Impact of Cement Dust on Soil and Vegetation around Khrew Cement Factories
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of
MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (M. Phil.) IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
BY MOIEZA ASHRAF
Under the Supervision of PROFESSOR G. A. BHAT (Rtd.)
P.G. DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR (NAAC Accredited Grade-A) SRINAGAR- 190 006, J & K 2013
P.G. Department of Environmental Science University of Kashmir Srinagar – 190 006, Kashmir
No: Date:
Certificate
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “Impact of Cement Dust on Soil and Vegetation around Khrew Cement Factories” is the original work, being submitted by MOIEZA ASHRAF in partial fulfilment of the award of degree of the Master of Philosophy (M.Phil) in the discipline of Environmental Science. This work has not been submitted fully or partially so far anywhere for the award of any degree. The student satisfactorily worked under my guidance on whole time basis for the period required under statues and has put in the required attendance in the department. We deem it fit for submission.
Professor Azra N. Kamili Professor G. A. Bhat (Rtd.) Head of the Department Supervisor Department of Environmental Science, Department of Environmental Science, University of Kashmir University of Kashmir Srinagar - 190006 Srinagar - 190006
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At the outset, I offer my gratefulness to the Almighty Allah for showering his blessings and enable me to accomplish the present task. It gives me immense pleasure to express my deep sense of gratitude to my Ideal Supervisor, Dr. G. A. Bhat whose friendly spirit, intellectual guidance, deep concern and constructive criticism provoked like a beckon in making the present study possible. I owe my deep sense of gratitude to our H.O.D Dr. A. N. Kamili for providing adequate laboratory and library facilities and also for her valuable suggestions and constant advice from time to time. I am also thankful to Prof. A. R. Yousuf and Prof. A.K.Pandit for their encouragement and support which they rendered me during the research work. I wish to offer my acknowledgement to my teachers especially Dr. Samiullah Bhat, Dr. Arshid Jehangir, Dr. Ruqiya nazir, Dr. Mudasir Ali and Mrs. Shazia Punjoo and to the whole department of Environmental Science for providing me necessary help in diverse ways while accomplishing this task. My special thanks to my parents and my sister for providing the emotional base and for their meticulous care and support. Their love and encouragement have sustained me in immeasurable ways during the present study. I highly acknowledge the help provided by Mr. Akhtar H. Malik (Curator, Centre for Biodiversity & Taxonomy, University of Kashmir) in the identification of plant samples collected for the research work. I am deeply indebted to my friends especially Abroo Ali, Shazia Habib, Saima Jan, Sumaira Maqbool, Syed Sana, Rafia Rashid, Afeefa Qayoom, Sheema Zaffar and Mohd. Sikandar who helped me during the present study for their perseverant help and cherishing attitude.
Moieza Ashraf
Dedicated To My Dear Parents
CONTENTS Chapters Page No.
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1-9
Chapter 2 STUDY AREA AND STUDY SITES 10-15
Chapter 3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 16-34
Chapter 4 MATERIALS AND METHODS 26-30 4.1 Soil Analysis 35-42 4.1.1. Soil Temperature 4.1.2. Moisture content 4.1.3. Loss on ignition 4.1.4. pH 4.1.5. Conductivity 4.1.6. Organic carbon 4.1.7. Organic matter 4.1.8. Exchangeable calcium and magnesium 4.1.9. Calcium 4.1.10. Magnesium 4.1.11. Exchangeable sodium 4.1.12. Exchangeable potassium 4.1.13. Chloride 4.1.14. Calcium Carbonate 4.1.15. Available phosphorus 4.2. Vegetation Analysis 4.2.1. Photosynthetic pigments (Chlorophyll, Pheophytins and Carotenoids) 4.2.2. Dust deposition on leaf surface 4.2.3. Leaf Area 4.2.4. Leaf extract pH 4.2.5. Leaf wash pH Chapter5 RESULTS 43-73 Chapter 6 DISCUSSION 74-81 6.1. Soil Analysis 6.2. Vegetation Analysis Chapter 7 CONCLUSIONS 82-83 REFERENCES
List of Tables
Table No. Title of the tables Page No.
5.1 Soil temperature (0C) at different study sites during different 43 months of 2012
5.2 Soil pH at different study sites during different months of 2012 44 5.3 Soil conductivity (dS/m) at different study sites during 45 different months of 2012 5.4 Soil moisture (%) at different study sites during different 46 months of 2012 5.5 Soil organic carbon (%) at different study sites during different 47 months of 2012 5.6 Soil organic matter (%) at different study sites during different 48 months of 2012 5.7 Soil loss on ignition at different study sites during different 49 months of 2012 5.8 Soil exchangeable calcium (me/100 gm) at different study sites 50 during different months of 2012 5.9 Soil exchangeable magnesium (me/100 gm) at different study 51 sites during different months of 2012 5.10 Soil exchangeable sodium at different study sites during 52 different months of 2012 5.11 Soil exchangeable potassium at different study sites during 53 different months of 2012 5.12 Soil calcium carbonate (%) at different study sites during 54 different months of 2012 5.13 Soil chloride (me/l) at different study sites during different 55 months of 2012 5.14 Soil available phosphorus (µg/g) at different study sites during 56 different months of 2012 5.15 Monthly estimation of Chlorophyll „a‟ (µg/ml) of different 58 plant species during the study period at the four study sites.
5.16 Monthly estimation of Chlorophyll „b‟ (µg/ml) of different 59 plant species during the study period at the four study sites. 5.17 Monthly estimation of Total Chlorophyll (µg/ml) of different 61 plant species during the study period at the four study sites. 5.18 Monthly estimation of Pheophytin „a‟ (µg/ml) of different 62 plant species during the study period at the four study sites. 5.19 Monthly estimation of Pheophytin „b‟ (µg/ml) of different 63 plant species during the study period at the four study sites. 5.20 Monthly estimation of Total Pheophytin (µg/ml) of different 65 plant species during the study period at the four study sites. 5.21 Monthly estimation of Carotenoids (µg/ml) of different plant 66 species during the study period at the four study sites. 5.22 Monthly estimation of dust content (mg/cm2) on different plant 67 species during the study period at the four study sites. 5.23 Monthly estimation of Leaf extract pH of different plant 72 species during the study period at the four study sites. 5.24 Monthly estimation of Leaf wash pH of different plant species 73 during the study period at the four study sites.
List of Figures
Figure Title of the figures Page No. No. 5.1 Variations in soil temperature (0C) at different study sites 43 during 2012 5.2 Variations in soil pH at different study sites during 2012 44 5.3 Variations in soil conductivity (dS/m) at different study sites 45
during 2012 5.4 Variations in soil moisture content (%) at different study sites 46 during 2012 5.5 Variations in soil organic carbon (%) at different study sites 47 during 2012 5.6 Variations in soil organic matter (%) at different study sites 48 during 2012 5.7 Variations in soil loss on ignition (%) at different study sites 49 during 2012 5.8 Variations in soil exchangeable calcium (me/100 gm) at 50 different study sites during 2012 5.9 Variations in soil exchangeable magnesium (me/100 gm) at 51 different study sites during 2012 5.10 Variations in soil exchangeable sodium (me/100 gm) at 52 different study sites during 2012 5.11 Variations in soil exchangeable potassium (me/100 gm) at 53 different study sites during 2012 5.12 Variations in soil calcium carbonate (%) at different study sites 54 during 2012 5.13 Variations in soil chloride (me/l) at different study sites during 55 2012 5.14 Variations in soil available phosphorus (µg/g) at different 56 study sites during 2012
Chapter – 1 Introduction
ach major technological advance over the last few decades has introduced a new hazard to man and environment, either directly or indirectly. E Industrialization, urbanization, economic growth and associated increase in energy demands have resulted in a profound deterioration of air quality in developing countries like India. The pattern of economic growth is becoming increasingly associated with environmental pollution. Human technological and scientific advances have caused environmental changes that are impossible to evaluate and fully comprehend and pollution of the environment is one of the major effects of that change. Our ability to change the environment has increased faster than the ability to predict the effect of that change. Pollution of the environment is thus one of the major effects of human technological advancement. It results when a change in the environment harmfully affects the quality of human life including effects on animals, microorganisms and plants as well as soil ecosystem. (Marinescu et al, 2010). Almost all the environmental degradative problems that currently afflict our planet have human origin. Air pollution is one of the severe problems world‟s facing today, which deteriorates ecological conditions and can be defined as the fluctuation in any atmospheric constituent from the value that would have existed without human activity (Tripathi and Gautam, 2007). Rapid industrialization and population shifts from rural areas to urban centres have created unnatural concentrations of air pollutants, largely because energy requirements have become highly localized. These concentrations of air pollutants, however, do not normally remain localized, but often are widely dispersed across boundaries. Rapid industrialization and addition of the toxic substances to the environment are responsible for altering the ecosystems (Mudd & Kozlowski, 1975; Niragau & Davidson, 1986; Clayton & Clayton, 1982). Different industrial activities are degrading various environmental components like water, air, soil and vegetation ( Sai et al., 1987; Mishra, 1991; Murugesan et al., 2004; Kumar et al., 2008). Environmental stress, such as air pollution, is among the factors most limiting plant productivity and survivorship (Woo et al., 2007). The fast industrial growth is causing enormous environmental pollution problems and affecting distribution of plants and soil characteristics of the area. Industrial pollution is caused by the discharges of varieties of industrial pollutants in the forms of gases, liquids and solids which affect the physical, chemical and biological conditions of the environment and are detrimental to human health, fauna, flora and soil properties (Dueck & Endenijk, 1987). Environmental contamination due to dust particle coming from Cement Industries, Coal Mining, Quarrying, Stone Crushing, Thermal power Plant etc., has drawn much attention of the environmental scientists today as they create serious pollution problems and pose threat to the ecosystems. The cement industry has been recognized to be playing a vital role in the imbalances of the environment and producing air pollution hazards. Cement dust is a potential phytotoxic pollutant in the vicinity of a cement producing plants and creates serious pollution problems causing enormous damage to the ecosystem. These pollutants emanating from the kiln, spread over a large area and affect the vegetation, soil and other natural resources. These dust particulates get deposited on various parts of plants especially on leaf surfaces as well as on ground soil and affect growth and yield of crop plants through biological changes (Stern, 1976). As listed by the Central Pollution Control Board, Cement industry is one of the 17 most polluting industries and is one of the most basic industries involved in the development of a country. Cement is the most widely used building material throughout the world. With the increase in demand for cement in India too, the number of factories is increasing each year and both consumption and production of cement has increased greatly in recent years. During the last decades, the emission of dust from cement factories has increased alarmingly due to expansion of more cement plants to meet the requirement of cement materials for construction of building. The construction of many business and production infrastructures paved the way for the boom of the cement industry. Nonetheless, despite the value of cement and other related materials, it also has met environmental criticisms as the dust emanating from the cement factories adversely affects visibility, reduces growth of vegetation and hampers aesthetic sight of the area. India is the second largest producer of cement after China. The production process for cement consists of drying, grinding and mixing limestone and additives like bauxite and iron ore into a powder known as “raw meal”. The raw meal is then heated and burned in a pre-heater and kiln and then cooled in an air cooling system to form a semi-finished product, known as a clinker. Clinker (95%) is cooled by air and subsequently ground with gypsum (5%) to form Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). Other forms of cement require increased blending with other raw materials. Blending of clinker with other materials helps to impart key characteristics to cement, which eventually govern its end use. There are two general processes for producing clinker i.e. a dry process and a wet process. The basic differences between these processes are the form in which the raw meal is fed into the kiln, and the amount of energy consumed in each of the processes. In the dry process, the raw meal is fed into the kiln in the form of a dry powder resulting in energy saving, whereas in the wet process the raw meal is fed into the kiln in the form of slurry. There is a semi-dry processing, which consumes more energy than the dry process but lesser than the wet process. Majority of cement plants are dry process plants. Limestone is crushed to a uniform and usable size, blended with certain additives (such as iron ore and bauxite) and discharged on a vertical roller mill, where the raw materials are ground to fine powder. An electrostatic precipitator de-dusts the raw mill gases and collects the raw meal for a series of further stages of blending. The homogenized raw meal thus extracted is pumped to the top of a pre-heater by air lift pumps. In the pre-heaters the material is heated to 750°C. Subsequently, the raw meal undergoes a process of calcination in a pre-calcinator (in which the carbonates present are reduced to oxides) and is then fed to the kiln. The remaining calcination and clinkerization reactions are completed in the kiln where the temperature is raised to between 1,450°C and 1,500°C. The clinker formed is cooled and conveyed to the clinker silo from where it is extracted and transported to the cement mills for producing cement. For producing OPC, clinker and gypsum are used and for producing Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), clinker, gypsum and fly ash are used. In the production of Portland Blast Furnace Stag Cement (PSC), granulated blast furnace slag from steel plants is added to clinker. The main raw material used over here for cement industry includes limestone (CaCO3), clay, sandstone (SiO2), bauxite (N2O3) and gypsum
(Ca2SO4.2H2O) and involves the release of various particulates, dust, gases and heavy metals. The whole process can be summarized in the following flowchart:
Source: JK Cements LTD The pollutants generated by the cement manufacturing process consist primarily of alkaline particulates. The main impacts of the cement activity on the environment are the broadcasts of dusts and gases. The industry releases huge amounts of cement dust into the atmosphere which settle on the surrounding areas forming a hard crust and causes various adverse impacts. The largest volume substances emitted during the production of cement are carbon dioxide, particulate matter (dust), oxides of nitrogen, and sulphur dioxide. Cement dust contains heavy metals like nickel, cobalt, lead, chromium, mercury pollutants hazardous to the biotic environment, with adverse impact for vegetation, human and animal health and ecosystems (Baby et al., 2008). The cement kiln dust, containing oxides of calcium, potassium and sodium is a common air pollutant affecting plants in various ways i.e. cement dust and cement crust on leaves plug stomata and interrupt absorption of light and diffusion of gases, lowering starch formation, reducing fruit setting (Lerman, 1972), inducing premature leaf fall (Czaja, 1962) and leading to stunted growth (Darley, 1966). Cement-Kiln dust affects plant growth mostly by the formation of crusts on leaves, twigs and flowers. The crust is formed because some portion of the settling dust consists of the calcium silicates, which are typical of the clinker (burned limestone) from which cement is made. When this dust is hydrated on the leaf surfaces, a gelatinous calcium silicate hydrate is formed, which later crystallizes and solidifies to a hard crust. Physiological disorders such as reduced growth is ultimately due to the cumulative effects of the causal factors on the physiological processes necessary for plant growth and its development (Schutzki and Cregg, 2007). Air pollution has become a major threat to the survival of plants in the industrial areas (Gupta and Mishra, 1994). Injury to the plants ranges from visible markings on the foliage, reduced growth and yield to premature death of the plant. The pollutants can cause a serious threat to the overall physiology of plants (Ashenden & Williams, 1980; Mejstrik, 1980; Anda, 1986). Leaf is the most sensitive part to the air pollutants (Singh, 1991). Plants demonstrate a wide array of responses when exposed to pollutants in the form photosynthesis, respiration, enzymatic reactions, stomatal behavior, membrane disruption, senescence and ultimately death. Dust is a collection of the solid particles of natural or industrial origin, generally formed by disintegration processes and is considered as one of the most widespread air pollutants (Arslan and Boybay 1990). In India, the dust pollutants contribute around 40% of total air pollution problems (Chauhan and Sanjeev 2008). Various studies have reported a serious setback in plant physiology due to the effect of dust (Anda 1986; Seinfeld 1975). Dust particulates are reported to be absorbed through the outer surface of the plants showing some common effects such as chlorophyll degradation, necrosis, reduction in photosynthesis and decline in growth. Dust deposition reduces diffusive resistance and increases temperature of leaf making the tree more likely to be susceptible to drought (Farmer 1993). Besides causing suppression of plant growth, cement dust induces the changes in the physico-chemical properties of soil, which are generally unfavorable to plant growth (Parthasarthy et al 1975). Cement dust from the cement plants forms a thin deposition layer over the adjacent areas. The direct effects of cement dust pollution are the alkalization of the ecosystem and the changing of the chemical composition of soils (Mandre, 1995). The cement factories have a great impact on the soil. The soil no longer has its natural cover of vegetation and the natural exchange of gases between soil and air is greatly reduced because they are no longer replenished by vegetation growth, these soils lose organic matter and soil organisms die from the lack of food and oxygen. The pollutant particles can enter into soil as dry, humid or occult deposits and can undermine its physicochemical properties (Laj and Sellegri, 2003). Thus, cement dust pollution has a negative effect on the Physico-chemical properties and the biological activity of the soil (Ocak et al., 2004; Nowak et al., 2003). Air pollutants, responsible for vegetation injury and crop yield losses, are causing increased concern (Fuji, 1973).There is now great concern that air pollutants (especially sulfur dioxide, ozone, and oxides of nitrogen) can alter the physiological processes of plants, thereby affecting patterns of growth. Pollutants interact with other environmental factors, and may alter plant-environment relationships on a regional scale (Winner, 1981). Various strategies exist for controlling atmospheric pollution, but vegetation provides one of the natural ways of cleansing the atmosphere by absorption of gaseous and some particulate matter through leaves (Varshney, 1985). Researchers have shown that Plants (including trees) can act as biological filters, removing large quantities of particles from the urban atmosphere. This is predominately due to their large leaf areas relative to the ground on which they stand, and the physiological properties of their surfaces. Cement industries are emitting toxic substances which adversely affect man's food supply by polluting nearby growing plants. Photosynthesis is known to be one of the most stress-sensitive processes and it can be completely inhibited by stress before other symptoms of the stress are detected. Dust deposition affects photosynthesis, stomatal functioning and productivity (Santosh and Tripathi, 2008). Plants act as a sink for air pollutants and thus reduce their concentration in the air. Dust interception capacity of plants depends on their surface geometry, phyllotaxy, and leaf external characteristics such as hairs, cuticle etc., height, and canopy of trees. Removal of pollutants by plants from air is by three means, namely absorption by the leaves, deposition of particulates and aerosols over leaf surfaces, and fallout of particulates on the leeward side of the vegetation because of the slowing of the air movement (Tewari, 1994; Rawat and Banerjee, 1996). Alkaline cement dusts (pH≥9) may cause direct injury to leaf tissues (Vardaka et al. 1995) or indirect injury through alteration of soil pH (Hope et al. 1991; Auerbach et al. 1997).
The impact of the cement industry on the surrounding vegetation has been widely investigated (Farmer, 1993) although research on the effects of dust pollution on plants has never received the same level of attention as that given to phytotoxic pollutants such as SO2, NO2 and O3. Results from research that has been undertaken, together with repeated observations of dust deposits on vegetation, suggest that the effects of dust may be important and are worthy of greater investigative attention. Major sources of air pollution in Kashmir valley are cement factories, brick kilns, stone crushers and automobile exhaust. In the agro-climatic Kashmir region of Jammu and Kashmir State, there has been an expansion of some industries particularly cement industry in some agriculturally and biodiversity rich areas. In 1979, a cement factory under the banner of Jammu and Kashmir Cements Ltd., with daily production of 600 tons and now 1200 tons, was set up at Khrew. The increasing number of cement factories in Kashmir because of government promotion and local demand led to the blooming of major industry which is mainly operational near Khrew area when in the month of March more cement factories, J&K cements additional line of 600 TPD, TCI, Dawar, Cemtac, Green valley and Itifaq started in this area. The cement had generated good employment in the area but at the same time due to the air pollution caused by the dust coming out of the chimney of this factory releasing an enormous amount of cement dust into the atmosphere, there has been a considerable affect on the flora and fauna. Cement dust from the cement plants forming a thin layer is deposited over the adjacent agricultural fields. The adverse effects of cement pollution are well demonstrated in Khrew area which has been experiencing such effects for the last three decades. With no fixed ideas and discrimination, a personal awareness to the deteriorating condition prevailing could be acquired within a single visit to the area. As State Pollution Control Board has permitted construction of 15 cement factories (Red Category Industry) and extraction of limestone within and in close proximity of Dachigam National Park, Khonmoh–Khrew wildlife Conservation reserves. The cement factories have been set up in violation of Environment (Protection) Act, Wildlife (Protection) Act. The population of Red Deer has come down to 137 from around 5000 due to destruction of its habitat-Dachigam National Park and Khrew- Khonmoh Reserves (Anonymous, 2010). The illegal mining in the wildlife area by cement factories has destroyed the habitat of Porcupines who are now migrating to the fields and destroying the saffron bulbs and other agricultural products. Research work has been carried out on the impact of cement dust on human and livestock health where air quality analysis in the Khrew industrial area has revealed that the concentration of average ambient air concentrations of Suspended
Particulate Matter, Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and Nitrogen oxides (NOx) were found above the permissible limits as given by CPCB (Mehraj and Bhat, 2012). Cement manufacturing has caused environmental impact at all stages of the process in the area. These include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when operating machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to from quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement should have been widely used, and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases should have come into increased use. Owing to the fact that comparatively, not many studies have been performed to investigate the influence of cement dust pollution in the Kashmir valley and due to essential role of vegetation in both natural and managed ecosystems, the changes caused by the atmospheric pollution are not restricted to the vegetation only, but also extend to the detrimental effects on biodiversity, ecosystem dynamics and human welfare, the present investigation has too attempted to study the apparent impact of cement dust on soil and populations of some species of vegetation. It is worth mention that since there has been a mushrooming of cement factories in Khrew area, the study was carried out in the cement industrial area of Khrew on comparative basis selecting sites at various distances from the source of cement dust generation. The reference site used in the study was taken at a distance of about 10 Kms from J&K cement factory with a consideration of general wind direction in the area. During the present study, the main objectives were restricted to the following: 1. To compare the soil of cement polluted area with the soil of relatively non-polluted or least polluted area in respect of various physico-chemical parameters. 2. To compare the impact on selected common or ubiquitous elements of vegetation.
Chapter – 2 Study area and study sites
he valley of Kashmir offers an ideal environment due to its unique geographical position and temperate climate. Jammu and Kashmir State is T situated in the subtropical north temperate region of Asia in the north western Himalayas between 32.17°-36.58° north latitude and 73.26°-80.50° east longitude. It has total area of 5350 square kms, lies at an average elevation of 1590 meters above sea level. The valley is surrounded by a chain of high mountains. On this account it is zoo geographically cut off from Jammu in South and Ladakh in North, which are two administrative provinces of Jammu and Kashmir State. The valley of Kashmir has continental climate, characterized by marked seasonality. In fact, the genesis of Kashmir weather is intrinsically linked with the mechanism of weather in the Indian sub-continent. In general, the valley being surrounded by Himalayan ranges occupies the northernmost geographical position in India. The valley, therefore, enjoys a climatic conditions resembling sub-Mediterranean type characterized by rainfall occurring throughout the year. Depending upon the duration and magnitude of precipitation and temperature, four seasons are clearly recognized. Winter (December–February); spring (March–May); summer (June– August); autumn (September – November). The cement polluted area of Khrew is situated at a distance of about 23 kms away in the Southeast of Srinagar at an altitude of 1607 meters above sea level, within the geographical co-ordinates of 34°1N′ latitude and 75°1′E longitude. Located at the foot of mountain, Khrew town has twenty more adjacent hamlets like Shar Shali, Ladoo, Andrusa, Gundbal, Pakhribal, Mandakpal, Satpukhran, Wuyan, Bathen, Nagandar, Wahab Sabun etc with population of 18820, Males constitute 54% of the population and females 46%. Khrew has an average literacy rate of 47%, lower than the national average of 65.8%: male literacy is 22.08%, and female literacy is 24.02%. In Khrew, 20% of the population is under 15 years of age (2011 India census).
The natural vegetation in the study area is generally of herbs and dwarf shrubs. The vegetation on the upper reaches of the northern aspects holds Pinus wallichiana as the major cover. The major portion of the agricultural land in the vicinity of the cement factory is occupied by Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) with some scattered economically important orchard trees like walnut (Juglans regia L.), Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) and Almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch). In the factory, cement is manufactured on a large scale, and during the manufacturing process and loading large quantities of cement dust is discharged into the atmosphere. The main raw material over here for cement industry includes limestone (CaCO3), clay, sandstone (SiO2), bauxite (N2O3) and gypsum
(Ca2SO4.2H2O). The dust falls on the adjoining areas and settles on the leaves, roof tops as well as on the ground deteriorating the quality of soil, horticultural species and the world famous cash crop of Saffron. In this area many mini cement plants are also running thus adversely affect the soil, environment, vegetation and health in these and the surrounding areas. The present study was carried out from April, 2012 to October, 2012 on comparative basis at four sites located around Jammu and Kashmir Cements Limited, Khrew and towards Balhama area of district Pulwama. The vicinity around the Jammu and Kashmir Cements Ltd. was chosen for the present study in order to assess the impact of cement dust on the characteristics of soil and vegetation. The sites were selected on the basis of comparative features of polluted sites around Khrew cement factory and pollution free site in Balhama area of Pulwama district. The sites differed in cement dust fall which was quite obvious in Khrew area. The other aspects including the vegetation were almost similar for the sites. A total of six plant species, were taken into account. The plant species including Plantago lanceolata, Artemesia vestita, Isodon rugosus, Artemesia absinthium, Thymus linearis and Marrubium vulgare were deposited in herbarium in the centre for Biodiversity & Taxonomy (CBT), University of Kashmir, for authentic identification under voucher specimen no. 1670, 1671, 1672, 1673, 1674 and 1675 KASH Herbarium respectively. These plants were common and thus selected for the study except Isodon rugosus that was not found at site IV during the study period.
Thymus linearis. Benth. In Wall Artemesia vestita Wall. ex. Bess
Artemesia absinthium. L Plantago lanceolata L
Marrubium vulgare L. Isodon rugosus Wall ex. Benth.
Plate – I
STUDY SITES The location and distance pattern of different selected sampling sites was as under: SITE-I: This site was located in the immediate vicinity of J&K Ltd. Cement factory. The geographical coordinates of the site were 340 02‟5.7”N and 75° 00‟ 56” E and the altitude of the site was 1,748 m above mean sea level. Vegetation of this area is suffering from dust pollution due to the presence of cement factory. SITE-II: This site was located at a distance of 1 km from the J&K cement factory with geographical coordinates 34° 01‟ 47.3‟‟N and 750 00‟ 37.3‟‟E and an altitude of 1,709 m above mean sea level. SITE-III: This site was located at a distance of 2 km with geographical coordinates 340 01‟ 39.9‟‟N and 750 00‟ 27.9‟‟E and an altitude of 1,726 m above mean sea level. SITE-IV: This site was situated at about a distance of 10 kms far away from the J&K cement factory, near the residential area of the Balhama area where dust load was almost negligible as no cement factory was present in the area. This was comparatively non polluted area and was thus taken as Reference site. The geographical coordinates of the site were 34° 02‟ 02.5‟‟N and 740 55‟ 48.1‟‟E.
Satellite imagery of the study sites
Plate – II
Site I Site II
Site III Site IV
Plate – III
Chapter – 3 Review of literature
bstracts and extracts of some of the selected references related to the present research work commencing from 1976 and onwards are presented here: A The effects of cement dust emissions from a cement factory on the growth and yield of trees in the adjacent Olive plantation and some characteristics of the soils in the polluted and non-polluted areas of the plantation were studied by Sheikh et al. (1976) who reported that in the polluted area, the cement dust had formed a crust ca 1 cm thick on the soil surface, and the cement dust deposition on the leaves was 2.55 mg/sq. cm of leaf surface with 50 and 55.6 per cent reduction in growth and fruit yield, respectively when compared to a non polluted tree. Moreover, the length and width of the fruits of the polluted trees were, respectively, 15 and 20 per cent shorter. The soil of the polluted area had a lower moisture-content, less organic matter, a lower water-holding capacity, and than that of the non-polluted area, which, however, had a somewhat lower content of other salts.
Gyula Borka (1980) described an experiment intended to establish the effect of dust on growth and development and on the main metabolic processes and yield of sunflower. Helianthus annuus cv. GK 70 was sown as a test plant on the experimental plots. Cement dust was applied to the plant leaves in quantities based on the emission values of the Duna Cement Kiln. The effect of cement dust applied at 30 g m−2 per month was relatively slight. The height was reduced by 4% after 130 days compared with control plants. At 100 days, the following percentage changes were found: total leaf area, 3·1%; stomatal resistance, 10%; photosynthetic pigment content, 5·7%; respiration rate, 10·9%; catalase activity, 22%.
Das et al. (1981) observed that plants with simple leaves such as Ficus religiosa, Ficus infectoria, Ficus benghalensis, Tectona grandis, Shorea robusta, Terminalia arjuna and Mangifera indica were better dust collectors than plants with compound leaves like Petinclava regia, Tamarindus indica, Cassia fistula and Azadirachta indica.
Singh and Rao (1981) collected plant samples at 100, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, and 4000 m northeast of the factory, at three successive stages of plant growth where the plant samples collected at 4000 m distance were treated as control with no apparent deposition of cement dust on their surface. The samples analyzed with respect to foliar injury symptoms, chlorophyll concentration and phytomass accumulation revealed that wheat plants at polluted sites contained decreased concentration of chlorophyll in their leaves and had reduced accumulation of phytomass, as compared to control. Foliar injury symptoms displayed in only plants closest to the factory. The grains obtained from affected sites showed quantitative and qualitative deterioration. Physico-chemical properties of the soils at polluted sites also underwent undesirable changes and all the effects had negative correlation with the distance from the factory.
Lal and Ambasht (1982) studied the impact of cement dust deposition on mineral and energy concentration of leaves of guava (Psidium guayava) growing in the vicinity of cement factory and found that concentrations of calcium, potassium, sodium and phosphorus increased in cement dust covered leaves than in dust free leaves of Psidium guayava while energy content was reduced (12.3%) more in cement-dust-covered leaves than in dust-free leaves. Statistically it was found that the difference in the concentration of Ca, K, and P in dusty and dust-free leaves was highly correlated and significant with the amount of cement dust deposited on the leaf surface of P. guayava. Pawar and Dubey (1985) showed that chlorophyll is essential for photosynthetic activity and reduction in chlorophyll content is an indicator of air pollution.
Vora et al. (1986), in a comparative study of dust fall on the leaves in high pollution and low pollution areas and its effect on carbohydrates, revealed that industrial dust pollution caused adverse effect on plants. The total sugar and reducing sugar contents were observed less in dust loaded leaves of high pollution areas in comparison to clean leaves of low pollution areas. Sai et al. (1987) studied the effect of cement dust pollution on trees and agricultural crops. Measurements of cement dust deposits and chlorophyll content on leaves of Ficus bengalensis and Mangifera indica showed negative but non-significant correlation along the penalization gradient (downwind direction) from Cement factory. The crop yields of Cajanus cajan, Triticum aestivum and Linum usitatissimum, among others, were significantly affected along the gradient with crop measurements as height of plant and earhead length seen correlated strongly with crop yield. Prasad and Inamdar (1990) studied the effect of cement kiln dust pollution on black gram (Vigna mungo) by comparing plants of polluted as well as non polluted areas. Due to cement kiln dust accumulation on exposed parts of the plant, there was a decrease in height, phytomass, net primary productivity and chlorophyll content. Quantitative estimations and histo-chemical localization indicated lowering of metabolites in dusted plants as compared to control one. In polluted plants, damaged leaves showed increase in stomatal index and trichome frequency and a decrease in stomatal frequency. Cement kiln dust accumulation on plant surface showed decrease in the number and size of flowers which finally affected the yield to a great extent in the dusted plants.
Shukla (1990) treated plants of Brassica campestris L. var. G-S20 with cement dust, -2 -1 at rates of 3(B1), 5(B2) and 7 (B3) gm day for 90 days and observed a consistent reduction in growth, photosynthetic pigments, yield and oil content in treated plants over control plants. A significant decrease occurred in overall phytomass of treated plants, the maximum reduction being 64.8% in B3 plants followed by B2 plants (55.3%) and B1 plants (43.69%) at 60 days. The effect on oil content was also greater in B3 plants, where it was decreased by 6.13%
The flora in the vicinity of a cement factory which was heavily deposited by the kiln exhaust dust was examined by Gunamani and Arjuman (1991) who revealed that anatomy and morphology of the plants was affected by cement dust; aerial parts of all the plants studied were fully coated with dust. The deleterious effects of the dust on the morphology of the leaves were expressed by the reduction in size of the leaf, necrosis, damaged leaf margin, change of colour, curling of leaves etc.
Verma et al. (1990) in a comparative study of dust fall on the leaves in high pollution and low pollution areas and its effect on carbohydrates revealed that industrial dust pollution caused adverse effect on plants. The total sugar and reducing sugar contents were observed less in dust loaded leaves of high pollution areas in comparison to clean leaves of low pollution areas.
Based on a review by Farmer (1993), cement dust blocked stomata, inhibited pollen germination and reduced photosynthetic or transpiration rate in a number of annual crops. Cement dust decreased the productivity and concentration of chlorophyll in a number of annual non-leguminous crops (Liu et al. 1997).
Sabu et al. (1993) studied the impact of air pollution on the growth and development of Phyllanthus niruri L., and observed considerable reduction in leaf area, leaf number, fruit set, seed weight, stomata production while vessel length and epidermal cell number increased significantly under pollution stress.
The impact of cement factory on soil, plants and microbes was investigated by Tiwari (1993). The soil and leaf wash exhibited varying degree of conductivity, pH, temperature and micro flora. Deposition of cement on leaf surfaces resulted in loss of chlorophyll „a‟ and chlorophyll „b‟. Increase in soil pH and conductivity of cement factory environment resulted in changes in micro population. Zaharopoulou et al. (1993) examined the relative sensitivity of the epiphytic lichen Physia adscendens (Fr.) Oliv.to dust emitted from a limestone quarry in the metropolitan area North Greece and found that the chlorophyll concentration decreased with, where as the percentage of pheophytin increased with decreasing distance from the pollution source and consequently increasing dust load indicating the disruption of chlorophyll by air borne particles by the limestone dust. Gessla et al. (1994) performed chemical analysis of Grey-brown Podzolic, grey- brown psudogley, and brown and leached brown soils in the vicinity of the cement plant and found 42-49% Ca, 6% K, large quantities of trace elements indicating a considerable amount of alkalizing materials. The highest soil alkalinity was observed in the zone close to the cement plant and lowest in the zone farthest from the plant. However, soils in all 3 zones had relatively large amounts of exchangeable K, higher Ca content near the surface zones. Uma et al. (1994) while assessing the impact of cement kiln dust pollution on growth, yield and metabolic changes of Brassica junicea, although there were no visible injuries and variations in morphological features, found that the growth of dusted plants was relatively retarded, besides the reduction in metabolites like starch, protein, amino acids, lipids, sugars, suggested that cement kiln dust pollution had influenced the growth of Brassica junicea. Migahid and Darior (1995) investigated the effect of cement dust on three halophytic species of Mediterranean salt marshes. Plant material of the halophytic species Salicornia fruticosa, Halocnemum strobilaceum and Arthocnemum glaucum, were collected at a distance of 1, 3, and 5 km from cement factory and it was found that cement increased the mortality of young branches which lead to the reduction in the height and cover of the three species, especially A. glaucum, which was most sensitive to the dust. The relative water content and succulence were improved in the living parts of the three species. The effect of cement dust pollution on soybean was studied by Vijayawar and Pandey (1996) by periodical sampling of leaves from dusted and undusted plants till their physiological maturity. Due to cumulative accumulation and encrustation of cement dust on leaves, a gradual decline in chlorophyll content was observed. Although chlorophyll „a‟ was found relatively more sensitive to the cement dust than chlorophyll „b‟. Quantitative estimation of certain metabolites such as protein, starch and sugar content also showed a considerable decrease.
Chattopadhyay (1996) in a study on leaf surface effects of air pollution on certain tree species, reported leaves undergoing quantitative changes in varying degree in a number of leaf micro morphological characters growing in the highest polluted area and such changed characters were compared to characters of same species growing in a non polluted rural area and most of the changes were found to be statistically significant. It was concluded that such surface characters could be used as bioindicators and biomonitors of air pollution.
Hegazy (1996) and Sharifi et al. (1997) reported that the particles of cement deposits were quite alkaline making soils neighbouring cement factories, especially down-wind areas, exhibit elevated pH levels which in turn affected vegetation growth, decreasing rates of photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration and growth rate.
Jiang-Zaimin et al. (1997) determined some physiological indices in polluted needles of Platycladus urientalis and showed that the amount of photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration of needles polluted by cement dust, decreased to various extents, while the diffusion resistance of stomata increased. Liu Junling et al. (1997) investigated the effects of flying cement dust pollution on crops and soil. The results showed that the atmospheric environment was polluted at certain degree by the cement plant. Cement flying dust decreased the yield of rice and rape at some farmlands and there was an obvious increase in calcium content in polluted soil. Syamala and Rao (1999) studied the accumulation of mercury in some selected plant species as Tephrosia purpurea, Cassia auriculata and Arachis hypogeal around a cement factory at adistance of 5km and 12 km and observed that the root accumulated comparatively less amounts of mercury than the stem and leaf in Tephrosia purpurea and Cassia auriculata where as Arachis hypogaea showed higher accumulation levels in the root. Kupcinskiene and Huttumen (2000) carried out a research to estimate pollutant effects of a cement factory on the needles of Pinus sylvestris over a period of 3 years (1994- 96). Comparison of the needle surface microstructure and assessment of wettability (DCA) in all cases revealed (p<0.05) that needles sampled from closest to the factory site were in the worst condition. Wax and dust amounts were the highest for the needles from the same site. According to SSA and DCA data, one-year-old needles had a higher indicative value than current year needles. Misra et al. (2000) investigated the vegetation in the area around cement factory. pH of different plant tissues, and epidermal and cuticular traits were determined for Azadirachta indica, Cajanus cajan, Delonin reejia, Eucalyptus citioda, Eugenia jambolana, Mangifera indica, Morus alba, Phyllanthus emblica, Psidium guajava, Vetia nerifolia and Ziziphus mauritiana. Plants growing near the factory were found severely affected, showing foliar injury symptoms and very poor growth. 38 plant species were classified as sensitive,
intermediate or tolerant to pollution, and several species which were good collectors of cement dust were recommended for growing in polluted sites.
Morghom et al. (2000) carried out work on the effect of cement dust on the chemical properties of neutral soil of the area surrounding of Zileation, Leibda, Almergib, and Suok- Alkamis. Soil samples for each factory were taken at the four coordinates at different distances on radius vector equal to 20 km2 form the emission sources. A Positive significant correlation was found between the distance from emission sources in km and the percentage of the loss and ignition (LOI) R=+0925372 while (P<0.001) and a negative significant relation was found between the distance from emission sources in km and each of the following: Silica (R=-0.805332;P<0.001), Calcium (R=-0.896365; P<0.001), Magnesium (R=-0.739582;P<0.005), Iron (R=-0.748828; P<0.005), Sodium (R=-0.80459; P<0.001), Potassium (R=-0.574468; P<0.01) and the pH (R=-0.663435; P<0.01). It was concluded that the values of LOI, Silica, Potassium and calcium could be used as indication for the level of environment pollution of the area surrounding the cement factory.
Ots and Rauk (2000) carried research in forest observation sites of the neighbourhoods of industrial enterprises and the cement plant and in the control area. Reduced increment of conifers was observed in areas more significantly affected by oil shale fuelled power plants, chemical enterprises and fertilizer plants. A negative correlation with the high K and Ca concentrations in the environment due to pollution of cement plant was observed. Long term dust and ash emissions and deposition had caused a change in the bark pH and soil pH to alkaline in the influence zone of cement plant. Saha et al. (2000) worked on five tree species such Anogeissus latifolia wall., Azadirachta indica juss, Bauthinia racemosa Lam., Pithecellobium dulce Benth., and Tamarindus indica L. growing in industrial areas and reported an increase in stomatal density with decline in stomatal size and epidermal cell density at polluted sites as compared to control. Adak and Purohit (2001) carried out an investigation in the vicinity of mini-cement plants to evaluate the extent of soil pollution. Different physico-chemical parameters of five contaminated surface and sub-surface soils were studied. Results indicated increase in percentage of CaO, MgO and Al2O3, reduction of pH of surface soils and soil conductivity, increase in CEC of the surface soils and variation in exchangeable Ca2+, Mg2+ and Al3+. Iqbal and Shafig (2001) carried a study on the impact of cement dust on growth of some plant species and observed a significant reduction in plant cover, height and number of leaves for Carissa carandas L. and A. indica showing a significant (p<0.001) reduction in number of leaves and concluded that the cement dust had a significant effect on the plant growth. Cement dust analysis showed that it had a high percentage of maximum water holding capacity (65.72%) with fine soil textural class. Chemically, the soil was alkaline in nature having pH 9.53 with a percentage of CaCO3 (22%), and alkaline carbonate (2.45 meq/1). The amounts of chloride and conductivity were 8.6 meq/l and 506 µs/cm, respectively.
Kloseiko and Mandre (2001) worked on the Cutting-derived Salix dasyclados Wimm. grown on soil containing high amounts of dust from filters of a cement plant. The pH of the treated soil was increased from 6.5 (control) to 7.6. Soluble sugars, starch, and chlorophylls in leaves of spring flush shoots were analyzed during the vegetative growth of the second year of treatment. The lower hexose content in the leaves of treatment trees was approximately balanced by their higher sucrose content. Maltodextrins and starch were not affected significantly and no fructans were found. The effect of treatments on chlorophyll „a’ and „b’ was negligible. Total biomass was significantly lower than in control trees without any change in the partitioning of biomass between different parts of the trees.
Liblik et al. (2001) reported that cement dust essentially affected the air quality situation and the soil‟s chemical characteristics. The study area was found to be contaminated with very high calcium content in the top soil and a value of soil pH about 7.8 was typical.
Bayhan et al. (2002) investigated the changes in some characteristics of the soil due to dust emitted from the cement plant. The comparative examination showed that the pollution caused an increase of 22.00% in lime, 15.93% in exchangeable cations, 2.66% in pH and 7.86% in electrical conductivity. These changes resulted in decrease in organic matter content, decrease in field capacity and decrease in wilting point in polluted region.
Salami et al. (2002) investigated the impact of cement dust emission on the surrounding vegetation and found that chlorophyll contents, leaf abundance, leaf area, woody species density and basal area increased significantly with increasing distance from the factory. Available phosphorus decreased in concentration with increasing distance from the factory. On the whole cement dust deposition affected the vegetation parameters studied upto a distance of 5 km from the cement factory.
Singh et al. (2002) in a study on monitoring of dust pollution on leaves observed reduction in chlorophyll concentration and relative water content. The dust deposition on different trees varied in respect to leaf structure, surface geometry, height and canopy of trees. They further observed a reduction in leaf surface area at polluted sites. Increase in dust deposition and decrease in chlorophyll content might be positively related.
A laboratory experiment was carried out on impact of cement dust by Zargar et al. (2002) on Phaseolus vulgaris using various soil amendments. The plant responded by a reduction in plant height and yield levels of 3.0 gm-2d-1 and beyond. Also high pH was shown by the leaf wash and leaf extract from cement dust treatments.
Ali et al. (2003) studied the impact of ceramic dust on the soil properties before and after the cultivation by soybean (Glycine max L. CV. Crawford) and rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis L.) singly or in competition. It was found that ceramic dust may mediate both the synthesis and decomposition of soil organic matter and therefore influence cation exchange capacity; the soil N, S, and P reserve; soil acidity and toxicity; and soil water-holding capacity, then improve its characteristics.
Lepedus et al. (2003) conducted a study to compare the chloroplast pigment content in current and previous-year needles of cultivated Spruce (Picea abies) trees of polluted and unpolluted cement dust areas. In both needle generations, all measured pigments were reduced in dust-exposed needles compared to those from unpolluted by cement dust. Chlorophyll b content appeared to be more sensitive than chlorophyll a in current-year needles than previous year needles.
Prakash and Mishra (2003) assessed the effect of cement dust pollution on Calotripis procera in a Cement Plant and found that the increasing trend of the deposition on plant leave surface with increasing distance from the emission source which indicated that there was considerable loss of total chlorophyll content 18.22% in the leaves of Calotropis procera growing in the polluted zone. However, 13.00% and 6.20% leaves of the species, growing in the pollution zone were found to be chlorotic and necrotic, respectively. Uysal (2003) carried out a study in olive groves near by a cement factory including morphological observations as shoot length, fruit number and size measurements on new and old shoot samples. The reduction in productivity and in morphological measurements was observed in samples collected from trees that were 300m away from the factory. Morphological observations showed an increase in palisade parenchyma despite a reduction in leaf size. Reduction was observed in the yield of olive grooves around 200m, 300m and 500m away from the factory, the greatest reduction was seen in olive grooves located 500m away from the factory. Murugesan et al. (2004) studied the effect of cement dust pollution on physiological and biochemical activities of certain plants. The cement kiln exhaust of the cement factory deposits at the rate of 2.43 g/m2/day on the vegetation around the factory and the dust contained large amount of particulate and gaseous pollutants, which caused some physiological and biochemical changes in the leaves of the plants. The continuous deposition
of cement dust on the surface of the leaves of the plants reduced the chlorophyll content of the leaves and also acted as a barrier for the photosynthesis process to take place. The deposition also showed a subsequent reduction of starch, carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids in those leaves when compared to that of normal leaves. Since the physiological and biochemical characteristics were affected, the plant productivity got badly affected and it resulted in collapsing the ecological food chain.
Shanthi et al. (2004) assessed the impact of cement dust pollution on nitrogen status of soils near a cement industry and compared with unpolluted soil. In order to understand the influence of cement dust pollution on the nitrogen status, soil nitrogen, inorganic fractions and soil biochemical processes were assayed. A significant decrease in total nitrogen content, nitrogen fractions like nitrate and nitrite with significant increase in soil ammonia content were observed in polluted soil. Further, the mineralization of peptone nitrogen and oxidation of ammonia nitrogen were significantly decreased in two polluted soils, indicating decreased carbon and nitrogen source for the microbial and plant growth. Physical and chemical properties of fly ashes, soil and fly ash amended soils were studied by Singh (2005). The fly ash was mixed at the rate of 0.0, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0 and 20% (w/w) with soils and the changes in various physical and chemical properties in sandy, sandy loam and loam soils estimated. The mining of fly ash with soils increased hydraulic conductivity and water holding capacity, pH remained unaffected, increase in electrical conductivity with application of fly ash occurred. Organic carbon and available potassium showed an increased trend. Al Khashman et al. (2006) reported that soils around cement factories showed high concentrations of heavy metals especially Pb, Zn and Cd on top soils of 0-10 cm deep.
The effect of alkaline dust pollution emitted from a cement plant on the soil microbial biomass carbon was investigated by Kara and Bolat (2006) using the chloroform fumigation- extraction (CFE) method. Microbial biomass C (Cmic) values ranged from 157.82 to 1201.51 μg g-1 soils in the polluted area and from 726.70 to 1529.14 μg g-1 soils in the control area. Soils polluted with alkaline cement dust resulted in significant reductions in Cmic levels compared to control soils. Microbial biomass C correlated negatively with CaCO3 content (r = -0.52, P < 0.05) and positively with soil organic C (r = 0.67, P < 0.01). Mean Cmic: Corg ratio was 2.55 and 3.09 in the polluted soils and control soils, respectively. The decrease in this ratio was an indication of soil degradation in the polluted soils. A significant decline in the Cmic:Corg ratio in cement dust-polluted soils also indicated that this parameter could serve as a good indicator of soil health.
Ramanathan et al. (2006) carried out a study in Ariyalur area rich in limestone with many cement-factories in and around it. Six lakes in and around Ariyalur were considered for
the study and Azadirachta indica leaves commonly known as neem leaves from neem trees were collected for estimation of total chlorophyll content, chlorophyll 'a', chlorophyll 'b' and moisture content. The estimated chlorophyll and moisture contents were compared with control. It was found that both the chlorophyll and moisture levels in the leaves were less in all the six locations in and around Ariyalur. The reason was attributed to the accumulation of cement dust on the leaves resulting in retarded growth of the trees. Hence, the estimation of chlorophyll content and moisture content can be taken as a measure of air pollution.
Abimbola et al. (2007) assessed the heavy metal content of the dust generated by the Sagamu cement factory and found high levels of metals in the dust and soil that were acquired from the raw materials used by the cement factory and from active industrial discharge from the same factory. The results for some of the selected heavy metals showed the following pattern: Cd (0.5-1.1 ppm), Pb (28-49 ppm), Cu (22-35 ppm), Zn (43-69 ppm) and Ni (13.0- 17). High levels of heavy metals were found in soils and rocks.
Ghadebo and Bankole (2007) analyzed concentration levels of potentially toxic and harmful elements contained in the air borne cement dust generated in the vicinity and farther away 500 m in the conventional four cardinal directions from the cement factory and observed that the concentration range of the toxic elements was between 40 and 280,000 g g- 1 in the cement dust samples which indicated elevated concentrations of all the elements when compared with USA threshold limit of particulate metal concentration e.g., Pb (1.5 g m- 3); Cd (0.004-0.026 g m3) in the air. These elements in the airborne cement dust were a great threat to the health of plants, animals and residents in and around the factory and also to workers and visitors to the factory.
Nanos et al. (2007) investigated the effect of cement dust on the olive leaf physiological parameters and found that leaf dry matter content and specific leaf weight increased with leaf age and dust content. Leaf total chlorophyll content and chlorophyll a / chlorophyll b ratio also decreased. Also, photosynthetic rate and quantum yield decreased. In addition, transpiration rate slightly decreased, stomatal conductance to H2O and CO2 movement decreased, internal CO2 concentration remained constant and leaf temperature increased. In a soil composition study performed in the same year on the surroundings of some cement factories, it was found that there were elevated levels of chromium, silica, iron and calcium with contamination levels decreasing dramatically with distance from the factories. These compositions affected vegetative growth (Asubiojo et al., 1991; Ade- Ademilua and Umebese, 2007).
Ade-Ademilua et al. (2008) reported the effect of cement dust pollution on growth, chlorophyll content and metal accumulation by Celosia argentea (Lagos spinach). Loamy soil polluted with Portland cement (100:1) had significant amount of iron, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon and sulphates, which were prominent in cement dust. There was a significant reduction in shoot length and total leaf area of polluted plants. The dry weight of the polluted plants was significantly lower throughout the period of analysis than those of the control plants.
Asadu et al. (2008) studied the effects of cement kiln dust on selected soil physico- chemical properties by comparing the cement affected soils with the non affected soils which showed that at both soil depths of 0-20 and 20-40 cm, Exchangeable calcium, sodium, hydrogen, magnesium and soil organic matter were significantly higher in the affected soils than the non affected soils. The relatively high soils content Fe, Al, Zn, Cu, Pb, Cr and Cd were related to anthropogenic sources of cement industry. Zygophyllum migahidii (Zygophyllaceae) and Conocarpus lancifolius (Combretaceae) plants were observed. High concentrations of some heavy metals were determined in the unwashed plant samples as a result of exposure to aerosols. The highest amount of Pb in plant samples were in leaves with concentration of 14.1 ppm. Zygophyllum migahidii plant accumulated the highest amount of Cd, Cr, Cu and Al metals. On the other hand, Conocarpus lancifolius plant accumulated the highest amount of Pb and Zn metals for both washed and unwashed plant samples.
Ioniobong (2008) studied some chemical properties of soils around Calabar cement company operational area from three profile pits sited at the crest, upper slope, and middle slope topography positions and reported that the soil pH was moderately to slightly acid (mean 5.8%), organic matter content was moderate (mean 2.54%), total Nitrogen content was low (mean 0.04), and available phosphorus (P) was high (mean 87.43 mg/Kg). Exchangeable calcium content was moderate to high (3.02 - 7.44 cmol/kg) in the surface soil; most samples had low magnesium content (mean 0.25 cmol/kg), medium concentration of exchangeable potassium (mean 0.27 - 1.38 cmol/kg). The exchange acidity was low (mean 1.58 cmol/kg), and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) had low to medium (2.50 – 15.17 cmol/kg) values. The percentage of base saturation was high with most soils having values greater than 50% (mean 70.8 %). The moderate to high content of ca and the favorable pH in the soils of the study area are uncommon in the coastal plain soils of southern Nigeria; these ,therefore were readily attributable to the continous deposition of cement dusts on the surface and leaching into deeper horizons.
Seedlings of Lycopersicon esculentum L. were raised in pots in December by Misra et al. (2008). When seedlings attained 4–6 leaf stage, they were sprayed with cement dust at
‐2 ‐1 three different rates, i.e., 3 (L1), 5 (L2) and 7 (L3) gm d till 90‐day‐age of the plants. Dusted plants showed a consistent reduction in growth and yield. Photosynthetic pigments and phytomass of dusted plants were also reduced significantly. Flowering and fruiting processes were hampered by cement particles, maximum being in L3, followed by L2 and L1 plants. Ascorbic acid content of fruits was increased in treated plants.
Effect of cement dust on petal morphology of Brassica campestris L. was studied by Misra et al., (2008) under light and scanning electron microscopes. In control (undusted) plants, papillae were striate and coronulate with clear boundaries unlike dusted plants where they were shrunken and collapsed. Number of papillae was also reduced. The moisture was absorbed by cement dust from petal surface that caused water loss and subsequent loosening of the arrangement of papillae. Damage to flower petals affected the quality of flowers causing serious losses in floriculture.
To assess the dust interception efficiency of some selected tree species and impact of dust deposition on chlorophyll and ascorbic acid content of leaves, a study was undertaken by Prajapati and Tripathi (2008) on selected plant species such as Ficus religiosa, Ficus benghalensis, Mangifera indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Psidium guajava, and Dendrocalamus strictus and found that all species had maximum dust deposition in the winter season followed by summer and rainy seasons. Chlorophyll content decreased and ascorbic acid content increased with the increase of dust deposition. Also, significant negative and positive correlation existed between dust deposition and chlorophyll and ascorbic acid content, respectively. Maximum dust interception was done by Dalbergia sisso and least by Dendrocalamus strictus. It was concluded that plants could be used to intercept dust particles which are of potential health hazards to humans.
Zargari and Shoar (2008) investigated the effects of cement dust on seed germination and early seedling growth including root, hypocotyl elongation and number of lateral roots in seedlings of 2 cultivars of Helianthus annuus L, Armavirusky and Eroflor. The seeds were exposed to 0, 0.4, 0.84, 1.26 and 1.687 (gL-1) of cement dust solutions based on ISTA rules for 7 days. Seed germination,root elongation and number of lateral leaves in both cultivars were not affected by cement dust when compared to control group (p>0.01) but hypocotyl length with increasing concentration of cement dust solution showed a significantly decrease in both cultivars (P>0.01) compared to control group seedlings.
Goudjil et al. (2009) assessed the impact of air pollution from atmospheric dismissals of the cement factory of El Ma El-Abiod on the quality of soil by making a soil survey. A chemical analysis was performed to characterize the chemical dust by collecting dust
generated by the factory in bins located around it along a radius of 20 km. After chemical analysis of the nine major oxides, SiO2, Al2O, Fe2O, CaCO3, MgO, Na2O, K2O, SO3 and Cl, in air releases from cement factory and soil by fluorescence spectrometry with X-ray and the study showed that the rejected dust, compared with soil was rich in SiO,CaCO and Cl.
Wijayratne et al. (2009) studied the dust deposition on growth and physiology of endangered Tragalus jaegerianus (Fabaceae) and found a decline in average shoot growth with increasing dust accumulation.
Belan (2010) determined the effects of cement dust pollution generated by cement plant on the soil microbial population, microbial respiration and some enzyme activities in cultivated wheat (CT) and no-till (NT) soils at distances of 1, 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 km away from the cement plant. The samples were analyzed for chemical, physical and microbiological properties of the samples .Significant (p< 0.055) positive correlation in CT and NT soils was found between soil microbial population and CO2-C production. The highest microbial population and CO2-C production was observed at 15 km away from the cement plant in CT and NT soils. Acid phosphatase, urease and dehydrogenase enzyme activities of the soils showed significant (p<0.01) positive correlation with distance in CT and NT (r2=0.80-0.86; r2=0.90 to 0.092; r2= 0.79-0.82, respectively). There was negative correlation between alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity and distance in CT and NT (r2=0.60, r2=0.68; p<0.05).
Lone (2010) worked on the corms of saffron sown under ambient field conditions in selected plots on the southern side of a cement factory and revealed that the yield of saffron (kg/ha) suffered greater losses in the second year (ranging 17.77–21.11%) compared to the first year (ranging 14.70–17.64%), and the losses were related to the amount of dust fall and distance from the factory.
Mandal and Voutchkov (2010) studied the distribution of heavy metals in soils around a cement factory and observed that cement dust had formed a grey cover on the surrounding soils and the top soils of the study area were enriched in Pb, Zn, Cr, Cd, V, Pb, and Hg which were released into the air from the cement kilns. Results show that the soils were enriched in Ca with a maximum value of 18% followed by Al, Fe and Na and maximum concentrations were found in soils sampled at a distance of 2-3 m from the cement factory as opposed to samples collected much further due to the emissions from the factory.
Wani and Khan (2010) studied the effect of cement dust pollution on the vascular cambium of Juglans regia (L.) which increases girth in the woody trees and revealed that there was reduction in dimensions and proportions of fusiform and ray initials in Juglans regia growing under impact of cement dust pollution.
Ahiamadjie et al. (2011) assessed the impact of the dust particles given out by a cement factory and the results of the analysis showed the following range of concentration for the selected metals and the results of Geo-accumulation Index and Enrichment factors of hevy metals revealed the order Mn>Cu>Pb>Ca>V. EF values indicated there was Mn and Cu pollution which mainly originated from activities of the factory.
Al-Omran et al. (2011) collected soil samples at two depths (0-5 and 20-30 cm) in the vicinity of cement factory and analyzed chemical properties as well as their heavy metal content and indicated that the soil samples were calcareous in nature with 22.1 to 35.5% CaCO with higher percentages in the surface soil samples taken near the cement factory, sandy loam to loamy sand in texture and moderately to slightly alkaline. Exchangeable calcium contents ranged from 1.4 to 5.44 c.mol.kgG1 while the mean values of exchangeable potassium reached 0.32 cmol.kgG1.The cation exchange capacity (CEC) was low to medium (1.94 to 8.14 cmol.kgG1) and the soils of the study area were moderately to heavily contaminated with (As, Cd, Pb and Ni) and heavily contaminated with Cr. The most contaminated sites area was found within the 0 to 2 km of the cement factory.
Al-Oud et al. (2011) analyzed the distribution of heavy metals including Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe and Al in soil and plants around a cement factory. Concentration of Cd,Cr and Zn metals were higher in soil surface than sub surface soil samples while, Cu, Pb and Fe concentrations in subsurface soil were higher.
Amal et al. (2011) reported that the cement dust accumulation resulted in increase in soil solution pH, salinity, calcium carbonate, electrical conductivity, and total alkalinity and sulphate contents beside the disturbance of soil texture. Also, the leaf-area of Atriplex halimus was greatly reduced with increasing of the cement dust accumulation.
Kuddus et al. (2011) evaluated the susceptibility level of plants to air pollutants by determining ascorbic acid, chlorophyll, relative water content and leaf extract pH and thus APTI values of seven economically important plant species growing in the urban-industrial region of Allahabad were estimated. The order of tolerance followed: Artocarpus sp. < Eucalyptus sp. < Citrus lemon < Azadirachta indica < Rosa indica < Aegle marmelos < Mangifera indica. Among the plant studies, Mangifera indica (APTI value 18.51) was considered as a relatively tolerant species and Artocarpus sp. (APTI value 8.75) as most sensitive to air pollutants and it was concluded that the sensitive (Artocarpus sp.) and tolerant species (Mangifera indica) could be used as bio-indicators and as a sink for air pollutants, respectively.
Kumari and Pandey (2011) carried out a study to know the response of maize (Zea mays) to cement dust pollution to growth parameters, chlorophyll, nutrients and characteristics of grains and found that the Growth parameters were found higher on each sampling date of the control maize plant than the polluted one. Also the chlorophyll concentration in unit weight of fresh dusted leaf was always lower than control.
Rajasubramanian et al. (2011) carried out a study particularly to discriminate the effect of cement dust deposition on soil and over the vegetation and its consequent effects on groundnut crop. Iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium that are prominent in cement dust were found to be higher in concentration in the polluted soil. Also pH of the soil increased due to the effect of cement dust when compared to control soil. Alkaline nature of cement dust reduced the absorption of mineral substances from the soils which lead to changes in the plant physiology and morphology.
Sarala and Saravana (2011) carried out a study to assess the impact of Cement dust pollution on two selected plant species as Pongamia pinnata (L) and Delonex regia (L) and the changes in the concentration of different photosynthetic pigments (Chlorophylls and Carotenoids) were determined. Reduction in Chlorophyll „a‟ and „b‟ and total carotenoids was recorded in the leaf samples exposed to the cement dust when compared with control plant species. The assimilating pigments (Chl„a‟+Chl„b‟ + total carotenoid) were less in the polluted area compared to control site. The ratio of Chlorophyll a/b and total chlorophyll (a+b)/carotenoids was minimum at the polluted leaves.
Seyyednejad and Koochak (2011) carried out an experiment to determine the impact of ambient air pollution on some biological factors in Eucalyptus camaldulensis plants using two sites; unpolluted and polluted and studied the various morphological and biochemical characteristics of the plants in both of the sites and found that plants subjected to pollution showed higher leaf dry weight, chlorophylls, soluble carbohydrate and proline contents as compared to plants growing in control site. Proline levels in polluted leaves significantly increased (p < 0.01), suggesting the activation of protective mechanism in these plants under air pollution stress.
Abdel- Rehman and Ibrahim (2012) studied the deposition effect of cement dust on pigmentation in Zygophyllum coccineum, Salsola tetrandra, Cyperus conglomeratus, Limonium axillare and Suaede vermiculata at about 500 meters and 5 kilometers from the cement factory and recorded that the rates of mortality of young branches were high in the area subjected to the cement dust in all five species and it was noted that amount of chlorophyll „a‟, „b‟ and carotenoids in all investigated plants that were far away from cement
dust more than that near from the factory and pollution by the cement dust caused adverse effects on the photosynthetic pigments, the pH of the cell sap, metabolism of soluble amino acids and soluble sugars.
The effect of cement dust on the photosynthetic apparatus of plants growing around a cement factory at Ewekoro in Ogun state was investigated by Chukwu (2012) by using Chromolaena odorata and Manihot esculenta as indicators for the effect of cement dust on the rate of photosynthesis, the amount of chlorophyll and the number of stomata. Accumulation of cement dust on leaves of plants lowered their photosynthetic rates. Chlorophyll synthesis was impaired as a result of high concentration of dust on the surface of the leaves. The number of stomata per area of leaf surface was also reduced by cement dust accumulation. Weather conditions and location of plants from the source of dust emission influenced the distribution of the dust. The effects were more pronounced in M. esculenta than in C. odorata due to their morphological differences.
Kumar and Thambvana (2012) carried out a study to assess the impact of cement dust on some selected species around industrial area and studied the deposition effect of cement dust on pigmentation in Azadirachta indica, Pongamia pinnata, Delonix regia, Polyalthia longifolia and Ficus religiosa and recorded that all the measured pigments as chlorophyll a, b and carotenoids were reduced in dust-exposed plant species when compared with control site because of deceleration of the biosynthetic processes rather than degradation of pigments. The rate of mortality of young branches was high in the area subjected to the cement dust in all the selected plant species and pollution by the cement dust had caused adverse effects on the photosynthetic pigments and the pH of the leaf extract.
Paal et al. (2012) studied the vegetation responses to long-term alkaline cement dust pollution in Pinus sylvestris-dominated boreal forests and found that the impact of alkaline dust accumulated over a century persisted despite resolute reductions of pollution. Forest soil conditions changed 10 km leeward and 5 km windward from the source: the litter pH level changed from 3.6 to 4.5 in unpolluted forests to 7.1–7.4 in the heavily polluted forests, and soil Ca content increased ten-fold. Soil alkalization had induced a remarkable succession from typical boreal vegetation toward vegetation of boreo-nemoral or calcareous habitats.
Chapter – 4 Material and Methods
n order to obtain results and to achieve the objectives of the study, the following I standard methods/protocols for the analyses of the soil and vegetation were observed: 4.1. SOIL ANALYSIS Composite surface soil samples were collected from the four sites in order to give due representation to the micro-environment at each site. The soil samples were taken with the help of a soil corer up to a depth of 0-10 cm. The soil samples after thoroughly mixing were collected in air tight polythene bags and brought to the laboratory. Soil samples were then spread out on an aluminum tray. Coarse concretions, stones and pieces of roots, leaves and other undecomposed organic residues were removed. The soil samples were then air-dried and ground using a pestle and mortar. The soil was then sieved through 2mm sieve and again transferred to air tight bags for further laboratory investigations. 4.1.1. Soil Temperature Soil temperature was measured by using soil thermometer after inserting the probe of the thermometer into the surface 5 cm-7 cm deep. An average of five readings at a site was recorded in °C. 4.1.2. Moisture content Percent moisture content for the fresh composite soil samples was determined on oven dry weight basis as per the method given by Michael (1984). 50 grams of composite soil sample was oven dried at 105°C for 24 hours in weighing bottles till constant weight was obtained. The samples were then cooled in the dessicator and weighed again. The difference in two weights gave the percent moisture content expressed in percent. The % moisture content was determined by using the following formula: (Wt. of fresh soil - Wt. of oven dried soil) 100 weight of oven dried soil 4.1.3. Loss on ignition The method given by Hanna (1964) was followed for the estimation of loss on ignition in soils. 10g of oven dried (at 105°C) soil samples were ignited in muffle furnace in crucibles for about half an hour at 700°C. The samples were then cooled in the dessicator and weighed again. Difference in two weights gives the loss on ignition expressed in percentage. The calculation was done by using the formula: (Wt. of oven dry soil sample - Wt. of ignited soil sample ) 100 Wt. of ignited soil sample 4.1.4. pH Electrometric method was adopted to determine the pH of the soil samples and the procedure recommended by Gliessman (2000) was followed. The soil suspension was prepared by thoroughly mixing air-dried soil (10g) and distilled water in the ratio of 1:2. The suspension was stirred at regular intervals over a period of 1 hour prior to pH value determination. pH meter (model: Hanna HI 8424) was used to determine pH. The pH meter was first calibrated with buffer solutions of pH values 4, 7 and 9.2. The electrode of the pH was given a rinsing with distilled water and inserted into the soil suspension. The pH value displayed on pH meter model was recorded. 4.1.5. Conductivity The procedure prescribed by Gliessman (2000) was adopted to determine the electrical conductivity of soil samples. The instrument used was digital conductivity meter (model Deluxe YSPL 658). It was allowed to warm up for 20 minutes and then calibrated with 0.01M KCl solution. The conductivity cell was rinsed with distilled water and then with sample. The temperature and cell constant was adjusted on conductivity meter. The conductivity cell was connected to meter and dipped in the sample. The conductivity value was recorded in S/cm. 4.1.6. Organic carbon Walkley and Black (1934) titration method was followed for the estimation of organic carbon in soils. 0.50 g of air dried soil sample was taken in a 500ml conical flask. To this, 10 ml of 1NK2Cr2O7 was added followed by 20 ml of H2SO4. The flask was swirled two or three times and then allowed to stand. After half an hour 200 ml of distilled water was added to the flask. Then 10 ml of orthophosphoric acid, 0.5 g of sodium fluoride and 1 ml of diphenylamine indicator was added to the flask. The contents were then titrated with 0.5N ferrous ammonium sulphate till colour changed from blue to violet to green. A distilled water blank was also carried out simultaneously. The results were expressed in terms of using following formula: (B−C) (%) Organic carbon in soil = N × 0.003 × 100 Weight of soil (g)
where: N = Normality of ferrous ammonium sulphate B = Volume of ferrous ammonium sulphate with blank C = Volume of ferrous ammonium sulphate with sample 4.1.7. Organic matter Percent organic matter was calculated as: % Organic matter = % Organic Carbon estimated × 1.724 where; 1.724 = Van Bemmelen factor 4.1.8. Exchangeable calcium and magnesium Exchangeable Calcium and Magnesium were estimated by adopting the EDTA (Versenate) method given by Schollenberger and Simon (1945) Digestion and pretreatment: To a 5g air dried soil sample, 25 ml of neutral normal ammonium acetate was added. The suspension formed was then shaken for 5 minutes and filtered immediately through whatman filter paper no. 1. For the pretreatment the filtered acetate extract was transferred to 250 ml beaker and evaporated to dryness on a hot plate, followed by cooling and addition of 1ml HNO3 and 3ml HCl to the beaker and then evaporated again. The contents were cooled and then 20 ml 0.1N acetic acid was added, followed by filtering the solution through whatman filter paper. The contents were then raised to 50 ml using the distilled water and the filtrate was then used for estimation of Calcium and Magnesium contents.
4.1.9. Calcium From the resultant filtrate 25 ml were taken in an Erlenmeyer flask to which 0.25 ml 4N NaOH and 50 mg ammonium purpurate were added. This was titrated against 0.01N EDTA solution, till the development of purple colour as the end point. 4.1.10. Calcium and Magnesium To a 25 ml aliquot taken in an Erlenmeyer flask, 0.5 ml ammonium hydroxide buffer and 3-4 drops of Eriochrome Black–T (EBT) were added. This was followed by titration against 0.01N EDTA, till blue colour as the end point appeared. Calcium and Magnesium concentration was determined using the formula: T x Normality of EDTA x 1000 Ca or (Ca +Mg), Meq/ litre Aliquot (ml) taken where T = volume in (ml) of standard EDTA used in titration Meq Ca or (Ca +Mg) per 100g soil
1000 Extract volume(ml) MeqCa or(Ca Mg/litre). Soil weight 1000 where; Extract volume =25 ml 4.1.11. Exchangeable sodium Exchangeable sodium was determined by Flame Photometer based on the measurement of the intensity of characteristic line emission given by the element to be determined. To prepare the solution, 5 g of soil sample was taken in a 150ml conical flask, 25ml of 1N neutral ammonium acetate solution was then added to it and shaken for 5 minutes and filtered. The filtrate was then fed into the atomizer of pre- calibrated flame photometer and absorbance measured. A standard curve of different known concentrations was prepared using sodium chloride. The readings obtained for soil samples were then calculated using the formula as follows. Meq/L x 100 Volume of Extract Exchangeable Na in Meq/100g . Wt. of soil in gram 1000 y x 10 . 5 Here, volume of extract = 100: Weight of soil=5 g
4.1.12. Exchangeable potassium Exchangeable Potassium was determined by Flame Photometer. To prepare the solution, 5 g of soil sample was taken in a 150ml conical flask. 25ml of 1N neutral ammonium acetate solution was then added to it and shaken for 5 minutes and filtered. The filtrate was then fed into the atomizer of pre-calibrated flame photometer and absorbance measured. A standard curve of different known concentrations was prepared using potassium chloride. The readings obtained for soil samples were then calculated using the formula as follows.
Exchangeable K in Meq/100g
Here, volume of extract = 100: Weight of soil=5 g 4.1.13. Chloride
Chloride was estimated by titrating the extracts of soil samples with AgNO3 as prescribed by Richards (1954). 10 ml of the soil extract was taken; 1-2 drop of
potassium chromate indicator was added and titrated against AgNO3 until yellow color changed to brick red. The chloride content of the soil samples was then calculated using the formula as follows. Normality of AgNO 3×Vol .of AgNO 3×1000 Chloride (me/L) = ml of aliquot taken 4.1.14. Calcium carbonate Rowell (1994) titration method was followed for the estimation of calcium carbonate in soil. 10 gms of air dried soil was taken in a conical flask. To this, 20 ml of 2M Hcl were added. The sample was allowed to react until effervescence stopped and then boiled gently for 10 minutes on a hot plate. It was then cooled; filtered and final volume was made to 100 ml with distilled water. From this, 10 ml of the solution was taken into a clean conical flask and 50 ml of distilled water and few drops of phenolphthalein indicator were added to it. This was titrated against 0.1 N NaOH, till the development of a permanent pink colour as the end point. The results were expressed in % and calculated by the following equations:
The number of moles of NaOH used in the titration is: 0.1 x (Vaverage / 1000) = W x 10 -3 mol NaOH. In the equation equal numbers of moles of NaOH and HCl react together so W also = W x 10-3 mol HCl in the 10 ml of fraction. The 10 ml were drawn from 100 ml of solution so the number of moles in the 100 ml of solution is: (W x 10-3) x 10 = X mol HCl left over from the reaction with the carbonates in the soil. The 20 ml of 2M HCl originally added to the soil contained 0.04 mol HCl. Therefore the number of mols of acid that reacted with the carbonate is: 0.04 - X = Y mol HCl
The molecular mass of CaCO3 is 100.1 g. 2 mols of HCl react with 1 mol (100.1 g) of
CaCO3.
Therefore, the mass of CaCO3 that reacted was: Y x (100.1 / 2) = Z g of CaCO3.
As a percentage the M g of soil analyzed contains Z x (100/M) = % CaCO3 in the air- dried soil. 4.1.15. Available phosphorus Olsen‟s method for neutral and alkali soils was employed in which specific coloured compounds are formed with the addition of appropriate reagents in the solution, the intensity of which is proportionate to the concentration of the element being estimated
(Watanabe and Olsen, 1965). Phosphorus was extracted using 100 ml of NaHCO3 extracting solution from 5.0 g soil sample. To 10.0 ml of filtrate 1.0 ml of 2.5 M
H2SO4 was added and volume was raised to 40 ml with distilled water. Ammonium molybdate – ascorbic acid solution of 8 ml were added and final volume raised to 50 ml. After standing for 10 minutes, absorbance was read at 882 nm on the spectrophotometer. Phosphorus concentration of the sample was determined from a calibration curve relating the readings of absorption units to concentration in μg P/ml. 50ml 100ml Phosphorus (µg/g)= phosphorus(µg/ml) × × 10ml 5gsoil
4.2. VEGETATION ANALYSIS Plants were randomly selected from the study sites. The plants including Plantago lanceolata, Artemesia vestita, Isodon rugosus, Artemesia absinthium, Thymus linearis and Marrubium vulgare were selected for the study. The samples in three replicates were collected from selected sites and immediately taken to the laboratory for analysis. 4.2.1. Photosynthetic pigments (Chlorophyll, Pheophytins and Carotenoids) The concentration of total pigments was determined spectrophotometrically, extracting the pigments in 80% acetone. Young and fresh leaves of the selected plant species were collected from all the sites. Chlorophyll, Pheophytins and Carotenoids were extracted in 80% acetone and estimated according to the method of Strain et al. (1971), Vernon (1960) and Duxbury and Yentesch (1956) respectively using ELICO SL-171 spectrophotometer. Photosynthetic Pigments like Chlorophyll, Pheophytins and Carotenoids were extracted in 80% acetone. 2 ml of 10% plant leaf homogenate was mixed with 8 ml of acetone in 10 ml volumetric flask. After shaking the material was well transferred in centrifuge tubes and centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes at 4º C. The colour intensity of supernatant was measured at different wavelengths like 480nm, 510nm, 649nm, 655 nm, 665 nm and 666nm. Using the absorption coefficient, the amount of pigments was calculated. Following equations were then used to measure the photosynthetic pigments. Chlorophyll content was measured according to the following equation (Strain et al, 1971)
Chlorophyll a (µg/ml) = 11.63 × A665 – 2.39 × A649
Chlorophyll b (µg/ml) =20. 11 × A649 – 5.18 × A665
Total Chlorophyll (µg/ml) =6.45× A665+ 17.72× A649
The Pheophytin content was measured by the following equation (Vernon, 1960)
Pheophytin a (µg/ml) = 20.15× A666 – 5.87 × A665
Pheophytin b (µg/ml) = 31.96× A665 – 13.65 × A666
Total Pheophytin (µg/ml) = 6.75× A666 + 26.03 × A665 The Carotenoid content was calculated by the following formula given by Duxbury and Yentesch (1956)
Carotenoid (µg/ml) = 7.6 × A480 – 1.49× A510 4.2.2. Dust deposition on leaf surface: The dust deposition on leaf surface was calculated by dry technique recommended by Das and Patanayak (1977). The leaves were weighed (in mg.). Then dust particulates from the leaves surfaces were gently collected with the help of camel hair brush and the weight of the leaves was measured again. The amount of dust deposition in mg/cm2 was calculated as:- Weight of intact leaves −Initial weight of leaves Dust content (mg/cm2) = Total surface area of leaves (cm2) 4.2.3. Leaf Area The leaf area of each leaf was measured using a leaf area meter (SYSTRONICS, Leaf Area Meter-211) having a sensor and read-out unit. 4.2.4. Leaf extract pH The leaves were washed out thoroughly with distilled water. Three replicates were used for each plant. Leaf-extract pH was estimated by method recommended by Singh and Rao, 1983. 0.5 g of leaf material was ground to paste and dissolved in 50 ml of distilled water and Leaf-extract pH was measured by using calibrated digital pH meter ( model: Hanna HI 8424). 4.2.5. Leaf wash pH The leaf wash pH was determined following Pawar et al, 1988. pH of leaf wash was determined by getting the leaves of equal size from the same position from each sample. Leaves were then washed in 100 ml beaker with brush carefully with the help of distilled water as required. Then pH was measured with the help of calibrated pH meter (model: Hanna HI 8424) by putting the probe of pH meter into homogenate and reading was recorded.
Chapter –5 Results
he field-cum-laboratory observations reached at in respect of the soil parameters T is as under: Soil temperature (0C) Soil temperature varied at all the study sites and was found in the range of 15.80C in the month of April at site IV and 24.40C in the month of June at site I. Site wise temperature of soil samples ranged between 17.10C in April to 24.40C in June with an average of 21.650C at site I; 15.90C in April to 23.60C in June with an average of 20.380C at site II; 16.60C in April to 23.20C in August with an average of 20.150C at site III; and 15.80C in April to 22.60C in August with an average of 19.650C at site IV. Table-5.1: Soil temperature (0C) at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 17.1 20.8 24.4 24.2 23.4 22.09 19.6 21.65 2.67 Site II 15.9 20 23.6 23.5 22.5 19.6 17.56 20.38 2.98 Site III 16.6 19.09 21.2 22.8 23.2 21.01 17.2 20.15 2.60 Site IV 15.8 18.11 21.9 22.5 22.6 20.6 16.1 19.65 2.96
Soil temperature
26 24
22 Site I 20 Site II 18 Site III 16 Site IV 14 12 10 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.1: Variations in soil temperature (0C) at different study sites during 2012
pH The overall pH of the soil sample was found to vary between neutral to strongly alkaline .The lowest value of pH was recorded as 7.41 at site IV in the month of April and the highest pH was 9.18 in August at site I. Site wise pH of soil samples ranged from 8.67 in April to 9.18 in August with an average value of 8.9 at site I; 8.14 in May to 8.75 in August with an average value of 8.47 at site II; 8.15 in May to 8.43 in July with an average value of 8.3 at site III; and 7.41 in April to 7.99 in September with an average value of 7.8 at site IV.
Table-5.2: Soil pH at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 8.67 8.78 8.83 8.99 9.18 8.95 9.1 8.9 0.18 Site II 8.29 8.14 8.43 8.56 8.75 8.63 8.55 8.47 0.20 Site III 8.26 8.15 8.38 8.43 8.21 8.32 8.38 8.30 0.10 Site IV 7.41 7.5 7.81 7.96 7.98 7.99 7.95 7.80 0.24
pH
9.5
9
Site I 8.5 Site II 8 Site III Site IV 7.5
7 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.2: Variations in soil pH at different study sites during 2012
Conductivity (dS/m) Soil conductivity values also varied at different study sites and were in the range of 0.11 dS/m to 0.78 dS/m with lowest value at site IV and the highest at site I. Site wise electrical conductivity values at the four study sites during the study period varied between 0.149 dS/m in April to 0.78 dS/m in September with an average value of 0.461dS/m at site I; 0.137 dS/m in April to 0.55 dS/m in October with an average value of 0.298 dS/m at site II; 0.125 dS/m in April to 0.291 dS/m in October with an average value of 0.22 dS/m at site III; 0.11 dS/m in April and 0.308 dS/m in September with an average value of 0.199 dS/m at site IV.
Table-5.3: Soil conductivity (dS/m) at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 0.149 0.356 0.357 0.375 0.58 0.78 0.63 0.461 0.21 Site II 0.137 0.245 0.277 0.258 0.277 0.348 0.55 0.298 0.12 Site III 0.125 0.173 0.22 0.261 0.217 0.27 0.291 0.22 0.05 Site IV 0.11 0.12 0.187 0.252 0.178 0.308 0.243 0.199 0.07
Conductivity 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 Site I 0.5 Site II 0.4 Site III 0.3 Site IV 0.2 0.1 0 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.3: Variations in soil conductivity (dS/m) at different study sites during 2012
Moisture content (%) Soil moisture content (%) values of the soil samples varied at all the study sites between 0.73 % in June at site I and 6.02 % in September at site IV. Site wise moisture content varied between 0.73 % in June to 3.81% in September with an average of 1.91 % at site I; 0.97 % in October and 5.21% in September with an average of 3.09 % at site II; 1.64% in October to 4.88% in September with an average of 3.58% at site III; 2.84 % in October to 6.02 % in September with an average of 4.33% at site IV.
Table-5.4: Soil moisture (%) at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 3.2 2.63 0.73 1.12 1.06 3.81 0.83 1.91 1.27 Site II 3.22 3.65 3.28 3.32 2.01 5.21 0.97 3.09 1.32 Site III 4.53 3.97 2.43 3.89 3.76 4.88 1.64 3.58 1.15 Site IV 5.59 4.15 3.52 3.97 4.26 6.02 2.84 4.33 1.11
Moisture 7
6
5 Site I 4 Site II 3 Site III Site IV 2
1
0 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.4: Variations in soil moisture content (%) at different study sites during 2012
Organic Carbon (%) The overall values for organic carbon varied between 0.31% in June at Site I to 1.52% in October at site IV. Site wise Organic carbon values of all the four study sites during the study period were found to range between 0.31% in June and 0.819% in August with an average of 0.53% at site I; 0.45 % in July and 0.99% in August with an average of 0.65% at site II; 0.6% in May to 1.43% in October with an average of 1.02 % at site III; 0.76% in May to 1.52 % in October with an average of 1.11 % at site IV.
Table-5.5: Soil organic carbon (%) at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 0.39 0.42 0.31 0.4 0.819 0.77 0.61 0.53 0.20 Site II 0.53 0.58 0.5 0.45 0.99 0.87 0.69 0.65 0.20 Site III 1.05 0.6 0.78 0.83 1.27 1.19 1.43 1.02 0.29 Site IV 1.22 0.76 0.9 0.91 1.19 1.31 1.52 1.11 0.26
Organic carbon
1.6
1.4
1.2 Site I 1 Site II 0.8 Site III 0.6 Site IV 0.4
0.2
0 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.5: Variations in soil organic carbon (%) at different study sites during 2012
Organic Matter (%) Organic matter content in general was found to vary between 0.51 % in June at site I to 2.62 % in September at site IV. Site wise values of organic matter at all the four study sites during the study period ranged from 0.51% in June to 1.41% in August with an average value of 0.90 % at site I; 0.77 in July and 1.19% in October with an average value of 1.13% at site II; 1.03 % in May to 2.46% in October with an average value of 1.75% at site III; 1.31% in May to 2.62% in October with an average value of 1.92% at site IV.
Table-5.6: Soil organic matter (%) at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 0.67 0.72 0.51 0.68 1.41 1.32 1.05 0.90 0.35 Site II 0.91 0.99 0.86 0.77 1.7 1.49 1.19 1.13 0.34 Site III 1.81 1.03 1.34 1.43 2.18 2.05 2.46 1.75 0.51 Site IV 2.1 1.31 1.55 1.56 2.05 2.25 2.62 1.92 0.46
Organic matter 3
2.5
2 Site I Site II 1.5 Site III 1 Site IV
0.5
0 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.6: Variations in soil organic matter (%) at different study sites during 2012
Loss on Ignition (%) Taking all the four study sites into consideration, the highest percent loss on ignition was recorded at the least polluted site (reference site). Here the highest percent of loss on ignition was recorded as 3.01 % where as the most polluted site showed less values of loss on ignition as 0.65 in July site II. Site wise loss on ignition values of all the four study sites during the study period were found to range from 0.79% in July to 1.37% in August with an average value of 1.10% at site I; 0.65% in July and 1.8 % in October with an average value of 1.35 % at site II; 1.25 % in May to 2.47 % in October with an average value of 1.95 % at site III; 1.26% in June to 3.01 % in October with an average value of 2.08 % at site IV. Table-5.7: Soil loss on ignition at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 0.8 0.9 0.88 0.79 1.37 1.8 1.21 1.10 0.37 Site II 1.7 1.07 1.23 0.65 1.8 1.26 1.8 1.35 0.43 Site III 1.98 1.25 1.99 1.81 2.26 1.95 2.47 1.95 0.38 Site IV 1.99 1.53 1.26 2.15 2.14 2.5 3.01 2.08 0.58
Loss on ignition 3.5
3
2.5 Site I 2 Site II 1.5 Site III
1 Site IV
0.5
0 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.7: Variations in soil loss on ignition (%) at different study sites during 2012
Exchangeable Calcium (me/100gm) The value of Exchangeable calcium was in the range of 11.2 me/100gm in the month of April and 19.4me/100 gm in the month of October. Site wise content varied between 16.3 me/100gm in April to 19.4 me/100 gm in October with an average value of 17.9 me/100gm at site I; 13.2 me/100gm in August and 18.5 me/100gm in October with an average value of 14.63 me/100gm at site II; 13.2 me/100gm in July to 14.2 me/100gm in April with an average value of 13.79 me/100 gm at site III ; 11.2 me/100gm in April to 13 me/100gm in October with an average value of 12.14 me/100gm at site IV.
Table-5.8: Soil exchangeable calcium (me/100 gm) at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 16.3 16.6 17.6 18.3 18.4 19 19.4 17.94 1.16 Site II 14.2 13.4 14.26 13.6 13.2 15.3 18.5 14.63 1.84 Site III 14.2 13.4 13.98 13.2 14 13.8 14 13.79 0.36 Site IV 11.2 12 11.8 12 12.2 12.8 13 12.14 0.60
Exchangeable Calcium
20 19 18 17 Site I 16 Site II 15 14 Site III 13 Site IV 12 11 10 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.8: Variations in soil exchangeable calcium (me/100 gm) at different study sites during 2012
Exchangeable Magnesium (me/100gm) Exchangeable Magnesium was found to vary between 1.7 me/100gm in the month of April and 6.2 me/100gm in the month of September Site wise content varied between 4.7 me/100gm in June to 6.2 me/100gm in the month of September with an average value of 5.4 me/100gm at site I; 3.9 me/100gm in the month of June and 5.8 me/100gm in September with an average value of 4.5 me/100gm at site II; 3.2 me/100gm in April to 4.6 me/100gm in August with an average value of 4 me/100gm at site III ; 1.7 me/100 gm in April to 3.9 me/100gm in September with an average value of 2.55 me/100gm at site IV Table-5.9: Soil exchangeable magnesium (me/100 gm) at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 5.4 5 4.7 5 5.6 6.2 5.9 5.4 0.53 Site II 4.6 4.2 3.9 4.4 4 5.8 4.8 4.52 0.64 Site III 3.2 3.8 4.1 4 4.6 4.2 4.1 4 0.42 Site IV 1.7 2.6 2.3 2.4 2.2 3.9 2.8 2.55 0.68
Exchangeable Magnesium 7
6
5 site I 4 Site II 3 Site III
2 Site IV
1
0 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.9: Variations in soil exchangeable magnesium (me/100 gm) at different study sites during 2012
Exchangeable Sodium (me/100gm) Exchangeable sodium was found to range between 2.3 me/100gm in October at site IV and 7.2 me/100gm in October at site IV. Site wise content varied between 4.4 me/100gm in May to 7.2 me/100gm in October with an average value of 5.97 me/100gm at site I; 3.4 in September and 6.4 me/100gm in July with an average value of 4.72 me/100gm at site II; 2.6 me/100gm in June and October to 5.4 me/100gm in July with an average value of 3.88 me/100gm at site III; 2.3 me/100gm in October to 4.8 me/100gm in July with an average value of 3.68 me/100gm at site IV Table-5.10: Soil exchangeable sodium at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 4.6 4.4 6 7 5.6 7 7.2 5.97 1.16 Site II 6 4.4 4.6 6.4 3.5 3.4 4.8 4.72 1.14 Site III 4.2 4 2.6 5.4 4.2 4.2 2.6 3.88 0.99 Site IV 3.8 3.5 3.2 4.8 4.5 3.7 2.3 3.68 0.82
Exchangeable Sodium
8 7 6 Site I 5 Site II 4 Site III 3 Site IV 2 1 0 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.10: Variations in soil exchangeable sodium (me/100 gm) at different study sites during 2012
Exchangeable Potassium (me/100gm) Exchangeable potassium was found to range between 0.2 me/100gm in April, June, July, October at site IV and site II to 1.0 me/100gm in April at site II and site III. Site wise content varied between 0.3 me/100gm in June at site I and 0.9 me/100gm in September with an average value of 0.58 me/100gm at site I; 0.2 me/100gm in June and 1 me/100gm in April with an average value of 0.54 me/100gm at site II; 0.3 me/100gm in June to 1 me/100gm in April with an average value of 0.55 me/100gm at site III ; 0.2 in April, July and October to 0.5 me/100gm in September with an average value of 0.27 me/100gm at site IV. Table-5.11: Soil exchangeable potassium at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.58 0.21 Site II 1 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.54 0.27 Site III 1 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.55 0.22 Site IV 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.25 0.5 0.2 0.27 0.10
Exchangeable Potassium 1.2
1
0.8 Site I Site II 0.6 Site III 0.4 Site IV 0.2
0 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.11: Variations in soil exchangeable potassium (me/100 gm) at different study sites during 2012
Calcium Carbonate (%) Calcium carbonate in general varied between 11.56% in April at Site I to 20.96% in October at site IV Site wise calcium carbonate content varied between 19.68% in July to 20.96% in October with an average value of 20.01% at site I; 17.46% in April and 18.96% in July with an average value of 18.51% at site II; 12.2% in May to 14.52% in October with an average value of 13.76% at site III; 11.56 in April to 13.96 in July with an average value of 13.02% at site IV.
Table-5.12: Soil Calcium Carbonate (%) at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 19.68 19.96 19.96 19.71 19.93 19.91 20.96 20.01 0.43 Site II 17.46 18.86 18.83 18.96 18.36 18.4 18.71 18.51 0.51 Site III 13.15 12.2 13.91 13.23 14.12 15.21 14.52 13.76 0.99 Site IV 11.56 11.93 12.43 13.96 13.92 13.73 13.61 13.02 1.01
Calcium Carbonate
22
20 Site I 18 Site II 16 Site III
14 Site IV
12
10 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.12: Variations in soil calcium carbonate (%) at different study sites during 2012
Chloride (me/l) Chloride content in the soil sample of all study sites ranged from 0.2 me/l at site IV in the month of May to 5.9 me/l at site I in the month of April. Site wise chloride content at the four sites during the study period varied between 2.3 me/l in May to 5.9 me/l in the month of April with an average value of 4.28 me/l at site I; 1.12 me/l in May to 2.98 me/l in April with an average value of 1.92 me/l at site II; 1.41 me/l in July and October to 2.39 me/l in April with an average value of 1.72 me/l at site III ; 0.2 me/l in May to 2.25 me/l in October with an average value of 0.97 me/l at site at site IV.
Table-5.13: Soil chloride (me/l) at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 5.9 2.3 3.3 4.08 5.3 5 4.08 4.28 1.23 Site II 2.98 1.12 2.11 2.2 1.69 1.41 1.97 1.92 0.60 Site III 2.39 1.6 2.11 1.41 1.55 1.6 1.41 1.72 0.37 Site IV 0.41 0.2 0.7 0.84 0.84 1.6 2.25 0.97 0.71
Chloride 7 6
5 Site I 4 Site II 3 Site III 2 Site IV 1 0 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.13: Variations in soil chloride (me/l) at different study sites during 2012
Available Phosphorus (µg/g) In general available phosphorus ranged from 20 µg/g in April at site I to 97 µg/g in October at site IV Site wise content varied between 20 µg/g in April to 67.5 µg/g in October with an average value of 44.14 µg/g at site I; 42.5µg/g in April and 82 µg/g in September with an average value of 55.78 µg/g at site II; 42µg/g in April to 85 µg/g in September with an average value of 60.57 µg/g at site III; 55 µg/g in April to 97 µg/g in October with an average value of 75.28 µg/g at site IV.
Table-5.14: Soil available phosphorus (µg/g) at different study sites during different months of 2012 Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Site I 20 30 39 40.5 44 68 67.5 44.14 17.96 Site II 42.5 47 45 47 55 82 72 55.78 15.26 Site III 42 53 55 44 65 85 80 60.57 16.84 Site IV 55 75 64 61 80 95 97 75.28 16.45
Available Phosphorus
120
100
80 Site I Site II 60 Site III 40 Site IV
20
0 April May June July August September October
Fig.5.14: Variations in soil available phosphorus (µg/g) at different study sites during 2012
The results of analyses of various pigments, dust deposition, leaf extract pH and leaf wash pH in respect of various plant species are as follows:
CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT Chlorophyll ‘a’ Chlorophyll „a‟ content increased as the pollution load decreased with the lowest value of 0.59 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in April at site I while the highest value was recorded as 18.85 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in the month of September at site IV (Table.5.15) Chlorophyll „a‟ content in all species studied decreased as the distance from cement factory increased i.e. the distance from the dust source increased the chlorophyll „a‟ content. Site wise chlorophyll „a‟ content in leaves of different plant species was in the range of 0.59 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in the month of April to 9.96 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in the month of July at site I; 1.32 µg/ml for Artemesia absinthium in the month of April to 16.18 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in the month of September at Site II; 2.66 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in the month of May to 16.57 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in the month of October at site III; to 1.52 µg/ml for Artemesia vestita in the month of April to 18.85 µg/ml in Plantago lanceolata in the month of September at site IV. Chlorophyll ‘b’ Similarly chlorophyll „b‟ content was observed to be highest at site farther away from the cement factory and lowest at the site closest to the cement factory i.e. the vicinity of the factory. The highest value of chlorophyll „b‟ was recorded as 17.92 µg/ml for Marrubium vulgare in August at site III and the lowest as 0.56 µg/ml for Marrubium vulgare in April at site I (Table.5.16). Site wise chlorophyll „b‟ content in the leaves of different plant species was in the range of 0.56 µg/ml for Marrubium vulgare in the month of April to 6.986 µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in the month of May at site I; 0.59 µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in June to 14.58 µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in August at site II; 1.23 µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in June to 17.92 µg/ml for Marrubium vulgare in August at site III; to 1.85 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in August to 7.55 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in September at site IV.
Table-5.15: Monthly estimation of Chlorophyll ‘a’ (µg/ml) of different plant species during the study period at the four study sites. Plant Species Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Marrubium vulgare Site I 0.655 0.746 4.86 5.21 2.87 7.22 2.98 3.50 2.41 Site II 2.997 3.893 6.11 8 4.61 7.96 3.75 5.33 2.05 Site III 3.97 4.17 7.47 8.06 5.64 8.72 12.07 7.15 2.85 Site IV 4.27 5.14 8.59 8.94 12.1 11.93 -- 8.49 3.29 Plantago lanceolata Site I 2.04 3.13 8.76 9.96 2.64 9.61 3.3 5.63 3.60 Site II 2.06 3.41 10.13 14.18 2.65 16.18 11.78 8.62 5.86 Site III 6.67 5.7 12.19 -- 5.27 16.18 16.57 10.43 5.23 Site IV 7.04 7.13 15.04 18.18 6.16 18.85 18.82 13.03 6 Isodon rugosus Site I 4.22 1.18 1.2 1.71 7.18 4.07 0.84 2.91 2.34 Site II 4.86 4.22 1.71 2.7 8.63 13.44 2.78 5.47 4.17 Site III 10.79 4.62 3.28 4.9 12.75 13.81 2.98 7.59 4.68 Site IV ------Thymus linearis Site I 0.59 0.65 5.45 5.48 2.74 4.55 3.27 3.24 2.07 Site II 1.67 2.61 5.87 5.94 3.37 4.98 5.22 4.23 1.69 Site III 3.08 2.66 7.36 7.46 -- 8.96 -- 5.90 2.85 Site IV 4.4 4.35 -- 7.48 5.63 9.95 5.514 6.22 2.15 Artemesia absinthium Site I 1.47 1.67 6.72 2.69 2.89 6.88 5.57 3.98 2.34 Site II 1.32 2.5 6.8 7.25 7.4 9.52 6.68 5.92 2.92 Site III 4.59 4.82 7.97 9.45 8.23 9.6 10.05 7.81 2.25 Site IV 4.98 5.41 8.11 10.71 10.43 11.07 11.98 8.955 2.83 Artemesia vestita Site I 2.17 1.37 1.71 2.125 3.17 7.3 4.22 3.15 2.07 Site II 2.86 3.52 2.64 3.07 6.75 13.99 9.47 6.04 4.33 Site III 3.8 3.8 4.73 4.84 9.13 15.65 13.39 7.90 4.91 Site IV 1.52 5.22 7.07 8.11 10.56 18.36 13.47 9.18 5.55
Table-5.16: Monthly estimation of Chlorophyll ‘b’ (µg/ml) of different plant species during the study period at the four study sites.
Plants Species Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Marrubium vulgare Site I 0.56 0.58 1.35 1.74 2.44 2.92 2.14 1.67 0.90 Site II 2.096 5.26 2.45 2.87 2.41 3.81 3.07 3.13 1.09 Site III 2.538 2.39 2.58 2.57 17.92 3.57 5.05 5.23 5.68 Site IV 3.25 3.65 4.11 4.27 5.7 7.2 -- 4.69 1.48 Plantago lanceolata Site I 3.51 1.32 2.58 3.14 2.32 2.81 1.67 2.47 0.78 Site II 2.096 1.59 2.99 5.05 2.61 6.37 2.87 3.36 1.71 Site III 10.68 1.55 4.17 -- 3.58 7.5 5.61 5.51 3.22 Site IV 2.32 2.49 4.55 7.19 4.82 7.55 4.92 4.83 2.03 Isodon rugosus Site I 2.98 6.986 0.8 0.85 7.4 1.76 0.89 3.09 2.91 Site II 10.35 2.98 0.59 2.87 14.58 3.8 1.96 5.30 5.14 Site III 16.6 3.73 1.23 1.88 7.22 4.29 2.14 5.29 5.37 Site IV ------Thymus linearis Site I 1.02 1.04 1.89 2.15 1.79 1.96 2.58 1.77 0.57 Site II 1.36 2.2 2.03 2.11 1.69 4.3 2.71 2.34 0.96 Site III 3.51 2.05 2.88 2.54 -- 3.51 -- 2.89 0.63 Site IV 7.32 2.16 -- 2.46 1.85 3.57 2.53 3.315 2.05 Artemesia absinthium Site I 1.58 1.36 2.05 1.31 1.4 3.32 3.2 2.03 0.88 Site II 1.04 2.29 9.62 2.3 4.17 3.34 2.96 3.67 2.80 Site III 3.91 3.94 2.57 3.56 4.2 6.38 4.23 4.11 1.15 Site IV 2.12 2.65 5.53 3.82 5.16 4.16 3.14 3.79 1.26 Artemesia vestita Site I 6.29 2.66 0.59 1.09 2.68 0.73 4.41 2.63 2.11 Site II 3.72 2.83 1.05 1.11 4.12 4.7 4.07 3.08 1.48 Site III 3.66 2.66 1.78 1.79 5.48 6.38 7.74 4.21 2.35 Site IV 1.91 2.59 5.15 5.53 6.95 7.26 6.23 5.088 2.08
Total Chlorophyll The total chlorophyll content appeared to exhibit lowest value of 1.215 µg/ml recorded for Marrubium vulgare at site I (around the cement factory) in the month of April while the highest value was recorded as 27.4 µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in the month of April at site III (Table.5.17). Site wise total chlorophyll content in leaves of different plant species was in the range of 1.215 µg/ml for Marrubium vulgare in April to 14.58 µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in October at site I; 2.3 µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in June to 23.21 µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in August at site II; 4.71 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in May to 27.4 µg/ml in Isodon rugosus in April at site III; to 3.43 µg/ml for Artemesia vestita in April to 26.39 µg/ml in plantago lanceolata in September at site IV. PHEOPHYTIN CONTENT Pheophytin ‘a’ The pheophytin „a‟content varied from 1.02 µg/ml for Marrubium vulgare in April to 29.4 µg/ml for Artemesia vestita in the month of October (Table.5.18). The highest value was observed at site IV and the lowest at site I. Site wise pheophytin „a‟ content in the leaves of various plant species was in the range of 1.02 µg/ml for Marrubium vulgare to 15.18 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in the month of July at site I; 2.54 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in May and Isodon rugosus in June to 21.89 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in September at site II; 4.34 µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in April to 24.78 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in October at site III; and 3.72 µg/ml for Artemesia vestita in April and 29.4 µg/ml for Artemesia vestita in October at site IV. Pheophytin ‘b’ Pheophytin „b‟ content varied from 1.05 µg/ml for Artemesia vestita in July to 31.83 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in July (Table.5.19). Site wise pheophytin „b‟ content in the leaves of different plant species was in the range of different plant species was in the range of 1.12 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in the month of
Table- 5.17: Monthly estimation of Total Chlorophyll (µg/ml) of different plant species during the study period at the four study sites. Plant Species Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Marrubium vulgare Site I 1.215 1.327 6.21 6.95 5.3 10.14 5.11 5.17 3.15 Site II 5.093 9.15 8.56 10.87 7 11.75 6.82 8.46 2.35 Site III 6.508 6.56 10.05 10.62 23.56 12.27 17.12 12.38 6.11 Site IV 7.52 8.78 12.7 13.21 17.79 19.13 -- 13.18 4.65 Plantago lanceolata Site I 5.54 4.45 11.34 13.1 4.94 12.4 4.97 8.10 3.95 Site II 4.156 5 13.12 19.23 5.25 22.55 14.65 11.99 7.39 Site III 17.35 7.25 16.36 -- 8.84 23.69 22.18 15.94 6.74 Site IV 9.36 9.62 19.59 25.37 10.97 26.39 23.78 17.86 7.69 Isodon rugosus Site I 7.21 8.166 2 2.56 14.58 5.81 1.74 6 4.58 Site II 15.2 7.21 2.3 5.57 23.21 17.23 4.73 10.77 7.79 Site III 27.4 8.35 4.51 6.78 19.97 18.09 5.11 12.88 8.91 Site IV ------Thymus linearis Site I 1.6 1.69 7.34 7.63 4.53 6.51 5.85 5.021 2.52 Site II 3.04 4.81 7.89 8.05 5.06 9.27 7.94 6.58 2.27 Site III 6.59 4.71 10.25 9.99 -- 12.47 -- 8.80 3.11 Site IV 11.72 6.51 -- 9.93 7.47 13.52 8.04 9.53 2.70 Artemesia absinthium Site I 3.05 3.04 8.77 4 4.29 10.2 8.76 6.01 3.09 Site II 2.36 4.79 16.42 9.53 11.56 12.86 9.64 9.59 4.77 Site III 8.5 8.76 10.54 9.85 12.41 15.98 14.28 11.47 2.85 Site IV 7.1 8.06 13.64 14.52 15.58 15.22 15.12 12.74 3.60 Artemesia vestita Site I 8.46 4.03 2.3 3.21 5.85 8.02 8.63 5.78 2.65 Site II 6.58 6.35 3.68 4.17 10.85 18.69 13.54 9.12 5.51 Site III 7.46 6.47 6.51 6.62 14.61 22.03 21.13 12.11 7.08 Site IV 3.43 7.81 12.21 13.64 17.5 25.62 19.69 14.27 7.44
Table-5.18: Monthly estimation of Pheophytin ‘a’ (µg/ml) of different plant species during the study period at the four study sites. Plant Species Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Marrubium vulgare Site I 1.02 1.13 5.26 6.85 3.8 9.77 4.34 4.59 3.10 Site II 4.924 6.6 5.29 10.75 6.16 11.22 5.5 7.20 2.64 Site III 7.5 8.56 10.26 10.94 7.96 13.44 17.75 10.91 3.64 Site IV 7.68 8.15 15.21 13.03 16.97 15.96 -- 12.83 4.03 Plantago lanceolata Site I 3.17 2.72 11.42 15.18 3.17 13.67 5.07 7.77 5.45 Site II 3.84 2.54 13.4 18.59 3.6 21.89 16.14 11.42 8 Site III 10.84 5.26 15.53 -- 6.78 21.15 24.78 14.05 7.85 Site IV 3.89 4.99 18.78 24.39 7.92 25.64 28.18 16.25 10.43 Isodon rugosus Site I 7.05 8.42 7.6 2.94 13.3 6.53 1.42 6.75 3.86 Site II 8.6 7.05 2.54 8.71 11.54 19.37 4.02 8.83 5.54 Site III 4.34 8.03 4.87 7.13 19.37 20.49 4.34 9.79 7.07 Site IV ------Thymus linearis Site I 1.1 1.2 7.98 8.01 4.67 7.77 5.39 5.16 3.04 Site II 3.11 4.33 8.56 8.91 5.61 8.44 7.52 6.64 2.30 Site III 4.54 4.4 10.98 11.08 -- 13.86 -- 8.972 4.27 Site IV 6.98 6.93 -- 11.11 8.77 14.93 7.74 9.41 3.12 Artemesia absinthium Site I 3.71 3.11 10.09 3.77 4.86 13.43 6.49 6.49 3.88 Site II 3.97 4.33 10.02 11.01 12.86 14.48 10.35 9.57 4.01 Site III 8.01 8.14 9.89 13.85 14.11 14.78 15.41 12.02 3.23 Site IV 7.21 8.73 11.75 16.62 18.25 16.91 12.04 13.07 4.28 Artemesia vestita Site I 3.81 2.98 2.54 6.92 5.29 11.14 10.25 6.13 3.45 Site II 5.3 5.88 3.93 4.44 11.92 20.78 14.62 9.55 6.41 Site III 5.97 5.97 6.94 7.04 15.99 22.63 24 12.64 8.09 Site IV 3.72 7.02 10.86 11.75 18.5 26.62 29.4 15.41 9.76
Table-5.19: Monthly estimation of Pheophytin ‘b’ (µg/ml) of different plant species during the study period at the four study sites. Plant species Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Marrubium vulgare Site I 1.42 1.3 5.36 9.1 5.46 12.58 5.29 5.78 4.02 Site II 4.721 7.12 5.4 13.9 8.26 13.74 6.74 8.55 3.78 Site III 8.33 8.64 10.75 13.84 10 14.12 20.16 12.26 4.17 Site IV 8.12 9.68 15.35 18.25 20.97 21.7 -- 15.67 5.73 Plantago lanceolata Site I 4.096 2.85 11.75 19.86 5.24 15.98 5.47 9.32 6.61 Site II 2.88 2.95 17.57 24.99 5.09 28.22 19.88 14.51 10.75 Site III 12.83 5.36 21.57 -- 9.88 29.21 27.12 17.66 9.73 Site IV 4.65 4.79 22.17 31.83 11.71 29.83 30.22 19.31 12.10 Isodon rugosus Site I 6.9 10.33 13.11 12.05 11.45 6.44 1.47 8.82 4.11 Site II 9.65 6.9 3.16 10.11 14.83 22.16 4.95 10.25 6.49 Site III 5.67 7.67 4.63 8.19 21.37 22.49 5.29 10.75 7.74 Site IV ------Thymus linearis Site I 1.12 1.17 9.59 9.16 4.33 8.47 5.18 5.57 3.61 Site II 2.56 4.37 9.68 9.75 5.29 8.22 9.01 6.98 2.88 Site III 5.31 4.41 11.32 12.23 -- 15.6 -- 9.77 4.77 Site IV 8.01 7.14 -- 12.23 8.92 16.25 9.53 10.34 3.37 Artemesia absinthium Site I 3.41 2.56 11.59 4.69 4.46 14.38 10.72 7.40 4.70 Site II 4.25 4.12 11.23 11.66 11.35 15.4 10.87 9.84 4.15 Site III 6.71 7.88 6.76 15.68 12.61 15.36 16.36 11.62 4.39 Site IV 7.04 8.62 17.33 17.09 15.7 17.93 13.3 13.85 4.41 Artemesia vestita Site I 4.77 2.43 3.16 1.05 5.29 11.19 5.09 4.71 3.25 Site II 6.5 6.7 4.37 5.14 10.31 22.89 15.36 10.18 6.75 Site III 6.43 6.43 7.97 8.07 14.01 26.37 20.15 12.77 7.82 Site IV 9.87 12.56 15.92 17.33 16.41 31.05 22.78 17.98 7.03
April to 19.86 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in the month of July at site I; 2.56 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in April to 28.22 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in September at site II; 4.41 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in May to 29.21 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in September at site III; to 4.65 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in April to 31.83 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in July at site IV. Total Pheophytin Total pheophytin ranged from 2.22 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in April to 58.4 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in October (Table.5.20). Site wise pheophytin content in the leaves of various plant species was found to be in the range of 2.22 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in April to 35.04 µg/ml for plantago lanceolata in July at site I; 5.49 µg/ml for plantago lanceolata in May to 50.11 µg/ml for plantago lanceolata in September for site II; 8.81 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in May to 51.9 µg/ml for plantago lanceolata in October at site III; 8.54 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in April to 58.4 µg/ml for Plantago lanceolata in October at site IV. CAROTENOIDS In general the Carotenoid content of leaves was observed to exist between 0.251µg/ml for Artemesia absinthium in May at site I and 13.97µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in September at site III (Table.5.21). Site wise carotenoid content in the leaves of various plant species was found to be in the range of 0.987 µg/ml for Marrubium vulgare in April to 12.91µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in August at site I; 0.96 µg/ml for Thymus linearis in October to 11.61 µg/ml for Artemesia vestita in September at site II; 2.3 µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in June to 13.97 µg/ml for Isodon rugosus in September at site III and 1.407 µg/ml for Artemesia absinthium in May to 12.55 µg/ml for Artemesia vestita in September at site IV. DUST CONTENT In general the dust content of leaves was observed to range from 0.09 mg/cm2 to 6.05 mg/cm2 (Table.5.22). Site wise dust content varied between 1.91 mg/ cm2 and 6.05 mg/ cm2 with an average value of 3.26 mg/cm2 for Marrubium vulgare; between 1.46 mg/ cm2 and 4.01 mg/cm2
Table-5.20: Monthly estimation of Total Pheophytin (µg/ml) of different plant species during the study period at the four study sites. Plant Species Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Marrubium vulgare Site I 2.44 2.43 10.62 15.95 9.26 22.35 9.63 10.38 7.10 Site II 9.65 13.72 10.69 24.65 14.42 24.96 12.24 15.76 6.39 Site III 15.83 17.2 21.01 24.78 17.96 27.56 37.91 23.17 7.75 Site IV 15.8 17.83 30.56 31.28 37.94 37.66 -- 28.51 9.59 Plantago lanceolata Site I 7.266 5.57 23.17 35.04 8.41 29.65 10.54 17.09 12.00 Site II 6.72 5.49 30.97 43.58 8.69 50.11 36.02 25.94 18.74 Site III 23.67 10.62 37.1 -- 16.66 50.36 51.9 31.71 17.44 Site IV 8.54 9.78 40.95 56.22 19.63 55.47 58.4 35.57 22.44 Isodon rugosus Site I 13.95 18.75 20.71 14.99 24.75 12.97 2.89 15.57 6.97 Site II 18.25 13.95 5.7 18.82 26.37 41.53 8.97 19.08 12.01 Site III 10.01 15.7 9.5 15.32 40.74 42.98 9.63 20.55 14.80 Site IV ------Thymus linearis Site I 2.22 2.37 17.57 17.17 9 16.24 10.57 10.73 6.63 Site II 5.67 8.7 18.24 18.66 10.9 16.66 16.53 13.62 5.15 Site III 9.85 8.81 22.3 23.21 -- 29.46 -- 18.72 9.02 Site IV 14.99 14.07 -- 23.34 17.69 31.18 17.27 19.75 6.46 Artemesia absinthium Site I 7.12 5.67 21.68 8.46 9.32 27.81 17.21 13.89 8.46 Site II 8.22 8.45 21.25 22.67 24.21 29.88 21.22 19.41 8.12 Site III 14.72 16.02 16.65 29.53 26.72 30.14 31.77 23.65 7.52 Site IV 14.25 17.35 29.08 33.71 33.95 34.84 25.34 26.93 8.34 Artemesia vestita Site I 8.58 5.41 5.7 7.97 10.58 22.33 15.34 10.84 6.08 Site II 11.8 12.58 8.3 9.58 22.23 43.67 29.98 19.73 13.12 Site III 12.4 12.4 14.91 15.11 30 49 44.15 25.42 15.72 Site IV 13.59 19.58 26.78 29.08 34.91 57.67 52.18 33.39 16.28
Table-5.21: Monthly estimation of Carotenoids (µg/ml) of different plant species during the study period at the four study sites. Plant Species Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Marrubium vulgare Site I 0.987 1.087 3.23 3.49 4.46 7.39 4.47 3.58 2.20 Site II 6.821 5.579 3.36 4.96 4.66 8.72 5.66 5.68 1.71 Site III 7.13 4.4 4.89 4.43 7.05 7.16 9.61 6.38 1.91 Site IV 8.21 5.6 5.77 6.88 9.55 11.67 -- 7.94 2.36 Plantago lanceolata Site I 4.55 1.415 5.93 6.58 4.66 10.98 7.76 5.98 2.98 Site II 5.821 1.621 6.31 9.38 4.73 9.32 7.41 6.37 2.72 Site III 8.28 2.47 6.89 -- 5.67 11.74 9.11 7.36 3.16 Site IV 2.7 2.73 7.445 12.29 7.1 11.65 12.48 8.05 4.26 Isodon rugosus Site I 1.484 6.498 6.15 2.39 12.91 7.13 2.25 5.54 3.99 Site II 8.27 1.484 2.75 7.31 9.78 8.52 7.46 6.51 3.13 Site III 10.6 3.33 2.3 3.49 13.04 13.97 4.47 7.31 5.03 Site IV ------Thymus linearis Site I 1.412 1.399 3.58 5.4 8.67 8.07 1.66 4.31 3.13 Site II 1.407 1.92 3.99 5.61 7.85 10.08 0.96 4.54 3.48 Site III 4.55 2.51 4.13 6.1 -- 8.12 -- 5.08 2.13 Site IV 4.77 3.45 -- 6.5 7.73 10.13 8.87 6.9 2.51 Artemesia absinthium Site I 2.52 0.251 5.43 3.4 6.18 6.82 11.08 5.09 3.49 Site II 2.67 3.57 7.72 6.18 2.87 8.33 5.05 5.19 2.30 Site III 2.93 3.45 6.1 6.16 6.81 6.76 7.12 5.61 1.70 Site IV 3.02 1.407 5.8 5.1 8.46 9.18 4.46 5.34 2.78 Artemesia vestita Site I 3.72 3.13 2.75 2.4 6.18 6.84 4.63 4.23 1.72 Site II 3.88 3.379 2.38 2.93 7.64 11.61 10.48 6.04 3.83 Site III 3.95 3.72 3.75 3.8 10.74 7.2 4.04 5.31 2.70 Site IV 3.29 4.97 5.2 5.8 11.29 12.55 9.749 7.54 3.59
Table-5.22: Monthly estimation of dust content (mg/cm2) on different plant species during the study period at the four study sites. Plant Species Sites April May June July August September October Mean S.D. Marrubium vulgare Site I 3.57 1.91 2.18 4.81 2.36 2 6.05 3.26 1.62 Site II 2.48 1.16 1.5 2.69 1.125 1.35 3.21 1.93 0.85 Site III 2.06 0.84 1.2 2.33 1.1 0.63 1.87 1.43 0.65 Site IV 0.28 0.3 0.51 0.74 0.72 0.56 -- 0.51 0.20 Plantago lanceolata Site I 1.81 3.15 1.46 4.01 2.32 1.66 3.72 2.59 1.03 Site II 1.45 0.71 1.18 3.38 1.55 1.24 2.57 1.72 0.92 Site III 1.36 0.43 0.54 3 1.3 1.38 1.24 1.32 0.84 Site IV 0.1 0.3 0.6 1.67 0.88 0.18 0.84 0.65 0.54 Isodon rugosus Site I 3.79 1.14 3.7 4.17 2.16 1.8 5.05 3.11 1.43 Site II 1.40 0.81 2 2.1 1.7 1.65 5.04 2.1 1.36 Site III 1.34 1.63 1.87 1.92 0.10 1.27 2.46 1.51 0.73 Site IV ------Thymus linearis Site I 2.2 2.3 2.97 1.1 3.75 2.81 3.27 2.62 0.86 Site II 1.22 1.5 2.32 1.05 2.8 0.95 2.43 1.75 0.75 Site III 1.7 1.2 1.73 0.37 -- 0.75 -- 1.15 0.59 Site IV 0.2 0.4 -- 0.09 0.60 0.41 0.97 0.44 0.31 Artemesia absinthium Site I 2.3 2.55 2.77 3.09 5.3 2.3 5.5 3.40 1.39 Site II 0.89 0.8 0.65 0.8 0.78 1.05 2.80 1.11 0.76 Site III 0.55 0.5 0.56 0.67 0.57 0.75 2.44 0.86 0.70 Site IV 0.11 0.12 0.2 0.29 0.54 0.42 0.77 0.35 0.24 Artemesia vestita Site I 0.79 0.70 1.25 4.13 3.24 0.78 1.73 1.80 1.36 Site II 0.54 0.61 1.13 1.97 1.6 0.69 1.31 1.12 0.54 Site III 1.2 0.3 0.48 1.68 1.44 0.42 0.55 0.86 0.56 Site IV 0.13 0.18 0.27 0.35 0.90 0.153 0.52 0.35 0.28
Photographs showing dust deposition on the leaves
Isodon rugosus
Marrubium vulgare
Plate - I
Artemesia vestita
Artemesia absinthium
Plate – II
with an average value of 2.59 mg/cm2 for plantago lanceolata; between 1.14 mg/cm2 and 5.05 mg/cm2 with an average value of 3.11 mg/cm2 for Isodon rugosus; between 1.1 mg/cm2 and 3.75 mg/cm2 with an average value of 2.62 mg/cm2 for Thymus linearis; between 2.3 mg/cm2 and 5.5 mg/cm2 with an average value of 3.40 mg/cm2 for Artemesia absinthium mg/cm2 and between 0.70 mg/cm2 and 4.13 mg/cm2 with an average value of 1.80 mg/cm2 for Artemesia vestita at Site I; between 1.12 mg/cm2 and 3.21 mg/cm2 with an average value of 1.931 mg/cm2 for Marrubium vulgare; between 0.71 mg/cm2 and 3.38 mg/cm2 with an average value of 1.72 mg/cm2 for Plantago lanceolata; between 0.81 mg/cm2 and 5.04 mg/cm2 with an average value of 2.1 mg/cm2 for Isodon rugosus; between 0.95 mg/cm2 and 2.43 mg/cm2 with an average value of 1.98 mg/cm2 for Thymus linearis; between 0.65 mg/cm2 to 2.8 mg/cm2 for with an average value of 1.11 mg/cm2 for Artemesia absinthium; between 0.54 mg/cm2 to 1.97 with an average value of 1.12 mg/cm2 for Artemesia vestita mg/cm2 at site II; between 0.636 mg/cm2 and 2.33 mg/cm2 with an average value of 1.43 mg/cm2 for Marrubium vulgare; between 0.43 mg/cm2 and 1.38 mg/cm2 with an average value of 1.32 mg/cm2 for Plantago lanceolata; between 0.10 mg/cm2 and 2.46 mg/cm2 with an average value 1.51mg/cm2 for Isodon rugosus; between 0.37 mg/cm2 and 1.73 mg/cm2 with an average value of 1.15 mg/cm2 for Thymus linearis; between 0.5 mg/cm2 and 2.44 mg/cm2 with an average value of 0.86 mg/cm2 for Artemesia absinthium ;between 0.3 mg/cm2 and 1.68 mg/cm2 with an average of 0.86 mg/cm2 for Artemesia vestita at site III; between 0.28 mg/cm2 to 0.74 mg/cm2 with an average value of 0.51mg/cm2 for Marrubium vulgare; between 0.1 mg/cm2 and 1.67 mg/cm2 with an average value of 0.65 mg/cm2 for Plantago lanceolata; between 0.09 mg/cm2 and 0.97 mg/cm2 with an average value of 0.39 mg/cm2 for Thymus linearis; between 0.11 mg/cm2 and 0 .77 mg/cm2 with an average value of 0.35 mg/cm2 for Artemesia absinthium; and between 0.13 mg/cm2 and 0.90 mg/cm2 with an average value of 0.35 mg/cm2 for Artemesia vestita at site IV. Leaf Extract pH The values of leaf extract pH ranged between 4.5 for Artemesia absinthium at site I and 8.19 for Thymus linearis at site IV (Table.5.23). Site wise leaf extract pH of the leaves of various plant species was found to be in the range of 4.5 for Thymus linearis and 7.72 for Artemesia absinthium at site I; 5.75 for Artemesia absinthium to 8.18 for Marrubium vulgare at site II; 6.13 for
Artemesia absinthium to 8.14 for Artemesia absinthium at site III and 6.48 for Artemesia absinthium to 8.19 for Thymus linearis at site IV. Leaf wash pH The values of leaf wash pH ranged between for 7 for Plantago lanceolata at site IV and 10.55 for Marrubium vulgare at site I (Table.5.24). Site wise leaf wash pH of the leaves of various plant species was found to be in the range of 7.4 for Plantago lanceolata and 10.55 for Marrubium vulgare at site I; 7.28 for Plantago lanceolata to 10.42 for Marrubium vulgare at site II; 7.1 for Plantago lanceolata to 10.29 for plantago lanceolata at site III and 7 for Plantago lanceolata to 9.57 for Thymus linearis at site IV.
Table-5.23: Monthly estimation of Leaf extract pH of different plant species during the study period at the four study sites. Apri Ma Jun Jul Augus Septembe Octobe Mea S.D Plant Species Sites l y e y t r r n . 6.9 0.2 6.47 6.82 6.95 7.05 7.12 7.25 6.95 Site I 9 3 7.6 0.5 6.78 6.88 7.16 7.93 7.99 8.18 7.50 Site II 1 6 Marrubium vulgare Site 7.7 0.5 6.81 7.1 7.29 7.96 8.03 8.07 7.57 III 4 0 Site 7.8 0.3 7.07 7.71 7.64 7.91 8.12 -- 7.71 IV 5 2 6.3 0.4 5.55 6.38 6.12 6.45 6.94 6.98 6.39 Site I 7 5 7.1 0.5 6.51 6.66 7.1 6.68 7.85 7.91 7.11 Site II 1 6 Plantago lanceolata Site 0.5 7.21 6.6 7.16 6.75 7.93 7.89 7.25 III 5 Site 7.9 0.3 7.27 6.93 7.77 6.95 7.46 7.75 7.44 IV 7 8 6.9 0.2 6.46 6.7 6.9 7.08 7.21 7.24 6.92 Site I 1 5 7.6 0.5 6.38 7.46 7.59 7.73 8.08 8.17 7.57 Site II 3 8 Isodon rugosus Site 7.7 0.2 7.05 7.68 7.7 7.76 7.84 7.97 7.68 III 9 9 Site ------IV 7.1 0.2 6.5 6.96 7.01 6.8 7.03 7.14 6.94 Site I 6 1 7.3 0.4 6.51 7.43 7.34 7.36 7.84 7.96 7.39 Site II 5 6 Thymus linearis Site 7.6 0.5 6.57 7.2 7.57 -- 7.95 -- 7.38 III 2 2 Site 7.8 0.4 6.98 7.01 -- 7.93 7.99 8.19 7.65 IV 5 8 6.5 4.5 7.08 6.95 6.54 7.64 7.72 6.70 1 Artemesia Site I 2 absinthium 6.7 0.7 5.75 7.14 7.28 7.2 7.78 8.04 7.13 Site II 7 4
Site 7.2 0.5 6.13 7.36 7.38 7.28 7.44 7.69 7.21 III 5 0 Site 7.7 0.4 6.48 7.55 7.68 7.95 7.91 8.02 7.61 IV 4 8 6.7 0.4 6.22 7.11 7.28 6.56 7.34 7.6 6.97 Site I 1 5 7.1 0.5 6.49 7.25 7.17 6.85 7.79 8.09 7.25 Site II 1 4 Artemesia vestita Site 7.3 6.56 7.13 7.26 7.25 7.84 8.14 7.36 0.5 III 6 Site 0.3 7.52 7.58 7.68 7.1 7.16 7.91 8.12 7.58 IV 4
Table-5.24: Monthly estimation of Leaf wash pH of different plant species during the study period at the four study sites. Apri Ma Jun Jul Augus Septembe Octobe Mea S.D Plant Species Sites l y e y t r r n . 8.4 0.9 8.1 8.8 8.65 9.44 10.06 10.55 9.15 Site I 7 0 8.2 0.9 7.95 8.48 8.38 9.2 9.98 10.42 8.95 Site II 5 4 Marrubium vulgare Site 8.0 0.9 7.98 8.32 8.31 9.09 9.74 10.27 8.82 III 4 0 Site 7.9 0.4 7.22 7.57 7.59 7.99 7.98 -- 7.71 IV 3 1 8.3 1.0 7.4 8.66 8.31 9.29 10.14 10.32 8.92 Site I 6 5 8.2 1.0 7.28 8.63 8.31 8.89 9.81 10.33 8.78 Site II 2 2 Plantago lanceolata Site 1.1 7.1 8.64 7.71 -- 8.88 9.68 10.29 8.71 III 9 Site 0.7 7 7.48 7.37 7.7 7.85 7.83 8.03 7.60 IV 3 8.4 0.5 8.58 8.67 8.35 9.41 9.7 9.55 8.95 Site I 3 7 8.2 0.3 Isodon rugosus 8.45 8.44 8.32 8.96 9.2 9.01 8.66 Site II 7 8 Site 8.2 0.5 8.18 7.95 8.01 8.82 9.08 9.13 8.48 III 1 1
Site ------IV 8.2 0.6 7.93 8.71 8.53 9.29 9.8 9.53 8.86 Site I 7 9 8.1 0.8 7.3 8.37 8.44 9.12 9.74 9.34 8.63 Site II 1 3 Thymus linearis Site 8.0 0.8 7.45 8 8.12 -- 9.64 -- 8.25 III 5 2 Site 7.4 0.9 7.2 7.5 -- 7.66 8.57 7.74 7.69 IV 9 4 8.4 0.6 7.7 8.8 8.73 9.05 9.75 9.13 8.79 Site I 3 4 8.2 0.6 7.49 8.66 8.39 8.91 9.45 8.7 8.54 Artemesia Site II 2 1 absinthium Site 8.2 0.6 7.28 8.63 8.41 8.76 9.43 8.68 8.49 III 9 5 Site 7.8 0.4 7.13 7.64 7.56 7.79 7.86 7.32 7.58 IV 2 7 8.3 0.8 7.55 8.8 8.61 9.36 9.78 9.79 8.89 Site I 6 2 8.3 0.7 7.55 8.48 8.5 9.13 9.66 9.54 8.74 Site II 5 5 Artemesia vestita Site 0.8 7.22 7.29 8.79 8.3 9.09 9.51 8.07 8.32 III 7 Site 7.3 0.4 7.16 7.25 7.22 7.85 8.3 7.83 7.56 IV 7 3
Chapter –6 Discussion
nvironment is a major issue which confronts industry and business in today‟s world on daily basis. Different industrial activities are degrading various environmental E components like water, air, soil and vegetation (Sai et al., 1987; Mishra, 1991; Murugesan et al., 2004; Kumar et al., 2008). The deteriorating quality of environment is causing worldwide concern and mankind is faced with newer and unimaginable kinds of environmental problems. Developmental activities over the world have altered the environmental quality both at micro as well as at macro levels. Development is accompanied by some form of pollution which threatens not only animal and plant life but the very existence of the human race. Cement Industry though socioeconomically an important sector gives rise to substantial quantity of dust emissions which causes an adverse impact on the environment. Cement factories are major source of pollutants for the surrounding areas (Stratmann and Van Haut, 1966). Dust is a major component produced during production of cement. It usually results from frequent vehicular movements inside construction plants and other earth-moving processes, including excavation. Other activities related to cement and dust production include: quarrying operations, grinding and blending of components during production, kiln operation stacks, packaging, transportation and even stored raw materials. Consequently, kiln operation serves as the largest source of dust. This is due to processes involved, such as the clinker burning, fuel firing, cooling and the hauling system. Dust is considered a major environmental problem because it can cause severe pollution. The dust and other pollutants emitting from the cement factories, apart from getting deposited in the upper crust of the soil and changing the composition and chemistry of the soil, get deposited on the foliage, block the stomata or small pores through which plants breathe, affect the photosynthetic rate, pollination and other processes vital to the plant life. The results obtained from analyses of soil and vegetation is discussed as under: 6.1. Soil Analysis Soil is important to everyone, either directly or indirectly. It is a commodity that needs to protect, to use wisely, to understand its ways, and to realize its values. The formation of new soil is so slow that we consider it non renewable in our time frame of few hundred years. We may alter or
relocate it (erosion, hauling and decomposition), we may „manufacture, new soils by loosening or tilling deep loose deposits and adding fertilizers and organic matter. But, we can‟t economically produce „new soils‟ or wait the several thousands of years for nature to replace or extend the supplies of natural soils we now have available (Miller and Donahue, 1995). The determination of physico-chemical properties of soil is very important in monitoring environmental pollution. From the perusal of the data related to soil, the pH value of soil ranged between 7.41 at reference site to 9.18 at site I thus show alkaline character at the site closest to the cement factory. Mandre et al. (1998) reported that soil surrounding cement factories exhibit elevated pH levels. The direct effects of cement dust pollution are the alkalization of the ecosystem and the changing of the chemical composition of soils (Mandre, 1995). The alkaline nature of soil could again be attributed to deposition of cement dust containing calcium oxides. The higher pH of the soil may also be attributed to accumulation of cement dust containing acid neutralizing compounds e.g., lime and gypsum, while the lower pH mildly alkaline at the reference site may be attributed to the decomposition of the organic matter and the release of organic acid (Brady and Weil, 2000). Limestone and cement dusts, with pH values of 9 or higher, may cause direct injury to leaf tissues (Vardaka et al., 1995) or indirect injury through alteration of soil pH (Hope et al., 1991; Auerbach et al., 1997). The Value of organic carbon, organic matter and loss on ignition was found to be lowest at site I i.e., the site in the vicinity of the cement factory. Soil organic matter is considered critical component of soil fertility and productivity (Ibrahim et al. 2011), because it directly affects soil physical structure, water movement and root penetration and indirectly to soil microbial activity (Zabinski et al. 2002). The most probable reason for this behavior of soil at site I is that soil is covered by cement dust deposition from the factory. As compared to various sites of polluted area, the site IV consisted of relatively high proportion of litter/plant and plant residues, which after decomposition contribute to soil organic matter and organic carbon. Soluble salts present in soil dissociate into their respective cations and anions when they come in soil solution. These ions carry current and impart conductivity. Higher the concentration of ions in solution more is its electrical conductance (less the resistance to electric current). Thus the measurement of electrical conductivity can be directly related to the soluble salt concentration. The values of Electrical Conductivity in the sampled surface soils showed mean
values at site I as 0.46 dS/m, 0.298 dS/m at site II, 0.222 dS/m at site III and 0.199 dS/m at site IV. The increased specific conductivity values are an indicator of pollution (Berg et al., 1958). The soil temperature depicted a progressively decreasing trend as the season flipped towards the autumn. Mean soil temperature recorded during the study period (monthly basis) was higher towards the sites located near cement factory as compared to reference site. The difference in soil temperature in cement affected soils and at the reference site might be due to the lesser vegetation cover in the cement affected sites which allows the sunlight to fall directly on the soil. Besides the effect of weather, the lower soil temperature at site IV most probably could be related to the shade encrypted by the vegetation and also the presence of organic materials which blocked the radiation from intercepting the soil surface and consequent warming of the soils. The cover, normally plants and litter, shades the soil; that is, it intercepts some of the incoming radiation, heating the cover itself instead of the soil below (Singer and Munns, 1991). The cement dust pollutants released from the cement factory make the soil particles dry by initially absorbing soil moisture and rough as compared to reference site which retains a fair amount of moisture. Higher amounts of moisture content towards site IV with an average value of 4.33% was related to the vegetation cover and higher amounts of organic matter content. The soil samples collected throughout the study period showed higher exchangeable calcium level in comparison to reference site due to deposition of cement dust enriched with calcium compounds. A positive increase in Exchangeable calcium and magnesium content was observed at the polluted sites. Lafford and Simared (1999) reported that cement dust is a potent source of calcium and magnesium. The polluted sites were found to have higher values of exchangeable calcium content with a highest value at site I and a lower value at site IV. The higher values of calcium in soils around the cement factory could be due to deposition of cement containing oxides of calcium. In the present study, highest value of exchangeable calcium with a mean value of 19.4 me/100 gm was found in the soil of vicinity of the cement factory. Similar results were obtained by Mandal and Voutchkov (2010) who reported that the soils were enriched in Calcium and maximum concentrations were found in soils sampled near the cement factory as opposed to samples collected much farther due to the emissions from the factory. A similar trend was observed for exchangeable magnesium with the highest mean value of 5.4 me/100gm at the most polluted site (site I), 4.5 me/100gm at site II, 4 me/100gm at site III and 2.55 me/100gm at site IV, the values decreased towards the reference site (site IV). Thus
contaminated sites contained higher levels of exchangeable magnesium content being received from the emissions of the cement factory. Higher concentration of cations (calcium and magnesium) at site I help in retention of comparatively higher amounts of anions like chlorides. In the present study, higher amounts of calcium carbonates in the polluted site i.e., site I could be related to the dust particles fall in the area. Iqbal and Shafig (2001), Goudjil (2009) and
Al-omran et al., (2010) have also reported higher CaCO3 content in the soils around cement polluted areas. Soil Phosphorous represents one of the most important nutrient elements for the growth and development of plants. The phosphorous content of most mineral soils falls between 0.02 % and 0.5% and general average of the element is 0.05%. On an average, its 0.12% occurs in earth‟s crust. The soil of the cement polluted site was found to be lower in available phosphorus content as compared to reference site. Soils rich in organic carbon/organic matter retain higher amounts of phosphorus that are available to the plants as in case of the reference site. The level of available phosphorous content showed an increasing trend as one moved from polluted to non- polluted site and the lower levels of available phosphorous content may be attributable to the highly alkaline nature of the soil due to the deposition of calcium enriched dust emitting from the cement factory which resulted in low availability of phosphorus as calcium happens to be possessing phosphorous absorbing affinity (Smith, 1980). A high pH of soil reduces the mobility and availability of Phosphorus which forms insoluble calcium phosphates. 6.2. Vegetation Analysis The dust content at all sites in all months ranged between 0.06 mg/cm2 in Thymus linearis at site IV and 6.05 mg/cm2 in Marrubium vulgare at site I. Analysis of the present investigation shows that in all the months, dust fall on the leaves of all the plants under study was observed very high in polluted area, which was due to more pollutants releasing through cement factory while at the reference site i.e. Site IV, dust particles settled down on leaves generally come from the surrounding soils due to high wind speed. Same result of high dust deposition on leaf surface in industrial area have been reported by Rao and Pal (1979) and Shetye and Chaphekar (1980). According to Prajapati and Tripathi (2006), dust interception and its accumulation in different plant species not only depends upon the sources and amount of pollutants in the environment but also depends on various morphological characters such as leaf shape and size, orientation, texture, presence/absence of hairs, length of petioles etc., weather conditions and direction of
wind and anthropogenic activities. Therefore, high dust content on the leaves of Marrubium vulgare at the most polluted site (site I) can be attributed to presence of hairs on the rough leaf surface that accumulated comparatively more dust content. Bhatnagar et al. (1985) reported very high dust fall on the leaves of all nine plants under study growing in industrial in comparison to those growing in non-industrial area. Dust effects on vegetation may be connected with the decrease in light available for photosynthesis, an increase in leaf temperature due to changed surface optical properties, and interference with the diffusion of gases into and out of leaves. Chlorophyll is an index of productivity of plant (Raza & Murthy, 1988). The chlorophyll pigments are essential component for photosynthesis which occur in chloroplast as green pigment in all photosynthetic plant tissue and are called as photoreceptors; hence any alteration in the chlorophyll concentration may change the morphological and physiological behavior of the plant. Air pollution is known to affect the total chlorophyll content and reduce the photosynthetic activity. Of all the plant parts, the leaf is the most sensitive part to air pollutants and several other such external factors (Lalman and Singh, 1990). When plants are exposed to the environmental pollution above normal physiologically acceptable range, photosynthesis gets inactivated. The key factor in determining the level of impact that the dust will have on the vegetation is the quality of dust deposited. In the present study, dust accumulation altered the chlorophyll and carotenoid contents in all plants in the polluted location (near the cement factory) compared with plants far from the factory in reference site. The total chlorophyll content decreased in the plants growing in the vicinity of the cement factory. The chlorophyll level in plants decrease under pollution stress (Speeding and Thomas, 1973). The trend of the increase in chlorophyll content of plants, obtained in the present study, is also similar to that reported by Odu (1994), and is possibly due to the decrease in the deposition of cement dust with increasing distance from the factory (Akeredolu et al. 1994). The amounts of chlorophyll „a‟, chlorophyll „b‟, total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents of cement dust treated samples were always lower than that of control plants in the present study. Reduction in chlorophyll content as a result of cement dust deposition has been reported for Helianthus annuus (Borkha 1980), Triticum aestivum (Singh & Rao 1981), Zea mays, Amaranthus viridus and Abelmoscus esculentus (Odu 1994). Singh and Rao (1981) noted that changes associated with chlorophyll content in a cement-polluted environment, were associated with a decrease in
the levels of stomatal and cuticular transpiration of encrusted leaf surfaces. Decrease in chlorophyll content might be due to chloroplast damage by incorporation of cement kiln dust into leaf tissues (Singh and Srivastava, 2002). For Pheophytins, the same trend was observed for the different study sites during the study period. The cement kiln dust decrease chlorophyll content, confirming the findings by Prasad and Inamdar (1990). Bhatnagar et al., (1985) concluded that less chlorophyll in leaves of plants growing in polluted area was due to toxic effect of industrial dust and other gaseous pollutants on leaf. The reduction in chlorophyll concentration in the polluted leaves could be due to chloroplast damage (Pandey et al., 1991), inhibition of chlorophyll biosynthesis (Esmat 1993) or enhanced chlorophyll degradation. The changes in chlorophyll content due to the shading effect caused by cement dust and damage to photosynthetic apparatus. Chlorophyll a is thought to be +2 degraded to Pheophytin under SO2 affect by replacing Mg ions from chlorophyll molecules. In chlorophyll b, SO2 removes the phytol group of the chlorophyll b molecules (Rao and Le blanc
1966). Several studies with higher plants exposed to different SO2 concentrations show decreases in chlorophyll content (Inglis and Hill, 1974; Hallgren and Huss, 1975; De Santo et al., 1979; Agrawal and Rao, 1982). The changes in photosynthetic pigments are possibly due to shading and/or photosystem damage due to dust accumulation between the peltates or other effects on stomata. Dust from a cement factory seems to cause substantial changes to leaf physiology, possibly leading to reduced plant productivity. The present results are consistent with Nanos and Ilias, (2007) who reported that cement dust decreased the leaf total chlorophyll content. Carotenoids are a class of natural fat-soluble pigments found principally in plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria, where they play a critical role in the photosynthetic process. They act as accessory pigments in higher plants. They are tougher than chlorophyll but much less efficient in light gathering, help the valuable but much fragile chlorophyll and protect chlorophyll from photoxidative destruction (Joshi et al., 2009). Carotenoids protect photosynthetic organisms against potentially harmful photoxidative processes and are essential structural components of the photosynthetic antenna and reaction center (Joshi and Swami, 2009). Present investigation revealed decreased carotenoid content in polluted site in almost all plant leaves as compared to the reference site. In fact, carotenoid content in leaves under air pollution was decreased. This result is in agreement with those of Joshi and Swami (2007) who showed that plant species subjected to air pollution showed highest decrease in carotenoid contents. Joshi and Swami
(2009) also determined the concentration of carotenoids in the leaves of six tree species exposed to vehicular emission. They reported the reduction in concentration of carotenoids in the leaf samples collected from polluted sites (Joshi and Swami, 2009). Carotenoid contents of some crop plants were found to decrease in response to SO2 (Pandey, 1978; Singh, 1981). It also been noted that carotenoids are more sensitive to SO2 than chlorophyll (Shmimazaki et al., 1980). Several researchers have reported reduced carotenoid content under air pollution (Joshi et al., 2009; Tiwari et al., 2006). Sree Rangaswani et al. (1973) observed that deposition of cement dust on herbaceous plants and fruit crops can cause effects that range from blocked stomata, reduced number of plant leaf and injury to complete reduction in vegetative growth and reproductive structures. The different pollutants play a significant role in inhibition of photosynthetic activity that may result in depletion of chlorophyll and carotenoid content of the leaves of various plants (Chauhan and Joshi, 2008). pH of leaf wash and leaf extract are important parameters and are used as indicators of air pollution in the area. All the six plant samples collected from polluted site exhibited leaf extract pH mean values towards acidic side, which may be due to the presence of SO2 and NOx in the ambient air causing a change in pH of the leaf sap towards acidic site (Swami et al., 2004). pH of Leaf wash was higher in affected plants at site I than the Site IV. In all months of the study period, the pH of leaf wash was estimated to be exhibiting a declining trend as one moved away from the cement factory i.e. Site I > Site II > Site III > Site IV. The strongly alkaline nature of pH values could be attributed to the formation of hydroxides of calcium which is supported by the quite similar observations of Misra et al., 1980. Also the strong alkaline nature of the leaf wash at site I might be due to the dust from limestone materials which factory uses for the manufacturing of cement and the dust which arises during quarrying and transportation of the raw materials. The results are also consistent with Nilson, 1995 who observed that in the nearest surroundings of the cement plant, the stems of trees were covered with a cement crust and recorded a striking increase in the pH of the pine bark.
Chapter –7 Conclusions
he present study titled “Impact of Cement dust on Soil and Vegetation around Khrew Cement Factories” was undertaken keeping in view the increasing number of cement T factories in the valley and their impacts on the environment. The study was carried out from April 2012 to October 2012 in the cement industrial area of the Khrew. The aim of this study was to compare the soil of the cement polluted area with the soil of relatively non polluted area with regard to various physico-chemical parameters and to compare the impact on selected common or ubiquitous elements of vegetation. During the study various parameters like soil temperature, pH, conductivity, moisture, loss on ignition, organic carbon, organic matter, exchangeable calcium, exchangeable magnesium, exchangeable sodium, exchangeable magnesium, calcium carbonate, chloride, available phosphorus, dust deposition on leaves, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, pheophytin a, pheophytin b, total pheophytin, carotenoids, leaf extract pH and leaf wash pH were studied adopting standard methodologies. The following conclusions could be drawn from the study of the soil and vegetation characteristics: 1. An increase in soil pH, soil temperature, conductivity, exchangeable calcium and magnesium, calcium carbonate, a decrease in moisture content, organic carbon, organic matter, loss on ignition, available phosphorus at the site very close to the point source (Site I). 2. The photosynthetic pigments including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, Pheophytin a, pheophytin b, total pheophytin, carotenoid content were comparatively found to be low in plant species growing closest to the cement factory. 3. The dust deposition on leaves of Marrubium vulgare, Isodon rugosus, Plantago lanceolata, Artemesia absinthium, Thymus linearis, Artemesia vestita increased at the most polluted site adjoining point source in comparison to the least polluted site. 4. The leaf wash pH was strongly alkaline at site I as compared to the site IV (Reference site).
5. On the basis of this study, it could be concluded that the soil and plants were found to be affected by cement dust, which might be due to the presence of varied pollutants in the cement dust of the study area. From the observations made during the study it appeared that the cement factory is responsible for the substantial amount of dust in the atmosphere resulting in damage not only to the air quality but also to soil and vegetation. Therefore, appropriate mitigation measures are required to be taken in order to control the pollution in the area which includes: a) Development of a thick green belt around the periphery of each cement factory. b) Provision of macadamization/development of better roads within and around the premises of cement factories. c) Appropriate air pollution control devices to be installed and regularly checked. d) Observance of standards of permissible limits for various constituents as prescribed by SPCB and CPCB.
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