Notes

1 INTRODUCTION

1. Chechens and the closely related Ingush together call themselves the Vainakh or Vaynakh people. 2. John B. Henriksen (2001) states, “The question of whether the right of self-determination has been recognized under international law outside the context of traditional de-colonization is still a very controversial matter. However, the United Nations process on the rights of indigenous peoples indicates that understanding of the scope of the right of self-determination may be evolving further” (p. 7). International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (WGIA; undated) states, “What is most widely implied in the term self-determination is the right to participate in the democratic process of governance and to influence one’s future—politically, socially and cultur- ally. Self-determination embodies the right for all peoples to determine their own economic, social and cultural development. Self-determination has thus been defined by the International Court of Justice . . . as the need to pay regard to the freely expressed will of peoples” (“Self-determination,” undated, accessed February 29, 2013, http://www.iwgia.org/human- rights/self-determination). (Emphasis in the original.) 3. See “History,” (no author or date indicated) at the Chechen website Vaynakh Online, http://www.waynakh.com/eng/chechnya/history/. See also Mairbek Vatchagaev’s (undated) informative description of Islam in , at http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_ news%5D=2875#.U5EFavldUlw. 4. The actual number cited in the census is 1,268,989. There are some disputes regarding census statistics, however: see Valery Dzutsev’s 2010 article on the ’s website, at http://www. jamestown .org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=37171# .U44K0XL6HD4. 5. The 2010 Russian Federation census lists the number of Ingush in the Republic of Ingushetia as 412,529. 178 Notes

6. Dzutsev references this quote from source: http://north-osetia.kavkaz- uzel.ru/articles/205997/. 7. Council of Europe (2010) report titled “Legal Remedies for Human R ights Violations in the North- Region,” retrieved from http:// www.assembly.coe.int/committeedocs/2010/20100531_caucasus_e .pdf. 8. Time spent in Kabardino-Balkaria involved private capacity building sup- port for local humanitarian organizations. 9. In the , the word “Negro” is often used to refer to black- skinned people, rather than the Russian word “black.” Chechens similarly utilize this phrase for all black-skinned people, including those in the United States and Europe.

2 LIVING IN TALES

1. Musa Akhmadov, 1999, utilizes the Chechen word nokhchalla to refer to “Chechen-ness” (p. 12). 2. The Chechen Republic of Ichkeria was the name given by Chechens to the first independent Chechen state, beginning in 1991 with the rule of , the first president after independence. 3. Current insurgent forces, led by Doku Umarov, dissolved the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and proclaimed a “” in 2007. 4. In August 1999, Chechen military commander led a group of fighters into . There are varied alleged rationales for the incursion, including goals of supporting Dagestani fighters there, to further the unification of Chechnya-Dagestan; a plot to remove from power as president of Ichkeria; and, among others, sim- ply to provide justification to to reinvade Chechnya and regain control in the region. Russian forces repelled the Dagestani incursion, and after a series of apartment building bombings in early September (Chechen insurgency, including Basayev, denied involvement in these bombings), Russian military reinvaded Chechnya at the end of September 1999. 5. As a March 14, 2011 article, “The Genocide of Chechen People in 1944,” on the Vaynakh Online website describes, “February 23, 1944 is the most tragic date in the history of the Waynakh people”; accessed from http://www.waynakh.com/eng/2011/03/the-genocide-of-chechen- people-in-1944-archive-documents/ . Akhmad Zakayev, in a February 18, 2014 “Statement” condemning the dismantling of a memorial to the Deportation, calls the memorial, “one of the most revered shrines of our people,” accessed from http://www.waynakh.com/eng/2014/02/ Notes 179

statement-from-zakayev-on-the-dismantling-of-the-deportation- memorial-in-grozny/comment-page-1/. 6. This section does not contain substantial tales of Shamil Basayev or Ruslan Khamzat Gelayev, as this author did not have access to significant conversations about either. Both Basayev and Gelayev played pivotal roles as military commanders in the Chechen insurgency. Gelayev was killed in 2004 inside of Dagestan, and Basayev died in an explosion in 2006, in Ingushetia. Their legacy among Chechens is polarizing: depending on who tells the tales, both were either brutal “killers, criminals” who blighted the reputation of the Chechen nation, or were “brave fighters,” now “martyrs,” who died for the Chechen people. Citing Gelayev him- self, the latter would claim, “Yes, he was a killer, but what about the tens of thousands of Chechens who have been killed. Why doesn’t anyone care about those deaths?” Those who abhor Basayev and Gelayev label them extrem- ists, and point to their implication in kidnapping, hostage-taking, and killing of civilians; Basayev in particular is blamed for a host of atrocities against civilians, including the North Ossetia school hostage-taking that caused the deaths of nearly 300 innocent civilians. This event damned Chechens in the eyes of the world, and would be supporters of indepen- dent Chechnya dropped away en masse following this travesty. Basayev is also blamed for leading Chechen forces into Dagestan, which gave ratio- nale for Russia to reinvade Chechnya in 1999, thus ending Chechnya’s brief independence. 7. Shamil was permitted to undertake his Hadj pilgrimage; he thereafter travelled to Medina and died there in 1871. 8. KGB, “Committee for State Security,” was the top state security appa- ratus under the ; FSB, “Federal Security Services” is the current state security apparatus in the Russian Federation. GRU, “Main Intelligence Directorate, is security services, under the military. 9. Maskhadov was the third president of Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. He fought in the 1994–1996 war and was elected president in 1997. He led resistance forces in the second war, from 1999, and was killed in Chechnya in March 2005. 10. Zakayev served as Foreign Minister under Maskhadov, and is current leader of the exiled government of Ichkeria. 11. Chechen website reported Doku Umarov’s death in an obituary on March 18, 2014, but without detail, confirmation, and cause of death. Russian authorities did not confirm the death. On July 20, 2014, Kavkaz Center published a second article claiming that Umarov’s death, by poison, occurred on September 7, 2013. Caucasus Emirate leadership subsequently approved Ali Abu-Mukhammad, a Dagestani cleric, to be Umarov’s successor. 180 Notes

“Caucasus Emirate’s Emir Dokku Abu Usman martyred, Insha’Allah. Obituary,” Kavkaz Center, March 18, 2014. Accessed October 29, 2014, http://www.kavkazcenter.com/eng/content/2014/03/18/19017.shtml. “On martyrdom of Dokku Abu Usman, Emir of Caucasus Emirate,” Kavkaz Center, July 20, 2014. Accessed October 29, 2014, http://www. kavkazcenter.com/eng/ content/2014/07/20/19359.shtml. 12. A June 3, 2009 Freedom House report included Chechnya among “eight countries judged to have the worst human rights records.” “Within these entities, state control over daily life is pervasive and wide-ranging, inde- pendent organizations and political opposition are banned or suppressed, and fear of retribution for independent thought and action is part of daily life.”(p. 1), accessed from http://www.refworld.org/docid/49bf59e20 .html. 13. was chief Mufti of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria during the brief period of independence there, but later allied himself with the Russian Federation. Russian president appointed him as head of government in Chechnya, in July 2000, soon after Russian forces regained control in the republic. The October 2003 presidential elections gave Kadyrov an overwhelming majority, but this figure of “80 percent” is widely contested—international observers did not par- ticipate in the elections and inside of Chechnya, there were allegations of widespread voter intimidation. Kadyrov was assassinated in Grozny in May 2004. was elected to office after Kadyrov’s assas- sination but resigned (many Chechens claimed he was forced to resign) in February 2007. , Akhmad’s son, was immediately appointed by Putin to take Alkhanov’s place. 14. Chechens claim polls show these high ratings, but it is doubtful whether the conduct of these polls was independent from the Kadyrov regime. 15. An (undated, no author indicated) article on “religion” on the Chechen website Vaynakh Online, describes both of these suppositions, that is, that foreign sources support fundamentalism in Chechnya, and that Russian officials both backed and use it: “It is not unlikely that Wahhabism was used by the KGB in the early nineties to counter the revival of popular Islam. During the Chechen wars Wahhabism has above all been promoted by donations and volunteers from Saudi Arabia.” Accessed from http:// www.waynakh.com/eng/chechens/religion/. 16. In September 2004, a group of Islamic militants seized a public school in the town of Beslan, North Ossetia, a North Caucasus republic. They held at least 1,000 people hostage, more than half of which were children. In disputed circumstances, Russian forces stormed the school and scores of people were killed, mostly children. Details of these circumstances remain sketchy, with Chechens claiming that Russian forces killed the civilians, Notes 181

while Russia claims that the militants directly killed them or caused their death. 17. This is typified by a statement made on a pro-Russian Chechen news agency site (author not identified): “The Russia is our Motherland, the Northern Caucasus is our Fatherland and we must take care of them.” Chechen Republic Today, June 27, 2009, accessed from http://chechnyato- day.com/en/content/view/2192/1/. 18. Here, Zakayev is condemning the pro-Russian head of government Ramzan Kadyrov’s decision to dismantle a Grozny monument to the 1944 Deportation, in his “Statement” (February 18, 2014) accessed at: http://www.waynakh.com/eng/2014/02/statement-from-zakayev- on-the-dismantling-of-the-deportation-memorial-in-grozny/comment- page-1/. 19. When Kadyrov made this statement, there was great stir and much deri- sion among many Chechens. The source of this statement is apparently an interview published in the Russian gazette, Komsomolskaya , September 23, 2008, by Alexander Gamov. Accessed at http://www .kp.ru/daily/24169/380743/.

3 CULTURAL SYMBOLISMS

1. Dudayev, while in power, was apparently a very vocal leader, prone to public exclamation. Chechens also often repeat Dudayev’s words, “A man who accepts slavery deserves double slavery.” 2. Any labor that is poorly paid, does not require much physical strength or intellect, or that involves serving others. 3. The word “democracy” is controversial among Chechens at present. A form of this word may be used by Chechens to describe their egalitarian system of governance, but when translated into Russian, it also contains connotations of “Western democracy.” “Western democracy” is conflict- ual, since some Chechens believe the West would like to destroy Chechen culture; religious fundamentalists argue that “Western democracy” is incompatible with Islam. 4. This greeting also contains connotations of “go in freedom.” 5. Any older or well-respected person, male or female. 6. “Modesty” here denotes reluctance to place oneself in a “higher” position or standing. 7. According to the article “Religion” (author not identified), published on the website Vaynakh Online, “The form of Islam practiced in Chechnya today, the Sufism of the Naqshbandi and Qadiri tariqats (orders), arrived from Dagestan in the late eighteenth century,” accessed at http://www 182 Notes

.waynakh.com/eng/chechens/religion/. In addition, Amjad Jaimoukha, 2005, writes, “By the mid-nineteenth century, practically all Chechens were converted to Islam, at least nominally”(p. 106). 8. This author has witnessed women who earlier covered their heads with narrow headscarves, begin to cover head and neck completely as the men in their families became influenced and insisted on these changes. 9. Many Chechens argue these extremist pressures are behind the unraveling of traditional conflict mechanisms in Chechen communities. 10. Musa Ahkmadov, a Chechen writer, describes this struggle over culture in Chechnya, the Right to Culture, 1999, p. 113. 11. As a 2010 Amnesty International report describes, “Since 2007, Chechen President Ramzan Kadyrov has called repeatedly for women and girls to dress modestly, in line with Chechen traditions, and to wear a headscarf.” Russian Federation: Briefing to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women—46th Session July 2010, accessed at https:// www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/EUR46/022/2010/en/43e4327f-7176- 4d1a-a3ce-9d4e07f58419/eur460222010en.html.

4 MEN AND WOMEN

1. In this time of high unemployment, jobs for men remain scarce, and in many cases, women are important household earners, particularly resell- ing goods in local markets. 2. It would be crude and disrespectful for a man to gape at a woman or openly inspect her, and so he sends her to fetch a glass of water; as she walks away he quickly makes his assessment. He may indeed be checking whether she is “lame,” but this explanation is actually a polite way of say- ing he is checking out her physical assets.

5 IN THE LOOKING GLASS, AND LOOKING OUT

1. The Russian language word for people with black skin is “negro,” and Chechens use this word when speaking of any black-skinned person or nation, rather than the Russian word “black.” They also use “negro” when referring to blacks in the United States, rather than using the word “black,” or “African American.” 2. Most Chechens speak a mixture of Chechen and Russian language. Few are fluent in Chechen language, and very few speak and write their native language with grammatical precision. There are several plausible reasons Notes 183

for this lack of native language fluency. First, though education and lit- eracy was a priority under the Soviet Union, Chechens claim the lan- guage of instruction in schools was always Russian, and most teachers were Russian. Some claim that Chechen language and history was offered in school, but Russian language, was a mandatory requirement and remained the dominant language; Chechens lived and worked within the system of this language. In addition, due to the recent wars in Chechnya, at least one generation experienced long-term disruption in schooling, many schools and libraries were destroyed, and so literacy levels in general were reduced. The Chechen language, thus, has likely survived largely through oral transmission. Under these circumstances, it is unlikely many Chechens have had the opportunity to learn their language, spoken or written, fluently and with grammatical precision. 3. Many Chechens argue, “We were misled, we were lied to; it was a mistake.” It is unclear who “misled” them. 4. Caution and suspicion, unfortunately, do not always substitute for judgment, referring to the gullibility Chechens often display in many matters. 5. Chechens are aware the European Parliament, in 2004, officially recog- nized the 1944 “deportation” as “genocide.” 6. Musa Akhmadov (1999) clarifies this idea as admalla, or “humaneness,” (p. 12) though it is unclear if he meant “humanness.” 7. Here they are referring to the so-called Agreement, signed by the Russian general, , and the president of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, Aslan Maskhadov, in August 1996. The agreement represented Chechen victory against Russian troops in the first (1994– 1996) war, as it stipulated withdrawal of Russian troops from Chechnya, and postponed determination of the “independence” question until 2001. This amounted to de facto independence of Chechnya. Russian federal troops reinvaded Chechnya in late 1999.

6 CHECHENS AS REFUGEES

1. In a March 2011 report, European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE) states, “Since 2003 asylum seekers from the Russian Federation . . . have become one of the largest groups of asylum seekers in Europe and other industrialized countries.” p. 1. See Guidelines on the Treatment of Chechen Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), Asylum Seekers, and Refugees in Europe, The European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE). March 8, 2011. Accessed June 9, 2014, http://www.ecre.org/topics/areas-of-work/ returns/174.html. 184 Notes

2. According to Olga Khazan, writing for The Atlantic, “The Jamestown Foundation estimates that there are probably fewer than 200 Chechen immigrants in the United States.” See “There Are Almost No Chechens in the United States—Here’s Why.” The Atlantic. April 22, 2013, at http:// www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/04/there-are-almost- no-chechens-in-the-united-states-heres-why/275195/. 3. It is beyond the scope of the current document to investigate all groups of Chechen refugees throughout Europe and other countries. 4. During this time period it was difficult to know the exact number of Chechen refugees in Istanbul, as many remained unregistered—more than a few did not wish to register with authorities, and many had no identification documents in order to register or obtain residency permits. 5. For overview of this diaspora, see “The North Caucasian Diaspora in Turkey,” by Egbert Wessenlink (1996), accessed at http://www.refworld .org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=country&category=&publisher=WR ITENET&type=&coi=TUR&rid=&docid=3ae6a6bc8&skip=0. 6. From author’s discussions with officials. 7. Witnessed by author. 8. Witnessed by author. 9. Beginning in July 2012, the three main refugee camps in Istanbul were closed and all refugees were moved to a single high-rise apartment on the outskirts of Istanbul. Each family received a private room, along with a monthly stipend for the first year. This is the first time the Turkish gov- ernment has offered a monthly stipend to Chechen refugees, and for now, it appears to be offered as a short-term measure. 10. A traditional Turkish sweet pastry.

7 DEVELOPMENT: WHAT WAY FORWARD?

1. Musa Akhmadov, 1999, p. 112. 2. Musa Akhmadov argues that Chechen norms do not include this sense of exceptionalism: “Owing to the tireless preachings of ustazes our Chechen mentality has always been free of self-praising and the feeling of national supremacy. The concept ‘nokhchalla’ (Chechenness) has never been thought of by our ancestors as something higher than ‘admalla’ (humaneness), a vivid example of which is our folklore where the main positive characters often are not only Chechens but representatives of other nationalities” (1999, p. 113). Akhmadov may be referring to “ideal” norms here. Notes 185

3. “Syndrome” is a word used by particular Chechens, to explain the rationale of inappropriate behaviors. 4. Zuleikhan Bagalova, in Chechnya, the Right to Culture, 1999, p. 1. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid. 7. Many Chechens allege recent years’ assassinations of Chechens in Europe (Austria, 2009) and Turkey (2009/2011) are the work of Russia or the Kadyrov regime. Others claim that conflict over financial resources con- nect some of these killings. Causes and perpetrators aside, it is certain that the Chechen conflict is not contained to within Chechnya’s, or Russia’s, borders. 8. Survey of Chechen Internet sites is beyond the scope of this document. Suffice it to say, these websites are numerous, some fleeting, while others have been in existence for a number of years now, such as Kavkaz Center and Vaynakh Online. 9. European Court of Human Rights. Bibliography

Akhmadov, Ilyas, Miriam Lanskoy, and Zbigniew Brzezinski. The Chechen Struggle: Independence Won and Lost. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. Akhmadov, Musa. Untitled Essay. In Chechnya, the Right to Culture, by LAM— Center for Research and Popularization of the Chechen Culture, 112–113. Moscow: Polinform-Talburi Publishers, 1999. Amnesty International. “Russian Federation: Briefing to the un Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women—46th Session July 2010.” Accessed June 5, 2014, https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/ asset/EUR46/022/2010/en/43e4327f-7176-4d1a-a3ce-9d4e07f58419/ eur460222010en.html. Bagalova, Zuleikhan. Untitled Essay. In Chechnya, the Right to Culture, by LAM— Center for Research and Popularization of the Chechen Culture, 1. Moscow: Polinform-Talburi Publishers, 1999. “The Chechen Republic President Is Our Greatest Hope.” Chechen Republic Today. June 27, 2009. Accessed August 10, 2013, http://chechnyatoday.com/ en/content/view/2192/1/. Council of Europe. “Legal Remedies for Human Rights Violations, Report by coe Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights.” May 31, 2010. Accessed June 5, 2014, http://www.assembly.coe.int/committeedocs/2010/20100531_ caucasus_e.pdf. Dzutsev, Valery. “2010 Census Data Is Adjusted to Meet Kremlin Priorities in the North Caucasus,” Eurasia Daily Monitor 7 (207). November 15, 2010. Accessed June 4, 2014, http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=37171#.U44K0XL6HD4. Dzutsev, Valery. “Allegations of Human Rights Abuses by the Government Agents Remain Unaddressed in the North Caucasus,” Eurasia Daily Monitor 9 (90). May 11, 2012. Accessed June 5, 2014, http://www.jamestown.org/programs/ nca/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=39365&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D =24&cHash=e0f4761db1976c192fa76b6d11f016c4. ECRC. “Guidelines on the Treatment of Chechen Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), Asylum Seekers, and Refugees in Europe.” The European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE). March 8, 2011. Accessed June 9, 2014, http:// www.ecre.org/topics/areas-of-work/returns/174.html. 188 Bibliography

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“Religion.” Vaynakh Online. Accessed June 5, 2014, http://www.waynakh.com/ eng/chechens/religion/. Usmanov, Lyoma. “The Chechen Nation: A Portrait of Ethnical Features.” Jordanian Chechen Site. January 9, 1999. Accessed on August 1, 2013, http://www.sukhneh .com/main/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=35: 2009-06-10-13-06-06&id=179:the-chechen-nation. Usmanov, Lyoma. “The Caucasus—What Is Behind the Conflict?” An exclusive TMM interview with His Excellency Lyoma Usmanov, Representative of the Islamic Republic of Ichkeria (Chechnya) in the US. Naqshbandi: Sufi Way. August 28, 1999. Accessed August 1, 2013, http://www.naqshbandi.org/ naqshbandi.net/www/haqqani/features/caucasus/news/lyoma_usmanov2. htm. Vatchagaev, Mairbek. “The Role of Sufism in the Chechen Resistance.” North Caucasus Analysis 6 (16) (undated). Accessed June 5, 2014, http://www. jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=2875#.U5EFavldUlw. Wessenlink, Egbert. “The North Caucasian Diaspora in Turkey.” WRITENET. May 1, 1996. Accessed May 24, 2013, http://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6a6bc8.html. Zakayev, Akhmed. “Statement (Statement from Zakayev on the Dismantling of the Deportation Memorial in Grozny).” Vaynakh Online. February 18, 2014. Accessed June 1, 2014, http://www.waynakh.com/eng/2014/02/statement- from-zakayev-on-the-dismantling-of-the-deportation-memorial-in-grozny/ comment-page-1/.

ADDITIONAL WEBSITES

American Committee for Peace in the Caucasus: www.peaceinthecaucasus.org Caucasus Foundation: www.kafkas.org.tr ChechenCenter: http://www.chechencenter.info Chechnya Free.ru: http://www.chechnyafree.ru/en/ : www.chechenpress.co.uk Kavkaz Center: http://www.kavkazcenter.com/ North Caucasus—Radio Free Europe: http://www.rferl.org/section/North_ Caucasus/167.html North Caucasus Weekly: http://www.jamestown.org/programs/ncw/ Prague Watchdog—Crisis in Chechnya: http://www.watchdog.cz/ Waynakh Online: http://www.waynakh.com/eng/ Index

Italics entries are cultural concepts, phrases, or non-English words. Bold font entries are names of individuals, places, or historical events.

500 years!, 33, 55, 108, 109, 112 charity, concept of, 71 1944 Deportation, 36–9, 183n5 See also generosity 1994–1996 (First War), 2, 4–6, 32, Chechen-ness, concept of. 41, 43, 162, 183n7 See Nokhchalla; real Chechen 1999+ (Second War), 4–6, 43–6, children 110, 117, 162, 172–3, 178n4, behavioral problems, war related, 16, 179n9 76–7, 136 educational issues, war related, 79, adat, 1–2, 14, 34, 38, 87–8, 83–4, 123, 129–31, 162 110, 135 raising of, 1, 64–5, 80, 87, 89, 91–2, loss of, 2, 34, 117, 135–8, 165 95–6, 97–8, 102, 103 See also cultural degradation clan system, 68, 72, 107, 132, 135, Akhmadov, Musa, 12, 172, 178n1, 154–5, 161, 170–1 184nn1, 2 clothing America, opinions of, 23, 64, 73, 108, men’s, 87 114–16 women’s, 88–9, 95 anthem, national, 62–3 See also headscarf Arabs, views of, 35, 82, 107–8, 113 collectivism, 1, 7, 10, 29, 63–4, 66–7, 68–9, 70, 71–9, 80, 99, 107, 110, bandits, concept of, 7, 24, 44, 60, 115, 135, 153–7, 159, 165–6, 113, 150 167, 171 Basayev, Shamil, 35, 110, 178n4, See also individual, role of 179n6 conflict resolution, 74–6, 78–9, 133, betrayal, sense of, 26, 31, 65, 111–12 135, 153, 167 blood feuds, 49, 167 corruption, 150, 161 bravery, concept of, 40, 43, 46, 62–3, See also mafia 87–8, 179n6 Council of Europe, 5 courtship, romantic, 103–6 Caucasian, 26, 34, 37, 39, 107 criminal groups, 31, 42, 44, 48–9, 60, Caucasus Emirate, 31, 52, 132, 166, 111, 179n6 178n3 See also mafia 192 Index cultural degradation, 10, 117, 134–6, European Court of Human Rights, 137–9, 165, 172 7, 164 exploration, 2, 26, 171 extermination. See cultural extermination, 32, 69, 171 extermination; genocide reconstruction, 84, 165–7 extremists, 46, 51–4, 60, 82–5, 165–6, cultural rituals, 69, 71, 78–9, 81, 137–9 172–3, 182n9 decline of, 137–8 family relations, 70–1, 74, 78, 87, 89, Dagestan, 3, 4, 35, 110, 178n4, 90–3, 95–102, 153 179n6, 181–2n7 fighters, concept of, 4, 38, 39–41, democracy, Chechen, 71–3, 153–4, 43–6, 51, 52–4, 178n4 181n3 See also Mansur; Shamil; Maskhadov; Deportation (1944), 36–9, 183n5 Gelayev; Umarov; Basayev development, 2, 134–5, 159–60, 167 flag, national, 62, 63 diaspora, Chechen, 6, 107, 115, 121, flora and fauna, 62–3, 79, 81–2 125, 128, 135, 141, 175, 184n5 food preparation, and mealtime, 78–9, in Turkey, 121, 125, 128, 135, 88, 89, 96, 97–8 141–2, 184n5 foreigners, perception of, 111–16 divorce, 90, 92, 99, 101 See also Russia, opinions of domestic violence. See violence against freedom, concept of, 56, 63, 66–9, 73, women 108, 109, 149 dowry, marriage, 137–8 FSB (Federal Security Services), 41, Dudayev, Dzhokhar, 41–3, 48, 67, 179n8 164, 181n1 fundamentalism, Islamic, 48–54, 60, 82–5, 93, 165–6, 172, 180n15, economics, 159–62, 164 181n3 education, 58, 79, 83, 114–15, 129–31, 136, 160, 162–4, Gelayev, Ruslan, 179n6 182–3n2 generosity, concept of, 10, 70–1, 78 educational needs, 163–4 genocide, 8–9, 32, 36–9, 112, 183n5 elderly, care for, 153 Georgian Chechens, 132–3 elders, concept of, 68, 74–6, 77, 80, 83, greed, concept of, 70–1, 165, 167 135, 143, 153, 170, 171 See also generosity employment, 39, 56, 127, 159–62, Grozny, 5, 43, 170, 178n5 182n1 GRU (Main Intelligence Directorate), equality, concept of, 66–7, 68, 71–3, 41, 179n8 74, 90–1 Gruzinski. See Georgian Chechens ethnographic methods, of research guests, 25, 77–9, 88, 96 study, 1–2, 15–22 See also methodology headscarf, women’s, 83–4, 88, 95, Europe, opinions of, 9, 31, 51, 54–5, 173–4, 182n11 73, 107–8, 112, 114–16, 120, health conditions, war related, 6, 9, 49, 127–8, 147 131–2, 165 Index 193 heart of Caucasus, phrase, 33–4 KGB (Committee for State Security), heroes, Chechen. See leaders 41, 179n8 holidays, 71, 106, 137–9 Khasavyurt Agreement, 183n7 honesty, concept of, 65–6, 87 kidnapping, of brides, 104–5 honor, concept of, 46, 61, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 77, 87, 90, 101, language, Chechen, 21–2, 32, 55, 108, 110, 153 110, 182–3nn1, 2 hot blood, expression, 104, 108, 152 leaders, Chechen, 39–50 human rights violations, 5–6, 7, 22, See also under individual names 24, 47, 63, 157, 163–4, 178n7, love, romantic, concept of, 102–3, 103, 180n13 105, 106 humanism, concept of, 53, 112, 183n6, 184n2 mafia, 33, 142, 145, 161 humility, concept of, 72 See also criminal groups See also equality man, concept of ideal, 87–8 Mansur, Sheikh, 39–41 Ichkeria, Republic of, 31, 41, 56, marriage, 88, 89, 90, 94, 95, 97, 63, 112, 132, 161, 169, 178n2, 103–6, 137–8 179n9, 180n13, 183n7 marriages, arranged, 103, 104, 105–6 impure Chechen, concept of, 34–5, 111 Maskhadov, Aslan, 43–6, 84, 178n4, See also real Chechen 179n9, 183n7 independence, movement, 2, 4, 7, 9, mealtime, significance of, 77–9 23, 31, 35, 41, 42, 44, 46, 49, See also food preparation 52–3, 54–5, 59–60, 112 media, 7, 8, 22–3, 84, 126, 147, 166, independence, period of (1996–9), 4, 172, 173–4, 175 41–6, 60, 161, 183n7 Memorial (organization), 5 individual, role of, 67, 68, 69, 71–3, men, Chechen 75–6, 99, 111, 145, 153–4 authority, 90–3, 96–7 See also collectivism clothing, 87 Ingush, 3, 177n1 work, 88, 96–7, 102, 140–1, Ingushetia, 3, 4, 13, 15, 171, 177n5 159–60 Insurgents. See fighters mercy, concept of, 64–5, 80, 99–100 Islam, 3, 10–11, 36, 44, 51–4, 71, 74, methodology, of research study, 12–24 75, 79–85, 90, 93, 165, 172–4 ethical considerations, 22–4 Islamists, 46, 51–4, 60, 172–3 research questions, 16–18 It is hard to be a Chechen, phrase, 1, morality, concept of. See honor 40, 62 naïve, concept, 26, 30, 111, 159, 161–2 Kadyrov, Akhmad, 47, 170, 180n13 nature, meaning and relationship, Kadyrov, Ramzan, 47–50, 56–7, 63, 62–3, 79, 81–2 84–5, 119–20, 133–4, 150, 151, neighbors, concept of, 10, 70–1, 77, 79, 170, 173–4, 180n13, 181n19, 89, 95, 153 182n11, 185n7 See also collectivism 194 Index

Nokhchalla, 2, 169, 184n2 slave, concept of, 30, 67–8, 109, 140, North Caucasus, 1, 3, 6, 11, 26, 33, 157–8, 181n1 34, 52, 108, 159–60 socio-cultural conditions, war related, 135–9 oil, role of, 7, 34 See also adat, loss of; cultural origins, of Chechens, 1, 3, 107–8 degradation Soviet Union, life under, 32, 39, 51, paranoia, 8–9, 26, 30, 41, 57–8, 65, 58, 79, 130, 150, 159–61, 162, 118, 119, 133, 155 182–3n2 peace, concept of, 76, 78, 115–16, 139 religion under, 51, 79, 150 pride, concept of, 30, 34, 40, 61, 67–8, spies, perception of, 34, 41, 45, 50, 88–9, 100–1, 152, 157–9 111, 119 pro-Russia, 6, 55–60, 132 statistics, census of Chechens, See also Kadyrov 3, 177n4 provocateurs, 34, 45 strength, concept of, 33, 40, 62–3, 109 psychological conditions, war related, female, 89, 100–1 6, 32, 49, 84, 115, 131, 134, 172 male, 40, 87, 98 See also health conditions See also honor psychological warfare, 6, 32, 167 taip (or teip) system. See clan system real (or pure) Chechen, concept of, 30, thief-in-law, concept, 33 32, 34–5, 46, 57–8, 110, 111 See also mafia; criminal groups refugees, assassinations or killing of, 6, traitors, concept of, 31, 34, 48–9, 54, 7–8, 22, 47, 184n9 56, 60, 132 religion, 3, 10–11, 36, 44, 46, 51–4, Turkey 60, 71, 74, 75, 79–85, 90, 93, accommodations, 120–1, 146 165, 172–4, 180n15 demographics, 118–20 respect, concept of, 10, 41, 50, 67, 68, education, 129–31 72, 74, 75, 76–7, 79, 81–2, 87–8, health care, 131 89, 90–1, 95, 97, 98, 101, 110, humanitarian assistance, 128–9, 155, 156, 158, 182n2 130, 137, 138–40, 141–5 Russia, opinions of, 2, 8–9, 22, 26, 29, integration in, 117, 134–5 32–4, 36–7, 38–9, 40, 41–2, 49, refugee status, 121–8 52, 54–60, 73, 108–9, 112–13 work and income, 137, 139, 140–1 See also pro-Russia Umarov, Doku, 46, 48, 178n3 self-rule, concept of, 68 United Nations (UN), 13, 14, 125, See also democracy; equality 127, 129, 146, 182n1, 188 seven fathers, concept of, 30, 35, 110, 165, 170 Vainakh (or Vaynakh), 1, 3 Shamil, Imam, 39–41 violence against women, 98–100 Sharia (Islamic Law), 36, 44, 60, 79 virtue, female, 90, 94–5 Index 195

Wahhabism, 51–2, 82–5, 165–6, 172, weddings, rituals, 97, 137–8 180n15 See also marriage war, 1994–1996 (First War), 2, 4–6, wolf, national symbol, 62–3 32–51, 162, 183n7 woman, concept of ideal, 88–9 war, 1999+ (Second War), 4–6, women, Chechen 110, 117, 162, 172–3, 178n4, authority, 90–3, 96–7, 137 179n9 clothing, 88–9, 95 warfare, psychological. See work, 89, 96–7, 102, 136–7, psychological warfare 140–1, 160 weakness, concept of, 61–2, 64–5, See also headscarf 80–1, 88, 100, 103, 105, 113, 158 Zakayev, Akhmed, 45, 56, 178n5