new industries were becoming increasingly footloose, that is, they could choose to carry out their manufacturing operations with equal or better advantage in many parts of the world. While it had been unthinkable in the 19th Century to make iron and steel far from coal and iron ore, computers, digital watches, and airplanes could be manufactured almost anywhere; the people began to follow" (Pierce, 1980, pp. 20-21). In some population the Lake Superior areas began to decline.

Pollution in the Lake Superior Basin Toxic contamination of Lake Superior and the potential risk to human health have been the result of the increased use of synthetic organic chemicals and metals since the 1940's. Toxic pollutants can be acutely poisonous in relatively small amounts. Many trace contaminants have the potential to increase the risk of cancer and genetic mutations through long-term exposure (Muir, 1987).

Atmospheric Pollution The Great Lakes are particularly susceptible to pollution from airborne toxics because of their location and their size. North American atmospheric weather patterns bring contaminated air from every segment of the continent (Irwin, 1988). In 1988, Irwin reported that a significant amount of toxic loading to the Great Lakes does not come from point sources of water eflluent or dispersed runoff, but rather falls from the atmosphere onto the land and water.

10 PCBs: In 1975, scientists discovered polychlorinated byphenyls (PCBs) in Siskiwit Lake, a small lake on Isle Royal (Czuczwa, 1985). Isle Royal, in the northwest comer of Lake Superior, is the largest island on the lake. Isle Royale has been designated a national park and is considered a pristine wilderness island. In 1980, toxaphene--a pesticide used primarily on cotton in the deep South--was also found on the island. More recently, dioxins and furans have been detected there (Muir, 1987). The only logical way these substances could have reached Isle Royale's interior lakes is via fallout from the atmosphere (Figure 2). Ninety percent of the PCBs in Lake Superior come from atmospheric loading (Irwin, 1988). After PCB production was banned in 1970, yearly loading of the Great Lakes dropped off, but did not stop totally. PCBs continue to enter the lake via some point sources, paper recyclers, and contaminated sediments. Most significantly, PCBs enter the air from existing sources, such as leaking transformers, landfills, and spills (Table 1).

Lead: Even though decreased use ofleaded gasoline has resulted in lower lead levels in the atmosphere, the air is still the major source of lead in Lake Superior. Ninety-seven percent of the lead in the lake comes from atmospheric loading (Irwin, 1988).

Mercury: An Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) study discovered significant amounts of mercury in the lake water (Glass, 1990). Incineration of garbage containing large amounts of mercury, such as paints, painted objects, batteries, inks, and electrical parts releases mercury into the air (Swain, 1989). These findings are ofparticular concern since, for the first time, fish in the Lake Superior region are covered by multi-state fish consumption advisories for mercury and other substances (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,

11 Arctic Ai.rstream

Tropical Airstream

Figure 2. Surface wind flow across based on July resultant surface winds.

Source: Muir. 1987. Toxic Chemicals in the Great Lakes Basin Ecosystem.

12 Table 1. Toxics in Lake Superior. Source: Chung, 1988. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.

Name Use Probable Source Found In Characteristics/Health Effects

Asbestos in By-product of iron By-product of iron Lake Airborne effects may include taconite ore mining ore mining. Secured Superior asbestosis, lung cancer; water- tailings on-land disposal home effects not known, but cancer ordered by court April is implied. 1980.

DDT, Pesticides used widely Residues from pre- All five Bioaccumulation in fish, wildlife, chlordane, in Great lakes region vious widespread use; Great and humans. Persistent in the en- dieldrin, to control insects and runoff from agricul- Lakes vironment. Long-range effects can aldrin rodents. DDT banned tural and forested include reproductive disorders in in 1971; others now areas, leaching from wildlife; suspected cause of cancer restricted. improper waste dis- in humans. posal sites; and at- mospheric deposition.

Heavy Wide variety of indus- Industrial discharges, Lake Excesslive levels of heavy metals metals trial uses - from anti- medical profession Superior, bioaccumulate in fish and wildlife. (mercury, knock agent in gaso- wastes via municipal Lake Human consumption of contami- lead, line to paints, pipes discharges, agricul- Ontario, nated food may cause a variety of arsenic, pesticides, glass and tural runoff, disposal , health problems. Mercury can cadmium, electroplating. of waste products; and Lake cause brain damage, birth defects. copper, mine tailings; urban Erie Lead can cause anemia, fatigue, ir- chromium, nonpoint sources. reversible brain damage, especially iron, in children. Cadmium can cause selenium. kidney damage, metabolic distur- and zinc) bances. Arsenic can cause damage to the liver, kidney, digestive system, bone marrow; suspected cause of cancer in humans. Copper, chromium, iron, selenium and zinc are toxic to fish.

PAIis Variety of industrial Industrial oil and All five Persistent in the environment. Can (poly- uses grease dischargers; Great induce cancer and cause chromo- aromatic by-product of all Lakes some damage in fish, wildife, and hydro- types of combustion; humans. carbons) urban nonpoint sources; smelting.

PCBs Insulation for electri- Industrial discharges, All five Bioaccumulation in fish, wildlife, (poly- cal capacitors, trans- municipal sewage Great and humans. Persistent in the en- chlorinated formers; plasticizer, treatment plant dis- Lakes vironment. Test monkeys developed biphenyls) carbonless copy paper, charges, harbor reproductive failures, skin and wide industrial use. sediments, low- gastrointestinal disorders. Prob- Total ban except by temperature inciner- able human carcinogen. special EPA, permit ation of wastes; at- in July 1979 mospheric deposition.

Phenols Usually found in By-product of petro- All five Can cause taste and odor problems conjunction with leum, paper prod- Great in drinking water. Toxic to fish. other more complex ucts manufacture, Lakes organic compounds. industrial waste- water, discharges refineries and spills.

Dioxins, No known technical Microcontaminantsin All five Bioaccumulation in fish. Probably Furans use chlorophenols and Great human carcinogen. Cause of birth banned pesticide Lakes defects and reproductive disorders 2,4,5-T. Also bleach in wildlife. kraft paper process and atmospheric deposition.

13 1989). Cadmium is another heavy metal identified in a 1987 report as a significant toxic air pollutant. Cadmium is also emitted by incinerators, smelt­ ers, and automobiles (Irwin, 1988) (Table 1).

DDT: DDT has been banned or severely restricted in the U.S. and Canada since 1971, yet it continues to enter the lake. Up to ninety-six percent may come from the atmosphere. DDT is still used in places like Mexico, Central and South America, and . The presence ofthe pesticide in Lake Superior is convincing evidence that persistent substances can and will ride the global winds and circumnavigate the earth (Colburn, 1990) (Tables 1 and 2). The International Joint Commission (IJC) has confirmed that toxic fallout is indeed a significant source ofpollution. The IJC has listed ten airborne pollutants they see as critical (Table 2).

Table 2. Ten Airborne "Critical Pollutants" Identified by the IJC: - Total polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) - Hexachlorobenzene - DDT and metabolites - Dieldrin - Dioxin (2, 3, 7, 8, - TCDF) -Toxaphene - Dibenzofuran (2, 3, 7, 8, - TCDF) -Mercury - Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) -Lead

Source: International Joint Commission. 1987. Great Lakes Water Quality Report.

Acid Rain: Acid rain is the popular name for the return to earth (as rain, snow, fog, or dust,) of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) which have been released into the air (Table 3).

14 S02 emissions are mainly produced by coal-fired power plants (the major sources are in the United States) and non-ferrous ore smelters (the major sources are in Canada). The primary sources ofNOx emissions are vehicular fuel combus­ tion. Sulfur dioxide and acid rain is thought to contribute to: - Forest decline - Corrosion and deterioration of building and structures - Reduced visibility in the atmosphere - Respiratory problems in children and asthmatic - Degradion of lakes and sometimes fish kills Acid rain is a serious environmental threat in the Lake Superior basin with little limestone to buffer the acid.Years ofstudies, treaties, and regulations have cleaned up the easy problems, but there still is much that needs to be done. Canada has launched a substantial emissions control program to reduce its contribution to the acid rain problem. A stronger clean air act is working its way through the United States Congress at the time of this writing (Canadian Embassy, 1989).

Water Pollution Groundwater: The contamination of groundwater, or water in other phases of the hydrologic cycle, is critical to the health of Lake Superior. Human contamination of groundwater is the greatest concern. These sources can be grouped in three broad categories: - waste disposal - diffuse or nonpoint sources, such as chemicals used in agriculture, for- estry, and urban runoff - accidental discharges, including spills and leaks (Ford, 1987)

15 Table 3. Annual Mean Concentrations (mg/I.,) and Atmospheric Loading (X 1000 t/z) of Selected Parame­ ters in Lake Superior Wet Precipitation 1980-1983.

1980 1981 1982 1983 Parameter Concen- Loading Cencen- Loading Cencen- Loading Concen- Loading tration tration tration tration

Total Nitrogen 0.957 36.18 1.010 41.78 0.880 43.49 0.869 40.17 Total Phosphorus 0.008 0.31 0.100 0.34 0.007 0.41 0.010 0.46 Nitrate 0.522 19.60 0.505 19.93 0.415 20.51 0.418 18.88 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen 0.435 16.58 0.505 21.65 0.465 22.98 0.451 21.29 ~ 0) Ammonia 0.317 12.52 0.372 16.31 0.364 17.58 0.327 15.65 Silica 0.079 2.53 0.066 2.61 0.050 2.58 0.057 2.72 Sodium 0.209 5.71 0.117 4.58 0.079 3.98 0.130 6.16 Calcium 1.764 54.91 1.328 45.23 1.540 65.01 0.573 27.45 Magnesium 0.193 6.70 0.19 7.36 0.091 4.46 0.089 4.26 Potassium 0.094 3.21 0.102 4.54 0.066 3.64 0.081 4.54 Chloride 0.545 16.88 0.682 28.00 0.269 12.07 0.313 14.42 Sulfate 3.215 123.14 3.182 142.00 2.990 150.47 3.128 152.61

Data Source: Rathke. 1987a. A Report on Great Lake Water Quality. Surface Water: While the overall quality of Lake Superior water appears to be good, there are some significantly degraded local areas. Seven areas of concern have been listed by the International Joint Commission (IJC) (Figure 3). - Peninsula Harbor: Marathon, Ontario - Jack.fish Bay: Terrace Bay, Ontario - Nipigon Bay: Nipigon, Ontario - : Thunder Bay, Ontario - St. Louis River/ Bay: Duluth, Minnesota; Superior, Wisconsin - Torch Lake: Houghton--Hancock, Michigan - Deer Lake, Carp Creek, and Carp River: Ishpeming, Michigan Most of these areas have been contaminated by a combination of dis­ charges from pulp and paper mills, local industry, and municipal sewage treatment plants (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1988). These areas contain contaminated sediments, heavy metals, and toxic organics (Tables 4, 5, and 6). Analysis of Ontario pulp and paper mills' effiuent by the Ministry of the Environment in 1982-1983 showed that these facilities were significant sources of conventional pollutants, bacteria, and hazardous persistent substances. In addition, certain resins, aromatic and fatty acids, some of which are suspected carcinogens, were identified (Rathke, 1987a). At the present time there are three kraft mills located in Thunder Bay, Terrace Bay, and Marathon, Ontario discharging into Lake Superior. Pollutants found in sediment samples included: PCBs, dioxins, furans, mercury, chloro­ form, organochlorine pesticides, coliform, and fecal streptococci. Efiluent flows from four pulping mills in Thunder Bay total over 12.3 million cubic feet.(348,400 cubic meters) per day. The James River mill in Mara-

17 CANADA

Nipigon Bay kfish Bay

Thunder Bay

Isle Royale MINNESOTA

.-a Lake Superior CX>

St. Louis River

WISCONSIN

MICHIGAN Figure 8. Seven Areas of Concern. Source: International Joint Commission. Table 4. Concentrations of Organochlorines (ug/L) in Lake Superior Water 1983.

, STATIONS Compound 2 89 100 113 138 140 177 221 196 169 164 167 80 68 62 23 MEAN S.D.

Hexachlorobenzene 0.024 0.028 0.026 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.038 0.020 0.023 0.012 0.036 0.036 0.041 0.027 0.017 0.052 0.028 0.010 Alpha-BHC 8.607 15.982 7.821 5.339 8.107 9.643 9.071 9.464 9.357 2.911 7.125 6.714 5.839 4.589 4.268 9.321 7.760 2.941 Beta-BHC 0.880 2.268 1.255 0.489 0.827 0.780 0.730 0.848 0.639 0.280 0.630 0.688 0.496 0.338 0.452 0.734 0.771 0.449 Heptachlor 0.030 0.036 0.026 0.017 0.015 0.014 . 0.016 . 0.022 0.028 0.023 0.008 Aldrin 0.140 0.116 0.138 0.108 0.121 0.109 0.195 0.110 0.049 0.045 0.096 0.105 0.200 0.230 0.216 0.361 0.146 0.076 Heptachlor epox:ide 0.086 0.175 0.069 . 0.099 0.093 0.116 . 0.100 0.138 . 0.063 0.158 0.257 0.123 0.054 Gamma chlordane 0.088 0.232 . 0.080 0.302 0.211 . 0.196 . 0.185 0.079 Alpha-chlordane 0.107 0.060 0.159 . 0.184 . 0.128 0.048 I-' Alpha-endosulfan 0.031 . 0.004 0.103 . 0.176 . 0.091 0.073 0.085 0.004 . 0.081 0.139 0.079 0.052 co p,p"-DDE 0.025 0.007 0.018 0.011 . 0.009 0.021 0.042 0.019 0.022 0.029 0.015 0.034 0.016 0.018 0.029 0.021 0.009 Dieldrin 0.232 0.414 0.189 0.135 0.211 0.148 0.366 0.243 0.225 0.089 0.213 0.252 . 0.080 0.122 0.172 0.206 0.090 Endrin 0.067 - 0.030 - 0.058 - 0.024 - 0.085 - 0.053 0.023 o,p"-DDT 0.017 0.196 0.128 0.114 0.074 p,p"-DDP 0.043 0.032 0.047 0.023 - 0.022 0.070 0.032 . 0.043 0.070 0.042 0.017 p,p"-DDT 0.143 . 0.516 0.320 0.320 0.311 0.339 0.011 0.011 . 0.024 . 0.026 0.438 0.223 0.178 Beta-endosulfan 0.068 - - 0.068 - Mirex 0.004 - 0.004 0.007 0.005 0.001 Methoxychlor 0.291 0.564 - 0.428 0.137 Total PCBs 2.214 1.946 2.464 1.234 1.543 1.491 3.536 1.821 2.911 1.173 3.393 2.536 5.143 1.339 3.554 1.734 2.377 1.060

Source: Rathke. 1987a. A Report on Great Lake Water Quality. Table 5. Mean (tS.D.) Metal Concentrations (ug/L) in Lake Superior Surface Waters, 1983.

Metal Dissolved Particulate Total

Silver (Ag) -0.0020 (.0030) 0.0013 (0.00051) -0.00168 (0.0030) Aluminum (Al) 1.8 (2.5) 4.1 (4.8) 60 (5.4) Arsenic (As) 0.55 (0.13) 0.011 (0.025) 0.56 (0.13) Boron (B) -22 (14) 1.3 (5.8) Barium (Ba) 21 (2.4) 0.008 (0.092) 21 (2.4) Beryllium (Be) -0.029 (0.012) 0.0026 (0.0014) Bismuth (Bi) -0.10 (0.055) 0.0031 (0.015) Cadmium (Cd) 0.0066 (0.0030) 0.021 (0.010) 0.027 (0.010) Cobalt (Co) 0.0096 (0.0087) 0.00038 (0.0024) 0.029 (0.010) Chromium (Cr) 0.22 (0.26) 0.011 (0.011) 0.24 (0.26) Copper (Cu) 0.74 (0.10) 0.16 (0.20) 0.91 (0.26) Iron (Fe) 1.1 (1.4) 4.0 (6.3) 5.1 (7.5) Lithium (Li) 0.63 (0.039) 0.0014 (0.0015) 0.63 (0.040) Lead (Pb) 0.014 (0.031) 0.025 (0.010) 0.039 (0.034) Mercury (Hg) 0.00091 (0.018) 0.0076 (0.034) 0.0098 (0.034) Manganese (Mn) 0.13 (0.079) 0.19 (0.19) 0.32 (0.24) Molybdenum (Mo) 0.14 (0.041) 0.0071 (0.0034) 0.15 (0.042) Nickel (Ni) 0.048 (0.050) 0.018 (0.017) 0.066 (0.047) Antimony (Sb) 0.10 (0.070) -0.014 (0.0082) 0.086 (0.066) Selenium (Se) 0.067 (0.043) 0.051 (0.042) 0.12 (0.057) Tin (Sn) 0.0015 (0.0035) -0. 72 (0.20) Strontium (St) 44 (7 .5) -0.012 (0.031) 44 (7.5) Vanadium (V) 0.35 (0.12) 0.011 (0.013) 0.36 (0.12) Zinc (Zn) 0.41 (0.30) 0.025 (0.010) 0.53 (0.31)

Source: Rossmann, 1986. *Note: Negative values represent concentrations less than those measured in blanks and are reported per ASTM (1980) guidelines.

20 Table 6. Contaminant Levels in Lake Superior Zoobenthos 1983 (Units are gig for Metals; ug/g for Organics)

Parameter N Maximum Minimum

Black Bay Iron 12 960.0 77.0 Copper 12 26.00 4.80 Chromium 12 3.80 0.86 Nickel 12 2.55 0.49 Lead 12 1.20 0.65 Zinc 12 38.00 8.60 Mercury 12 0.07 0.01 HCB 9 1.00 1.00 aBHC 11 150.00 1.00 ppDDT 2 5 5 ppDDE 10 8.00 1.00 yBHC 9 4.00 1.00 aChlordane 2 4.00 2.00 yChlordane 2 2.00 2.00 NipigonBay Iron 25 970.0 10.0 Copper 25 17.00 3.70 Chromium 25 4.60 1.00 Nickel 25 3.70 0.46 Lead 25 2.10 0.66 Zinc 25 33.00 5.20 Mercury 25 0.09 0.01 HCB 2 1 1 aBHC 7 10.00 1 ppDDT 1 5 5 ppDDE 6 2.00 1.00 Jackfish Bay Iron 6 980.0 390.0 Copper 6 13.00 6.70 Chromium 6 4.40 2.20 Nickel 6 1.90 0.57 Lead 6 4.10 0.86 Zinc 6 91.00 22.25 Mercury 6 0.12 0.01 Marathon Iron 18 910.0 30.0 Copper 18 20.00 5.20 Chromium 18 5.00 1.00 Nickel 18 2.30 0.43 Lead 18 2.70 0.65 Zinc 18 38.00 8.10 Mercury 18 1.40 0.04 HCB 16 1 1 aBHC 18 15 1 ppDDT 4 21.0 5 ppDDE 5 7 1 Source: Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Unpublished data.

21 thon, discharges approximately 2.8 million cubic feet (81,000 cubic meters) per day. Kimberly Clark's mill at Terrace Bay has effluent flows near 4.3 million cubic feet (122,000 cubic meters) per day. This waste is dumped directly into Blackbird Creek which flows into Lake Superior at J ackfish Bay. Complete fish mortality was reported at the mouth of Black Bird Creek (Rathke, 1987a). Canada has proposed new regulations on industrial discharge control. The new regulations will control how much, who, and where discharges are made. These new regulations should be in effect by the summer of1990 (Llewellyn, 1990).

Mining: Mineral extraction plays a major part in the economics of the Lake Superior region. Government policies in the United States and Canada are designed to provide for an optimimum, continuous contribution to the economy by mineral resource industries. Public policy encourages exploration and devel­ opment of mineral resources (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Thunder Bay, 1983). Other minerals besides iron play an important role in the region. They include: silver, gold, nickel, uranium, and zinc. Each holds a potential for environmental problems in their extraction and refining. In 1973, citizens became concerned with the health risks associated with mine tailings. Asbestos amphibole fibers from the Reserve Mining Company at Silver Bay, Minnesota were found over 2,000 square miles (5,200 square kilometers) of lake bottom. These fibers were found in the drinking water supplies of several Minnesota cities including Duluth. Filtering plants were required and subsequently constructed at Two Harbors, Beaver Bay, and Silver Bay. The Silver Bay Reserve Mining Company was required to cease dumping their tailings in the lake (Ulric, 1972). The company declared bankruptcy in 1986 and ceased operation. Taconite processing reopened in 1989 under the new ownership ofCyprus Mining Company. Despite improvements in current opera-

22 tions, storm activity can still result in resuspension ofnear-shore sediments and greatly increases amphibole mass concentrations (Cook, 1985).

Nonpoint Source: "When most people think of Lake Superior water quality, they think about the water in the lake itself, or maybe just the 'areas of concern' around the lake. But, water quality in Lake Superior, as in any lake, is the result of inputs from the atmosphere, point sources of pollution such as sewage and industrial discharges, and nonpoint sources of pollution from Lake Superior's entire drainage basin. Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution is pollution that can't be traced to apipe;itiscarriedfromland to water in stormwaterrunoff or from seepage through the soil. Nonpoint source pollution comes from a variety of land uses" according to Johnston (Johnston, 1990, p. 1) (Table 7).

Table 7. Sources of Non-point Pollution. • urban runoff (toxics, nutrients, sediment, oxygen demand) • construction sites (sediment, phosphorus) • cropland (pesticides, nutrients, sediment, oxygen demand) • animal feedlots (bacteria, nutrients, oxygen demand) • septic tank failure (bacteria, nutrients, oxygen demand) • shoreline erosion (sediment, phosphorus) • mining (toxics, sediment) • forestry (sediment, phosphorus) Source: Johnston, 1990.

In general, the more intensive the land use, the greater the amount of surface water runoff and nonpoint source pollution. Fortunately Lake Superior is surrounded by areas ofrelatively low intensity land use: 91percent ofits basin is forested. Undisturbed forests minimize water runoff and nutrient losses form the landscape, so nonpoint source pollution yields per unit land area are low. N onpoint source pollution problems that do occur in the region are localized in

23 areas where lakeshore development, urban areas, mining, or intensive forestry practices occur. Johnston states: "Even under current low-intensity land uses, nonpoint source inputs to Lake Superior are far from negligible. In fact, nonpoint sources contribute the majority ofat least one pollutant, phosphorus, to the lake (Figure 4). This apparent contradiction is due primarily to two factors. First, the lack of urbanization means that point sources contribute a relatively small amount of phosphorus to the lake. Second, Lake Superior has a drainage basin over one and a half times the surface area of the lake, which funnels water and materials into the lake. Therefore, even a small nonpoint source pollution yield per unit area ofdrainage basin can result in a large cumulative total delivered to the lake. Furthermore, changing land uses in the Lake Superior basin which could affect future nonpoint source pollution inputs cause concern" (Johnston, 1990, p. 2).

Red Clay Erosion: The first Lake Superior Water Quality Conference called for a focus on the taconite tailings and asbestos fiber from Reserve Mining. It was on this occasion that the public was made aware ofthe nutrients entering the lake through erosion. The southwest shore of Lake Superior was considered the major source ofthis nutrient loading. The red clay soils in this area are prone to rapid erosion from removal of vegetative cover by natural or man-made causes. A Red Clay Interagency Committee was formed to inventory the extent of sedimentation and outline a plan of action. Efforts were aimed at erosion control structures, replacing and retaining vegetative covers, stabilizing stream banks, and improving forestry and road building practices. Improved public awareness of the potential environmental and economic impacts associated with erosion was addressed through educa­ tional programs.

24 "O <13 .S 10K (I) 2 0 .c a. (I) .c.0 a. SK $ ~

Superior Michigan Huron Erie Ontario

gj Point Sources

~ Nonpoint Sources

- Atmospheric Load gm Interconnecting channel load from upstream lake

Figure 4. 1976 Phosphorus Loads for the Great Lakes, by Source (Gregor and Johnson 1980).

25 Authority was given to regional and local governments and agencies to plan and implement erosion control measures. Congress enacted a landmark revision of the national water quality programs with the passage of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments to the 1972 Clean Water Act (PL 92- 500). In particular section 108,305, and 314: section 108 concerns research and related programs, 305 calls for the EPA to prepare a water quality inventory, and section 314 calls for each state to classify public lakes and design methods to control pollution. This amendment gave the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and individual states the needed authorization. Local authority has been in existence for many years. Soil and Water Con­ servation Districts were created pursuant to Wisconsin Statutes 92.05 and in Minnesota according to Minnesota statutes 40.00. These special purpose units of government have the legal authority to plan and implement erosion and sedi­ ment prevention and control measures in their jurisdictions (Andrew, 1976). Soil erosion into Lake Superior is considered to be at tolerable levels. However, there is still considerable disagreement as to just what tolerable levels should be. Total soil erosion losses in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin range from approximately zero to one million tons per acre per year (Colburn, 1990). The movement ofcontaminants among different media--air, land, surface water, and groundwater are increasingly recognized. Many of the easy solutions have already been used. The next generation of remedial steps will be both more complex and expensive. Compounds must be removed or reduced to restore a diverse and healthy ecosystem (Colburn, 1990 ). "Often these compounds are first detected in living creatures - in birds, in fish, and in people, not in the air or water. There is an increasing body of knowledge that points to these compounds as being linked to serious health problems in all of these creatures - people included" says Colburn (Colburn, 1990, p. 29).

26 Industry and Economic Issues Despite its relatively low level ofpopulation, the Lake Superior watershed is economically important to both the United States and Canada. The area is rich in scenic beauty and natural resources.

Commercial Shipping: Long ships play an integral part in the regional economy. The big ships are a common sight on Lake Superior from ice-outinmid­ March until freeze-up in late December or early January. There are two basic kinds of vessels using Lake Superior: "lakers," that operate only on the Great Lakes, and "salties," ocean-going ships visiting Lake Superior. The major cargos shipped from Lake Superior include grain from the Great Plains ofCanada and the United States, western low sulfur coal, and iron ore. Eighty percent of the United States iron ore comes from the Lake Superior region (Strickler, 1986). There are seven ports on Lake Superior that handle a cargo volume offive million tons or more. In Minnesota, Two Harbors, Silver Bay, and Taconite Harbor all export taconite pellets. Approximately 75 percent of Marquette, Michigan exports are iron ore. Thunder Bay and Duluth-Superior handle more cargo than all the other ports on the lake combined (United States Environ­ mental Protection Agency, 1988). Approximately 40 million tons of bulk cargo are shipped from the "Twin Ports" annually, earning Duluth-Superior the title of the eighth largest port in the United States. Nearly 80 percent of Thunder Bay's exports are grain. As a major international trade route, the western Lake Superior ports of Thunder Bay and Duluth-Superior have combined for nearly 40 percent ofthe St. Lawrence Seaway's tonnage from the Great Lakes (Helberg, 1989).

27 The Future ofShigpin~: The 1980's witnessed a downturn in commercial shipping caused by both international and domestic factors. Numerous political and technical plans have been developed to increase commercial shipping. Enlarging the locks and dredging harbors has been proposed. These dredging activities raise concerns about the effects from resuspension of toxic sediments. A year round shipping season has always been a topic of interest for port managers. The high cost of ice removal and the environmental impact of ice shoved on the shore by these large vessels is a concern.

Spills: The Great Lakes suffered 492 oil and toxic chemical spills in 1988, up from 384 in 1987 (Fust, 1990). Recent oil spills around the United States have raised concerns over the effect of a major spill on Lake Superior. Coast Guard officials say a major spill on Lake Superior would be highly unlikely because of the light traffic (one tanker a year). If a spill were to occur, it would probably be a vessel's own engine fuel. A ship could possibly spill between 30,000 and 70,000 gallons of fuel oil. If the spill were to occur in remote parts of the lake, clean-up could be difficult at best. This point was proven when the Coast Guard cutter Mesquite wrecked on Keweenaw Point on December 4, 1989. Arrangements to remove her 19,000 gallons of fuel oil took over a week. With recent cut backs, Coast Guard pollution control capabilities have been reduced. The nearest clean­ up team is based in Mobile, Alabama (Fust, 1990). Congressional efforts to enact comprehensive oil spill legislation has been spurred by the tragedy of the Exxon Valdez. On March 16th, 1989 H.R. 1465 was introduced by Congressman Jones in the House. The legislation is a response to the concerns arising from the most devastating oil spill in the history ofthe U.S. coastline. There are still many areas of concern; ten years ago the Coast Guard had almost twice as many people available to respond to oil spills as it has today.

28 This resulted from budgetary constraints which reduced the number of person­ nel at Marine Safety Offices by more than 50 percent in some cases (Barry, 1988).

Mining: The Lake Superior basin is one of the most accessible store­ houses of minerals in the world. Minerals from this region have been used by humans for over 5,000 years. The Precambrian rocks of the Canadian Shield contain major deposits of mineral resources. Nickel, silver, copper, gold, zinc, and uranium play an impor­ tant role in the economy of the area. Nickel smelting operations at Sudbury, Ontario have devastated vegetation in a 50 square mile area downwind from the mill's stacks. This area has been somewhat restored (Colburn, 1990). The iron ore sintering plant at Wawa, Ontario has almost totally destroyed all vegetation and water in a four township area downwind from the sulphur dioxide plume of the plant (Ontario Ministry ofNatural Resources, Wawa, 1983). Recently one of the largest gold deposits in Canada was discovered on Crown Land east of the Puckaskwa National Park. Mining operations will open roadless areas and toxic chemicals from the refining process may find their way into the lake. Mercury and arsenic can be natural contaminants of gold ore requiring troublesome and costly extraction processes (United States Department of Interior, 1985).

h:,Qn: The vast deposits of iron ore, dug from the earth at places like the Marquette, Gogebic, Negaunee, and the Mesabi Ranges supply 80 percent of the United States iron. Iron from Michigan's Upper Peninsula, Wisconsin, and Minnesota played a vital role in the United States victory during World War II (Ellis, 1974). Some of the environmental problems associated with this industry were discussed earlier.

29 Copper: Copper from the Lake Superior basin has been mined at sites on Isle Royale and in Michigan's Keweenaw Peninsula for at least 5,000 years. Pure native copper was traded as far south as present-day Central America (Mason, 1981). In almost one hundred years, beginning in the 1840's, Michigan's "Copper Country" produced over ten billion tons of high grade copper. The deepest shaft in North America, the Quincy, reaches a depth of 9,800 feet near Houghton, Michigan. Over 11,000 miles of tunnels were dug beneath the Keweenaw Peninsula. At times, as much as 95 percent of the United States copper came from this area. Accumulations of copper mine tailings from stamp mills, industrial and municipal waste have left a toxic legacy of those prosperous days. The Franklin Mill, built in 1860, deposited more than a million tons of "stamp sand" into Portage Lake by 1882 (The Arcadian Miner, 1962). Nearby, Torch Lake has been declared an area ofconcern by the International Joint Commission (IJC). Copper content in the lake water is six to nine times higher than water quality objectives. Clean-up cost could be as high as one billion dollars, which would make it the most expensive clean-up on the lake (Duquette, 1989).

Forestry: Logging industry expanded throughout the Lake Superior region when demand and waterborne access to markets permitted. Hometown newspapers boasted about the board feet cut by local companies. The log cut for 1892-93 for the little town of Bayfield, Wisconsin, was 108 million board feet, (Benton, 1986). What the loggers didn't get, fires did. Forest clearance encouraged soil erosion, increasing the rate of runoff, which caused more erosion and warmer temperature in the runoffwaters. In late summer, stream.flows were reduced; and some streams that would have flowed

30 under a forest canopy dried up. Logging operations, based on floating logs down the principal rivers, added to the problems. Logs chewed up the river bottoms and banks and deposited bark and tree matter on spawning beds. Dams to control the flow of logs acted as barriers to migrating fish. The softwood (coniferous) forests on the Canadian side of the lake were less attractive to foresters than hardwood forests and white pines on the United States side. This changed after the discovery of wood-based paper making (Colburn, 1990).

Forests Today: Today the forests of the Lake Superior region have been largely rejuvenated and are becoming productive components of the ecosystem. In Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, forest product sales amounted to 15 billion in United States dollars in 1982 and created 150,000 jobs. In 1985, Ontario employed 172,000 people in their forest product sector which produced about 20.2 billion in Canadian dollars and goods (Colburn, 1990). The concept ofintegrated resource management has been a part of forest planning for sometime, but forests were basically managed for wood fiber production. Pressure from environmental groups and those interested in using the region's forests for recreation is causing some multiple-use management to actually be implemented. Forest management goals in the U.S. now include enhancement of habitat for diverse types of fish and wildlife. Aesthetics and recreational opportunities have also been given higher priorities in some parts of the region (United States Forest Service, 1986). In Canada, forestry is a very powerful economic force. Commercial logging is conducted in the Provincial Parks such as Lake Superior Provincial Park. This 45 year old park located 16 km. south ofWawa is Ontario's fourth largest park (Duquette, 1989). The Ministry ofNatural Resources' management plans for the

31 region are development of as full and complete utilization of the available forest resources as is commercially possible (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Wawa, 1983). The Lake Superior forests of the late 20th Century are in far better shape than at the beginning of this century. But there are threats the forest will face: the growing effects of acid rain, possible global warming, loss of diversity, and increasing demands from a growing population (Johnston, 1990).

Fisheries: The events that befell fishing on Lake Superior parallels the history of the use ofthe other resources in the region: over exploitation and lack of forethought. Prior to European contact, the fishing done by the Native Americans was subsistence in nature. The native populations numbered in the thousands; sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens), whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis), and lake herring (Coregonus artedii) were fished from spring to autumn (Lawrie, 1973). Following the arrival ofthe first white settlers along the south shore ofthe lake in about 1850, local fisheries expanded. Initially, production was used locally by the increasing population associated with the development of copper, iron, and lumber industries in the area. As time passed, true commercial fishing developed. More and more of the catch was shipped to the booming U.S. Midwestern cities, at first by water and later by rail (Nute, 1944). Advanced technologies allowed Lake Superior yields to increase. It appears that the total commercial catch for all species was about 4,000,000 lb. (1,814,000 kg.) during the 1870's and increased to a high of 25,500,000 lb. (11,566,545 kg.) in 1941 (Lawrie, 1973). At its outset, lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) and lake trout (Salvelinus namacush) dominated production until around 1915 when they were replaced by lake herring (Coregonus artedii)

32 (Figure 5). This reflected changing market demands and depletion of the fisheries (Nute, 1944). Remodeling of the Welland Canal in the 1920's formed a bypass around Niagara Falls allowing the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) to enter the Great Lakes (Duquette, 1989). The sea lamprey is among the most primitive of living vertebrates. It is eel-like in form and feeds by attaching itself to a host fish with rasping teeth in a disk-like mouth. Once the lamprey is attached, it sucks the body fluids from its prey. The first sea lamprey was reported in Lake Superior in 1946. Within five years the lake trout populations were almost wiped out (Lawrie, 1973). Lake Superior's commercial harvest oflake trout dropped from 3.1 million pounds in 1951 to 380,000 pounds in 1960 (Downs, 197 6). Destruction of the fisheries in the upper Great Lakes was the stimulation for the first effective intergovernmental cooperation on Great Lakes fishery management both within and between the United States and Canada. This was formalized in the 1955 convention that created the Great Lakes Fishery Commission. A lamprey control program began in the 1960's and fish restocking has done a remarkable job of bringing populations back. Commercial fishing will probably never recover to the levels of the late 1940' s, but sport fishing has made great advances since the 1960's. There has been much emphasis placed on stocking of exotic salmonoid species such as coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch), chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and splake (Saluelinus namaycush Sal­ uelinus foltinalis) (Figure 6). Most fish stocking practices have not resulted in self-sustaining populations (Downs, 1976). Reasons for failure are not clear. Possible causes include: 1) improperly oriented homing instinct caused by hatchery rearing, 2) non-adaptation due to genetic composition, 3) inconsistent stocking practices, and 4) excessive mortality due to overexploitation and/or lamprey predation (Rathke, 1987b).

33 8000 ..... 20000-\------. 7000 18000 Loke Herring 118000 I... 8000 Loko Trout 0 o 1'4000 i 5000 ~~~ .(00() . l 8000 13900 ·1 2000 I :: ] 1000 1 2000 4. 0 t-•++t• ➔ -1•t+++t-t~t-H f-1+► 1 t+H-•+ ...... ,...... -A++-++<1-+++f-1-1-•+~ ... --► H·•·•·•+t .. •·•·•+•-1-t •I·•·• .. ·••+-+•• 1900 1910 1920 1930 19'40 1950 1980 1970 1980 1990 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1960 1990 Yoar Yoar

4500------, ,,... 2400 ,..I_ .(00() • 2000 3500 Smoll l Chuba O·· 0 • 3000 1800 l 2500 1200 l 2000 j 1500 l 609 8 1000 I 400 I 500 I 0.i.-.+-li.---'-++++'--_,-l,.+...... ~~'"----'- ►+++'--+t-<>-1 0 +t-h+t-t-f·M·• If ...... 1-t-t·H•t-tti ~ ...... , ...... 1900 1910 1920 1930 19'40 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940. 1950 1960 1970 1960 1990 Yoar Yoar

Figure 5. Commercial Harvests of Selected Species from Lake Superior 1900-1984.

Sources: Baldwin et al. 1979 and Great Lakes Fish. Comm. 700~------,-,. Coho Salmon ~ 3500 ~ 600 -C C 0., :,li: 3000 :, 500 0 0 E, 2500 t. 4-00 "O -g 2000 0 .:,,: ,:,(. g 300 .2cn 1500 in L. '- 200 z 1000 .z E ~ 100 ~ 500 :z: o...__...... ,. _ __.._,,__,~ ...... ++- ...... --....i 0"'--+-+--1-+-+_..._,._...... ___....i 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 Year Year

1400..------, 1100..------. -;;- 1000 ~1200 Rainbow and C -g 900 a Chinook Salmon 0 Steelheod Trout ; 1000 ~ 800 0 0 700 E, 800 t. -,:, -g 600 0 .:,,: .:,,; 500 .2 600 g en ~ 4-00 .8 400 z 300 E E 200 ~ 200 :f 100o~-__, __ _._ ___._ ___..___--' 1970 1975 1985 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 Yocr

300..------, 250....----"------. ~ ., 'g 250 -"O a 5., 200 :,.. :, 0 g200 t. 150 -,:, -,:, ~ 150 .. .2 8 100 en 100 ~ L. L.

50 I 50 i ~ :z: 0·..___ -4-- __.,__ __ .,__ __ .,____. 0..---1----+---+----ti--+--I 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 Year Yoar

Figure 6. Stocking of Selected Species in Lake Superior.

Source: Great Lakes Fish. Comm. 1983.

35 Although overfishing was instrumental in the collapse of the lake trout and whitefish fisheries, the lamprey played a major role in the fish population collapse. Currently, the U.S. and Canada are spending about $8 million per year on lamprey control and an additional $12 million on restocking (Newman, 1989) (Figure 7). Some groups feel fishery management has become little more than glorified fish farming. Recent data indicated a forage shortage on Lake Superior. As a result, lake trout are growing more slowly than expected, raising the question of whether fishery managers should cut back stocking of the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and salmon that compete with the lake trout (Colburn, 1990) (Figure 8).

Toxins in Fish: Fishing on Lake Superior is under pressure from several other fronts. Toxic contaminants have led to "no consumption advisories" from Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin for lake trout over 30 inches (Radtke, 1987b). Ontario has also issued consumption advisories through its Guide to Eating Ontario Sport Fish. Mercury, PCBs, and other toxins found in fish have lead to much discussion by officials as to what constitutes a safe level. Although 26 million people get their drinking water from the Great Lakes, the greatest risk is to people that eat lake fish. Those people would have to drink Great Lakes water for 150 years to get the equivalent toxic dose that they can get from one meal oflake trout. This is because of the bioaccumulation of toxics as they move up through the food chain (Schmidt, 1989). While the concentrations in water of chemicals such as PCBs may be so low that the toxic substances are almost undetectable, biomagnification through the food chain can increase levels in predator fish such as large trout and salmon by a million times (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1988).

36 6Qr------~

50 ...... ···········- -- ...... ······················

40 · ··-··-·······--······· ········ ·- ·-·• ...... ························ ·......

30 ·----·····.. ·-··················· ·························-··················-··············-···

20 · ---·········-·-· .. ···-·········· ...... --·-·-········· ...... ·••········

1961 1971 1981 1966 1976 1986 YE.AR

Figure 7. Catches of Spawning Lamprey in Tributaries to Lake Superior. Source: Busiahn, 1988.

37 soef;r------~

0w ~ auocn , ]XX)l f-C I (!}2 I cc__,.... ( wO • OJF 2'-"" 2JXX)I -z_)

10CO

1984 198.5 1985 1987

tfftR

l.MlROOT

---011-ER,

Figure 8. Fish Stocked in Lake Superior. Source: Busiahn, 1988.

38 Other Exotics: More than 500 million dollars have been spent over the last 35 years trying to remedy the effect of exotic fishes: lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), and smelt (Osmerus mordax) on native populations (Newman, 1989). Recently, a new cause ofinadvertent exotic introduction has come to light. Ships from European and Asian ports may be introducing exotic freshwater species. Exotics that would not normally be able to cross the salt water barriers may find their way into Lake Superior in ballast water. In 1987 a small perch called the river ruffe (Gymnocephalus cerna) was found in the St. Louis River at Duluth, Minnesota (Minnesota Sea Grant, 1989). By early June of 1988, over 1,500 ruffe were captured in the St. Louis River (Pratt, 1988). In 1989, the population was estimated to have increased to between 300,000 and 500,000 (Newman, 1989). The ruffe is much more aggres­ sive than the native yellow perch (Perea fiavescens) and competes for the same food. In , whitefish production was reduced by one-half in ruffe infested lakes. There is great concern over the effects the river ruffe may have on the Lake Superior ecosystem. A host of other exotics have been found in the lake. A zooplankter called Bythotrephes cederstromei has the potential to out-compete desirable native zooplankters (Morse, 1988). The Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis (Crustacea:Brachyura), the European flounder (Platichthys fiesus), and the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) all have been found in the Great Lakes. The zebra mussel is a serious pest in Europe and is rapidly becoming one in the Great Lakes. It colonizes intake cribs and pipes serving water treatment plants, power generation stations, and industrial intakes. In April, 1990, zebra mussels were discovered in Lake Superior at the mouth of the St. Louis River (Pratt, 1990).

39 It is clear that steps need to be taken to curb the introduction of exotics to the lakes. Once they have become established, they may be impossible to remove. Ocean-going vessels carry as much as 1.25 million gallons of ballast water when coming in without cargo. For the last ten years, as many as 1,100 ocean-going vessels per season have entered the lakes. Almost all carried ballast water. The Canadian Coast Guard, in consultation with other Great Lakes and environmental agencies, established voluntary guidelines that became effective in May of 1989. Ships entering the seaway are now asked to exchange ballast water at depths greater than 6,560 feet (2,000 meters). The objective is to exchange coastal organisms for open-water organisms that are less likely to survive and reproduce in the Great Lakes. When ocean-going ships were surveyed by the Seaway Authority in May and June of 1989, 65-89 percent were within the guidelines, 100 percent compliance is needed for success (Dochada, 1989).

Tourism and Development The native people who lived near Lake Superior and the early explorers and settlers were not very concerned with the recreational opportunities of the region. Extraction ofnatural resources have been the life blood ofthe region, but various factors in world economies and politics have lead to cycles of boom and bust. In many areas, industrial practices have caused environmental damage forcing governments to re-evaluate their economic base and the long-term cost versus benefits of some industries. In the 1970's, regulations designed to help clean-up the environment contributed to the loss of blue collar jobs in the Lake Superior basin. It is hoped that tourism can take up the slack from lost industrial jobs with less impact on the environment.

40 Early History of Recreation: The rich were the first to use Lake Superior for recreation and sport. The first industrialists Henry Ford, John D. Rockefeller, J.P. Morgen, and Andrew Carnegie took raw material from the Lake Superior basin. They also found the lake a great place to take their families to get away from the overcrowding, disease, and heat of the big cities to the south. Henry Ford built factories at Pequaming and Big Bay, Michigan. Thomas Edison and Henry Ford had homes at the Huron Mountain Club. Louis Kauffman spent 5 million in 1920 dollars to build a 35-room summer home called Granot Loma on the lake near Marquette, Michigan (Green Bay Press-Gazette, 1986). William Harkness, who made his money by investing in a company called Standard Oil, took his friends and family cruising Lake Superior on the 196-foot luxury yacht Gunilda. In 1910, the lovely Yacht Club registered vessel was touring the lake and providing hay fever relief for its owners when it hit Mc Garvey shoals and sank in 300 feet of water, a $120,000 loss (Boyer, 1974). The freedom and mobility provided by the automobile stimulated devel­ opment of cottages and cabins around the lake beginning in the 1920' s. The final link completing a highway route circling the lake was not completed until the Trans Canadian Highway to Wawa, Ontario was finished in the fall of 1960 (Turcot, 1988).

Recreation and Sports at the Close of the 20th Century: As the 20th Century closes, people have more leisure time and greater disposable income than their grandparents did. People from all walks oflife can spend their leisure time beyond the city limits. Governments on both sides of the border acquired land and began to develop an extensive system of parks, wilderness areas, and conservation to protect local resources and to serve recreational needs (Jones, M., 1989).

41 The economy ofmany areas within the basin now relies heavily on tourism and the revenues from local recreational activities. In cities around the lake, rec­ reation and tourism is being actively sought to replace losses resulting from economic decline in heavy industry (Blank, 1983). Lake Superior is still the least used of all the Great Lakes. In 1983, the number of angler days spend on Lake Superior was about 2.5 million compared to an average ofalmost 27 million on each ofthe other Great Lakes (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1988). Recreational boating facilities have expanded in the 1980's, mostly along the western and southern shore ofthe lake. The region from Saxon Harbor, Wisconsin to Grand Portage, Minnesota included an estimated 930 seasonal slips and ten transient slips in 1977. Seven years later a study identified 1,557 seasonal slips and 148 transient slips at marinas in the same area. The slips are concentrated in Duluth-Superior and the Apostle Islands area (Dawson, 1985). In the same area, sailing charters increased from 3,600 in 1981 to 5,500 in 1987. Recreational activities include sport fishing, power boating, sailing, kayaking, hiking, sight-seeing, rock hounding, swimming, and scuba diving. Winter sports include snowmobiling, skiing, and snowshoeing. Waterfront redevelopment is slowly changing unsightly harbors into places that are pleasant to visit. Ashland, Wisconsin has a new ten acre lakefront park; Superior has a recreational complex at Barker Island. Duluth, Minnesota is developing their harbor which will include a multi-million dollar freshwater interpretive center (Bruce, 1990). Thunder Bay, Ontario has built parks and a marina in its inner harbor bringing positive aesthetic changes.

The Pressure on Parks: Today Canadian and U.S. public lands in the Lake Superior region include nine wilderness areas, six national parks, six

42 national forests, 48 state parks, 15 provincial parks, and 23 state forests. In the Lake Superior region, over 60 percent ofthe land is public compared to 30 percent in the rest of the country (Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute, 1980). The increasing use of the basin's resources have put intense pressure on Lake Superior. Parks are becoming crowded. The Sleeping Giant Provincial Park on the Sibley Peninsula turns away people on holiday weekends. The in­ creasing popularity of the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore has pitted those that enjoy the remote shorelines of the park against those that see a need for motorized traffic and a road along the shoreline. Rather than the purchasing 13,500 acre Grand Island, located one-half mile off the Pictured Rocks National Lake Shore, the local citizens supported the Forest Service purchase of the island because they are more willing to develop it for additional recreational use (Jones, E., 1989). The Apostle Islands National Lakeshore has grown since its formation in 1970. A marina has been developed on Stockton Island. The National Park Service fashioned a management plan to deal with the demand for better access and increased recreational development, a delicate balancing act to carry the park into the next millennium (National Park Service, 1989).

Underwater Parks: Storms exploding across hundreds ofmiles of open water pile up mountainous freshwater seas far deadlier than their saltwater counterparts. Lake Superior's gales have made its depth the "final port of call" for many a ship and her ghostly crew. The cold, clear water of Lake Superior has made the lake a scuba divers' mecca. Concern for overuse and destruction of historic resources has led to the formation of underwater preserves at Whitefish Point and Alger County (site of Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore). Wrecks are protected in the Apostle

43 Islands and Isle Royale. Other underwater preserves are under consideration for the Keweenaw and along Minnesota's north shore. Ontario and Wisconsin have regulations protecting their submerged cultural resources (Cooper, 1990). A 1984 study showed that divers and their non-diving friends injected over three million U.S. dollars in gross revenue into Alger County economy (Alger Under­ water Preserve Committee Inc.,1985). Interest in establishing shore-based facilities to support the bottom.land preserves and permit greater access and appreciation by the non-diving public remains high. One group in Two Harbors, Minnesota hopes to start submarine tours to the local wrecks for the non-diving public (Lake Superior Magazine, 1989).

Shoreline Development: The increased recreational activity has had mixed results. Each year more condominiums, resorts, and fast food franchises appear. Extensive development has caused environmental damage. Developers make larger profits by selling smaller parcels oflake frontage. Many homes are squeezed between the highways and the lake. Much ofthe development is on land not suitable for septic systems or the systems no longer function properly, posing local water quality problems. The removal of vegetation and changes to other natural shoreline protection has stepped up erosion. Building too close to the shoreline can cause loss of natural beauty and important wildlife habitat. Also, increased building in areas susceptible to natural flooding and erosion has increased demand to manage lake levels to protect real estate that was unwisely developed (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1988). More afiluent urbanites vie for a limited supply of prime waterfront properties driving up prices and taxes. The absentee owners with no long-term ties to the land sometimes come in direct conflict with life-long residents over management plans and ideas for growth (Enders, 1989).

44 There has been extensive development along the Minnesota north shore. The rate of shoreline development for secondary and retirement homes is twice the state's overall housing growth rate (4.9percent growth/year). While shore­ line zoning ordinances are designed to minimize the impact ofthis development, septic tank failure is very common in the clay and shallow-to-bedrock soils in the western Lake Superior basin (Johnston, 1990). A management plan has been de­ signed by the citizens of the north shore. The plan includes strategies for the en­ vironmental protection and orderly growth of the area, but it also states that development should be encouraged in the area (Arrowhead Regional Develop­ ment Commission, 1988). In Ontario, unlike the United States, most of the land is owned by the government (Crown Lands) or by large industry; very few holdings over 80 acres are in personal private ownership (Jones, M., 1989). There is currently recreational use competition between residents and non-residents in Ontario. Recreationists using Crown Land and its various resources are an important issue in northern Ontario (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Thunder Bay, 1983). Two key issues have been identified in the Wawa District regarding tourism promotion in Ontario. The first issue is over the need to gain more economic benefit from non-resident recreational users of Ontario's of Crown Land. Second is to reduce competition between resident and non-resident users of Crown Land, particularly in situations where resource limitation are real or at least strongly perceived (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Wawa, 1983).

Other Issues The preceding issues in the Lake Superior basin are considered important at this point in time. There are certainly more environmental issues with various levels of significance, depending on when and how they may impact the region.

45 I Some of these issues may tum out to have greater implications than was originally thought, others may have less impact. Still other factors and issues we have never considered will probably appear as the future unfolds.

Global Warming: In many of today's newspapers and magazines head­ lines speak of carbon dioxide building up in the atmosphere. This condition is caused by the increased burning of fossil fuels and the destruction of the earth's forest. There is virtually no scientific controversy over the fact that more carbon dioxide means higher temperatures. The question is what will the effect be. We have experienced the six warmest years on record; in order, they are: 1988, 1987, 1983, 1981, 1980, and 1986 (McGibbons, 1989). Studies have been done on the effects of global warming on the Great Lakes. Climate change has the potential to alter many traditional activities in the Great Lakes region. According to various studies, lake levels could drop from 1 1/2 to 6 feet (1/2 to 2 meters). Lowering lakes levels could reduce wetland areas, impacting waterfowl and fish production. Less water will certainly cause lower hydropower production (Croley II, Hartman, 1988). Warmer winters could mean reduced lake ice formation which could lengthen the shipping season. Lower lake levels could also increase waterborne shipping costs via lower vessel load limits and traffic back-ups at the Sault locks. Dredging of sediments could cause serious problems because the sediments in most major harbors are highly contaminated. Dredging would release these toxic contaminants back into the environment. Lower water level could also impact recreation, ruining marinas and collapsing winter sports that depend on snow and ice. Riparians would be moved farther from the shore and would be required to modify their activities accordingly and would probably attempt to move closer to the shore. Warming would be likely to cause changes in the fish community,

46 benefitting some species and reducing ranges of others (Croley II, Hartman, 1988). No historical analog comparable to these conditions exist to use as a model for needed management practices. A major thrust of water management will probably be to try to keep Superior's water in the lake.

Water Diversion: As fresh water diminishes from contamination or by being removed from a usable part of the hydrologic cycle, its value increases. Serious proposals for large scale removal ofwater from the Great Lakes to water­ poor areas experiencing growth in population and industry are being considered. At the direction of the U.S. Congress, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers studied the possibility of diversion of water from the Great Lakes via the Mississippi River to compensate for rapid depletion of groundwater from the Ogallala aquifer thirty years ago there were 2,000 wells tapping the Ogallala aquifer, today there are 70,000 in the high plains states of Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas (Earl, 1989). A Colorado plan called for a canal or a pipeline to carry water from the Great Lakes to rapidly growing economies of the Southwest. Both ideas were opposed by all Great Lakes states and the Province of Ontario. Another proposal called the Great Recycling and N orthem Develop­ ment Canal concept was revived in 1985 after being proposed in the 1950's. The plan would divert water to be sold in the western states (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1988). Invariably, the proposals have failed to materialize, but more pressure for diversion of Great Lakes' water will surely come. The forces to sell water will come internally ifthe lake level is high and will always come from the Southwest. After the 1990 census, as many as 19 congressional seats may shift to the Southwest; they will want Great Lakes water (Earl, 1989).

47 CHAPTER III: METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Justification To find out more about what could be done to address the issues facing Lake Superior, I approached Mark Peterson, director of the Sigurd Olson Envi­ ronmental Institute at Northland College in Ashland, Wisconsin. The institu­ tion is well known for its inspiration and leadership in environmental education in the Lake Superior region. Mr. Peterson informed me that the institute saw a need for the development of an audio-visual program which addresses the envi­ ronmental issues of the Lake Superior region. By making such a program available to the public, we hope to raise the level of concern over the environ­ mental health of Lake Superior, help the viewers gain a better understanding of the lake and be motivated to take an active role in its environmental protection.

Strategy The program "A Lake in the Balance" is designed to convey a certain philosophy about a lake and the land surrounding it. The subject was researched and existing video programs films and slide tape products were reviewed. This chapter discusses the methods used and the production of this slide tape program. The final product is a synthesis of critical factors: the script, the photography, and the sound track.

Script At the formative stages of this project the first consideration was writing the script. The story needed to look at the shortfalls of human behavior in the Lake Superior basin. The tale had to be both educational and entertaining while remaining as unbiased as possible. The script required a sobering look at the

48 issues but couldn't become another "doom and gloom" environmental saga. The story is interpretive in nature, rather than a simple travel log. It was hoped that this approach would hold the interest of a diverse audience. The story line that was finally used is a compromise ofvarious ideas. It starts out as a travel log, but weaves in a plot that builds some tension through opposing ideas.

Photography The images used in this production needed to fit the same criteria as the script. They each have to convey their own message in addition to supporting the narration. The subject, color, angle, lighting and even the season that the photo was taken in can set a certain mood. Depending on the motives at various points in the story that mood might conflict with the narration and sound track. Signs were occasionally photographed as a method of delivering a given message with less narration. In order to obtain the images and information needed for the program, I travelled Lake Superior, by automobile, boat,and plane. The task of condensing the environmental issues, economy, history and physical geography into a 23 minute, 80 image slide program was formidable. From the spring of 1988 to the spring of 1990 over 1080 images were exposed. These photographs were edited down to eighty. It was determined that the program would be no longer than eighty slides. An eighty tray program was used because they consistently "drop" better then a 140 slide tray in a standard Kodak Carousel Slide Tray. Images were selected based on the following criteria: 1. Subject matter 2. Quality 3. Dramatic appeal

49 4. Representation of an area 5. Visual appeal

Sound Track Finding the proper individuals to narrate the script was a matter of budget, a lot of digging around and a touch ofluck. Music used for this type of production may be obtained through any one ofthree different methods. The first method is to get the consent of the organization which holds the copyright, or from the original composer. Commissions are normally paid with this method. Depending on the way the music will be used, costs can run from a few hundred to hundreds of thousands of dollars. A second method is to work with a radio station or other organization which pays a fee to use the music. This method is called "needle drop" or "library music" and the fees are paid yearly or per use. Using this method requires that a project be done under the control of the organization with the "needle drop" permit. Finally an original score can be produced,this method assures that there will be no copyright problems. "A Lake in the Balance" used the last method mentioned. An original score was produced using a guitarist, key boards, percussion, and computer gen­ erated music. Production was done at MIDI West Recording studios in Dale, WI. The system uses a Macintosh computer and the Mark of the Unicorn program called "Performer." The narration and sound track were produced on sixteen track tape using M.I.D.I. ( Music Instrument Digital Interface). After the sound track was completed, the sixteen track tape was blended and placed on D.A.T. (Digital Audio Tape). The voice of Mark Hunt was narrated by Bill Cole (a former news anchor on a local ABC television station).The voice ofBill Richardson was done by Greg LeClerge's (a former radio reporter on a Los Angles radio station). LeClerges'

50 narration was done at WXPR public radio in Rhinelander and placed on the master tape in Dale.

Field Preparations In order to get the necessary images for the slide tape program, two trips completely around the lake were made in March of 1989 and again in July ofthat year. Sixteen additional excursions were completed to various destinations in the Lake Superior Basin during 1989 and the spring of 1990. One additional journey following the coast of the lake from Ontanogan, Michigan to Thunder Bay, Ontario was made by plane in early August of 1989.

Transportation: A 13-foot Zodiac Grand Raid MKII with a 25 horsepower Evinrude outboard was used throughout the study. A 17-foot Old Town Discovery canoe was used. A Cessina 180 single engine plane was used for the aerial photography. (Donated by Mr. Peter Rogers, Marion, Wisconsin.)

Photography: Surface and aerial photography was accomplished with Canon Fl and Canon Al single lens reflex cameras. Lens used included Canon 24mm, 28mm, 50mm 100mm macro and Vivitar 200-350mm zoom. A wide variety of filters, strobes, tripods, and special attachments were also incorporated. was done with a Niknos III range finder camera and an Oceanic 2003 strobe plus numerous special attachments. Film: Film used was mainly Kodachrome 64 ASA with a small amount of Kodachrome 200 ASA and Ektachrome 400 ASA. (All ofthe above mentioned equipment was supplied personally unless otherwise noted.)

51 Field Procedures The objective of the field work was to photograph selected scenes of Lake Superior in all seasons. This required photos that captured the rugged beauty of the lake in its many moods: complexity, fragility, and brutal power. Photogra­ phy was done at some of the most remote spots on the lake, sometimes in high seas and heavy weather.

Remote areas photographed: - Otterhead Island, in the Pukaskwa, Ontario - Michipcoten Island, Ontario - Isle Royale, Michigan -The Huron Islands, Michigan - Keweenaw Point, Michigan - Outer Island, Wisconsin

Other scenic areas photographed: Michi~n; - Iroquois Point - White Fish Point - Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore - Huron Mountains - Point Abbaye - Wisconsin: - Apostle Islands National Lake shore Minnesota: - French River

52 - Split Rock Lighthouse - Grand Portage Ontario: - Sibley Provincial Park - Silver Islet - Pukaskwa National Park - Lake Superior Provincial Park - Batchawana Bay

The other images addressed areas of environmental concerns on the big lake. Most of these sights were larger cities which are few and far between, industrial complexes, or areas which were experiencing substantial recreational growth. Photography usually required maneuvering the zodiac into some nasty places. These locations frequently were hard to find and even harder to reach. Many times approaching by water was the only method possible without trespassing. Submerged obstructions, intakes and outfalls, strong currents, and dodging ore carriers were all part of the routine. On occasion, the water was so polluted that the smell and contact with the water or foam caused irritation and affected equipment.

International Joint Commission, "Areas of Concern" The IJC has designated seven areas of concern on Lake Superior. These are areas where pollution problems are so severe they they impair the "beneficial uses" intended for that local water body. The following "areas of concern" were photographed:

53 - St. Louis River/Bay, Duluth, Minnesota and Superior, Wisconsin - Kaministikwis River, Thunder Bay, Ontario - Nipigon Bay, Red Rock, Ontario - Black Bird Creek, Terrace Bay, Ontario - Peninsula Harbor, Marathon, Ontario - Torch Lake, Houghton, Michigan

Other areas depicting environmental issues photographed: Michi2an; - Sault Ste Marie - Keweenaw Peninsula - Ontonagon Wisconsin; -Ashland Minnesota; - Two Harbors - Silver Bay - Grand Marais Ontario; - Schreiber -Wawa -AgawaBay - Sault Ste. Marie

Personal Contacts, Interviews and Meetings In conjunction with the photography, an attempt was made to interview residents working in and around the Lake Superior basin. The sampling of

54 interviews was in no way scientific. Individuals representing a broad spectrum ofsocial levels, political and environmental views were selected. An attempt was made to select people from various age groups, occupations and view points. These interviews were used to add perspective and "color" to the presentation. The interviews helped to discover what environmental issues they saw as important to Lake Superior. In almost all cases, those interviewed were contacted first by letter or phone. All but one interview (Paul Geisler) was done in person. The time of interview ranged from 15 minutes to one hour. On some occasions the interview was taped.

Persons Interviewed: 1. Horst Anderson, commercial fisherman (on commercial fishing and history of the area). Michipicotean Harbor, Ontario. August 22, 1989. 2. Robert Bruce, President, Lake Superior Center, (on the center and tourism in the area) January 11, 1990. 3. Alan N, Chisholm, Owner, Wardrop Engineering, Inc; former head of Kim­ berly Clark Canada (on paper industries view of environmental issues in the Lake Superior region). Thunder Bay, Ontario. July 4,1989. 4. Thor Conway, Regional Archaeologist, Ministry of Natural Resources (on early history of the native peoples of the region and pictographs) July 10, 1989. 5. David Cooper, Wisconsin State Underwater Archaeologist, (on wrecks of Lake Superior). June 4, 1989. 6. Gerald J. Coutant Chief, Visitor Services Branch, United States Forest Service (on U.S. management plans for the Lake Superior region). July 10, 1989.

55 7. Ann & Jack Dzynan. elderly residents and shop keepers ofSilver Inlet (on the history of the area and the Silver Inlet Mine). Thunder Bay, Ontario. July 1, 1989. 8. Chezyl Lynn Erickson, Planning Division, Arrowhead Regional Develop­ ment Commission (on management plans for Minnesota's north shore). J anu­ ary 11, 1990. 9. Clay Fust, Commander, United States Coast Guard, Marine Safety Office, Duluth, Minnesota (on spills). January 11, 1990. 10.Paul Geisler, Vice President, Kimberly Clark, Neenah (on pulp industry in Canada). June 12, 1989. 11.Gazy Glass, Sr. Research Scientist, Environmental Protection Agency, Du­ luth, Minnesota (on toxic pollution in the lake, Reserve Mining Co., and mercury). January 11, 1990. 12.Jeffrey Gunderson, Fisheries Agent, Minnesota Sea Grant, Duluth (on Lake Superior Fisheries). January 10,1990. 13.Elizabeth Jones, United States Forest Service Planner, Hiawatha Forest, Munising, Michigan (on plans for Grand Island). October 15, 1989. 14.Mike Jones. Park Planning and Tourism, Ministry of Natural Resources, former head of interpretation, Puckasaw National Park, Canada (on parks and environmental issues facing the region). July 4, 8, 9, and 10, 1989 and February 6, 1990. 15.Dan Koivumaa, Manager, Paradise Motel (on tourism in the area). Thunder Bay, Ontario. July 3, 1989. 16.Alden Lind, President, Save Lake Superior Assoc. (on environmental issues facing the region). January 9, 1990. Duluth, Minnesota.

56 17.Winfield Mac Donald, Advertising Manager, Wisconsin Division of Tourism Development (on Wisconsin's tourism on Lake Superior and ship wrecks). Madison, Wisconsin. May 18, 1989. 18. Pat McDonald, Lands Technician, Ontario Ministry ofNatural Resources (on mining in the area). March 26th, 1989. 19.Edwin Newben:y, President, University of Sudbury (on Native American culture around Lake Superior). July 12, 1989. 20. Mark Peterson, Director, Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute (on environ­ mental issues facing the region). Numerous times in 1989-1990. 21.Karen Plass, Communication Specialist, Minnesota Sea Grant, Duluth (on tourism, economic growth, and development). January 10,1990. 22.Debbie Rustad, Assistant Site Manager, Split Rock Light, Minnesota, Min­ nesota Historical Society (on the history of the area). March 23, 1989. 23.Jim Sanders, chiropractor, potter, lives in a remote cabin on the lake's north shore near Wawa, Ontario (on mining industry, the environment). August 25, 1989. 24. Lloyd Walton. Head of Cinematography, Ontario Ministry of Natural Re­ sources (on film techniques and the early history of the region). July 9,1989. 25.Al Wri~ht, Regional Lands/Parks Coordinator, Ministry of Natural Re­ sources (on issues in the region and in the parks). July 10,1989.

Post Production As "A Lake in the Balance" neared completion, the program was shown to approximately 100 people of various ages and social backgrounds for input and comments. Fifty-eight of these individuals filled out questionnaires on the program (Figure 9). This information was used to make necessary modifications

57 in the program. The artwork and publishing of the accompanying studyguide was done at Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute.

Fund Raising The funds needed to finance this project came from three main sources. Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute contributed $1,500.00. A matching $1,500.00 was raised by soliciting funding from private individuals. A large donation was receivedfromRobertMurphyofAppleton, Wisconsin. The Wiscon­ sin Department of Natural Resources also contributed funding. Other donations included plane and pilot from Mr. Pete Rogers of Marion Plywood Company, $560. Recording and studio time WXPR Public Radio, Rhinelander, $500. Recording and original score, Larry and Patty Darling, Midy West Recording, Hortonville, WI, $5,600. Narration by Bill Cole of Green Bay, WI, $500. Narration by Greg LeClerq of Rhinelander, WI, $250.

58 Table 8. Questionnaire.

Issues in the Lake Superior Region Questionnaire.

1. Did you feel this program represents a relevant learning experi­ ence?

2. Did you gain new general information about athe lake and insights into the current environmental issues affecting the Lake Superior watershed?

3. Was the program holistic? (Did it show "globally" how factors in maintaining our modern lifestyles affect the lake?)

4. Was the presentation fair, and did it show there are no easy an­ swers to the issues?

5. Was the flow and format of the program easy to follow?

6. Were there slides that you remember of good/poor artistic quality? Identify them if you can.

7. On a scale of 1-10, 1 being the best; the program was__ _

8. Do you feel that keeping Lake Superior environmentally healthy will have an impact on your personal lifestyle?

9. What would you like to see changed or added to this program?

10.Did the presentation leave you with a positive, negative, or neutral feeling about the future of Lake Superior?

11. Comments:

59 CHAPTER IV: STUDY GUIDE TO THE SLIDE-TAPE PROGRAM

A Lake in the Balance

(The finished guide will contain artwork throughout.)

Title Page with Graphic

Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute and the College of Natural Resources University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point

60 Table of Contents Page 1. Introduction to the Guide ......

2. How to Use the Slide-Tape Program ...... ~ ...... 3. Synopsis ...... 4. The Educational Intent of the Program ...... 5. Lake Superior Facts ...... • Volume and Surface Area ...... • Length ...... • Shoreline ...... • Depth ...... • Population ...... • Retention Time ...... • Ecosystem Organization Center ...... • A Word About Fresh Water ...... 6. Lake Superior Issues ...... • Fishi.ng ...... • Lamprey ...... • Other Exotics ...... • So You Can't Eat the Fish ...... • Getting Away From It All ...... • Development ...... • Public Lands ...... • Pollution In the Lake Superior Basin ...... • Riding the Global Winds ...... • Paper Country ...... • Minmg ...... • Nonpoint Source ...... • RAPing Up Areas of Concern ...... 7. What You Can Do ...... • Steps to a Healthy Lake Superior ...... 8. Who You Can Contact ...... 9. For Your Deliberation ...... 10. Bibliography ...... 11. Credits ...... 12. Script ......

61 INTRODUCTION TO THE GUIDE This program is designed for grade 7 through adult. The issues covered in this program are complex and the subject is huge. The time frame in which to consider them is not. The task of this slide program is to give a working knowledge ofthe Lake Superior region, and to bring the level of concern up a notch or two. This guide has been designed to be used as a companion piece to the audio­ visual program, "A Lake in the Balance." The information included here will help you show the program. There is a section that gives some ideas on what you can do to help protect the lake. The guide lists references and organizations to contact for additional information on Lake Superior issues. The publication also supplies more details on environmental issues facing the Lake Superior region as the Twentieth Century closes. Copies of this guide are available through the Sigurd Olson Environ­ mental Institute, Northland College, Ashland, Wisconsin 54806, (715) 682- 4531, Ext. 223.

62 HOW TO USE THE SLIDE-TAPE PROGRAM There are 80 images in "A Lake in the Balance"and the program lasts about 23 minutes. You can use it with either a manual or automatic projector. The side of the cassette labeled "manual" has audible signals that tell you when to advance to the next frame. Start the program on the first frame. Focus on this frame, then wait for the first beep before going on to the next frame. The other side of the cassette, designed for an automatic projector, uses inaudible signals that trigger the projector to advance the frames. Be sure the player/recorder is in a "synch" or "playback" mode and that all necessary connections are made be­ tween the projector and player/recorder. (To begin the show, put the first image up, focus it, and start the cassette.) You can also read the narration yourself, rather than using the recorded version. The script is included in this guide.

63 SYNOPSIS The characters in the tale are fictitious; the facts ar not. The story line of "A Lake in the Balance" revolves around a professor named Mark Hunt. He receives a grant to develop ways to help the Lake Superior regional economy grow. During his travels around the lake, he encounters a mystical old man named Bill Richardson. Bill Richardson symbolizes the spirit of Lake Superior and its environmental legacy. Richardson helps Mark Hunt understand the interrelationships between humans and the natural world. Richardson explains the environmental consequences of the development of the region. The presentation investigates the environmental issues facing the Lake Superior basin. Within the same context, the program explores some of the historic sites in the region and shows the rugged beauty that makes this unique lake worth preserving.

64 THE EDUCATIONAL INTENT OF THE PROGRAM "A picture is worth a thousand words." This program explores Lake Superior through the eye of the photographer and the mind of the characters Mark Hunt and Bill Richardson. The intent is to leave the audience thinking about what they observe in this program. As a means to that end, the program:

- is fun, educational and interesting.

- provides basic knowledge of the geography and history of the region.

- displays the natural beauty of Lake Superior and considers the intan- gible qualities of the lake.

- points out that because the region is still relatively uninhabited and the lake relatively clean, it has not received the environmental attention it needs. And although progress has been made in some areas of protecting the lake, problems remain and the environmental health of the lake is still in question.

- acknowledges that as long as humans live in the region they will need to use the natural resources and there will be change.

- considers the concept of sustainable development (the economy and environment can co-exist iflimits are set on development and natural systems are maintained).

- points out that reaching these goals calls for management techniques with vision - management that avoids crisis, not management that is guided by it.

- submits that curtailing the negative effects of human activities may require a major shift in society's values.

- notes that the issues facing the Lake Superior basin are not unique, but are common around the planet.

- stresses that there are no easy answers to these issues.

65 LAKE SUPERIOR FACTS This portion of the guide will supply a few more details on some of the environ­ mental issues facing the Lake Superior region.

Volume and Surface Area Its hard to imagine why a body ofwater as huge as Lake Superior is called a "lake." It contains ten percent ofthe world's fresh surface water and 85 percent of the United States' fresh surface water. It has the largest surface area of any body of fresh water in the world. Only the "mile deep" Lake Baikal in the Soviet Union surpasses Lake Superior in volume. The volume ofLake Superior is about 2,900 cubic miles (12,100 cubic kilometers); that's around three trillion gallons or 12.8 trillion liters of water. At the 1986 rate of soft drink consumption of 30 gallons per person per year, it would take the 240 million people living in the United States 440,000 years to drink Lake Superior if it were soda. Superior could hold the volume of all the Great Lakes combined plus three more 's thrown in for good measure.

Length Lake Superior is 350 miles long(563 kilometers) and 160 miles wide (257 kilometers). The lake is so long that when it is dusk at the east end of the Lake at Sault St. Marie, Michigan, the sun is still shining at Duluth, Minnesota on the west end of the lake.

Shoreline Length To walk the shoreline around Lake Superior would be a journey of2,726 miles (4,385 kilometers), nearly the distance of a trip from New York to Seattle.

66 Depth: Lake Superior is the deepest of the Great Lakes with a sounding off Munising, Michigan of 1,330 feet (405 meters). Four Statues of Liberties stand­ ing end to end at this spot in the lake would still be 73 feet (22 meters) underwater. The average depth of Superior is 483 feet (14 7 meters); that's the height of a 32-story building.

Population Lake Superior's watershed is the least populated of all the Great Lakes. The population averages about 14 people per square mile compared to 183 for the rest of the Great Lakes. Along with the region's low population is a high percentage ofundeveloped land. Forest covers 91 percent ofthe land in the lake's watershed.

Retention Time: Lake Superior is also the most fragile of the Great Lakes. Superior's retention time (the time it takes for water to move through the lake) is 191 years. This interval means that toxic substances entering the lake will be there for a long time and possibly have a greater effect. Water leaving the lake today may have entered the lake just after the American Revolutionary War of 1776.

Ecosystem Organization Centers Areas of high biological production, called ecosystem organizational cen­ ters (spawning grounds,wildlife nurseries), tend to be near shore around wet­ lands, bays, and tributaries. Only 16 percent of Lake Superior fits this descrip­ tion; and that 16 percent tends to be the same areas that have been most effected

67 by contamination. Eighty-four percent of Superior is open lake with limited biological production.

A Word About Fresh Water There is just as much fresh water on the earth today as there was a million years ago: about 10,000 cubic miles, 40,000 cubic kilometers. There were a billion people on the planet in 1820 to use that water. There are five billion people on the planet today, and there will be six billion by the year 2000. Much of that fresh water is unreachable or has become unusable. We must begin to protect this resource and see it for what it is, a precious substance necessary for life as we know it.

Lake Superior is a lake ofraw power and gray fury; storms can explode across hundreds of miles ofopen water spawning waves fifty feet high. A lake of magic and mist, it abounds with enchanted places that have changed little since the voyageurs paddles first felt its icy grip. Superior is a fragile and complex lake made up of many interrelated and interacting systems. Its water, its weather, its biology, and its geology blend together in ways we do not comprehend. We have changed the nature of the Lake Superior basin, whether knowingly or unwittingly. The lake is not the same lake Brule canoed in 1622. What the future holds for this inland sea depends on us. Lake Superior is a "lake in the balance."

68 LAKE SUPERIOR ISSUES Despite regulations to stop polluters and clean-up efforts since the early 1970's by citizen groups and government agencies in Canada and the United States, the Lake Superior basin's health is still in question. Development pressures, habitat destruction, introduction ofexotic animals, and toxic chemicals are still increas­ ing throughout the system.

Fishing The over-exploitation and lack of forethought that befell fishing on Lake Superior parallels the history ofthe use ofthe other resources in the region. Prior to European contact, Native Americans engaged in subsistence fishing. Follow­ ing the arrival of white settlers, use oflocal fisheries expanded. As time passed, true commercial fishing developed; with advanced technologies (better boats and nets), Lake Superior yields increased. The most common fish caught were lake trout, whitefish, and lake herring. The total catch for all species reached a high of25,500,00 pounds (11,566,545 kg.) in 1941. From that point in time, the lake's fisheries fell into a steady decline.

Lamprey: Although overfishing was instrumental in the collapse of the lake trout and whitefish fisheries, the lamprey played a major role in the fish population collapse. Remodeling of the Welland Canal in the 1920's formed a bypass around Niagara Falls; it allowed the sea lamprey, the first known exotic species, to enter the lake. The sea lamprey is among the most primitive of living vertebrates. It is eel-like in form and feeds by attaching itself to a host fish. The lamprey has rasping teeth in a disk-like mouth. Once the lamprey is attached, it stays attached and continues to suck the body fluids from its prey. The first

69 lamprey was reported in Lake Superior in 1946. Within five years, the lake trout populations were almost wiped out. A lamprey control program was started in the 1960's along with fish restocking. The program had been largely successful in limiting the lamprey, but most stocking practices have not resulted in self-sustaining populations. Now as water in the Great Lakes is cleaning up, the lamprey seems to be making a comeback in some areas.

Other Exotics: Recently, a new inadvertent exotic introduction has come to light. Ships from European and Asian ports may be introducing exotic freshwater species. Creatures that would not normally be able to cross the salt water barriers may find their way into Lake Superior in the ballast water. In 1987, a small perch called the river ruffe (rough) was found in the St. Louis River at Duluth, Minnesota. By 1989, the population was estimated to have increased to between 300,000 and 500,000. The ruffe is much more aggressive than the native yellow perch and competes for the same food, it also eats the eggs of whitefish and trout. There is concern over the effects the river ruffe may have on the Lake Superior ecosystem. A host of other exotics have been found in the Great Lakes. Certain zoo­ plankton, the Chinese mitten crab, a European flounder and the zebra mussel, all have been found. The zebra mussel is a serious pest in Europe and is becoming one in the Great Lakes. It colonizes intake pipes that serve water treatment plants and power generating stations and can clog these pipes. The Canadian Coast Guard, in consultation with other Great Lakes envi­ ronmental agencies, established voluntary guidelines that became effective in May of 1989. Ships entering the St. Lawrence Seaway are now asked to exchange ballast water at depth greater than 6,566 feet (2,000 meters). The object is to

70 exchange coastal organisms for open water organisms that are less likely to survive and reproduce in the Great Lakes.

So You Can't Eat the Fish: Fishing on Lake Superior is under pressure from several other fronts. Toxic contaminants have led to "nonconsumption ad­ visories." Some toxics "bioaccumulate" as they move up the food chain. The con­ centrations of mercury or PCB's in water may be so low that they are almost undetectable. But biomagnification through the food chain can increase levels in predator fish, such as large trout or salmon by a million times. Small prey fish retain virtually all ofthe contaminants they consume. They accumulate in their flesh for an entire lifetime. Larger fish in turn accululate the toxics from the many prey fish they consume.

The lake's fish populations continue to be stressed from overharvesting, exotic competition, habitat disruption, and chemical contamination. Ri­ valry between commercial, sport, and Native Americans for their portions ofthe fishery will continue to be an issue. While it remains vulnerable, the lake's fishery has the potential to be a viable resource if anticipatory management practices that strive for sustainability are implemented.

Getting Away From It All Technology and economics have changed our way oflife when compared to that ofour grandparents. There has been an increase in leisure time and we have more disposable income. People from all walks of life can spend their free time beyond the city limits.

71 Development: The increased recreational activity has had mixed results. Each year more condominiums, resorts, and fast food franchises appear. Minnesota's north shore is experiencing a growth rate twice that ofthe rest ofthe state. Extensive development has caused environmental damage. Developers make larger profits by selling smaller parcels of lake frontage. Homes are squeezed between the highways and the lake. Much of the development occurs on land not suitable for septic systems or ~e systems no longer function properly, posing local water quality problems. The removal of vegetation and other changes to the shoreline have stepped up erosion. More affluent urbanites vie for a limited supply of prime waterfront properties driving up prices and taxes. Absentee owners sometimes come in direct conflict with lifelong residents over management plans and growth ideas. Absentee owners often want no more development once they have their own homes.

Public Lands: Today, Canada and U.S. public lands in the Lake Superior region include nine wilderness areas, six national parks, six national forests, 48 state parks, 15 provincial parks, and 23 state forests. The increase of population using the resources have put intense pressure on Lake Superior Parks. Parks are becoming crowded. The Sleeping Giant Provincial Park on the Sibly Peninsula in Ontario turns people away on holiday weekends. The increasing popularity ofthe Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore in Michigan has pitted those that enjoy the remote shorelines of the park against those that see a need for motorized traffic and want a new road along the shoreline. Tourism and recreation are among the fastest growing economic forces on the great lake. Tourism is not an unlimited market and not all communities are in a good position to develop a tourist-based economy. Governments have

72 histories of overselling the potential benefits of tourism to depressed economic regions.

Many forces compete for the lake's natural resources. A growing appre­ ciation for the intangible values of this "supernatural" area is surfacing with in the region. In order for the lake to remain a place of wildness and rugged beauty, many hard decisions need to be made. A long-term, whole eco-system approach to management is needed. To maintain Lake Supe­ rior as we know it now may call for changes in our present patterns of behavior and lifestyles. A way of life that is less consumptive and materi­ alistic should be considered. A philosophy is needed that sees humans as a part of nature instead of the ultimate ruler.

Pollution in the Lake Superior Basin Toxic contamination of Lake Superior and the potential risk to human health have been the result ofthe increased use ofsynthetic organic chemicals and heavy metals since the 1940's. Toxic pollutants can be acutely poisonous in relatively small amounts. Through long-term exposure, many trace contami­ nants have the potential to increase the risk ofcancer, birth defects, and genetic mutations.

Riding the Global Winds: Lake Superior is particularly susceptible to pollution from airborne toxics because of its location and size. North American weather patterns bring contaminated air from all over the continent. Global weather patterns and the jet stream bring pollution from all over the world. As much as 97 percent of some toxics such as lead, mercury, PCB's and DDT come from airborne sources.

73 DDT has been banned or severely restricted in the U.S. and Canada since 1971, yet it continues to enter the lake. Up to 96 percent may come from the atmosphere. DDT is still used in places like Mexico, Latin America, and India. DDT and PCB's have been found in Siskiwit Lake, a small lake on Isle Royale. Isle Royale is a national park and is considered a pristine wilderness. The only logical way these substances could have reached Isle Royal e's interior lakes is via fallout from the atmosphere.

Paper Country: While the overall quality of Lake Superior water appears to be good, there are some significantly degraded local areas. These areas are associated with pulp mills, mining operations, and municipal dis­ charges. Most of these areas have been contaminated by a combination of discharges from pulp and paper mills, local industry, and municipal sewage treatment plants. These areas contain contaminated sediments, heavy metals, and toxic organics. Kimberly Clark's mill at Terrace Bay, Canada, has eflluent flows near 4.3 million cubic feet (122,000 cubic meters) per day. This waste is dumped in Black Bird Creek which flows into Lake Superior. There are seven areas of concern listed by the International Joint Commission (IJC).

Mining: The extraction of minerals plays a major part in the economics of the Lake Superior region. The minerals include: silver, gold, iron, nickel, uranium, and zinc. Each of these holds a potential for environmental problems in their removal and refining. They can destroy wildlife habitat, open up remote areas, and pollute surface and groundwater. Recent gold discoveries on Crown Lands near the Pukaskwa National Park may prove to be the largest gold deposits every found in Canada.

74 Nonpoint Source Pollution: When most people think of Lake Superior water quality they think about the water in the lake itself, or maybe just the "areas of concern" around the shore of the lake. But water quality in Lake Superior, as in any lake, is the result of inputs from the atmosphere, point sources of pollution such as sewage and industrial discharges, and nonpoint sources ofpollution from Lake Superior's entire drainage basin. Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution is pollution that can't be traced to a pipe. Lake Superior has a drainage basin over one and a half times the size of the lake. Therefore, even a small source of pollution can have a large cumulative effect. Development, mining, and logging practices that disturb the soil are the major sources of nonpoint pollution on Superior. Spruce and pine were the predominate trees in the Lake Superior basin before European contact. Logging in the last half of the 19th Century and early part of the 20th Century removed the protective forest canopy; the rapid erosion of the soil from this period can be seen in Lake Superior sediments. These trees have been replaced by aspen forest. Demand for wood fiber is increasing and clearcuttingis the most common method of harvesting aspen. Initially clearcut­ ting causes increased water flow because of the lack of vegetation to slow and buffer rain and snow movement. This increased flow augments the amount of sediment the lake receives from erosion. Suspended sediments can clog fishes gills, decrease light penetration into the water which is needed for plant growth, and smother larvae or fish eggs.

"RAPing''UpAreas of Concern: In 1909, the United States and Canada formed an organization called the International Joint Commission (IJC). Over the years, the IJC has become involved in matters such as air and water quality. The IJC has identified 42 areas on the Great Lakes with pollution problems bad

75 enough to impair public use called "areas of concern." To clean-up these areas, a unique whole-ecosystem approach was needed As a result ofa 1985 recommen­ dation of the IJC's Water Quality Board, the eight Great Lakes states and the Province of Ontario committed themselves to developing Remedial Action Plans (RAP) at each area of concern. Public participation and education in restoring and protecting the water was started and RAP groups were formed. RAP groups are made up of organizations and individuals with a vested interest in the environmental health of the lake. Their goal is to identify problems, sources, and solutions. Then each RAP must come up with a specific plan to resolve the problems and identify who is responsible for implementing remedial action. RAP's have been described as a unique experiment in institu­ tional cooperation and the first opportunity, on a broad scale, to implement an ecosystem approach on the Great Lakes. There are seven areas of concern on Lake Superior.

CANADA

NipigonBay

IsleRoyale MINNESOTA Lake Superior

St. Louis River

WISCONSIN

MICHIGAN Seven Areas of Concern. Source: International Joint Commission.

76 Lake Superior still remains a wild and elusive place. One can still find sections of shore that have hardly changed since the first human set eyes on this marvelous inland sea. There still are spaces over much of the lake where the eagle soars and the loon still cries. Portions of the lake are still clean enough to recognize a quarter looking down through twenty feet ofher gin clear water. Lake Superior remains a place that casts a spell; it can capture you and remind you of what nature can truly be. Its surface can become a looking glass, letting you peer into what may be your heritage. If this great lake is to be part ofour legacy to future generations, much needs to be done. A "whole Earth approach" to management will be needed. Governments, industries, and individuals will need to work together to integrate environmental and economic issues. We need to adopt policies that follow natural processes rather than resist or avoid them and modify of our present-day values and lifestyles. If we are willing to act on these issues and recognize our shortfalls, then the future ofLake Superior looks bright.

77 WHAT YOU CAN DO TO HELP If what's happening to the lake and the land makes you angry, do something about it. Here are some helpful hints:

Steps to a Healthy Lake Superior Do Your Homework: Familiarize yourself with your lake and its watershed. Get to know local officials and major players. Large landowners or farmers and those involved in business and government are good to know.

Try to Picture the Problem: Examine all your facts and try to understand everyone's position. Find out if your information is complete and correct.

Seek the Advise of Experts: Look to state or provincial agencies like the Department of Natural Resources, federal agencies like the United States Environmental Protection Agency or Environment Canada. The International Joint Commission, Sea Grant, other university departments, environmental or­ ganizations, government officials, lawyers, and others that can provide technical expertise. Ask these experts to verify your data.

Be a Wise Consumer: Business and industry are sensitive to boycotts and discriminatory use of their products.

Alert Your Friends and Neighbors: Strength comes from commitment, numbers, and diversity.

Get Out and Spread the Word: Winning in the court of public opinion can often be more effective than winning in a court of law.

78 Find Ways to Get Involved: Participate in your local government, Remedial Action Plan groups and concerned citizen groups. It is easy to lose your enthu­ siasm after the major crises are over. A clean Lake Superior and a healthy environment is a life-long commitment.

Work for Stronger and Better Laws: Do existing federal and state laws and local ordinances go far enough? Ifnot, lobby for laws with sharper teeth to ensure the bite is put on pollution. Get to know your government officials; let them know your views. Take the time to sit down and write to your public officials.

Get Out and Enjoy the Lake!!!

79 WHO YOU CAN CONTACT You'll need help and sound advice. The following short list ofcontacts will get you started:

Government Sponsored Agencies and Organizations: 1. The International Joint Commission (IJC) is the main institution through which Canada and the United States work to resolve problems along their common boundary. Public Information Office International Joint Commission 100 Ouellette Avenue Windsor, Ontario, Canada N9A 6T3 (519) 256-7821

2. The Great Lakes Fisheries Commission (GLFC), develops and imple­ ments programs to manage sea lamprey; and the remainder ofits program works with the fisheries of the Great Lakes. Great Lakes Fishery Commission 1451 Green Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105 (313) 662-3209

3. Michi~an Sea Grant Colle~e Pro~am deals with research, education, and advisory services. Michigan Sea Grant Upper Peninsula Extension Center 1030 Wright Street Marquette, Michigan 49855 (906) 228-4830

4. Minnesota Sea Grant programs deal with research, education, and advi- sory services. Minnesota Sea Grant Extension Program 208 Washburn Hall University of Minnesota-Duluth Duluth, MN 55812 (218)726-8106

80 5. Wisconsin Sea Grant programs deal with research, education, and advi- sory services. Wisconsin Sea Grant Advisory Services 230 Old Main University of Wisconsin-Superior Superior, WI 54880 (715) 394-84 72

6. Ontario Ministry for the Environment is responsible for achieving and maintaining environmental quality for the air, water, and land. Director of the Communications Branch Ontario Ministry of the Environment 135 St. Claire Avenue West Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4V 1P5 (416) 965-7117

7. North Shore of Lake Superior Remedial Action Plans facilitate public in- volvement for better water quality on northern Lake Superior. Environment Ontario P.O. Box 5000 435 James Street South Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada P7C 5G6 1-800-465-6854

Non-Governmental Organizations: 1. Saye Lake Superior Association provides public education regarding present and potential pollution problems in the Lake Superior basin. Save Lake Superior Association P.O. Box 101 Two Harbors, Minnesota 55616 (218) 226-3223

2. Si~rd Olson Environmental Institute enhances public understanding of the interrelationships between society and the natural world with empha­ sis in the Lake Superior region. Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute Northland College Ashland, Wisconsin 54806 (715) 682-4531, Ext. 223

81 3. The National Wildlife Federation provides education and lobbies for a healthier environment. National Wildlife Federation 1400 Sixteenth Street N.W. , D.C. 20036-2266 (202) 797-6800

4. Izaak Walton LeaiJie, Duluth encourages general conservation and stewardship of the environment. Izaak Wal ton League 824 Northwest Center Duluth,MN 55802 (218) 727-7437

82 FOR YOUR DELIBERATION These questions can help you review and discuss the best ethical, economi­ cal, moral, and environmental answers to the following situations.

Discussion Questions 1. You are on vacation sailing on Lake Superior. The boat's head (toilet) dumps directly into the lake. Should you use it? 2. YounoticethatthewaterinastreamthatrunsdirectlyintoLakeSuperior is brown, foamy, and stinks to high heaven. Upon further investigation you discover the source ofthe pollution is the mill that employs most of the people in your town. What should you do about it? 3. You have just realized your life dream of owning property on Lake Superior. To see the lake from the house, you will need to cut down most of the trees. What would you do? 4. You own a large parcel of property in a remote area on Lake Superior. A developer wants to sell it for you. She advises you to split the property into 50 lots each with a 100 feet offrontage. By splitting up the property, each lot will sell faster and you will make a larger profit. An environmental group finds out that you want to sell the land and would like to purchase it intact to leave it a natural area. However, they can only pay you half what the developer would get for you. What would you do?

83 Review Questions 1. The largest fresh water lake in the world by surface area is ____ (Lake Superior) 2. How deep is Lake Superior? (1,330 feet; 405 meters) 3. How long does it take water to move through the lake (retention time)? (191 years) 4. Why does a long retention time make Lake Superior vulnerable to pollu­ tion? (Toxic substances entering the lake will be there a long time and possibly have a greater effect.) 5. Name two minerals mined in the Lake Superior region. (Gold, iron, zinc, silver, copper, nickel, and uranium.) 6. Where does most of the toxic pollution in Lake Superior come from? (the atmosphere) 7. Name two toxic chemical found in Lake Superior. (PCB' s, mercury, dioxin, furans, DDT, lead, and toxaphene) 8. What eel-like creature from the ocean was partly responsible for the collapse of the lake trout fisheries. (sea lamprey) 9. What effects can development and construction have on the lakeshore? (Cause erosion that lowers water quality, reduces wildlife and fish habitat, and lessen the scenic beauty of the shore.) 10.What effect can poor mining and forestry practices have on the lake? (Causes erosion, sedimentation, add toxic chemicals, and organic matter.)

84 READINGS This list of references will help you increase your understanding of the Great Lakes and provide sources of more educational materials.

Ashworth, William. 1986. The Late Great Lakes. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, NY.

Boyer, Dwight. (197 4). Strange Adventures ofthe Great Lakes. Dodd Mead. New York,NY.

Colburn, Theodora E., et al. (1990). Great Lakes Great Legacy? The Institute for Research on Public Policy. Ottawa, Ontario and The Conservation Foundation, Washington, D.C. [P.O. Box 4866, Hampden Post Office, Baltimore, MD 21211, (301) 338-6951, in Canada 1-800-565-0659]

Conway, Thor. (1981). Archaeology in Northwest Ontario, Searching for Our Past. Ministry of Cultural and Recreation, Toronto, Canada.

Downs, Warren. (1976). Fish of Lake Superior. University of Wisconsin Sea Grant. [1800 University Ave., Madison, WI 53706]

Great Lakes Basin Commission. (1979). Great Lakes Notebook Fourth Coast Facts and Issues. Ann Arbor, MI. [Great Lakes Basin Commission, P.O. Box 999, Ann Arbor, MI 48106]

Great Lakes Commission. (1989). Great Lakes Education Speakers Bureau Directory. [The Argus II Bldg., 400 S. Fourth St., Ann Arbor, MI 48103, (313) 665-9135]

International Joint Commission. (1987). Directory of Great Lakes Education Material. [100 Ouellette Ave., Eighth Floor, Windsor, Ontario N9A 6T3 or P.O. Box 32869, Detroit, Mi 48232]

Littel, Bruce, & Wayland, Drew. (1975). Superior; the Haunted Shore. Gage Publishing, Toronto, Canada.

McGibben, Bill. (1989). The End of Nature. Random House. New York,NY.

Seno, Joseph W. (1985). Up Country. Round River Puhl., Madison, WI.

85 United States Environmental Protection Agency and Environment Canada. (1988). The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book. Chicago, IL. [Great Lakes National Program Office, 230 South Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60604; in Canada Great Lakes Environmental Program, Environment Canada, 25 St. Clair Ave. E., Toronto, Ontario, CanadaM4T 1M2]

86 CREDITS A Production of: Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute, Ashland, WI University ofWisconsin- Stevens Point, Stevens Point, WI

Written by: Robert Korth, Rhinelander, WI

Narration: Voice of Mark Hunt; Bill Cole, Green Bay, WI Voice of Bill Richardson; Greg LeClerq, Rhinelander, WI

Sound Track: Larry and Patty Darling, MIDI-West Recording, Dale, WI Voice of Bill Richardson: WXPR Public Radio, Rhinelander, WI

Photography: Robert Korth, Rhinelander, WI

Art: April Lehman, Ashland, WI

Funding: Tom Brown, Associated Neenah Bank, Neenah, WI Robert Murphy, Greenville, WI · Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute, Ashland, WI Bruce Taughner, Badger Graphics, Appleton, WI Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources

Special Thanks: Peter Rogers, Marion Plywood, Marion,WI Lowell Klessig, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, WI Mark Peterson, Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute, Ashland, WI Ralph Kennedy, Appleton, WI Rob Murphy, Greenville, WI Doug Moore, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, WI Char Pingel, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, WI Ron Zimmerman, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, WI Diane Lueck, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, WI

Dedication: The unselfish women and men around the Lake Superior basin who are working for a cleaner healthier environment. Without their help and charity, this production would not have been possible.

87 CHAPTER V. SCRIPT

A Lake in the Balance

Time: 23 minutes, 22 seconds

88 A LAKE IN THE BALANCE

SCRIPT

1. MANONCLIFF My name is Mark Hunt. I'm a professor ofeconomics at the University Munising, MI of Michigan. I specialize in the economy of the Lake Superior Region. The story I'm about to tell you may be hard to swallow, but I wouldn't recount it to you if it didn't affect you. I hope when I've finished, you will have a better understanding of this lake we call Superior.

2. SHIPWRECK Over the years, I've become quite interested in Lake Superior. You Isle Royale, MI see, my great-grandfather, Ben Hunt, was an archaeologist. He stud­ ied the ancient pictographs found on the north shore of Lake Superior. He was the only survivor when his ship wrecked in a gale on the Ca­ nadian shore near Gros Cap in 1901. He was saved by the lighthouse keeper there.

3. SATELLITE Lake Superior is known for more than its violent storms.The lake is VIEW everything its name infers. Lake Superior is the largest lake in the world; so huge it could be seen from the moon by the astronauts. Ifthe lake water were poured over the United States and South America, it would cover the land to a depth of one foot.

4. DIVER ON ROPE It contains 10% of the world's fresh surface water and 25% of the fresh Isle Royale, MI water available in the United States. It is the clearest of the Great Lakes with underwater visibility often exceeding 50 feet.

5. SLEEPING The region is the least populated of all the Great Lakes with about 14 GIANT, Sibley, people per square mile compared to 183 for the other Great Lakes. Ontario Ninety-one percent of its watershed is forested.

6. MAP OF LAKE I received a major grant to study the best way to develop the Lake Superior basin and help the economy grow. To get a better grasp of the region, I decided to see the lake in all its seasons. It was a 2,700 mile journey, about the same as traveling from New York to Seattle.

7. FOLDERS I journeyed around a lake large enough to be governed by two countries, three states. one province, and a bewildering array of agencies, commissions, counties, districts, regions, and special inter­ est groups.

8. SAULT LOCKS I started my journey at Sault Ste Marie, the navigational front door Sault Ste. Marie, MI to the lake. Canada and the USA are linked here by the International Bridge. Many come here to watch the spectacle of thousand-foot ships locking through. Ninety-five million tons of cargo move through the locks in eight months, more than go through the Suez or Panama Ca­ nals in a year. Superior is a lake with economic linkages that are global in scope.

9. AUSABLE SAND South and west of the Sault, the lake shows a soft, sandy underbelly. DUNES, Grand It is a composite of developed and natural areas. At Grand Marais, Marais, MI Michigan, the Grand Sable Dunes, sacred to the Ojibway, tower above the lake, marking the eastern end of the Pictured Rocks National Lake Shore.

89 10. PICTURED This 40 mile stretch of sculpted sandstone bluff and beaches radiates ROCKS, Munising its own magic, a hikers dream. Little has changed here since the MI voyager's paddle first felt the icy grip of the lake.

11. MUNISING Munising, a quiet little Upper Peninsula town nestled behind Grand Michigan Island, is the gateway to the Pictured Rocks National Lake Shore. The small Kimberly Clark mill here plays an important role in the local economy and has consistently met environmental standards.

12. DIVER, Munising The waters offshore of Munising are an underwater preserve. The MI shipwrecks here are a favorite destination of SCUBA divers. They inject over three million dollars annually into the local economy.

13. GHOST TOWN The area around the Keweenaw Peninsula is called the Copper Houghton, MI Country. Thousands ofhopeful people once mined what was once the world's major source of copper. Now only their memories remain.

14. WHITE PINE Today a few subsidized mines remain operational. Large reserves are SIGN, Ontonagon, still untouched, waiting for the price of copper to rise. MI

15. BAY FIELD, WI Travelling farther west I finally arrived in Bayfield, Wisconsin. Bayfield is headquarters for the Apostle Island National Lake Shore. It is a village ofboom and bust cycles that is on the upswing once again.

16. SAILBOAT The area is experiencing substantial tourism growth and has become Apostle Islands, WI a major destination for sailors, kayakers and hikers.

17. DEVIL'S ISLAND There has been increased pressure for more development. The Na­ Apostle Islands, WI tional Park Service has formulated a management plan which at­ tempts to allow recreation, while protecting sensitive areas; a delicate balancing act to guide the park into the next millennium.

18. SUNRISE AT I watched the sunrise over the lake at Duluth, Superior. Located in the DULUTH,MN southwest comer of the lake, the twin ports make up the eighth largest seaport in the United States.

19. SHIP & TUG Grain from the Great Plains, Minnesota iron ore, and clean burning Duluth,MN coal move through the port to the lower lakes.

20. DULUTH, MN Like many other Lake Superior cites, Duluth and Superior are look­ ing to tourism to diversify and supplement their economies. The inner harbor is being developed. Parks, marinas, museums, and a freshwa­ ter interpretive center will help position the old city as a great place to live in the 21st Century.

21. SPLIT ROCK From Duluth, Highway 61 traces the lakeshore northeast 200 miles LIGHT,MN to Thunder Bay, Canada. Minnesota's rocky north shore is dotted with parks, scenic views, and historic sites which attract hundreds of thou­ sands of visitor each year. I stopped at the Split Rock Light. Built in 1910, this site has over 200,000 visitors each year.

90 22. RESORT SIGN As the 20th Century closes, we find that most of us have more leisure Two Harbors, MN time and more personal income. Many people find the great lake the perfect place to get away from it all. Creating intense development pressure to fill our recreational needs.

23. FISHING Fishing is an important factor on Lake Superior, both recreationally Two Harbors, MN and commercially. But after nearly a quarter of a century oflamprey control, the majority of Lake Superior trout must still be supplied by stocking.

24. TUG AT DOCK The iron ore from the Lake Superior region played a major role in our Two Harbors, MN success during World War II. The rusting hulks of ore docks are a common site around the lake. Today, 80% of U.S. iron ore still comes from this region.

25. MINING Minerals like iron, nickel, silver, and gold play a major part in the Mesabi,MN economy of the region. I was told that companies have been exploring Lake Superior's bottom for possible oil deposits.

26. ISLE ROYAL Isle Royal is the largest island on the lake and has been designated a Michigan biosphere reserve. It has become a favorite destination of those look­ ing for a wilderness experience.

27. WAVES/SHORE Over the years, the waters around the island's jagged coast have be­ Isle Royale, MI come the "final port of call" for many a sailor and their unfortunate ships.

28. WRECK UNDER, The park contains one of the largest concentrations of shipwrecks on WATER, Isle the Great Lakes and is managed to protect the resource for the divers Royale, MI that come for a few moment's communion with their ghostly crews.

29. TUGS, Thunder Thunder Bay, Canada, in the northwest comer of the lake, is the larg­ Bay, Ontario est city on Superior. Its economy is dependent on natural resources. Most of Canada's grain moves east from the great plains and around the world from this city.

30. STRIPEDROCKS From Thunder Bay, I travelled the Trans Canada Highway, (Highway Puckaskwa, 17). It wraps around the north shore of the lake in an area called the Ontario Canadian Shield where some ofthe oldest rocks on the planet meet the lake.

31.KIMBERLY The north shore is prime habitat for pulp and paper mills. Kimberly CLARK MILL, Clark built the town of Terrace Bay in 1947 and supplies jobs to the Terrace Bay, Ont. region and paper products for much of Canada.

32. GOLD SIGN On the Crown Lands in the northeast comer of the lake, discoveries White River, Ont. of gold may prove to be the largest in Canada. This will set in motion powerful economic forces which will bring jobs and development. Canada's Ministry of Natural Resources has set land-use guidelines to encourage exploration and development of mineral resources.

91 33. SUPERIOR Between Marathon and Wawa, the rugged coast forces Highway 17 SHORLINE, fifty miles inland, leaving a unique wild place called the Puckaskwa. Puckaskwa, Ont. I decided to canoe this 120 mile stretch to Michipicoten Harbor which lies in the northeast corner of the lake.

34. ROCK COVE, I had traveled five days without seeing another human. Late one Silver Islet, Ont. afternoon I came ashore in a beautiful cove which was hidden behind a massive granite outcrop.

35. CABIN, I followed an old trail inland and in a short time came upon a decaying Puckaskwa, Ont old cabin. Inside was a bunk in fair shape. I laid down to test it out and fell into a deep sleep.

36. OLDMAN I awoke with a start and found myself gazing into the eyes of a curi­ ous, white haired man. He said the most peculiar thing, "I've been ex­ pecting you." His name was Bill Richardson. He was passing through• the area on the way to visit his daughter, Laura. He said his friends called him the "keeper."

37. RED SKY, I was hungry and suggested we have supper together. But he told me, Old Woman's Bay, "Some journeys don't begin until the body is forgotten." He motioned Ontario for me to sit and began to speak. "You have come here to discover ways to use the lake and the land, but beware."

38. GULLS/SHORE, "Some people listen, but do not hear. Some look but do not see. Now Iroqu.ios Pt., MI I will tell you of this Great Lake; listen and remember."

39. SHIP-BIG WAVE "This lake we call Superior possesses an ocean-like expansiveness and can be swept by icy and dismasting seas as direful as any that have lashed the salted wave.

40. ICE, "The land remained pretty much unchanged from the end of the great Puckaskwa, Ont. ice 10,000 years ago until the coming of the Europeans.

41. PICTOGRAPH "The first people to inhabit the area left a scant record of their pass­ MISID-PESHU, ing. They did have a rich history. Much ofit was oral and carefully Agawa Bay, Ont. handed down through the years. Theirs was a strong heritage, entwined with the lake and the land by a sense of timelessness, of one­ ness and of cycle.

42. JESUIT PRIEST With the coming of the white man to the lake in the summer of 1622 came the first seeds of change. These seeds would grow quickly and alter the face of the region forever.

43. INDIAN/ "Commerce on the lake would become less predictable and a rich heri­ FRENCH tage of holistic living would be replaced with modern western con­ cepts.

44. LOGGING, 'Wave after wave of exploitation rolled over the region like so many northern Wisconsin winter gales. Various whims and reasons, some political, some eco­ nomical, impacted the lake.

92 45. MINING, "The economy was based on extraction of raw materials. Most of the Keweenaw Penin­ resources were shipped from the area to be used in 'more developed sula, MI parts of the world.' Timber and mining towns sprang up and disap­ peared.

46. RUINS, ''Much has changed here since those days, much has not. Now you Gay,MI have come to deliver wealth and pleasure, with little thought toward how this will affect the future, much like those that came before you.

47. FOR SALE SIGN, "Look around; the things that are important here cannot be sold at an Eagle Harbor, MI auction. We believe that we can own the earth, but we can only be the keepers. We judge a person as rich or poor by the possessions they have a~cumulated instead ofby what's in their heart.

48. LAKESHORE, "This lake we call Superior has been spared the fate of the rest of the Marquette, MI Great Lakes only because ofits harsh climate and rocky soils. Now, as our population grows, even this may not save the lake.

49.POLLUTION, "The cities we boast of still pour their wastes into the lake. Lake Superior

50. BLACKBm.D "Our pulp mills provide jobs and the convenient paper products we CREEK, Terrace demand, but at what cost? Although some mills have proven to be Bay, Ontario more responsible than others; Blackbird Creek, that once was the home to trout, still steams on the warmest summer days. The pungent smell from the creek turns your stomach and hemorrhages a witch's brew, directly into the lake.

51. GOLD MINE, "The exploration for minerals will open much of the roadless area on Hemlow, Ontario the north shore of the lake. Toxic chemicals used in the refining process of mining operations may find their way into the lake.

52. NEWSPAPER 'We have sipped the sweet wine of technology and are just now learn­ HEADLINES, ing the cost.

53. ALGAE UNDER­ "Many believe that this vast body of water has the capacity to dilute WATER, Grand unlimited quantities of pollution. But algae grows where once rocks Portage,MN were bare. This lake contains the substance most precious to our ex­ istence, yet we corrupt it.

54. CLEAR CUT, "The lake we are leaving for those that follow has been wounded and Iron River, MI degraded. People have always lived here; and as long as they do, they will need to use the resources. Upon your generation has fallen the task of finding a path of harmony between humans and the earth.''

55. DOUBLE We talked late into the night. In the morning I had a million questions EXPOSURE for the mysterious man, but he had already gone. I packed up and fol­ lowed the shore east thinking over what the old man had said.

93 56. CANOE FIRE, In a few days I arrived in the Wawa, Michipcoten Harbor area. I Michipocten visited some of the sights in this historic place. When European Harbor, Ontario settlers arrived in the 1600's, the canoe was the only method ofgetting here. The highway that would connect it with the rest of the world wasn't completed until 1960.

57. BILL'S GRAVE, I visited the old graveyard overlooking the Magpie River. At this site, Michipocten the Hudson Bay Company had established their first post. I stared in Harbor, Ontario disbelief. Bill Richardson, lighthouse keeper? That was the man they said saved my grandfather. Was that the old man I had met? Had I dreamed the whole thing? I'll never know for sure.

58. ORANGE LITE, It really doesn't matter. Ifhe was a spirit, he was the spirit of the lake, Eagle Harbor, MI the spirit of the ancient people and future generations. Whatever it was that happened out there had put me back in touch with the real reasons I had come here. The keeper was right. With people here, there will be changes, but the lake can be preserved in a healthy state. Those who follow us deserve to be left their share of options. The fate of Lake Superior is inevitably linked to how we perceive our environ­ mental responsibility.

59. CONDO, I now understood what the old man had meant when he said some Schroeder,MN people look but do not see. I started to review my economic plans with an eye toward sustainability. Increased recreational development has had mixed results. Intensive construction of cottages and resort complexes have resulted in land clearing and shoreline alterations, changing the natural beauty of the coast.

60. AIR, MARINA, Marinas have provided greater opportunities for fishing and boating. Beaver Bay, MN But increased building in areas subject to natural flooding has placed pressure on governments to manage lake levels and caused the loss of valuable wetlands.

61. IDGHWAY, While placing the highway right on the shore offers travelers breath­ Baraga, MI taking vistas of the great lake, it can also destroy wetlands, habitat, aesthetics, and the natural buffer for shoreline protection. In some areas, the road is so close to the lake that at times of high water or storms it is washed away, calling for costly repair.

62. POWER PLANT Duluth and Thunder Bay suffer industrial and municipal pollution STACKS, Thunder problems and are considered toxic hot spots. Clean-up plans with Bay, Ontario citizen input are being developed for these areas. Canada has ear­ marked millions for clean-up.

63. BLACKBmD Even as you view this image, Blackbird Creek at Terrace Bay, CREEK, Canada, pours its foul load of toxic waste directly into Lake Superior. Terrace Bay, Ont. This has gone on for the last 40 years at a rate of 122,000 cubic meters per day. The paper mill here had determined the cost was too high to clean up and threatened to close rather than correct the problem. They have reconsidered and have decided to build holding ponds to treat the eftluent.

94 64. JACKFISH BAY, Mills at Terrace Bay, Thunder Bay, and Marathon discharge at least Terrace Bay, Ont. 40 lethal chemicals directly into the lake: mercury, phenols, PCB's, the list goes on. At J ackfish Bay, the foam may drift a mile out into the lake. No fish can live in the mouth of the creek. Organisms that thrive on pollution like sludge worms and rat-tail maggots are not able to live here.

65. HYDRO POWER, The north shore of Lake Superior is a massive granite shield that Terrace Bay, Ont. plunges into the lake. The rivers entering the lake are well suited for hydro power, a cheap, clean source ofnon-polluting energy. There are, however, certain trade-offs. The dams stop natural spawning runs of certain fish, wilderness areas are opened to motorized traffic, and some recreational and aesthetic opportunities are lost. There are no easy answers.

66. FACTORY Power plants and pesticides around the world provide energy for the SMOKE, lifestyle we enjoy and the bounty offood we consume. The residue from Brokaw, WI these activities ride the global winds and cause over 90 percent of the toxic pollution in Lake Superior. (DDT from Central America and toxaphenes from the southern United States are found in the lake.)

67. CLOUDS/SUN, There are other clouds on the horizon. We do not understand the Ludington, MI impact of the greenhouse effect, but rising temperatures may radi­ cally change the region. Fresh water has become a precious commod­ ity. Western states with growing populations and depleted water supplies are looking at the lake with covetous eyes.

68. LOGCLEARCUT, Early logging was exploitive in nature. Some of today's practices have Ontario changed little, causing soil erosion, stream and lake sedimentation, and loss of both aquatic and terrestrial habitat. As a result, some fear the bio-diversity of the region's forests is diminishing.

69. FEATHER, Wetlands critical to flood reduction, shoreline protection, and a nurs­ Iroquois Pt., MI ery for fish and wildlife are still under severe pressure from develop­ ment. Waterfowl and shorebird populations like the black duck and the piping plover are declining.

70. POLLUTION, There is concern over the devastating effect of a chemical or oil spill Duluth,MN and our ability to clean it up. Water in Lake Superior is very slow to move out of the basin. Some of the water found in the lake today arrived just after the American revolution of 1776.

71. FISH KILL, We have brought upon ourselves the demise of desirable fish species northern Wisconsin through over-fishing. The sea lamprey and chemical contamination have slowed the success of restocking.Now exotics like the river ruffe and certain zooplankton, passengers from the bilges of ocean going vessels, bring new threats.

95 72. LAKESHORE, Lake Superior is still relatively clean. Some think of it as a pristine Rossport, Ont. wilderness; and, therefore, the lake does not receive the attention it needs. Our governing style tends to be one of crisis management. We cannot afford to wait for crisis here. Long-range planning that looks beyond political boundaries and treats the Lake Superior basin as a whole may help us avoid the debilitating and costly problems encoun­ tered elsewhere.

73. SHIP/SUNSET, We are truly living during the most precarious environmental times Lake Superior in our planet's history. We have dominated most aspects ofnature. We fear no other creature than ourselves. We have tough decisions to make. They will effect the lake, the land, and all that follow us.

74.THREE In our short love affair with fossil fuels, we have learned to enjoy a life­ WHEEi.Ell, style ofless and less physical effort. We relish the freedom to come and Ontonagon, MI go where and when we please. Sometimes this freedom causes us to destroy the very things that draw us to the lake.

75. LAKESHORE, Don't despair; Lake Superior is still one of the healthiest watersheds Munising, MI in North America. Concerned groups from around the region are join­ ing together to counter the effects of misuse. There have been strides made toward cleaning up the lake, but if the lake is to persist as we know it, much has to be done. You are the most potent force in the pro­ tection of the lake called Superior. You can make a difference.

76. SUNSET, What will future generation think ofyou? What will they know of the Iroquois Pt., MI lake?

77. U.S.C.G. A lake of raw power and gray fury. MESQUETTE, Keweenaw Pt., MI

78. SAILBOAT FOG, A lake of magic and mist. Ashland, WI

79. ICE, A complex and fragile Lake. Point Abbaye, MI

80. SUNSET, A lake in the balance. Otter Head Is., Ont.

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104