Fact Sheet for Shikshan Companikaran Virodhi Abhiyan (BrihanMumbai Municipal Corporation – Education Department) Compilation: Simantini Dhuru I. Overview Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation is the richest municipal corporation in . It is guided by a variety of legal instruments such as the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai Act, 1888, the Bombay Primary Education Act, 1920 and now the Children’s Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009 (RtE 09). The BMC provides free education to nearly 4, 00,000 children enrolled in around 1174 schools (Source: RTI sought by us dated 30.9.2011). It is the only local self government body which offers instruction in 8 languages. (Marathi, Hindi, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, Tamil, Telegu, English) While majority of schools cater to classes between Ist to VIIth the break up is roughly as follows. (Source: RTI sought by us dated 30.9.2011) - Ist to IVth: 148 (Approx. As exact break-up is not given in the RTI reply) - Ist to VIIth: 905 (Based on our field data since we work directly with these schools) - Ist to Xth: 48 (Source: RTI) - Schools for Mentally Challenged: 18 (MR schools) (Source: RTI) - Jr. K.G. to Xth: 55 (Mumbai Public Schools or MPS which claim to offer instruction in English medium. The teachers in these schools though trained as per NCTE norms are paid a consolidated salary and are temporary.) (Source: RTI)

While the expenditure of the BMC schools on education has increased sharply in recent years, the increase is mostly being spent on paying salaries and pensions of employees. (Source: IndiaSpend’s Prachi Salve based on RTIs.)

The number of students attending regional language schools is declining while the number of students attending English schools is increasing. The number of teachers has been falling for regional schools but is increasing in English schools. And the numbers of students and teachers have been increasing in schools for the mentally challenged. (Source: IndiaSpend. Prachi Salve based on RTIs.)

II. Financial Overview: Providing Free Education

Most of the education department’s income comes from grants from the state and central governments and the education cess collected by the corporation. According to budget estimates of this year, capital receipts for the education budget wereRs547 crore, which was 235% higher compared to last year’s Rs163 crore. (Source: IndiaSpend. Prachi Salve)

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The BMC spends around 8- 9% of income on education, and it plans to spend nearly Rs. 2,342 crore this year. Table 1 shows the increase in expenditure on education from 2008-09 to 2012–13.

Table 1: Increasing Focus On Education

Type of 2008 – 09 2009 – 10 2010 – 11 2011 – 12 2012 – 13 expenditure (R.E) (B.E)

Capital 63.21 74.48 41.76 179.87 367.01 expenditure

Revenue 851.19 1,036.03 1,016.45 1,237.47 1,975.62 Expenditure

Total 914.40 1,110.51 1,058.21 1,417.34 2,342.63 expenditure (Figures in Rs crore; Source: BMC Budget 2012)

It’s clear from Table 1 that there has seen an increase of nearly 65% from Rs 1,417 crore in 2011-12 to Rs 2,342 crore in 2012-13. The per student expense has increased 36% from Rs 27,056 in 2010-11 to Rs 36,750 in 2011-12.

Much of the increase in spending on education can be explained by the constant growth of the revenue expenditure. Revenue expenditure includes establishment expenses (salaries and pensions of employees), operation and maintenance (O&M) of schools and debt servicing on loans raised by the corporation. Even though the revenue expenditure has declined from 96% in 2010–11 to 84% in 2012 -13, it still remains significantly high.

The majority of revenue expenditure is spent on salaries and pensions of employees. According to the 2012-13 budget for the education department (Budget E), nearly55% of revenue expenditure is being spent on salaries and pensions while only a mere 9% is spent on O&M.

Actual Numbers:

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In a Right to Information (RTI) petition filed by IndiaSpend regarding the number of students and teachers in BMC schools, the following information was provided. (We also asked for information regarding the money spent on salaries but no reply was provided).

While Table 2.1 shows the number students in different language schools from 2007-08 to 2011-12, Table 2.2 shows the number of teachers during the same period:

Table 2.1: Dwindling Numbers in Language Schools:

Number of 2007 – 08 2008 – 09 2009 – 10 2010 – 11 2011 – 12 students (percentages)

Marathi 129,262 119,588 107,413 102,214 92,335 (24%)

Hindi 120,280 119,353 113,726 116,819 119,157 (30%)

Gujarati 11,336 9,847 8,908 8,715 7,870 (2%)

Urdu 106,169 105,117 102,778 102,082 101,430 (26%)

Tamil 12,476 11,129 10,032 9,233 8,226 (2.1%)

Telugu 5,415 4,334 3,469 3,359 3,036 (0.7%)

Kanada 5,070 4,566 4,257 3,829 3,631 (1%)

English 21,899 23,170 26,637 29,808 31,581 (8.1)

Schools for 763 849 889 894 847 (0.2%) the mentally Challenged

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Mumbai 7,770 9,530 10,867 14,158 17,544 (4.5%) Public school*

Total 420,440 407,483 388,976 391,111 385,657 number of (100%) students

Table 2.2: English Schools In Focus

Number of 2007 – 08 2008 – 09 2009 – 10 2010 – 11 2011 – 12 teachers (percentages)

Marathi 4,803 5,358 4,814 4,261 4,043 (35%)

Hindi 2,741 2,687 3,296 3,068 2,946 (25%)

Gujarati 528 540 491 490 376 (3.2%)

Urdu 2,176 2,295 2,848 2,668 2,660 (23%)

Tamil 385 403 346 361 326 (2.8%)

Telugu 161 198 158 148 121 (1%)

Kanada 141 147 171 153 136(1.1%)

English 298 253 599 534 611 (5.3%)

Schools for 56 59 73 70 77 (0.6%) the

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mentally Challenged

Mumbai 36 107 129 96 191 (1.6%) public school *

Total 11,325 12,047 12,925 11,849 11,487 number of teachers (Data refers to students/teacher as per medium of instruction. English schools teach Maths/Science in English and everything else in Marathi.*Mumbai public schools refer to schools where the language of teaching is English). (Source: IndiaSpend’s Prachi Salve)

The number of students attending municipal schools fell from 420,440 in 2007-08 to 385,657 in 2011-12. Table 2.1 shows that the number of students has declined for all regional schools but has increased in English language schools even though the percentage of English schools remains low. The highest number of students in BMC schools is in Urdu-medium schools (101,430 students) and the highest reduction ( 36,927) was seen in students attending Marathi schools from 129,262 to 92,335 students between 2007 and 2012. It is clear from Table 2.2 that the number of teachers has been fluctuating. The number increased between 2007-08 and 2009-10 from 11,325 to 12,925 with an increase of 1,600 teachers but it fell to 11,487 in 2011-12 with a drop of 1,438 teachers.

Let us now look at teachers in language schools: teachers in Marathi schools fell from 4,803 in 2007-08 to 4,043 in 2011-12 (a reduction of 760 teachers). The number of teachers increased from 298 to 611 in English schools. Interestingly, the number of teachers also increased in Urdu and Hindi schools by 313 and 205, respectively, between 2007 and 2012.

(Note: 1. Avehi-Abacus Project’s close association with schools catering to Vth to VIIth classes it can be said that all though the textbooks and other material is provided in English the classroom transaction in almost all so called English medium schools in conducted mainly in Hindi and in Marathi, Gujarati or Urdu depending on the language of the majority students and the class teacher. 2. Regarding decline of Marathi medium schools: It needs to be understood that Mumbai has a large number of fully aided, partially aided aprox. 433 by BMC and 814 aided by Deputy Director, Department of education and Sports, Government of . and un-aided Marathi medium schools from Jr. K.G. to Xth which charge fees between Rs.200-300 per month. The economic profile of Marathi speaking community is marginally better and in absence

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of schools catering to class Xth as well as due to absence of adequate teachers in BMC schools they have a ‘choice’ for cheaper education albeit at a cost. In a way despite poverty the parents opt to make this ‘investment’ towards paid schooling due to lack of BMC Secondary Schools. On the other hand economic conditions of those of Urdu, Hindi speakers who are relatively recent migrants – many of them Muslims; are extraordinarily vulnerable. As pointed out by the Justice Sacchar Committee poverty of Muslims is highest in urban areas. Added to this the is fact that the number of aided; low fee charging ‘recognised schools’ in Urdu and Hindi are very few in Bombay and thus the ‘choice’ made by the Marathi speaking parents is not open to these communities. 3. One important factor which is not discussed in the budget analysis above is that the BMC distributes 27 items free of cost including packaged milk to each student and excluding Mid-Day Meal provided by the Central Government. The teachers spend a considerable amount of time to taking charge, disbursing, maintaining records of these items. Allegations of serious corruption in tendering and procurement/distribution process abound. )

III. Student-Teacher Ratio (or Teacher Pupil Ratio – TPR):

The general student-teacher ratio in BMC schools is around 33:1 while the ideal student-teacher ratio, according to Right to Education Act, is 30:1. Most regional language schools run by the BMC have a favourable student-teacher ratio with Marathi schools having the lowest student-teacher ratio of 22:1. The highest among regional schools run by the BMC is in Urdu schools with a ratio 38:1. The performance can be explained by the dwindling number of students in regional language schools and not the increasing number of teachers.

On the other hand, the student-teacher ratio for English schools is 51:1, which clearly shows the need for more teachers as the number of students is increasing every year. The condition is equally bad in the BMC-run public schools where the student-teacher ratio is 91:1. Similarly, according to the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment,the ideal student-teacher ratio for mentally challenged pupils is 5:1 but the ratio is nearly 11:1 in BMC-run schools. (Source: Indiaspend – Prachi Salve)

(Note: Avehi Abacus Project’s RTI replies of three different Municipal Wards and direct involvement in field shows that the above picture is not precise. While in some schools in South Bombay in particular- the TPR can be as low as 12/15:1 in certain areas like Govandi, Mankhurd and in Malad, in particular it can be as astounding as 110: 1 or180:1.) (The Central Office declined to give us a consolidated/ward-wise figure and has compelled us to gather data from all 26 Wards - a time consuming and expensive process which is ongoing.)

IV.Drop-Out/Push-Out: (Source: While verifiable data is not available the following is available from a website www.rtiforall.com )

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2007-2008: Classes I to IV is said to be 9.11% and Vth to VIIth is 13.55%

V. Balwadies:

Serial Year Balwadies run No of No by NGOs (Free Children space in MMC schools.

(No nutrition/health support and untrained staff)

1 2000-2001 70 9247

2 2001-2002 116 10763

3 2002-2003 179 15439

4 2003-2004 98 13583

5 2004-2005 250 16553

6 2005-2006 455 14863

7 2006-2007 222 14935

8 2007-2008 MMC began 14355 financial support to 504

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Balwadis

9 2008-2009 MMC financial 16093 support to 504 Balwadis

10 2009-2010 MMC financial 17134 support to 504 Balwadis

Note: (Source: RTI replay from BMC dated 17.3.2010 submitted to the Bombay High Court)

 The number of Balwadies and their responsibility has always been handled in haphazard/tentative manner as can be seen from the table above. Before 2000 the MMC used to seek support from different charitable organisations/NGOs to run their Balwadies through the Community Development Project. The number fluctuated and depended on the persuasion skills of the Community Development Officers responsible for a given municipal Ward.

 Thereafter the BMC once again changed its strategy. From 2007-2008 the MMC began supporting 504 Balwadis run by different NGOs/trusts. The staff is appointed by the NGO and MMC reimburses honorariums for 1 teacher (10th pass) and 1 helper. The current number of Balwadies in MMC run in this manner is 504.

 All the staff is untrained.

 As part of a Bomaby High Court order dated 12th April 2012 in a case filed by Simantini Dhuru and others the ICDS and MMC have been asked to start 10 more Balwadies in coordination with each other on pilot basis. The staff will be ICDS staff. Nutrition, health, teaching-learning material support will be provided by ICDS to these centres on basis of same norms as applied to ICDS Anganwadies. There is not variable data regarding the situation of these Balwadies.

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VI.Ward –Wise and Language wise Distribution of Schools (Source: RTI Reply from BMC 30.9.11.)

(Note: Although this data is about a year old is bears near closeness to current academic ear 2012-13.)

No Ward Marathi Hindi Gujarati Urdu Tamil Telgu Kanad English Total MC(Mentally MPS( Total (Std.1 to 7) Challenged) Mumai Public schoo l ls) School Stud School Stud School Stud School Stud School Stud School Stud School Stud School Stud School Stud School Stud School Stud School Stud

1 A 6 1421 3 1504 1 27 1 165 0 0 0 0 1 31 2 1632 14 4780 0 0 0 0 14 4781

2 B 2 718 1 296 0 0 4 644 1 59 1 45 0 0 1 111 10 1873 0 0 0 0 10 187: 3 C 3 162 2 70 2 85 3 425 0 -0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 742 1 20 0 0 11 76; 4 D 8 825 4 480 2 181 3 772 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 152 19 2410 1 30 2 183 22 262; 5 E 10 1441 5 1265 4 468 18 6141 1 262 1 29 0 0 3 911 42 10517 0 0 0 0 42 losi: 6 F/S 17 2640 7 2049 3 215 6 1462 0 0 1 72 2 102 1 287 37 6827 1 42 4 1132 42 800] 7 F/N 25 6538 15 12099 4 641 14 8989 5 1037 3 350 1 66 1 747 68 30467 1 43 3 753 72 31263 8 G/S 27 3387 9 3477 5 500 4 789 1 100 3 129 2 113 4 2391 55 10886 1 44 8 1942 64 12872 9 G/N 19 3984 6 2974 3 220 12 7379 4 639 3 153 3 433 7 4793 57 20575 1 19 1 252 59 20846 10 H/E 17 3763 15 6268 3 334 14 6910 2 270 2 149 2 229 2 3242 57 21165 2 75 4 979 63 22219 11 H/W 8 1608 7 1983 3 353 11 3131 1 42 0 0 2 99 3 1377 35 8593 1 58 3 322 39 8973 12 K/E 21 4912 18 7053 6 600 11 2816 1 34 0 0 6 319 2 1123 65 16857 0 0 4 1287 69 18144 13 K/W 16 3445 10 4059 7 425 14 5157 2 642 3 450 3 503 2 1412 57 16093 'l 26 3 998 61 17117 14 P/S 14 2815 8 5177 1 83 3 875 3 1248 1 207 1 154 1 990 32 11549 1 24 4 1722 37 13295 15 P/N 21 7070 17 10020 7 795 12 8106 6 1729 3 116 1 44 4 2515 71 30395 0 116 3 971 74 31482 16 R/S 12 3777 9 5868 4 409 2 749 1 51 2 178 1 31 0 0 31 11063 1 0 2 877 34 11940 17 R/N 8 2970 7 4609 3 571 1 86 0 0 0 0 1 129 2 1338 22 9703 0 0 0 0 22 9703 18 R/C 14 3318 12 5531 4 432 3 522 1 268 2 256 2 238 2 1063 40 11628 1 100 0 0 41 11728 19 L 25 4993 19 9929 4 238 27 15262 1 115 1 93 3 272 2 1017 82 31919 1 80 4 1376 87 33375 20 M/E 25 10356 13 12405 2 161 23 23300 4 1001 2 244 1 135 1 2004 71 49606 0 0 1 561 72 50167 21 M/W 16 4055 11 7002 3 316 5 1523 1 228 1 8 2 225 2 1418 41 14775 1 26 3 508 45 15309 22 N 35 9034 14 6013 6 106 9 3110 1 14 3 190 3 78 3 1777 74 20322 1 68 5 1318 80 21708 23 S 24 4923 13 5993 5 279 8 2785 3 183 2 126 4 309 1 775 60 15373 1 55 3 1275 64 16703

24 T 23 4180 10 3033 4 431 2 332 1 304 1 241 1 121 2 506 45 9148 1 21 4 1088 50 10257 Total 396 92335 235 119157 86 7870 210 101490 40 8226 35 3036 42 3631 50 31581 1095 367266 18 847 61 17544 1174 385657

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(Note: while the RTI reply available to us from BMC dated 30.9.11 mentions the total number of schools as 1174 the RTI reply available to us from Maharashtra Prathamik Shikshan Parishad (SSA) dated 29.1.13 states them to be.) VII. Multi-grade schools:

(Source: Fiel- based data gathered by Avehi-Abacus Project School representatives. February 2012-2013)

Ward Area / Location Total Total Multi-grade number classes (Minimum 2 Maximum 3 teachers)

I to VII

A to G (N) Marin Lines, Colaba 311 46 Wadala, Masjid Bandar, Shivadi, Ray Road, Sion, Mahim

R (C) to H (W) Bandra to Dahisar 529 60

L/M (W) (E) / N/S/T Kurla to Mankhurd 567 73 and Kurla to Mulund

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VIII. No of schools given to NGOs under the now formalised PPP

INFORMATION REGARDING SCHOOL SUPPORT PROGRMME BY NGOs 2009 to12

(FULL SCHOOL SUPPORT NGOs)

(Source: Reply to RTI filed by us. Dated:15.12.2012)

Sr. Name of Name & Address Ward No Name of Schools No. NGO

1 Muktangan / K.R.Satose Paragon, G South 1 NM Joshi Marg MPS Paragon Condominium, Charitable P.B.Marg, Worti, Trust Working Mumbal-13 since 2004

2 Khedgalli (Gokhale Road) MPS

3 Or. B.S Ambedkar MPS 4 Love grove pumping MPS 5 Prabhadevi MPS 6 G.K. Marg MPS

7 Globmill Pasage MPS / UPS

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2 Akankstta Mr. Rahul Suvma F South 1 Abhyuday Nagar MPS Foundation Voltes House, "C" Working since T.B.Kadam Marg, 2004 Chinchopokli, Mumbai- 33

F South 2 Shankarao Palav (Shindewadi) MPS

G South 3 Sitaram Mill Compound MPS

K West 4 DN Nagar MPS

3 Aseema Dilbar Parekh G-3 H West 1 Pali Chimbai MPS Charitable Josephine App. Trust Working Bandra(w), Mumbai - 50 since 2003

H East 2 Kherwadi Municipal School MPS

4 Educo Mlnal Shrinivasan 2SA, F South 1 Saibaba Path MPS Working since Belvedere Court, Sane 2009 Guruji Marg, Mahalaxml, Mumbai-11

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MUNICIPAL CORPORATION GREATER MUMBAI - EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

INFORMATION REGARDING SCHOOL SUPPORT PROGRMME BY NGOs - 2009 to12

PARTLY SCHOOL SUPPORT NGO's Sr. Name of NGO Name & Address Ward No Name of Schools No. F South 1 Shivri Cross MPS F North 2 LK Waghji MPS F North 3 Shiv MPS G North 4 Kala Killa (DharavilMPS Keasl 5 Shankarwadi MPS Keast 6 Dixit Road MPS Keast 7 Gundawali MPS L 8 Chunnabhatti MPS L 9 Kajupada MPS M East 10 Turbhe MPS M West 11 Tilak Nagar MPS Ms ADIT) RAY M West 12 Anand Nagar MPS

1 Naandi 202,Martusmrit, 2nd fr, M West 13 Naka MPS Foundatio Behind Swami Narayan N 14 Barve Nagar MPS Working Temple, Lokmanya Tllka since 2009 No.2, Dadar(E) N 15 Sainath MPS

N 16 Maneklal Mehta MPS

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N 17 Rajawadi MPS P North 18 Kurar MPS P North 19 Govind Nagar MPS P North 20 Chinchwali MPS P South 21 Pahadi Goregaon (East) R south 22 Charkop MPS R south 23 Ganesh Nagar MPS S 24 Tank Road MPS S 25 Varsna Nagar MPS T 26 P. K. Road MPS

T 27 DO Upadhayay MPS T 28 Mithaghar MPS

2 Educo Working Mirtal Shrinivasan 25A, G North 1 OHARAVI KALA KILLA MUN MARATHI since 2009 Belvedere Court, Sane

Guruji Marg, Mahalaxmi, Mumbai 11 G/N 1 New Mahim School, Mahim (W) S 2 Powai Municipal School, Kanjurmarg (W) R/N 3 Anand Nagar, Dahisar (W) N 4 Pant Nagar^GhatkoparJE)

K/E 5 Gumpha road Eng.Up.Prl.Sch. L 6 Ganesh Baugh.Mun.Up.Pri.Sch Ganesh Baugh Lane. Page 14 of 22

G/S 7 Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar Municipal School, G/N 8 Dharavi Transit Camp, Sion 3 Teach For India P/N 9 MHB English Mun.Sch, Malvani, Malad (W) Working since 2010 P/S 10 Siddharth Nagar, Goregaon (W)

z P/N 11 Malvani Township, Malad (W) G/N 12 Rajrishi Shahu Nagar Mun Sen , Matunga G/S 13 Worli Sea Face H/W 14 Supari Tank, Bandra (Wl G/N 16 City of Los Angeles M East 16 Deonar Colony G/N 17 Eksar Talav G/N 18 Mahim Mori L 19 Nehru Nagar P North 20 Rani Sati

4 Nagarik satta Smt.AnJali Bose c/o K West 1 Gandhigram MPS Working since Shivam A-301, plot No.7

2009 Railway Society, Irla Society Rd. Ida (w) Mumbai – M

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ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON BUDGET

BMC Budget Highlights -Indiaspend: Prachi Salve:

* BMC’s expenditure on primary education increased 45% from Rs 718 crore in 2007-08 to Rs 1,040 crore in 2011-12. * Income, including grants from the centre, declined to Rs 1,016 crore in 2010-11 and Rs 748 crore in 2011-12. * Administrative expenses hit the highest level in 2009-10 at Rs 692 crore; has declined 25% from Rs 564 crore in 2010-11 to Rs 421 crore in 2011-12.

The key takeaway is that there has been a 45% increase in expenditure on primary education between 2007-08 and 2011-12 but funding declined during the period under review. And though salaries and pensions account for most of BMC’s expenditure, they’ve been declining over the years.

However, BMC has failed to provide details on breakup of salaries of the teaching and non-teaching staff.

According to the RTI response from the Department of Education of the BMC, the total expenditure on primary education increased from Rs 717.80 crore in 2007-08 to Rs 1,040 crore in 2011-12 – an increase of 45%.

Primary education constitutes 73% of the total education spend by the BMC. Moreover, there are 11,487 teachers in BMC’s 1,400 primary schools.

Figure 1

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Figure 1 show that the expenditure per student has increased from Rs 17, 072 in 2007-08 to Rs 26,989 in 2011-12. But this increase in expenditure is not due to the increase in number of teachers or on teaching but, as IndiaSpend reported earlier, largely due to the dwindling number of students in BMC-run schools.

Let us now look at the annual income of the corporation from education. BMC generates revenue for education in the form of grants from state government and central government grants for programs like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). In 2007-08, income generated was Rs 732 crore, which increased to Rs 1,036 crore in 2010-11. However, it declined to Rs 1,016 crore in 2010-11 and dropped to Rs 748 crore in 2011-12.

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Figure 2

Analysing Expenditure

The expenditure of the corporation can be divided into 2 sub-sections, namely establishment expenses, which include salaries and pensions of teaching and non-teaching staff while administrative expenses include rent paid by BMC on school buildings (which are not owned by the BMC), utility bills, books and other stationary required by the students and teachers. Establishment expenses increased 53% between 2007-08 and 2011-12 but there has been a drop of 4.5% in 2011-12 as compared to 2010-11. Correspondingly, the number of teachers has been fluctuating during 2007-08 and 2011-12 between 11,000 and 12,000.

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Figure 3 (a)

The following is the list of all the items under administrative expenses as per the RTI reply:

1] Rent includes rent paid for the BMC building, the education department office buildings and school buildings.

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2] Utility bills like office electricity bills, water bills, other office expenses, property tax, telephone, cell phones, internet and broadband internet.

3] Stationary and reading materials like newspapers, journals and reference books. 4] Travel by officials, which includes travel charges, India wide travels and travels within the city; and

5] Other expenses like consultants’ fees, housekeeping and fire extinguishers. It’s quite likely that most of these heads will not be major cash guzzlers, particularly travel and consultant fees. So, it is possible that rent is the largest…

Administrative expenses increased dramatically during the same period – from Rs 9.31 crore in 2007-08 to Rs 421.18 crore in 2011-12. Administrative expenses hit the highest level in 2009-10 at Rs 692 crore. But expenses have come down by 25% from Rs 564 crore during 2010-11 to Rs 421 crore in 2011-12.

Figure 3 (b)

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So, BMC has been spending less on teachers’ salaries as compared to administrative expenses, at least for primary education. And a further worrying aspect is that the increase in expenditure is not being matched by increasing income.

The BMC spends around 8-9% of its total budget of Rs 26,000 crore on education. And we can see here clearly that the administrative expenditure in primary education has zoomed even though several municipal schools (mostly in regional languages) have been shut downdue to dearth of students.

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January 4, 2013

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