The Emancipation of Women and the Cultural Elite at the Turn of the Twentieth Century: The Case of Amy Lowell (1874–1925) Anna Lombardo Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Supervisors: Dr. Catherine Lawless and Dr. Heather Ingman Centre for Gender and Women’s Studies School of Histories and Humanities Trinity College Dublin 2016 Contents Declaration v Summary vi Acknowledgments viii Introduction 1 0.1. Social and Cultural Context: The Cultural Constraints and Limitations Endured by Women at the Turn of the Twentieth Century 3 0.2. Amy Lowell: A Profile of her Life and Career 20 0.3. Amy Lowell: Critical Reception after her Death 40 Chapter One – Amy Lowell: Enchanted by Theatre 52 1.1. The Theatre through Lowell’s Journals 53 1.2. New Tendencies in the Theatre: Art or Entertainment? 58 1.3. The Italian Scene: Eleonora Duse (1858-1924) 64 Chapter Two – Lowell’s ‘Epiphany’: A Retrospective Reconstruction of Personhood 73 2.1. Lowell’s ‘Eleonora Duse’: The Epiphany 74 2.2. Duse as Testimony of Lowell’s Self-Reconstruction 83 2.3. Duse’s Gioconda and Lowell’s ‘The Cremona Violin’ 87 2.4. Ballads for Sale: ‘To Eleonora Duse in Answer to a Letter’ and ‘To Eleonora Duse, 1923’ 93 Chapter Three – ‘Poetry as a Spoken Art’: A New Interpretation 105 3.1. Poetry, Magazines and Articles: A New Space for the Woman’s Voice 107 3.2. Territory in Poetry: Stereotypes and Critical Responses 114 3.3. ‘Poetry as a Spoken Art’: A Path of Her Own? 118 3.4. The Right to Have a Voice: Reactions and Resistance 121 3.5. Does a Woman Have a Voice of Her Own? Philomela and f Madame Bovary: Two Literary Cases 124 Chapter Four – ‘What’s Irony For?’ A Re-Reading of A Critical Fable 131 4.1. Irony in Lowell’s Journals 132 4.2. ‘Astigmatism’ and ‘The Dinner Party’: Nuances in the Irony of Amy Lowell 134 4.3. ‘A Critical Fable’ and its Reception 139 Chapter Five – Sisterhood: A Critical Re-Reading of ‘The Sisters’ 156 5.1. ‘The Sisters’: Critical Reception and Critical Questions 156 5.2. ‘The Sisters’: Identity and Acknowledgement 160 5.3. Fragmentation, Unity and Incorporation 161 5.4. ‘The Sisters’: A Poem about Choice 169 Chapter Six – Lowell’s Love Discourse in Sword Blades and Poppy Seed 177 6.1. Sword Blades and Poppy Seed: Lowell’s Preface and Its Reception 179 6.2. Tendencies in American Poetry and Lowell’s Re-reading of Imagism 184 6. 3. Lowell’s Love Discourse: Sapphic Allusions in ‘In a Garden’ 188 6.3.1. ‘In a Garden’: Exposure of Love and Longing 189 6.4. Unrequited Love and the ‘Object of Desire’: A Reconsideration 194 6.5. ‘Clear, with Light Variable Winds’ 198 6.6. Knowledge and Experience: The Erotic Resource 202 6.7. ‘The Blue Scarf’ and the Absence of the Beloved 204 6.8. The Use of Absence as a Strategy in Lowell’s Love Discourse 207 Chapter Seven – Problematic Aspects of Lowell’s Poetical Identity 212 7.1. Sharing versus Isolation 214 7.2. Sword Blades and Poppy Seed 223 7.3. ‘Patterns’ 227 7.4. Lowell’s Unstable Position in Feminist Studies 232 Conclusion 238 Bibliography of Works by Amy Lowell 243 General Bibliography 245 Declaration I declare that this thesis has not been submitted as an exercise for a degree at this or any other university and that it is entirely my own work. I agree that the Library may lend or copy the thesis upon request. This permis- sion covers only single copies made for study purposes, subject to normal con- ditions and acknowledgements. __________________________________ Anna Lombardo v Summary Using the case study of American poet Amy Lowell (1874-1925), this thesis explores the path Lowell chose to develop her narrative identity and find her own voice in the male-dominated art world at the turn of the twentieth century. It also illuminates the effects of the performances of Italian actress Eleonora Duse (1858-1924) on Lowell’s artistic and cultural emancipation, and how Lowell negotiated her female desires in the face of the constraints of her time. Overall, this thesis provides novel insights into the rediscovery of lost female voices while exploring Lowell’s share in the cultural debates of her time. Lowell’s exclusion from literary history soon after her death in 1925 and her rediscovery over half a century later provide a lens through which to reconsider her work. Feminist critics, from Lilian Faderman in the 1980s to Melissa Bradshaw (whose most recent work on Lowell was published in 2011), have often been guided in their debates by an arguably prejudicial queer theory perspective invited by the theme of lesbian desire in Lowell’s love lyrics. In spite of Lowell’s active participation in literary and academic fields during her lifetime, her own poetry and criticism have seen little substantial feminist dis- cussion and there have been relatively few critical studies of her work. A kind of critical tunnel vision seems to have obsessed both male and female critics, who were intent on digging into Lowell’s private life to find evidence of her sexuality reflected in her poems. This may explain why other aspects of her poetical and critical thought have been neglected. Exploring both her poetic and critical achievements, this case study ad- dresses aspects of Amy Lowell’s life and work that remain insufficiently con- sidered in feminist studies. Lowell’s struggle to find her poetical voice and pro- fessional place in the arts is re-evaluated in light of the first wave of feminism in order to ascertain how she incorporated ideas of the New Woman that were quickly spreading throughout North America. Ultimately, this thesis explores to what extent Lowell’s vision of the poet’s role and poetry allowed her the op- portunity to craft a uniquely feminist perspective that embraced artistic free- vi dom and unveiled the status of female artists as second-class citizens in artistic circles. In discussing the controversial critical reception of Lowell in literary history, this thesis also questions feminist critiques that narrowly categorise writers according to their gender or sexual orientation. It is imperative to con- sider Lowell’s resistance to the various labels she received—feminist, lesbian, queer—when assessing her work and her struggle to popularise vers libre and Imagism among her American readers. This thesis employs several multidisciplinary investigative and analyti- cal tools, borrowing from both literary criticism and gender studies, to examine Lowell’s texts and her active role in the cultural elite of her time, while also acknowledging wider theoretical debates regarding the role of gender, theatre, and poetry in this period, the early decades of the twentieth century. In weav- ing these strands together, this thesis argues that separating Amy Lowell from her claim to the right to explore every nuance of her womanhood is to read her work in fragments; it is to diminish her experiences as a woman and a female artist at the turn of the twentieth century, and thereby devalues her legacy and its relevance for women’s ongoing struggle for equality. vii Acknowledgments This thesis would not have been possible without the advice, support and pa- tience of many people. First and foremost, I wish to express deep gratitude and appreciation to my two supervisors, Dr. Catherine Lawless and Dr. Heather Ingman, who have both provided constructive criticism and invaluable support throughout the re- search and writing process. They have always been a reassuring and positive presence, sources of inspiration and encouragement. Dr. Heather Ingman has read through multiple drafts and offered guidance and direction in shaping parts of the thesis. Her insights have helped me to grapple with the theoretical and gender dimensions of this thesis within the literature framework. I wish to thank my early supervisors: Dr. Maryann Valiulis, who first believed in this project and helped me through my first year to refine and or- ganise it; Dr. Giuliana Adamo for her assistance during the initial stage of my thesis, and Katherine McTiernan, who offered much needed guidance through my second year and encouraged me to pursue my research. She helped me to settle in at the Gender Studies Centre, encouraging collaboration with my col- leagues, and ensured a smooth transition—in spite of my initial bewilder- ment—when she was replaced by Dr. Maryanne Valiulis. Her belief in my work was a great help in those moments. I would like to thank the two Directors of Postgraduate Teaching and Learning in the School of Histories and Humanities, Dr. Joseph Clark and Dr. Martine Cuypers, who advised and supported me during difficult personal cir- cumstances. Thank you to the staff at Trinity College library who assisted me in us- ing the available resources in the most efficient way. I am indebted to the staff of Houghton Library in Boston for facilitating my visit there and providing me with valuable information to access Amy Lowell’s collection. I would like to thank Barbara Halptorn who helped me to decipher Lowell’s handwriting. I am very grateful for her generosity and her viii support during my stay in Boston. Her house and her friends were also a source of inspiration and joy. I wish to thank Anna T. Lowell for sharing with me her memories of her ancestor Amy Lowell. A special thank-you to her brother Professor Mi- chael Putnam who encouraged me and kept me updated with the American publications on Lowell. I would like to thank the Fondazione Giorgio Cini in Venice and its di- rector, Dr.