CHAPTER- 1 SOURCES TO UNDERSTAND ANCIENT INDIA

• India has a rich cultural heritage. History is concerned with the development of Literary/written civilization in the past. We must go back to Ancient India in order to comprehend sources the present-day India. • There are three major types of literary/ • However, historians face a daunting written sources for understanding and challenge in reconstructing its history interpreting Ancient Indian History. and culture. Generally, the problem They are (i) Religious, (ii) Secular and (iii) arises when it comes to the existence Scientific. Some other kinds of literary of sources and forms in which they sources are also included in this: (iv) are present. Historians rely on a large Sangam literature and (v) Travelogues number of sources of Indian history to (writings about travel) of foreign research the Indian people who lived in travelers. the past. • Generally, the sources used for reconstruction of the ancient Religious literature Indian history are classified into three categories: Literary sources, • The religious literature, though primarily Archaeological sources and Accounts religious in nature, throws light on the of the foreign historians and socio-economic, political and even travelers. These sources have two the ideological aspects of the period. significant limitations: availability and But religious sources need to be used decipherment. with huge caution. This caution is primarily for two reasons. First, majority • Initially, it was the British administrative of religious sources were passed officers who first paid attention to down from one generation to the next Ancient Indian history. But their through oral traditions. Secondly, objective was to meet their own religious literatures were mainly written administrative needs. For example, with the aim of providing guidance to Sir William Jones, in 1784, founded the society with an idealist approach. 'Asiatic Society of Bengal', for learning, understanding, and publishing sources • The religious literature includes: of Ancient Indian History. » The Vedas: Rig-Veda, Samaveda, • Then Archaeological Survey of India Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. was founded in 1861. This gave legal momentum to the search for » Epics: The Ramayana and archaeological sources. From there Mahabharata. on, various types of sources are » The Puranas, Dharmashastras, coming forth and their interpretation Aranyakas, Brahmanas, Upanishadas is becoming a more challenging job for etc. the historians. » Buddhist Literature: Tripitakas (Sutta, Vinaya and Abhidhammapitaka), Jataka stories, Dipvamsha, Mahavamsa

3 etc. Scientific practices. As a result, a » Jaina Literature: Anga, Agamas, significant amount of scientific works Chedasutras, Mulsutras etc. were generated during ancient time. The scientific works in early centuries generally dealt with subjects like political science, economy, grammar Secular Literary Sources etc. In due course, several other subjects • Alongside religious literature, India began to appear in scientific works also created a large amount of secular such as agriculture, medical science, literature throughout thousand years astrology and astronomy, mathematics, of its history. The secular literature art, iconography, architecture, etc. includes: • The Gupta era, in particular, saw • Histories: As generally said or quoted the emergence of large number of in analysis by western scholars, India scientific works on various subjects. was not unaware of history-writing. E.g. Eg. Aryabhatiya by Aryabhatta, Rajatarangini (River of Kings in Sanskrit) Arthashastra by Kautilya, Ashtadhyayi written by Kalhana (born in 1100 AD in by Panini, Brihat Samhita by Varhamihir Kashmir), is considered as the first book etc. of history of India, as per modern lines Sangam Literature of historiography. • Eulogies: These are highly refined • We can learn about the early history literature concerning to a ruler, a noble, of Southern India from the Sangam a saint or a learned man, intended literature. The term 'Sangam' means to praise them and their deeds by "assembly". Three such Sangams are court poets, also called as charan/ considered to be held. The poems of bhat/poet. For example, Banabhatta, Tamil poets were introduced in these was a court poet in Harsha's and has three assemblies and is called as the written the book Harshacharita. In Sangam Literature. this book he praises Harsha. Similarly, • The poets themselves compiled these Vikramankadev Charita, written by poems from different eco-regions in Bilhan praises the king Vikramaditya southern India. As a result, these are (of Chalukya dynasty) and his various mainly folk-lore, compiled by urban deeds. poets. • Epic and Kavya Literature: Dramas, • The literature is mostly a secular one poetry, epics, and other works of and provides vast information on literature are included in this category. subjects like ancient ecology, modes of Here, we find accurate details about subsistence, society etc. culture, economy, and sometimes polity of a particular age. E.g. Mudrarakshasa was written by Vishakhadatta. It is a Foreign Accounts drama that narrates how Chanakya, the Prime Minister of king Chandragupta, • Ancient India attracted a large number wins over Rakshasa, the minister of the of travellers from across the world. Nandas to the side of Chandragupta. These travellers were strangers to the land. They owed no allegiance to any of the regions or to any of the kings. Scientific Treatise As a result, generally the accounts of foreigners can be considered as largely • Ancient India was well aware of the unbiased.

4 • They being 'eye-witness' to a large Coins number of events in India, give us firsthand information on the subjects • The (republic they touched upon. E.g. Indica by kingdoms) of ancient India minted the Megasthenes or records of Buddhistic first Indian coins, the punch marked Kingdoms by Fa-Hien etc. coins known as Puranas, Karshapanas, or Pana in the sixth century BC. These included Kuntala, Gandhara, Kuru, Shakya, Panchala, Surasena, and Archaeological/ Saurashtra. Material sources • Later, Mauryas also punch marked their coins with a royal standard. The Another type of sources to study Ancient Indo-Greek Kushan kings introduced India are material/archaeological sources. the Greek tradition of engraving (i) Coins, (ii) Inscriptions, (iii) Sculptures and portrait heads on coins. The Kushan Paintings, (iv) Ancient Monuments, and (v) Empire's massive coinage encouraged Archaeological Remains are among the a large number of tribes, dynasties, and material/archaeological sources. kingdoms to issue their own coins. • Generally, these sources come with added advantages. Because they Inscriptions generally do not degrade like the literary sources. If any alteration is • After India came in contact with Persia, made to these inscriptions, it is also India came to know the importance of 'art-in-stone’. In Ancient India, the stone easily identifiable. inscriptions were used to engrave king's Ancient Architecture/ instructions, laws, and outlooks to the public. These were also used to record Monuments the grant of land by the kings. With the • Earlier people found refuge in caves same notion, court-poets also engraved during the Stone Age. Agriculture, on eulogies by using such material to make the other hand, forced them to live it immortal. on the plains. The settlements started developing after the neolithic period. » Epigraphs: The earliest epigraphs in Initially, the houses of people were India belong to Ashoka, the Mauryan made of perishable materials like wood Emperor. He issued 14 edicts to and grass. As a result, we do not know propagate his Dhamma policy. These much about them. were inscribed on rocks, e.g. Junagadh (Gujarat). • But in due course of time, the scenario has changed. The use of burnt bricks » Copper plates: Generally for 'land- started for constructing houses or public grants', the copper-plates were buildings and Monuments. This can be engraved and issued to the grantee. seen dating back to the Chalcolithic For example, the 'Sauhagaura Copper period. This architecture provides Plate' informs us about severe drought valuable information to study the past. and the measures undertaken by authorities to tackle the problem of • Similar to literary sources, the food-shortage. architecture can also be broadly classified into Secular and Religious architecture.

5 » Secular architecture includes in the natural world. From these rock granaries/warehouses, thrashing floors, paintings, we will learn about Mesolithic dockyards, man-made ports, sanitary people's lifestyles, including their way arrangements like bathrooms and of life, hunting practises, and the flora gutters, stadium, pavilion, palaces, and fauna in their surroundings. Then, fortification, bastion etc. there are the beautiful paintings, » Religious monuments are the buildings especially from Ajanta and Bagh. that were used by the people to express The world-famous Ajanta paintings and satisfy their religious needs. include details on religious philosophy, Religious structures started showing ornaments, spiritual serenity, costumes, up from the Mauryan period. These international tourists, and so on. structures include Chaityas, Viharas, etc. Archaeological Remains • People settle, work, and construct Sculptures and Paintings institutions and physical structures. • Sculptures: In India, we can find People leave the place when the evidence of sculptures dating back to situation becomes unfavourable. But, the Harappan period. Steatite, stone, region have some material remains terracotta, clay, lime, ivory, bronze, that people have mistakenly left and wood were among the materials behind. Beads, pottery, faunal remains, used for making sculptures. Some of and domestic materials are only a few them were transformed into or examples. idols and enshrined in shrines. Some of them were made to adorn the walls of Thus, in order to research Indian history temples. Individual sculptures were also in detail, one must rely on literary and made for other purposes, such as toys archaeological sources, both of which and entertainment. assist us in forming a complete picture • Paintings: The earliest examples of ancient times. When literary texts of painting art can be found in are supplemented with archaeological Bhimbetka's rock shelters (Madhya evidence, historians may increase the Pradesh). Mesolithic cave dwellers built scale of historical accuracy and reliability them using colours and tools found of their claims.

6 CHAPTER- 2

PRE-HISTORIC PHASE

• The ancient history is classified » Bronze age into two categories: The prehistoric era » Iron age and the historic era. The prehistoric era encompasses the time before • The Stone Age began about 2.6 million the invention of literature, while the years ago, when researchers found the historic period encompasses the time earliest evidence of using stone afterward. tools, and lasted until about 3,300 B.C. • Since there are no written records in when the Bronze Age began. the prehistoric era we do not know • There are three phases in stone age. much of human history in this period. They are: The prehistoric period has been further divided into three ages: » Paleolithic » Mesolithic » Stone age » Neolithic

• The Timeline of this period with respect to India.

Period Timeline Lifestyle Tools and weapons

2,50,000 BC- 10,000 Hunters and food Hand axe, blade Paleolithic BC gatherers tools and chopper

Hunters and Mesolithic 10,000 BC-6,000 BC Microlithic tools Herders

Neolithic 6,000 BC-4,000 BC Food-Producer Polished tools

• The Paleolithic and Mesolithic stages phase of human history is called the reflect the hunting-gathering lifestyle "Chalcolithic" age. “Chalcolithic", or of humans. In contrast, in the Neolithic "Copper Age" refers to a transitional phase humans started to settle and period where early copper metallurgy indulge in crop cultivation and animal appeared alongside the widespread husbandry. The Neolithic period is use of stone tools. notable because it marks the beginning • The Chalcolithic culture is followed by of humans settling down rather than the Iron Age culture, which uses metals. roaming. The Iron Age is the time of human • The Stone Age was replaced by a history when ferrous metallurgy first civilization that used metal for the appeared. first time in human history. This

7 was so cold that human or plant life Paleolithic Age could not survive. However, the earliest species of man could have existed in • The Paleolithic Period started when the the tropical region, where ice melted. man first learned how to make stone • Food gathering and hunting were the tools. The discovery of how to make primary occupations of these people, the fist-hatchet, spear, and was the and Paleolithic men learned to cover earliest man's greatest achievement. themselves in animal skins. • The old stone age or Paleolithic culture • There was no knowledge of houses, of India developed in the Pleistocene pottery, agriculture. It was only in later epoch or the Ice Age, which is a stages they discovered fire. geological period of the age when the earth was covered with ice and weather

Name of Age Time Period Tools and weapons

Lower/Earlier Paleolithic Hand axe and cleaver, 2,50,000 BC-1,00,000 BC Age Chopper and Chopping;

Middle Paleolithic Age 1,00,000 BC – 40,000 BC Flake Implements

Upper/Later Paleolithic Implements made of Blade 40,000 BC- 10,000 Age and flake

• The rivers Tapi, Godavari, Bhima and Krishna have yielded a large number of Middle Paleolithic Paleolithic sites. Age

• Middle Paleolithic tools were primarily made on smaller, light flake tools and Age blades. • The era was dominated by the flake • All of the tools were made by extracting industry, which produced tools such as flakes from a stone block or core until scrapers, points, and borers. The size of they took the right size and shape. tools decreased in this age. • Tools used were hand axes, choppers • In the north-west, lots of stone tools, and cleavers. Tools were rough and mostly of middle Paleolithic, have been heavy. found in the Potwar Plateau between Indus and Jehlum rivers. • Bori in Maharashtra near Pune is considered to be the earliest Lower Paleolithic site. In some parts of India like Hunsgi in Karnataka, limestone was the main material.

8 that people were able to meet the Upper Paleolithic needs of distant communities. This, in fact, hints at some sort of Paleolithic Age social organisation. • This era is characterised by advances • We can also decipher some aspects of in tool technology as well as an their religious beliefs. A mother- improvement in human cognitive has been identified as a carved piece capacity. of bone discovered in Lohanda Nala (Belan valley, Uttar Pradesh). Around • In this age, the size of tools further the same time, an ostrich shell bead decreased. It saw the introduction of was found in Patane. Almost definitely, Microliths (tiny stone tools), which were this tooth was used as a pendant. All of made from a variety of silica-rich raw this suggests that in this process, there materials. might be some sort of religious • The tools of this age were found in system. Bhimbetka (South of Bhopal), Kurnool caves (Telangana), Son Valley (Madhya Pradesh), and Patne in Maharashtra. Mesolithic Age • The earliest paintings at Bhimbetka date from this phase, that is the Upper • It was a transitional phase between the Paleolithic phase. During this phase, the Paleolithic and Neolithic phase. people lived in small groups. Hunting • The people of this age lived on hunting, is expressed as the main subsistence fishing and food gathering initially but activity in the rock paintings found at later on they also domesticated animals Bhimbetka. and cultivated plants, thereby paving the way for agriculture. • Mesolithic people used different kinds Salient Features of of stone tools which were tiny stone artefacts often not more than five Paleolithic Culture centimeters in size. Therefore, these in India tools are called the Microliths. • The Mesolithic men started to wear • During the Paleolithic period, people clothes made of animal skin. were nomadic herders. They travelled • Bagore in Rajasthan, Morhana Pahar in around a lot for fishing, hunting, and Uttar Pradesh, Coastal plains of Odisha gathering food. are few Mesolithic sites in India. • In the beginning people used to hunt big and slow moving animals like elephants but with the development of Salient Features of hunting tools they started to hunt small fast moving animals like antelope, wild Mesolithic Culture in boar, etc. • Owing to a lack of evidence, historians India generally find it difficult to comment on their social structures. However, large • The Mesolithic people lived in semi- manufacturing sites dating from this permanent and temporary settlements. period have been discovered, indicating Therefore, domestication of animals,

9 horticulture and primitive cultivation phase's uniqueness. also started. • Pottery was first appeared in this age • The beginning of plain cultivation was on a large scale and included grey seen in the last period of this phase. ware and black burnished ware. With a During this time, they resorted to a small settled life and expansion of agriculture amount of pastoralism and minimal people needed pottery to store their trade. food grains. • Though pottery was absent at most • The people used microlithic blades Mesolithic sites, they have been found in addition to tools made of polished in Langhnaj (Gujarat) and in the Kaimur stones. A detailed understanding of region of Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh). metallurgy was not established during • Adamgarh, Bhimbetka, Mirzapur and the Neolithic period. It is thus also Pratapgarh are Mesolithic sites known dubbed as "metal-less society.” for their rich art and paintings. Animals • Cultivation of wheat, barley, fruits, corn are the most common subjects of like ragi and horse gram and lentils has many of these depictions, with deer been reported from the beginning and or antelope being the most commonly between 6000 BC and 5000 BC. depicted, while tigers and monkeys are • We can see 'division of labour' based uncommon. on gender in the Neolithic period. We • Bones of wild animals (rhinoceros) have find women engaged in agricultural been excavated from Langhnaj. Several activities during the Neolithic period. human skeletons and a large number As a result of the increased agricultural of Microliths have been recovered from demand, women began to work in these places. the pottery industry. Men hunted and fished, as they had done in the past. • Important Neolithic sites include Neolithic Age Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Chirand (Bihar), Burzahom (Kashmir), Hallur (Karnataka) • It is also termed as ‘Neolithic revolution’ etc. since it introduced a lot of important changes in man’s social and economic life. The Neolithic age saw man turning Salient Features of into a food producer from food gatherer. The term Neolithic Revolution is given Neolithic Culture in by V. Gorden Childe. • The Neolithic people lived more settled India lives and paved the way for the dawn of civilization. The Neolithic people did • In the northern Himalayas, the best- not dwell far from the mountainous known Neolithic site is Burzahom in regions. Since they were entirely reliant Kashmir where the earliest occupation on stone arms and tools, they mostly was characterized by pit dwellings with lived in hilly river valleys, rock shelters, conical roofs. and the slopes of the hills. • Gufkral, literally ‘the cave of the potter’ • The use of pottery and the wheel, as is another important Neolithic site well as the subsequent invention of in Kashmir. It was a site inhabited by crafts such as spinning, weaving, and potters who utilized the caves cut into bead-making, indicate the Neolithic the karewa. Interestingly, the site is still

10 inhabited by the potters who see these caves as their inheritance. Age Timeline • The advent of sedentary rural societies led to the building of mud brick houses Pre-Harappan Age 3,500 BC-2,500 BC rather than grass huts. These houses were somewhat more permanent than Harappan Age 2,500 BC- 1,750 BC the grass huts. Post Harappan • 'Community-festivals' also began during 1,750 BC- 1,000 BC this time period. The butchering-place Age at Budihal denotes the importance of communal animal butchering. • The people of Cachar Hills of Assam • The people living in the stone age were lived in mud walled houses and their characterised by rural settlements and hand-made pots were decorated with were not acquainted with burnt bricks. basket impressions. They lived in thatched houses made of mud bricks. • Koldihwa and Mahagara lying south of Allahabad have thrown evidence of • Animals were domesticated and food many strata of circular huts along with grains were grown by people living in crude handmade pottery. The most the stone-copper period. They hunted intriguing finding is evidence of rice deer and domesticated cows, sheep, dating from between 5440 and 4530 goats, pigs, and buffaloes. BC, which is the earliest evidence of • People during the stone-copper period rice not only in India but also elsewhere used various forms of pottery, one on the globe. of which is known as black and red • Neolithic people were aware of the pottery and seems to have been widely art of making boats and could weave prevalent. The potter's wheel was used, cotton and wool to make cloth. At this and painting with white linear patterns age, man started growing cotton and also done. learnt about clothes. • The chalcolithic people were expert • Instances of earlier cave dwelling coppersmiths. They knew the art of have also been discovered with walls copper smelting and were good stone decorated with scenes of hunting and workers as well. dancing. • This age also marked the beginning of social inequalities, as chiefs lived in rectangular houses while the commoners lived in round huts. Their Chalcolithic Age villages consisted of more than 35 (3,500 BC-1,000 BC) houses of different sizes, circular or rectangular in shape. The chalcolithic • The culture based on the use of copper economy is considered as a village and stone was termed as Chalcolithic economy. meaning stone-copper Phase. These • Some of the important chalcolithic sites cultures exhibit a distinct regional are Ahar (Banas valley, South Eastern identity. Rajasthan), Gilund (Banas valley, Rajasthan), Daimabad (Ahmadnagar, Chalcolithic age is divided into three Gujrat), Malwa (Madhya Pradesh), stages Sonpur (Bihar) and Songaon, Inamgaon

11 and Nevasa in Maharashtra. with other cultures, as shown by the presence of foreign goods and tools in their regions. Characteristics of • They honed their copper-smithing skills. However, since copper was scarce and India's Chalcolithic only mined in Rajasthan, they made tools out of bones and stones. cultures • Chalcolithic sites belonging to the Jorwe culture (ca. 1300–700 BCE) have been • The Chalcolithic culture of India discovered throughout Maharashtra, includes non-urban, non-Harappan Madhya Pradesh and other states. The cultures that are distinguished by the key features of this culture include red use of copper and stone. pottery, generally with matt surface • Pastoralism, agriculture, hunting, and bearing paintings in black. Jorwe is a fishing were some of the alternative small village and an archaeological site subsistence methods they used. in Maharashtra. Farming was performed with a wooden • The chronological series of India's or bony plough and irrigation systems. chalcolithic cultures is as follows: They were cattle-pastoralists, but when the climate was adverse, they switched » Kayatha Culture: C. 2000-1800 BC to sheep-goat pastoralism. » Banas or Ahar Culture: C. 2000-1400 • These people used to live in mud and BC mud brick houses that were generally rectangular or circular in shape. The » Malwa Culture: C. 1700-1200 BC houses had a larger number of rooms, » Jorwe Culture: C. 1300–700 BC a rammed board, and a thatched roof. » Chirand Culture: C. 1600-600 BC • They were devotees of the cults of 'Bull' » Pandu Rajr Dhibi: C. 1700-700 BC and 'Mother-Goddess’. » Golabai Sasan: C. 2200-700 BC • Fire- seems to have been a very widespread phenomenon among » Nagarjuna Konda: C. 2000-1000 BC the Chalcolithic people of Pre-historic » Brahmagiri: C. 2000-1000 BC India. This can be deduced from the fact that fire- have been found from a large number of Chalcolithic sites during the course of excavations. Megalithic Culture • Pots played an important role in their • A megalith is a large stone that has daily lives, so we see consistency and been used alone or in combination specialisation in pot-making. These with other stones to build a structure or are black-on-red painted wares, but monument. various sub-cultures have different • These were used to mark burial sites characteristics. and were carefully arranged by people. • Pots and other funerary objects have • There are a few characteristics that been found along with burials of the all of these burials have in common. Malwa and Jorwe people. This also Mostly, the dead were buried with indicates that the people might have distinctive pots, which are knwon as had a belief in life after death. Black and Red Ware. • They also engaged in exchanges • Iron tools and weapons have also been

12 discovered, as well as horse skeletons, the Deccan region. horse equipment, and stone and gold • Most of the information about the iron ornaments. age in South India comes from the • There is also a broad time evolution excavations of the megalithic burials. with the megaliths in central India and • Iron objects have been found the upper Indus valley where the oldest universally in all the megalithic sites megaliths are found, while those in the right from Junapani near Nagpur in east are of much later date. Vidarbha region (Central India) down • While evidence of their settlements to Adichanallur in Tamil Nadu in the far is scarce, their burials have been south. discovered in large numbers throughout

13 CHAPTER- 3 THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION)

• Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) can be formative, proto-urban phase of the dated around 2500-1750 BC on the culture. basis of radiocarbon dating. It is also » The mature Harappan phase was the called as Harappan Civilization. urban phase, the full-fledged stage • The site was first discovered through of civilization. Most of the urban excavation in 1921 under the supervision characteristics are associated with this of Daya Ram Sahni. phase. » The late Harappan phase was the post- • Harappa was first discovered by R. B. urban phase when the cities started to Dayaram Sahni (on river Ravi) in 1921. decline and gradually declined. R. D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjo- daro or ‘Mound of the Dead’ (on Indus River) in 1922. Sir John Marshall played a crucial role in both of these Geographical discoveries. Distribution • The long-term indigenous evolution of this civilization was originally began » The archaeological excavations reveal on the periphery of Indus Valley in the that this culture was spread over a hills of eastern Baluchistan and then vast area which included not only the extended into the plains. present day states of India such as • However, it can be documented by an Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, analysis of four sites which have been Maharashtra, Western Uttar Pradesh excavated in recent years: Mehrgarh, but also Pakistan and some parts of Amri, Kalibangan and Lothal. Afghanistan. Sutkagendor on the Makran Coast (near Pakistan-Iran border) is the western most site of the Harappan civilization and Alamgirpur Chronology in western Uttar Pradesh marks its eastern most limit. • Harappan culture was actually a long and complicated cultural process with at least three stages: the early Harappan, mature Harappan, and the Settlement pattern late Harappan. The following general chronology for the three phases of • The fact that the Harappan civilization the Harappan culture is derived from was urban does not imply that all, or the calibration of radiocarbon dates even the majority, of its settlements were from different sites: early Harappan, C. urban. Besides the urban settlements of 3200–2600 BC mature Harappan, C. the Harappans, there were many sites 2600–1900 BC and late Harappan, C. inhabited by the primitive communities 1900–1300 BC. consisting of stone-age hunter- gatherers or pastoral nomads, which » The early Harappan phase was the existed side by side.

14 • Varying size of the Harappan sites: removed for cleaning) were constructed The Harappan sites varied a great deal at regular intervals by the side of the in size and function, from large cities streets for cleaning. The drainage was to small pastoral camps. Some of the made from burnt bricks which were largest settlements include Rakhigarhi, smoothened from inside. This shows Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Harappa and that the people were well acquainted Ganweriwala. The many settlements with the science of sanitation. less than five hectares include Nausharo, Kot Diji, Allahdino, Rupar, Balakot, and Surkotada. • Town Planning: The most interesting urban feature of Harappan civilization is its town-planning. Almost all the major sites (Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and others), are divided into two parts–a citadel on higher mound on the western side and a lower town on the eastern side of the I m ag e 3.1: R eg u l a ri t y o f s t r e e t s a n d settlement. The citadel contains large b u i l d i n g s s u g g e s t s u r b a n p l a n n i n g i n structures which might have functioned M o h e n j o - da ro . as administrative or centres. The residential buildings are built in the lower town. The streets intersect each other at right angles in a criss-cross pattern. It divides the city in several residential blocks. The main street is connected by narrow lanes. Dholavira was divided into three parts in its most evolved phase: the citadel, middle town, and lower town. The citadel complex at Lothal and Surkotada is not separate; it is part of the main settlement.

• Planning of houses: The houses were I m ag e 3.2: G r e at B at h at M o h e n j o - da ro largely built of burnt bricks. The bigger houses had many rooms surrounding a square courtyard. These houses were • Rural-Urban interaction: As the urban provided with private wells, kitchens population had to depend on the and bathing platforms. The majority of surrounding countryside for the supply doorways and windows faced the side of food and many other necessary streets, and only a few opened onto the products, there emerged a village-town main streets. There were stairs in some (rural-urban) interrelationship. buildings, suggesting that there was an upper floor as well. • Drainage system: The drainage system Agriculture of the Harappans was elaborate and well laid out. Every house had drains, which • This area had certain uniform features opened into the street drains. These in terms of the soil type, climate and drains were covered with manholes, subsistence pattern. The land was flat bricks or stone slabs (which could be and depended on the monsoons and

15 the Himalayan rivers for the supply of • Domesticated animals: Harappan . Due to its distinct geographical sites have also yielded remains of feature, agro-pastoral economy was domesticated animals such as humped the dominant feature in this region. and humpless cattle, buffalo, sheep, Agriculture along with pastoralism and goat. The question whether the (cattle-rearing) was the base of people's new horse is controversial. Harappan economy. • Crafts and Techniques: Pottery- • This area's resource capacity was making was also an important industry adequate to produce food surpluses, in the Harappan period. These were which is an important feature of chiefly wheel-made and were treated urbanisation. The variety of the with a red coating and had decorations subsistence base may also have played in black. These are found in various a role in its survival for a long time. sizes and shapes. They were aware of • The chief food crops included wheat, the Potter's wheel and the majority of barley, sesasum, mustard, peas, jejube, the pots were turned on a wheel. etc. The evidence for rice has come • The Harappans manufactured seals of from Lothal and Rangpur in the form various kinds. More than two thousand of husks embedded in pottery. Cotton seals have been discovered from was another important crop. Apart different sites. These were generally from cereals, fish and animal meat also square in shape and were made of formed a part of the Harappan diet. steatite. • A ploughed field was discovered at • It is noteworthy that while the seals early Harappan levels at Kalibangan. depict a number of animals there is no Irrigation canals have been found at representation of horse on these. Most Shortughai. of the seals were made of steatite. They were used for commercial purposes as well as used as amulets. Animal husbandry, • One important seal has three heads and is sitting in a yogic posture surrounded Hunting and by four animals viz. elephant, tiger, rhinoceros and a buffalo. He has been Riverine and Marine identified by many scholars with the ancient form of the Pashupati resources (Lord of beasts).

• Wild animals: Bones of wild animals • Terracotta has been found in abundance have been found at Harappan sites. at Harappan sites. Animal figurines These include many varieties of Deer, such as bulls, buffaloes, monkeys, and Rhinoceros, Elephant, Camel etc. Tigers dogs are available. are commonly portrayed in figurines, • Bead-making also was an important while leopards are less frequently craft. Beads were made of precious and depicted. semiprecious stones such as agate and • Riverine and marine resources: The carnelian. Steatite was used for making Harappans exploited riverine and beads. The evidence of bead makers’ marine resources where these were shops has been found at Chanhudaro available. Dried fish and molluscs and Lothal. provided an important protein-rich • The Harappan people were aware of element in people’s diets. almost all the metals except iron. A

16 significant number of copper artefacts used to build the figure. It stands at 10.8 can be found in the Harappan cm tall. civilization. Harappan sites have yielded exquisitely crafted gold and silver jewellery, including necklaces, bracelets, brooches, pendants, and earrings. • The Harappans made cotton and woolen textiles, according to the available evidence, and the terracotta figurines wearing clothing (shawls, dresses, etc.) represent the types of clothing people wore. • Stonework was also another crucial craft. At Dholavira, fine polished pillars and stone masonry were discovered. Another advanced craft was bone working. Bone was used to make beads, awls, and pins. • Sculpture in stone and metal: A few pieces of stone and metal sculpture have been discovered at Harappan sites, in addition to utilitarian objects made of stone and metal. The majority of them exhibit excellent artistic

abilities and sensibilities. They include I m ag e 3.3: D a n c i n g G ir l S c u l p t u r e . the following:

» The ‘priest-king' or Head of a Yogi,' a stone bust of a male figure discovered at Mohenjo-daro and called the ‘priest- king' or Head of a Yogi. » At Harappa, two fine stone torsos of a male figure (approximately 10 cm high) were discovered. » A seated stone ibex or ram (49 × 27 × 21 cm) at Mohenjo-daro. » A stone lizard at Dholavira.

• No life size sculptures have been found. I m ag e 3.4: T e rr ac ota f i g u r e s at H a r a p pa The only large sculpture is a Dholavira sculpture of a shattered, seated male figure. • At Mohenjo-daro, two bronze female figurines were discovered. One of them has gained attention as the 'dancing girl.' The lost-wax technique, which is still used in some parts of India, was

17 Steatite South Rajasthan

Rajasthan and Copper Oman

Gold Kolar (Karnataka)

Afghanistan, Iran, Silver and South India

Tin Afghanistan

• Commodities traded. 1. Traders must have carried out a brisk trade in grains and other food items, shipping them between villages and towns.

I m ag e 3.5: B e a r d e d M a n o r t h e P ri e s t k i n g 2. Rice was imported from Gujarat to s c u l p t u r e . Punjab. 3. Lothal and Surkotada provided cotton for the developing townships Trade of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Banawali, etc. • Trading network, both internal (within 4. Balakot and Chanhudaro were the country) and external (foreign), centers for shell-working and was a significant feature of the urban bangle-making. economy of the Harappans. Harappan preferred the exchanges through 5. Lothal and Chanhudaro were the barter system. It is important to centers for the manufacturing of note that various kinds of metals beads of carnelian etc. and precious stones were needed by craftsmen to make goods, but as these were not available locally they had to External Trade: be brought from outside. • The Harappans were engaged in external trade with Mesopotamia. It Sources of major raw materials: was largely through Oman and Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. It is confirmed by Material Site or Source the presence of Harappa artefacts such as beads, seals, dice etc. in these Nageshwar and Shell regions. The main imports were copper, Balakot. gold, tin, and several semi-precious stones. Agricultural products such as Lapis lazuli Shortughai barley, wheat, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products including Carnelian Lothal cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory products were the

18 main export items. to the citadel has been excavated from here. As this was located near the gate, it has been called a "sign board". However, the Indus script is not Standardization: deciphered yet, and the exact meaning is not known. • The standardized system of weights and measures might have supported • A high degree of cultural integration the trade. The Harappa crafts show a can be seen in the evidence of a remarkable degree of standardization. common script found in the vast Weights and measures units were also Harappan culture region. So far, there standardized. Cubical weights made is no consensus on the affiliation of of chalcedony, chert, black stone, and the Harappan language or on the other materials have been discovered decipherment of the script. at all of the sites that have been excavated. • The system is binary in the smaller weights (1:2:8:16:32:64) and decimal in the higher weights was used. • These weights have been found in recent excavations at Harappa. They may have been used for controlling I m ag e 3.6: I n d u s V a l l e y s e a l , s h ow i n g a n trade and possibly also for collecting "I n d u s s c ri p t " taxes. Social Inscription: Differentiation: • At Harappan sites, approximately 3,700 inscribed objects have been discovered. • Harappan society was a mix of various Together, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa Anthropological races. There were Proto- account for roughly 87 percent of all Australoids, Alpinoids, Mongoloids and inscriptions. The script was pictographic Meditts. Out of this Mediterranean/ in nature. Mediter were in majority. • The script that is found on various • The Harappan Society comprised objects seems to have completely people following diverse professions. matured and has not undergone any These included the priests, the warriors, major changes over time. peasants, traders and artisans (masons, • Longer inscriptions with several weavers, goldsmith, potters, etc.) lines were sometimes written in the • The structural remains at sites such as boustrophedon type, i.e., consecutive Harappa and Lothal show that different lines starting in opposite directions. types of buildings that were used as The first line is written from left to right residence by different classes. It is also and the second line is written from right held that important people lived in the to left. Citadel area and ordinary people lived • Dholavira is a site located in the Rann in lower towns. of Kutch, Gujarat. A large wooden • In general, people were peace loving in "signboard" outside the north entrance nature as remarkably smaller numbers

19 of weapons have been discovered. • Harappan people loved to decorate themselves. Hairdressing by both men and women, is evident from figurines found at different sites. A bangle factory and a bead making workshop were discovered from Kalibangan, Chanhudaro. • They used cotton and woolen clothes. A piece of woven cloth has been found at Mohenjo-daro. Spindles and needles discovered at many sites attest to the practice of spinning and weaving. • Their pastime activities include dicing, bull fighting, dancing (bronze statue of dancing girl) and playing chess. I m ag e 3.7: P a s h u pat i S e a l , s u rro u n d e d b y a n i m a l s • Rulers, landlords, and traders may have been among the wealthy social classes. Differences in class and rank based on • A number of female figurines have been occupation, wealth, and status had to found at various places. Thus, worship exist. The existence of a caste system of female associated with in Harappan society, on the other hand, fertility has also been held as one of the is not corroborated with the available major features of Harappan . sources. • No free standing religious structure like has been found. But, the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro appears to have Religious Beliefs and religious significance as it can indicate practice of holy dips or religious bathing. practices: They probably believed in spirits and evil powers and used amulets as protection • The Harappan religion is normally against them. termed as i.e., worship of trees, stones etc. A large number of terracotta • The evidence of fire worship has also figurines discovered at the Harappan been found at some sites such as sites have been associated with the Kalibangan and Lothal. At Kalibangan, worship of mother goddess. Harappans a series of raised brick platforms with were nature worshipers and worshipped pits containing ash and animal bones a number of natural objects. have been discovered. Besides fire, Indus people also worshipped Gods • Pashupati, found on the famous seal, is in the form of trees (peepal, etc.) and considered as their male God. A steatite animals. This also shows that the Pashupati seal has been discovered at Harappans living in different areas Mohenjo-daro. On the seal, he is seen followed different religious practices. seated in yogic posture surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a different direction). Two deers appear at his feet.

20 urban phase or (Late Harappan phase). Burial Practices The rate of decline of the civilization differed for different places. Mohenjo- • The dead were buried with a varying daro and Dholavira show a steady number of earthen pots. In some graves decline, while city life abruptly ends at the dead were buried along with goods Kalibangan and Banawali. such as bangles, beads, copper mirrors. • Various theories have been postulated This may indicate that the Harappans for its decline: believed in life after death. • At Lothal three joint or double burials » Invasion theory: Supporting with male and female bodies together evidence from Mohenjo-daro is multiple were discovered. Kalibangan has wounded dead bodies at one place yielded evidence of a symbolic burial (theory refuted). along i.e., a burial which contains pots » Destruction of sites due to floods: but no bones or skeleton. Mohenjo- Mohenjo-daro was destroyed by floods daro and Harappa both had urn burials not less than seven times. (suggesting ). » Tectonic forces and earthquakes: • These different practices in different Evidence found from Kalibangan. regions of Harappan civilization may reflect diversity in religious beliefs. » Rivers such as Saraswati changed their course creating water shortages in the region. Political System » Fire (Evidence from Rakhigarhi). » Malaria (Evidence from Mohenjo-daro). • There is no clear idea about the political » Ecological changes due to deforestation, organization of the Harappan people. desert expansion etc. (most accepted). However, well organised cities, cleaning Also, because the social attitude of not of sewages etc. point that some type of » welcoming change in the population in centralised authority was present. core capital zones became reason to • The uniformity of cultural materials not move to better locations despite and measurement units also point to a natural calamities leading to decline of central authority during the Harappan capitals with subsequent loss of central period, but another possibility that control. cannot be ruled out is that there were several states with different styles of • Archaeological evidence does not political organisation. provide clear access to the social and political aspects of Harappan civilization's collapse. However, it does reveal that Harappan culture underwent Decline of the IVC: a gradual de-urbanization process. The mature Harappan phase was followed • The Harappan Civilization flourished by the late Harappan phase, which was till 1900 BC. The period following this is a post-urban phase. marked by the beginning of the post-

21 Site Province/State Country Excavations/Findings

Alamgirpur Uttar Pradesh India Impression of cloth on trough.

Amri, Sindh Sindh Pakistan Remains of rhinoceros.

Bead factory, lipstick use, and the Chanhudaro Sindh Pakistan only Indus site without a citadel.

A bronze chariot, 45 cm long and Daimabad- 16 cm high, drawn by two oxen and Late Maharashtra India pushed by a man standing 16 cm tall; Harappan and three other bronze sculptures. The IVC's southernmost position.

Harappan pottery, massive stone Desalpur in fortifications, and three script Nakhatrana Gujarat India seals made of steatite, copper, and Taluka, terracotta.

Diagram of a chariot drawn by a naked human and pulled by a pair Dholavira Gujarat India of bullocks. Water processing and reservoirs, as well as the use of rocks in building.

With 65 burials, the largest IVC burial Farmana Haryana India site in India.

Granaries, coffin burials, and numerous artefacts were discovered in this significant Indus Valley Harappa Punjab Pakistan Civilization area, which was the first to be excavated and studied in depth.

Fire altars, baked/burned bangles, Shiva Lingam, small circular pits with Kalibangan Rajasthan India large urns and pottery, and camel bones.

A dockyard, a bead factory, a button Lothal Gujarat India seal, fire altars, a painted pot, and earliest rice cultivation (1800 BC).

22 Jammu and Northernmost Harappan site in Manda India Kashmir Himalayan foothills.

Earliest agricultural community Mehrgarh Balochistan Pakistan (7000-5000 BC).

The Great Granary, the Great Bath (biggest bath ghat), the Bronze Dancing Lady, the Bearded Man, the Mohenjo-Daro Sindh Pakistan Terracotta Toys, the Bull Seal, the Pashupati Seal, three Mesopotamian cylindrical seals, and a piece of woven cloth.

Terracotta wheels, toys, figurines, Rakhigarhi Haryana India pottery. Large site partially excavated.

Surkotada Gujarat India Bones of a horse (disputed).

23 CHAPTER- 4

VEDIC PERIOD

comparative languages claims that the • The Harappan Civilisation was followed originally lived in Central Asia by another great civilisation and culture and came to India as migrants whereas known as the Vedic culture. The Vedic the European theory claims the Aryans texts are the primary sources for the inhabited Europe and voyaged to reconstruction of the Vedic culture/ various places and the Aryans who Vedic age. Vedic texts are believed came to India were an offshoot of the to be composed by the Indo-Aryans. Europeans. The Indian theory claims Indo-Aryans refer to the speakers of a Aryans were the residents of the Sapta subgroup of the Indo-Iranian branch of Sindhu (the region stretching from the the Indo-European family of languages. river Indus, reaching up to Saraswati • Indo-Aryans occupied the Indo- river). Gangetic plains. They believed in • The most accepted view is that there and expressed their was a series of Aryan immigration through , such as Yajnyas. and they came to the subcontinent as They developed (richa/shloka) immigrants. The Rig Veda's composers for worship, which they recited while referred to themselves as Arya, which performing sacrifices. can be interpreted as a cultural or • The collection of these prayers was ethnic term. The word literally means called 'Veda'. Veda means "knowledge". kinsman or companion, or it may be The Vedas are not a single religious etymologically derived from ‘ar’ (to work or a series of a certain number cultivate). of books collected at a specific period. The Vedic literature had developed over • The terms ‘Indo-European’ and ‘Indo- many centuries and was passed down Aryan’ have nothing to do with racial by word of mouth from generation to classifications. They are linguistic generation. terms, referring to a group of people speaking Indo-European languages. • 'Vedic Culture' thus refers to the culture that created the Vedas. In Vedic culture, we find two stages of development, termed as 'Early Vedic Literary sources to Period' (Saptasindhu region) and 'Later (more internal/interior understand Vedic part of India). Age:

• The , the Samaveda, the Indo-Aryans: Yajurveda, and the Atharvaveda are the four Vedas composed during this • Different scholars give different phase. Each Veda has four subdivisions: opinions regarding the original The Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the homeland of the Aryans. The Central Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. Asian theory propounded by Prof. • Historians divide this Vedic corpus into Max Muller, a German scholar of

24 two parts, Early and Later Vedic texts: • Early Vedic literature: It refers to the Vedic literature in family books of the Rig Veda Samhita. Later Vedic Period: • Later Vedic literature: It includes some books of the Rig Veda Samhita and Rig-Veda (1st and 10th the Samhitas of the Sama, Yajur, and Mandalas): Atharva Vedas, and the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads attached • Mandala 1 is primarily dedicated to to all the four Vedas. Indra and . Varuna, Surya, Mitra, Rudra, and Vishnu have also been • Vedic literature not only consists of the mentioned. Mandala 10 contains Nadi four Vedas but also of Dharmasutra, Stuti Sukta praising the rivers. It also Puranas, Epics etc. contains Nasadiya Sukta and Purush • Vedic Literature in Early Vedic Period Sukta. It contains hymns that are • Rig Veda: It is the oldest Veda and traditionally chanted during marriage depicts the life of early Vedic people in and death . Early references India. It has ten Mandalas, two to nine to Vedic society's divisions, such as of which were part of the early Vedic Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and age. UNESCO has included the Rig Shudras, can be found. Veda in the list of literature signifying World Human Heritage. Yajur-Veda: • The 'Richas,' or prayers, are dedicated to various natural forces like, fire, rain, • The Rig Veda's prayers were recited wind, dawn, sun, etc. Such powers were during sacrifices. The Yajur-Veda was defined as Varuna, Indra, Agni, Surya, written to explain how such sacrifices Marut, Usha etc. were carried out. As a result, the majority • Some Gods are benevolent ("wishing of the prayers in the Yajur-Veda are good things for others.") whereas, taken from the Rig-Veda. It contains some are malevolent (they wish evil on rituals to be performed publicly or others). individually.

The Vedic literature can also be divided into: Sam-Veda: • Shruti Literature: Shruti means • The Sama Veda or the “Veda of Chants” revealed ones. These are the works is the collection of verses. Sam-Veda's which are considered to have been hymns are derived from the Rig- heard and transmitted by earthly Veda that are provided with musical sages. The four Vedas together with notations and are intended as an aid to their Brahmanas are examples of the performance of sacred songs. Shruti literature. • Smriti Literature: Smriti literally means 'recollection'. It is a class of Atharva-Veda: texts that are based on memory, therefore traditions. It is the one that • It has a collection of spells and charms. is remembered by ordinary human This is the fourth and final Veda. It beings. Epics, Puranas, codes of Manu, deals with a number of topics such as tantric treatises and the Arthasastra , sorcery and black magic, of Kautilya are all examples of Smritis. treachery, and so on.

25 Appendices of Vedas perform sacrifices). (Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads): • Shad-darshanas: The Shad- darshanas were developed to help • In order to clarify the Vedic knowledge, people understand the philosophical the Vedic Aryans developed a new content of the Vedas such as Sankhya body of prose literature. As a result, (of Kapil, explaining the unity of each Veda had distinct Brahmanas, with God), Nyaya (of Gautam, Aranyakas and Upanishads. explaining logic), Yog (of Patanjali), • The Brahmanas consist of details about Vaisheshika (Kanand, regarding atoms), the meaning of Vedic hymns, their Purva-mimasa (Jaimini, Vedic rituals), applications and origin stories. Every Uttar-mimasa or Vedanta (Bandaraya, Veda has several Brahmanas attached structure of universe, ). to it. The Aranyakas and Upanishads address philosophical and spiritualistic topics from the Vedas, such as one's own existence, the structure of the universe and one's soul relationships Early Vedic period with God, etc. (circa 1500-1200 BC) • Aranyaka is considered to be the link between Brahamana and Upanishad. It Political Life of Rig Vedic lay emphasis not on sacrifices but on Aryans: . They were written chiefly by hermits residing in the forests for • The early Rig Vedic society was a semi- their students. nomadic tribal society with a pastoral economy. The tribe was called Jana • The term upanishad primarily refers to and the tribal chief was called Rajan, "approaching and sitting near," and the Gopati or Gopa (protector of cows). texts contain dialogue/ conversation between teachers and students. The • The Vedic Tribe can be divided into Upanishads are mainly philosophical several tribes: in nature and speak of the highest » Kula or family led by Kulapa was the knowledge. Satyamev Jayate in basic unit of political organisation. It the National Emblem is taken from included anyone who lived under the Mandaka Upanishad. same roof (Griha). » An aggregate of several families made Explanatory books of Vedas up the Grama (Village) like today, and (Vedangas, Shada-darshanas) its headman was called Gramini. » The group of such ''Grama” was called • Vedangas: The Vedangas were 'Vis' (head-Vishpati). That means, the developed to understand the knowledge Vis were total people of that specific of the Vedas in a proper and systematic tribe. manner. It dealt with topics like Shiksha (to pronounce prayers correctly), Kalpa » Group of such ‘Vis’ was called 'Jana' (the rules to conduct in a headed by Gopa or Gopati. proper manner), Vyakaran (grammer), » The larger form was the 'Rashtra' (Raja). Nirukta (etymology of words in the A Group of Jana formed into Rashtra Vedas), Chhanda (to musical rules of headed by Rajan. recitation), and Jyotish (proper time to

26 • In return, the citizens agreed to send Unit Head him gifts (Bali) on their own initiative. The king had to swear that he would Kula/ Family Kulapa rule according to canon law. • His responsibilities probably included Grama (Village) Gramani defending his tribe and stealing as many cattle as possible from other Vis (Clan) Vispati tribes. • However, the king could not use his Jana (People) Gopa/Gopati powers arbitarily. He was restricted by a number of factors, including Sabha Rashtra (the and Samiti (for his selection), People/ Rajan Country) Vish (for gifts or payment), Rajanyas/ lineage of warriors (for he was chosen from among them), and Mantri (advised King). Emergence of King • According to A. L. Basham, king's responsibility towards the Sabha • Several Tribes (or 'Janas') were and the Samiti restricted the popular constantly at war with one another. authority of the monarch. The wars/fights were over the problem of 'cattle-theft' and 'defend against • In addition, he was also reliant on his cattle-theft,' collectively known as tribe's priestly class, for the priests 'Gavishti.' used to coronate him and offer divine legitimacy to his reign. • Though they were constantly in war with each other, they did not have • Here, we need to note that, in the Rig standing army. Vedic tribes' warriors Vedic era, the ‘Rajan’ was selected used to carry on the burden of fighting but in due course, the post became such battles. Here it needs to be noted hereditary. that, these wars were not for land but for cattle theft. • Over time, these warriors formed Name of Assembly Meaning matrimonial alliances and became acquainted with one another. As a Assembly of result, within the Vedic tribe, a separate Sabha Brahmans and class of 'warriors' arose. 'Rajanya' elders was the name given to such a warrior lineage. Assembly of Samiti • Daily battles/wars necessitated the Commoners appointment of a valiant leader to lead the warriors on the battlefield. As For war booty Vidhata a result, the Vedic people felt the need distribution for a 'king.' As a result, the 'Sabha' (or people's assembly) decided to choose Highest Advisory Gana a king. body • The king was given the task of fighting wars or defending the tribe from outside attacks.

27 1. Purohit (priest): He was the king's Administration: most trusted advisor. He was tasked with providing political and religious • The Sabha, Samiti, and Ministry assisted advice to the king. He was also the and managed the king's administrative one who gave the king religious structure. legitimacy. As a result, his role was quite powerful. Sabha and Samiti: 2. Senapati (commander): He was the military's commander. He was • The Visha (or people) used to meet at supposed to defend, wage war, and a particular location in their Grams to set up war camps, among other rule it. 'Sabha' and 'Samiti' were the things. names of the particular location and 3. Duta (spy): The spies were tasked the meeting. Samiti meetings were held to ensure that knowledge flowed on a regular basis, and administrative smoothly. He was the spies' issues were discussed openly. commander. He was in charge of • The 'Samiti' was a meeting of all the foreign affairs as a 'duta.' tribe's inhabitants (Visha). People 4. Gramini (village-headman): Given used to congregate there to address the king's restricted control area, different issues and problems, play, eat, the Gramini were also appointed and drink. to the king's ministry. The king was • The 'Sabha,' on the other hand, was supposed to rule with the approval made up of a selected group of and advice of these ministers. people who addressed sensitive issues. Executing decisions were made here, such as whether to go to war or enter Judiciary: into a treaty, to create laws regarding • With the assistance of his ministry weights-measures, to help the king in and Samiti, the King used to resolve judicial matters etc. judicial matters. The law was derived • Since the king was chosen by both the from Vedic literature, practice, and Sabha and the Samiti, both assemblies the experiences of elders. The crimes had power over the king. Other involved robbery, banditry, forgery, assemblies included Vidhata (for war cattle-lifting, and indebtedness all of booty distribution) and Gana (Highest which were subjected to severe capital Advisory Body). punishments.

Note: In one instance, Sabha is referred to as the meeting hall. In other instances, Economy: Sabha is referred to a "body of men shining together." • Predominantly pastoral. Cattle based herding economy. Man’s wealth was measured in the number of cows he owned. There was no formal taxation Ministry: system; instead, the government (and • The king was supported by Ministers or its salaries) were based on voluntary Mantris to ensure smooth governance. donations from the Vish/people. Raids It was made up of: were yet another source of revenue.

28 Agriculture 'cattle' became their source of income. Their entire culture revolved around • Private land ownership was not yet cattle as a source of wealth. As a result, established. Wheat and barley were the family unit was dubbed as 'Gotra' the main crops, while rice/paddy (literally means cattle pen). That is to production was only in its early stages. say, the families were named based on However, the cultivation of this stage the name of their particular cattle pen, was only of subsistence-type. such as Vasishta Gotra of Bhardwaj Gotra. • The Vedic Aryans were familiar with simple agricultural techniques such as • The return of cattle from pastures was adding fertilizers, cutting crops with thought to be a lucky time. As a result, sickles, and arranging water sources, ceremonies known as 'Goraja Muhurta' among other things. were held. • The wars were mostly fought for the purpose of cattle-lifting or cattle-lifting Pastoralism defence. As a result, the term for war became 'Gavishti.' • The Early Vedic people lived in a pastoral society. Animals were reared • Cattle's ears were cut in a particular for wool, milk, agriculture, leather and way to distinguish them. They had drawing chariots. Aryans' staple diet special pasture land that belonged to consisted mainly of milk products. the community. • They turned to cattle pastoralism, and

I m ag e 4.1: E a r ly V e d i c P e ri o d

29 Trade oilseed, vegetables, wheat, and fruits. • Trade is usually carried under barter- • Non-vegetarian feasts were system. Bullock-carts and pack-bulls traditionally held during weddings, were used, and boats were also used as celebrations, and marriages. They even well. drank intoxicating liquids on a regular basis. However, such intoxication is • People who worked in trade were known condemned in Vedic literature. as 'Pani’. Clothes and leathers were the most common objects traded. • In general, Vedic people were entertained by animal races and • The unit of exchange was cattle, but battles. They went hunting for fun as there is mention of nascent currency well, and they enjoyed music. There such as Nishka. Fishing was also a part are references to various musical of the occupation. instruments made of animal skin, such as string instruments and percussion instruments. Education • They also enjoyed group dancing. • The rulers sponsored the classes, which During the festival season, both men and were held at the teachers' homes. Both women took part in common-dance, boys and girls were allowed to join and gambling was a popular pastime. classes. In such Gurukulas, students Women and men, in general, were fond received both vocational and moral of different styles of ornaments. value education. There was no record of writing, but the information was passed down by the generations through oral Religion tradition. • The Early Vedic people were worshipers of nature. They personified Society and worshiped the benevolent and malevolent powers of nature and • The Vedic family was patriarchal and offered prayers to them. Main Gods of joint, with the eldest person (Grihapati) early Rig-Vedic people were as follows: serving as the family's head. • Indra: Indra was respected as a war • Society was largely egalitarian. Varna God. Cattle were considered valuable was the term for color. The indigenous by Vedic people because they were people conquered by Aryans were called pastoralists. As a result, cattle raids, and Dasas and Dasyus. Differentiation cattle defence were common during based on occupation existed. this time span. Naturally, 'warts-on- • Vedic people wore clothes made from cattle' was a point of concern; hence, cotton, wool, and animal hide. The Indra grew in importance among all clothes were called '', 'Vasam', other Gods. Indra is mentioned in most 'Adhirasam', 'Drapi' etc. number of passages. • Varuna: According to Vedic belief, the whole universe operates according to Culture a set of laws known as 'Rita.' Varuna was considered to be in possession of • Since the early Vedic people practised the 'Rita.' As a result, the Vedic people pastoralism, their main diet consisted worshiped Varuna. primarily of milk and meat. They also ate a variety of foods, such as barley, • Agni (fire): 'Yajnya' is thought to be a

30 conduit through which food will meet interior parts of India. Thus, they had the Gods. As a result, Vedic people used near control over vast and extensive to give oblation into to please areas. During their migration, they the Gods. Naturally, yajnya played were exposed to various types of an important role in Vedic people's communities, tribes, and politics. daily/occasional religious rites/rituals. Without the success of , both domestic and collective activities were Polity considered incomplete. As a result, Agni (fire) was revered by the Vedic people • The concept of territory and territorial as a connecting force between people administration appeared. Kingdoms and God. It was dubbed the Earth's like Mahajanapadas were formed by mirror of the Sun. amalgamating smaller kingdoms. • The scale of the wars grew and they Do you know? became more deadly. As a result, The prayers and sacrifices were not the king's need became extremely made in order to achieve eternal bliss or important in light of the new situation. to quench one's intellectual thirst. It was He devised a scheme of polity with the specifically carried out in order to gain priests to hold power in his possession. simple material benefits from those who To keep power in the hands of the were considered to be dominant and King/ruling class and the priests, they uncontrollable. devised a system of Varna, which was based on the birth. Thus, the children of • Surya (Sun) is revered by Vedic people the ruling class and of the priestly class as a 'Mitra' (friend). It is thought to be a automatically became king or priests, source of energy. Later, the God 'Surya' respectively. combined with the God 'Vishnu' and • Royal power increased many folds. became a prominent God. Rituals and sacrifices were performed • Usha (dawn): Usha is revered by the to strengthen the king’s position – Vedic people as a source of inspiration Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), and vigour. The 'Usha' is the subject of Vajpeya (chariot race) and Asvamedha several verses in the Rig-Veda. (horse sacrifice). • Prithvi (Earth): As the mother of all • The performing priests conferred divine living things, Prithvi was revered. status on the king, as they gained • Yama: Yama is a God of death. He was financially from such sacrifices through worshipped not for his favour but to massive donations, and thus the king avoid him. was equated with the Gods. As a result, the notion of 'Divine Kingship' was • Rudra: The god of storms. He, like Yama, born. The king and his lineage rose to was worshiped in order to escape his prominence in Vedic culture. wrath. • The Vaishyas were compelled to remain Vaishyas and pay taxes to the king. Vaishyas’ children automatically Later Vedic period became Vaishyas and were forced to pay taxes. Children of Shudras, on the (circa 1200-600 BC): other hand, were born as Shudras. • In the later Vedic period, the Aryans • Thus, the Varna System concentrated migrated to more internal lands/ power in two classes (ruling and priestly)

31 and ensured a steady supply of tax metalwork, pottery and carpentry revenue (from Vaishyas) and manual work also was there. There was foreign labor (from Shudras). trade with far off regions like Babylon and Sumeria. Barley continued but rice and wheat became chief crops. Vedic Administrative setup Aryans began to produce a significant surplus at this stage. The expansion of • The structure of Sabha and Samiti was agricultural surplus paved the way for changed. They were dominated by the growth of crafts and trade. chiefs and rich nobles. Women were no longer permitted. As King’s power grew • Trade: The trade progressed as the importance of Sabha and Samiti agricultural produce had increased. The declined. Vedic Aryans now ruled over a much larger area than before. As a result, • Ministry: The king was assisted by markets were also widened. The rise advisors in the administration. The early of trade compelled merchants to band ministers remained there but some new together. As a result, proto-guilds or ministers got included. They include early trading organisations arose during Mahishi (Main Queen of King), Purohit this period. Early coins, such as Nishka (priest), Senani (commander), Sangrahit and Karshapana, were introduced (treasurer- to look after income and in India in response to the increased expenditure of the kingdom), Bhagdut trade, but their use was restricted to (tax-collector), Gramini (Village- smaller transactions. Bullock carts and headman), Suta (Chariot driver). waterways were used to transport the • Divine kingship: King became goods. responsible solely to the Gods. He had no need to listen to the ministry's advice. The recommendations were Society not obligatory to obey. As a result, the • Society was divided into 4 Varnas. The previous regulation of 'Mantris' was lost. four divisions of society in decreasing Now, he had the power to force the Vish social ranking were: Brahmanas to give him gifts. As a result, the gifts (priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas ceased to be voluntary and became a (agriculturists, traders and artisans), 'tax.' and Shudras (servers of the upper three • Military System: Owing to the classes). The growing cult of sacrifices frequency of battles, King was forced added to the power of the Brahmanas. to systemize his military system. As a • The Vedic jurist felt compelled to tie result, during this time period, a proper society with certain concerted and military structure emerged. A hierarchy rigorous rules and regulations. For was established, and rules were this, they invented a number of social established. Death on the battlefield structures, such as Ashram-system, was considered heroic whereas running Varna-system, Marriage-system, away from the battlefield became a Samskara etc. point of disgust and great humiliation. Women, children, and unarmed people • Concept of Purushartha: Every man were targeted, which was deemed was expected to follow four key immoral. responsibilities in his life: Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha. • Economy: Agriculture was the • Concept of Ashrama: In this system, a chief occupation. Industrial work like

32 person's life is divided into four parts religious traditions, and going on holy and he was assigned some duties with pilgrimages are all examples of this. respect to his age. » Sannyasa: The ascetic period, one renounces all worldly attachments » Brahmacharya: The first stage in order to find the Divine in solitude of a person's life. It is spent in by detaching from worldly existence celibate, supervised, sober, and pure and peacefully shedding the body for contemplation under the guidance of a Moksha. Guru, in order to prepare the mind for spiritual knowledge. • The Concept of Samskaras: The system » Grihastha: It is the stage of the of Samskara was created by jurists to householder, during which one marries provide socio-religious sanctions to and satisfies Kama and Artha in one's any stage of a person's physical and married and professional lives. psychological growth, as well as the » Vanaprastha: It is a gradual need for his social commitment. From detachment from the material world. his embryonic stage to his death, every Giving over responsibilities to one's aspect of his life was sanctified by such children, investing more time in Samskara.

• Concept of Varna: In the tenth Mandala, in Purusha Sukta of Rig-Veda we can witness the earliest mention of social division. According to this system various duties were assigned to each Varna. • Brahman: Learning, teaching, performance, and hosting of sacrifice. As a result, they became the sole authority on religion during this time period. The rulers also gave large sums of donations to the Brahmans for religious legitimization of their power, as their permission was needed for them to rule. • Kshatriya: Learning, hosting sacrifices (Yajna), and safeguarding people and land were all significant. This Varna was primarily made up of rulers and warlords/warriors. Kshatriyas legalised their status with the aid of Brahmans in order to consolidate power in their hands. This Varna held the real political strength. • Vaishya: Involved in Trade and agriculture. This Varna was home to farmers, merchants, and artisans. They were a powerful Varna in Vedic society because they held the economic influence. They were the society's taxpayers. Traders and artisans, despite their economic clout, were never accorded greater reverence in the Vedic religious system. Hence, they got attracted to non-Vedic like and in later centuries. • Shudra: They have to provide service to other three Varnas. They were located at the bottom of the Varna hierarchy without enjoying any privileges and rights in the society. They had no hold over modes of production. According to some historians, the people belonging to this Varna were native people of the land.

• In the Later Vedic Period, Varna-System lacked mobility and flexibility. As a became hereditary, which meant that result, Varna became Jati (a birth Varna membership was dependent on group), i.e., Caste. During this period, birth. The Varna system was organised sacrifices became more important, and in a hierarchical manner. Its structure as a result, the Brahmans, who had

33 supreme authority over religion, gained and time-consuming. Animals were a higher social status. sacrificed on a large scale during such • The Vaishya, or taxpayers, agriculturists, occasions. and merchants, became influential as well. The three (Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas) are considered Marriage traivarnikas, or men of higher Varnas. • After Brahmacharya Ashrama, a person • The Shudras, on the other hand, entered into Grihasthashram. He was remained weak and were forced to expected by the canons to get married work for the traivarnikas. A class of in this Ashrama. We know that it is untouchables began to emerge from assumed that by marrying and having the notion of purity alongside these children, one can be freed from his four Varnas. parents' 'rina' (debt=responsibility). • Similar to the early Vedic period, the Vedic people followed a patriarchal Dietary Habits family system. 'Inter-Varna' marriages • Dietary practices from the early Vedic were frowned upon during this period era persisted into the later Vedic period whereas 'similar gotra/family marriages' as well. During this time, however, the were forbidden. Marriages-at-will, proportion of non-vegetarian food on the other hand, are disregarded increased. This was the time of the by jurists in order to maintain the Vedic sacrifices, which were massive patriarchal structure.

Types of Marriages: • Brahma-Vivaha: With proper rites and customs, the father gives his daughter's hand to the knowledgeable and well-behaved bridegroom. • Daiva-Vivaha: The bride's hand is given to the priest performing the sacrifice by her father. • Prajapatya-Vivaha: The bridegroom is greeted by his father, who appeals to the couple to perform their religious duties, • Arsha-Vivaha: Father gives the bride's hand to the bridegroom after receiving a pair of cattle from the Groom, • Gandharva-Vivaha: Only the groom and bride's consent are required for a marriage- at-will. • Asur-Vivaha: Groom gives money to the father and relatives of bride and purchases her for marriage, • Rakshasa-Vivaha: Marriage by abduction. It involves forcefully abducting a girl and marrying her. • Paishacha-Vivah: With forcefully making the girl unconscious and violating her chastity. • Only the first four forms of marriage were recommended by Vedic jurists.

34 Religion education and social events. • They were able to conduct Vedic rites • Indra and Agni lost their significance. perfectly because they had been Prajapati (creator) and Vishnu educated. Some sacrifices, such as (preserver) became important gods. Sita Yajnya, Rudrabali Yagnya were Shiva emerged during this period. only prescribed for women to help • Sacrifices became more important them acquire good crops and children, than prayers. Importance of prayers marry, and help their husbands win diminished and rituals became more wars, among other things. elaborate. The citizens were advised • There is evidence of women who that if they followed the sacrifice laws, remained unmarried for the sake of the Gods would have no choice but to learning and received great respect favour the performers. in the society, viz. Ghosha, Apala, • Besides magic, superstitions and blind Vishvavara, Lopamudra, Sikata, faith became part of religious life. The Navavari, Godha, Aditi etc. priestly class became very powerful • Women's marriages took place only and they dictated the rules of the rites after they had maturity. Furthermore, and rituals. Because of this , their agreement is regarded as critical Buddhism and Jainism emerged in their marriage decision. Adult towards the end of this period. marriages, marriage-at-will, and widow remarriages were all permitted in early Vedic culture. Entertainment • Later Vedic people entertained themselves with a variety of things and In Later Vedic Period: events, similar to the early Vedic period. • Position of women became deplorable. This was a period of powerful rulers Women were not permitted to attend and lengthy festivals. As a result, the public assemblies like Sabhas and proportion of entertainment increased Samitis. during this time period, and races, • These newer limitations on women hunting, and gambling became a part were sanctified by religion. Child of every meeting of people. marriages became common. Her right to education was revoked when she married at a young age. Furthermore, Position of Women women were supposed to be fully chaste In Early Vedic Period: as it is considered as family’s honor. • Her social mobility was also limited, • Women enjoyed a respectable position. effectively imprisoning her in her home. They were allowed to take part in Sabhas She had no choice but to stay at home and Samitis. They were respected, both and work as a housewife. Remarriages in the society and family. On an equal were also prohibited forcing her to live footing with men, they took part in all as a widow until she died. domestic tasks, religious rites/rituals,

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