Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Psychology: an Introduction Victoria Clarke, Sonja J

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70018-4 - Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Psychology: An Introduction Victoria Clarke, Sonja J. Ellis, Elizabeth Peel and Damien W. Riggs Index More information

Index

abilities bereavement 230 diversity of 98 ‘disenfranchised grief’ 232–4 exclusion of gay men with intellectual gay men and the AIDS crisis 234 disabilities 100 biological theories of sexuality 26–9 and impairment 98–9 biomedical model of sexuality 126, 257 and sexuality 99–100 biopsychosocial model of sexuality 126, 258 Adams, Clarence 222 biphobia 105 additive models of identity 257 attitude research 108 and intersectionality 245 challenging 87 adoption 196 definition 258 aetiology, essentialist theories of 27–30 hate crimes 111 ageing and old age birth mother/father 195, 258 cohort effects 221–3 bisexual 258 coming out or transitioning 224–5 categorisation problems 65–6 defining age 223–4 essentialist theories 27 films about 276 identity development model 155 gaps in research 235 people who identify as 86–7 health and social care issues 227–8 research on 16–17 relationships in aged care services 228–9 sexual fluidity of 161–2 specific health needs 229 see also biphobia multiple marginalisation 219–21 bisexual, trans and queer (BTQ) people, questions for discussion 236 marginalisation of 20 services for HIV positive people 229 Bisexual Option: A Concept of One Hundred stereotypes of older LGBTQ people 216–19 Percent Intimacy, The (Klein) 16 styles of ageing 225–7 black lesbians variety of life course trajectories 221–2 child-rearing attitudes of 201–2 see also bereavement; death recruitment for research 67 AIDS see HIV/AIDS Body Mass Index (BMI) 143 American Couples (Blumstein and Schwartz) 178 bondage, domination, sadism, masochism androgyny 10, 257 (BDSM) 185, 257 anti-LGBTQ hate crime 109–12 Braun, Virginia 33, 73–5, 250 anxiety and depression 136–7 British Psychological Society (BPS) 19–20 assimilationist 35, 257 bullying at school 165–8 attitude research 106–9 butch–femme/top–bottom relationships 184–5 Attitudes toward Lesbians and Gay Men Butler, Judith 41 Scale 106–7 aversion (‘conversion’) therapy 12–13, 135, 258 calabai/calalai see two-spirit campus climate, research on 112–16 barebacking 131, 132, 257 Cass, Vivienne 154–5 Barker, Meg 187 cervical screening for lesbians 134 BDSM (bondage, domination, sadism, masochism) chat rooms 169–70 185, 257 Chicana lesbians 245 Benjamin, Harry 9, 269 children Bennett, Christopher 100 development of sexual identity 16 berdache see two-spirit in lesbian mother families 199–204

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© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70018-4 - Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Psychology: An Introduction Victoria Clarke, Sonja J. Ellis, Elizabeth Peel and Damien W. Riggs Index More information

322 Index

Christianity 96 deconstructionism 259 chronic illnesses 144–5 depression and anxiety 136–7 civil partnerships developmental psychology 249–50 comparative research 176–7 identity development, models of 153–9 legal recognition of 174–5 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental psychological research 59, 251–2 Disorders (DSM) and transsexual people 176 categorisation of homosexuality 12–13 civil union 174 inclusion of transsexualism in 14–15 Clarke, Victoria xvii, 198–9, 253 Diamond, Lisa 161–2 Clifford, Clair 155–6 dichotomous model of sexuality 16–17, 259 ‘climate studies’ 112–16 and bisexuality 28–30, 105 clinical and counseling psychology 250 overlooking non-western societies 242–3 closeted 206, 230, 258 diet and weight issues 143–4 cohabitation rights 175 different-sex relationships 259 cohort effects, older people 221–3 comparing to same-sex relationships 177–81 colonisation 92, 258 and sex education 167 ‘coming out’ 258 disability and exclusion experiences 98–100 in later life 224–5 disadvantage vs. privilege 245–7 role of the Internet 169–70 disclosure of sexuality students at university 114–15 LGB families 212 using chat rooms 179–80 by young people 162–5 in the workplace 91 see also ‘coming out’ young people 152, 153–9, 162–5 discourse 33, 259 community-based groups, young people 169–70 discourse analysis (DA) 61–3, 259 comparative research post-structuralist/Foucauldian 10, 266 defensiveness of 208 discrimination see prejudice and discrimination LGT- and heterosexual-headed families 199–201 discursive psychology 259 moving beyond comparison 210–11 studies of prejudice 118 policing lives of lesbian mothers 209–10 ‘disenfranchised grief’ 232–4 reinforcing problematic social norms 208 diversity same-sex and heterosexual relationships 177–81 ability 98–100 sexual practices 181–2 bisexuality 86–7 treating difference as problematic 208–9 gender 83–6 ‘Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian in LGBTQ communities 81–3 existence’ (Rich) 121 questions for discussion 101–2 congenital inversion see ‘inversion’ race 92–4 contextualism 258 religion and spirituality 94–7 conversation analysts 121–2, 258 rural life 97–8 conversion therapy 12–13, 135, 258 social class 90–1 co-parent 195, 258–9 trans and queer 88–90 Coyle, Adrian 100, 247–8 division of household labour 84, 177, 210 crimes against LGBTQ people 109–12, 261 Division 44, professional body 19 Crimp, Douglas 33 divorced lesbian mothers/gay fathers 195, 259 critical health psychology 259 documentaries and films 272–6 critical psychology 44–7, 259 domestic labour, division of 177, 210 research methods 55–4 domestic partnerships 175 critical realism 259 domestic violence 85–6 cross-dressing 259 dominant group 93, 246–7, 259 cross-gender identification 259 donor insemination 195–6, 260 ‘cybersexuality’ 179–80 double discrimination/jeopardy 105, 136, 219–21, 260 data analysis, qualitative methods 59 drag kings/queens 88, 260 D’Augelli, Anthony R. 113–14 death 230 educational psychology 250–1 ‘disenfranchised grief’ 232–4 ‘ego-dystonic homosexuality’ 135 following hate crimes 110 Ellis, Henry Havelock 8–9 gay men and the AIDS crisis 234 Ellis, Sonja J. xviii, 115, 231

Index 323

embodiment 260 ‘gay gene’ theory 27 epidemiology 260 gay liberation 35–6, 261 Epple, Carolyn 242–3 gay men equality in relationships 177–8 and the AIDS crisis 234 essentialism diet and weight issues 143–4 critiques of studies 28–30 as fathers 205–7 essentialist theories 26–8 with intellectual disabilities 100 research by Hegarty 29 non-monogamous relationships 188 vs. social constructionist theories 34–5 older African American 222 ‘ethical slut’ 187 pressure to conform 85 ethics in research 75–6 sexual health 129–32 experimental research 55–6 sexual practices 182–3 studies of ageing 217 fa’afafine see two-spirit gender 268 families experiences of 83–6 of choice 190–1, 228, 260 ‘gender ambiguity’, early research 6–11 disclosure of sexuality to 162–5 ‘gender empty’ model of same-sex relationships 84 films and documentaries about 275–6 gender identity, young people 151–3 of LGBTQ people 211–13 gender identity clinics (GICs) 261 of origin 190–1, 260 doctor–patient interaction in 89–90 psychology of 251–2 gender identity disorder (GID) 14–15, 134–5, 261 fathers see parenthood gender inversion theory of homosexuality female-to-male-transsexual (FTM) 127, 260 7–8, 261 legal recognition of 176 gender reassignment 141, 176, 205, 261 feminism 38 Gender Recognition Act (2004) 176 feminist psychology 39–40, 260 genderist see non-genderist see also lesbian feminists Golombok, Susan 200, 202–3 fertility, loss of 195 Green, Richard 16, 204 films and documentaries 272–6 Greene, Beverly 93–4, 136 First Nation people 93, 242–3, 260 grief see bereavement Flowers, Paul 129–30 grounded theory (GT) 59 focus groups 58–60 fostering 196 ‘hard to engage’ communities 66–7 Foucauldian discourse analysis 10, 266 research recommendations 73 Foucault, Michel 10, 41 hate crimes 109–10, 261 Freud, Sigmund 9–10 psychological research 111–12 friendships 189–91, 220 statistics 110–11 future directions in LGBTQ psychology 253–4 health 125–8 gaps and absences 145 gay, definition of term 260 inequalities in 126–8, 261 Gay and Lesbian Issues and Psychology (GLIP) mental 134–40 Interest Group 19 physical 140–5 ‘gay affirmative’ psychology 3 questions for discussion 146 essentialist theories 26 sexual 128–34 historical emergence of health and social care issues, old age 227 Hooker’s research 14, 42–3 heterosexism and homophobia in services 227–8 Hopkins’s lesbian study 17–18 relationships in aged care services 228–9 pathologisation and de-pathologisation of specific health needs 229 homosexuality 12–13 health psychology 251 proving the normality of homosexuals 15–17 Heaphy, Brian 219–20, 223, 224, 225–7 transsexualism and the DSM 14–15 Hegarty, Peter 28–30, 54 Kitzinger’s critique 18, 36, 60, 242 hegemonic masculinity 253, 261 rejection of experimental research 55–6 Herek, Gregory 111–12, 117 replacement of term 5 heteronormativity 20, 120–2, 261 therapy 139 challenging 20 ‘gay brain’ theory 27 heteropatriarchy 36, 265 gay gang murders 110 heterosex 261

324 Index

heterosexism 116–20, 261–2 ‘insider advantage’, research 68–70 in aged care services 227–8 institutional homophobia 108, 262 research colluding with 73–5 instruments of regulation 42, 262 heterosexual, use of term 262 intellectual disability, gay men study 100 heterosexual/homosexual binary see dichotomous internalised homophobia 104, 107, 109, 262 model of sexuality Internet heterosexual relationships, comparing to romantic relationships 179–80 same-sex 177–81 rural-dwellers 97 Hill, Marjorie 201–2 young people’s use of 169–70 Hines, Sally 204–5 interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) 59 Hirschfeld, Magnus 7–8 intersectional/intersectionality 83, 262 historical development of LGBTQ psychology 6–11 and privilege 245–8 History of Sexuality: Volume 1 (Foucault) 41 intersex people 5, 22, 32 Hite Report: A Nationwide Study of Female definition 262–3 Sexuality, The (Hite) 11 films and documentaries 273–4 HIV/AIDS heterosexism in medical treatment of 118 and bereavement 234 interviews, research method 58–60 in older people 229 ‘inversion’ 6, 7–8, 26, 263 Scottish gay men 130–2 invisibility sexual health 129–9 bisexuals and trans 105 and social constructionism 33 Lebanese Muslim queer people 85, 94 homophobia 262 older people 216, 230 in aged care services 227–8 IQ tests, cultural specificity of 243 bullying in schools 165–8 Islam 95–6 climate studies 112–16 diversity training to combat 107 Jackson, Peter 31–2 documentaries and films 274 jealousy, language for 187 hate crimes, examples of 110 Jowett, Adam 144–5 measurement of attitude research 106–9 Kimmel, Douglas C. 217, 222 Kitzinger’s critique of 36–7 Kinsey, Alfred 10–11 suppression of in some countries 107–8 Kinsey Reports and Kinsey Scale 10–11 homophobia scales 36–7, 106–7, 108 Kitzinger, Celia 18, 36–7, 39, 60–1, 117, 199 homosexuals and homosexuality 262 Klesse, Christian 175 historically considered as mental illness 134–5 Krafft-Ebing, Richard von 8, 257 identity development models 154–5 normalisation and regulation of identity 42–3 language pathologisation and de-pathologisation of 12–15 and identity 244 proving the normality of 15–17 polyamorous 187 emergence of a critical alternative to 17–18 realist vs. discursive approaches 62 see also homophobia used to describe friendships 189 Hooker, Evelyn 14, 42–3, 65 legislation Hopkins, June 17–18, 65 parenting rights 197 hormone therapy, negative effects 141 recognition of same-sex relationships 173–7, 251–2 registration of deaths 230 identity development leisure, psychology of 252–3 exploring identity via the Internet 169–70 lesbian and gay movement 263 films about 274–5 Lesbian and Gay Psychology Section of BPS, models of 153–9 establishment of 19–20 young people 151–3 lesbian and gay studies 263 ideologies 262 lesbian feminists 34, 36, 263 liberalism vs. radicalism 35–7 and feminist psychology 39–40 INAH nuclei study 28 radical lesbian feminism 36–7, 40 indigenous peoples 82, 92, 96, 262 views on bisexuality 87 colonisation 258 views on parenting 209 IQ tests, based on white norms 243 views on trans people 89 terminology 242–3 lesbian psychologists 39–40

Index 325

lesbians 263 mental health butch–femme relationships 183–5 effects of social stress 135–7 critical of homophobia concept 109 homosexuality and trans as mental illness 134–5 defining for research 65 interactions with mental health professionals diet and weight issues 143 137–40 films about 274–5 methodological issues in research 64 health care experiences 127 access and recruitment issues 66–8 maintaining friendships with ex-partners 189–90 defining the population 64–6 mothers see parenthood gaps and absences 76 parenting studies 199–202 the ‘Insider Advantage’ 68–70 personality study 17–18 representativeness of participants 241–3 pregnancy loss bereavement 233–4 sampling issues 70–2 sexual health 133–4 see also research, approaches and methods sexual practices 183–5 Metropolitan Community Churches (MCC) 96 LeVay, Simon 28–30 Mismeasure of Women, The (Tavris) 242 LGBTQ psychology Modern Homophobia Scale 108 applications of 248–53 mononormativity/monosexism 105, 188, 264 definitions and terminology 3, 5–6 mothers see parenthood future directions 253–4 MSM (men who have sex with men) 264 future visions of 243–4, 247–8 and risky sexual behaviours 131–2 gaps in research 21–2 multiple marginalisation, older people 219–22 historical development 6–11 mundane heterosexism 63, 118–19, 264 historical emergence of ‘gay affirmative’ murders of LBGTQ people 109–10 psychology 12–18 myths about lesbian and gay parenting 198–9 professional recognition, struggle for 18–20 psychologists who study 6 nádleehí see two-spirit questions for discussion 22–3 narrative analysis (NA) 59 reasons for studying 3–5 natal sex 264 liberal humanistic philosophy 263 naturalistic data 61, 264 liberalism vs. radicalism 35–7 neuroendocrine theory 27 lifestyle ‘choices’ 142–4 non-genderist 6, 261 Lucksted, Alicia 140 education 250–1 research 72–3 mainstream psychology 263 non-heterosexism see heterosexism ignoring LGBTQ people 15 non-heterosexual, meaning of term 264 vs. critical psychology 45–6 non-monogamy 186 male-to-female (MTF) transsexuals 40, 264 polyamorous relationships 186–8 legal recognition of 176 within bisexual relationships 85, 87 marginalisation within lesbian communities 183–4 of BTQ (bisexual, trans and queer) people 20 non-reproductive sexuality 8, 10, 269 and heterosexism 116–20 non-trans people 264 of HIV positive men 132 researchers 69–70 mentally ill people 135–7 non-western cultures older LGBTQ people 219–22 identity categories 242–3 racial groups 92–4, 267 sexuality and gender concepts in 31–2 socio-economic 131–2 see also race through heteronormativity 120–2 normalisation 264 marriage and homosexuality 42–3 ‘of convenience’ 186 of lesbian and gay parents 199 equal access to 174–5 normative, use of term 264 implications of Gender Recognition Act for trans people 176 Oerton, Sarah 84 Marxism 264 old age see ageing and old age Mattachine Society 42 online spaces see Internet media oppression 92–4, 264 myths about parenting 198–9 Orford, Jim 155–6 representation of LGBTQ people 253 organised religion and spirituality 94–7

326 Index

Paganism 96 hate crime 109–12 parenthood perceptions of social climate 112–16 criticisms of comparative research 207–11 gaps in research 122 films and documentaries 275–6 questions for discussion 123 gaps and absences 213 social marginalisation gay parenting 205–7 heteronormativity 120–2 gender differences 85 heterosexism 116–20 lesbian parenting pre-transition period/state 205, 266 attitudes of black mothers 201–2 privilege 245–6, 266 comparative studies 203–4 professional bodies 18–19 early studies 199–201 promiscuity 182 longitudinal research 202–3 psychoanalytic approach 9–10 negative assumptions about 197–9 Psychology of Sexualities Section of BPS 19 paths to parenthood 194–7 psychology of women 266 questions for discussion 214–15 Psychopathia sexualis (Krafft-Ebing) 8 research on families 211–13 public sex environment (PSE) 266 trans parenting 204–5 participatory research 63–4 Q-methodology 266 partner bereavement, socially unrecognised 231–3 qualitative research 57, 266 ‘passing’ concept 116, 264–5 advantages of 52–3 colluding with heterosexism 118–20 data analysis methods 59 older gay men and lesbians 226 discourse analysis 61–3 pathologisation of homosexuality 12–13, 265 interviews and focus groups 58–60 challenges to 13–15 naturalistic data 61 homosexuality and trans as mental participatory research 63–4 illness 134–5 quantitative research 53–4 patriarchal oppression 34, 265 advantages of 52–3 patriarchy 138, 265 experimental research 55–6 Patterson, Charlotte J. 4–5 surveys and questionnaire-based research 56–7 Peel, Elizabeth xviii, 118–19, 144–5 queer penis-in-vagina intercourse 9, 265 definition of 41–3, 267 people with same-sex attractions 152, 265 nuclear families 195, 211, 267 Perkins, Rachel 138 people identifying as 88–90 personality studies 14, 17–18, 179 ‘queer heterosexuals’ 120, 267 phenomenology 59, 265 queer psychology 43 physical health 140–5 theory/theorists 40–3, 267 planned lesbian/gay families 265 questioning of sexuality 225, 267 political change, role of LGBTQ research 48 questionnaire-based research 56–7 political lesbians 105, 265 Qur’an, interpretation of 95–6 see also radical lesbian feminism political movements 25–6 race critical psychology 44–7 racial categories 92 feminism 38 racially marginalised groups 92–4, 267 queer theory 40–3 research assumptions 82–3 polyamorous relationships 186–8 radical lesbian feminism 36–7 polyamory 265 see also lesbian feminists positive social change 47–8 radicalism vs. liberalism 35–7 positivist-empiricism, dominance of 22, 76 random sampling 70–1 post-modernism 265 Raymond, Janice 40 post-structuralism 10, 41, 266 realism, definition 267 discourse analysis (DA) 10, 62–3, 266 realist vs. discursive approaches to language 62 post-transition period/state 205, 266 reality, social construction of 60–1 power 41, 266 reflexive research 242, 267 pregnancy loss bereavement 233–4 regulatory role of psychology 209–10, 267 prejudice and discrimination 103–4 relationships 173 anti-LGBTQ attitudes and behaviours 104–5 in aged care services 228–9 attitudes towards LGBTQ people 106–9 changes in over time 186

Index 327

friendships 189–91 sexual fluidity 152, 159–62, 268 gaps and absences 191–2 sexual health 128 legal recognition of same-sex relationships 173–7 gay and bisexual men 129–32 polyamorous relationships 186–8 lesbian and bisexual women 133–4 questions for discussion 192–3 sexual identity 16, 268–9 same-sex and heterosexual, comparing 177–81 and bisexuality 87, 105 sexual practices 181–5 and gender identity 134–5 singledom 185–6 and mental health research 135–6 and social support in later life 220–1 queer and trans 41–3, 88–9 religion 94–7 and sexual health needs 133 research 52 Sexual Inversion (Ellis) 8 applications of psychology 248–53 sexual orientation 10, 269 approaches and methods 52–3 sexual practices 181–2 qualitative approaches 57–64 BDSM (bondage, domination, sadism, quantitative approaches 53–7 masochism) 185 moving away from white, middle-class 253–4 gay sexual practices 182–3 principles for good practice lesbian sexual practices 183–5 advice on student research 74 sexuality ethically appropriate research 75–6 problems measuring 64–5 non-heterosexist/non-genderist research 72–3 scientific study of 6–11 and representativeness of participants 241–3 young people’s 151–3 visions of future 243–4, 247–8 singlehood 185–6 see also comparative research; methodological social change, contribution of LGBTQ issues in research psychologists 47–8 resistance 268 social class 90–1 rhetoric 60, 268 Social Construction of Lesbianism, The (Kitzinger) Riggs, Damien xviii, 82–3, 247, 250–1, 253 18, 36, 60 Ringer, Jeffrey 188 social construction(ism) 269 Ritchie, Ani 187 and essentialism 34–5 Rivers, Ian 166 gender studies 16 romantic relationships of reality 60–1 in cyberspace 179–80 theories of sexuality 30–3 and friendship 189 social context and identity development 157 Rothblum, Esther 176–7, 243–4 social marginalisation rural communities 97–8 heteronormativity 120–2 heterosexism 116–20 Sade, Marquis de 257 social parent 195, 269 safer sex 134, 182, 268 social psychology 248–9 same-sex relationships 268 social spaces 98–9 comparison with heterosexual 177–81 social stress, effects on mental health 135–7 ‘equality norm’ in 49 social support in later life 220–1 ‘gender empty’ model of 84 socialisation theory 32 legal recognition of 173–5 socio-centric society 157, 269 effects of 175–7 sodomy 10, 269 equal access to marriage 174–6 Speer, Susan 89–90, 118 sampling of LGBTQ populations 70–2 sperm donors 195, 197, 207, 251, 269 Schleifer, David 182–3 spirituality 94–7 school, challenges facing young people 165–8 Spitzer, Robert 12–13 Section on Sexual Orientation and Gender Issues sport, research on 252–3 (SOGII) 19 stage models of sexuality development 153–6 Section 28, Local Government Act (1988) 268 criticisms of 156–9 separatism 38, 268 Standards of Care 9, 195, 269 sex change surgery 268 standpoint theory 269 gender reassignment 141, 176, 205, 261 stereotypes of older LGBTQ people 216–19 sex education 167 Stevens, Patricia 127 sex/gender, meaning of terms 268 STIs (sexually transmitted infections) 132–4 sexology, scientific study of 6–11 ‘straight-acting queers’ 120, 269

328 Index

stratified sampling 70–1 transman, definition 260 stress, effects of 135–7 transpanthers 218 students, experiences of homophobia 112–16 transphobia 270 Studies in the Psychology of Sex (Ellis) 8 attitude research 108–9 subclinical health problems 135, 269 hate crimes 110 substance mis(use) 142 Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-male, ‘successful ageing’ 225–7 The (Raymond) 40 suicidality 136, 137 transsexuals/transsexualism see trans surrogacy 196, 270 transvestism 270 films about 275 transwoman, definition 264 surveys, research method 56 treatment of homosexuality, advocates of 12–13 two-sex model 32–3, 270 Tasker, Fiona 202–3 two-spirit 270 Taulke-Johnson, Richard 116 Tavris, Carol 242 Ulrichs, Karl-Heinrich 7–8 teachers, reactions to homophobic bullying 167, 168 university students, experiences of homophobia terminology xvii, 7, 104–5, 160 112–16 see also language ‘usual suspects’ 270 Thai culture, categorisation of sexual and gender conducting research beyond 241–3, 247–8 diversity 31–2 thematic analysis (TA) 59 Venus in Furs (von Sacher-Masoch) 257 theoretical debates 25 victimisation of LGBTQ people 109–12 liberalism vs. radicalism 35–7 visibility management 167–8 social constructionism vs. essentialism 26–35 von Krafft-Ebing, Richard 8, 257 Theory and Practice of Homosexuality, The (Hart and Richardson) 17 Warner, Daniel 42–3 therapy websites 276–7 affirmative therapy guidelines 139 weight issues 143 anti- and pro-therapy positions 138 Weinberg, Martin 155 aversion (‘conversion’) 12–13, 135, 258 Weinstock, Jacqueline 189–90 problems with mental health provisions 138–40 west/western, relational term 271 Thompson, Debbie 220 western cultures Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (Freud) 9 binary categories of gender/sexuality 242–3 top–bottom/butch–femme relationships 184–5 need for research with diverse participants 243–4 trans 270 whiteness 82–3, 242, 271 diagnostic controversies 14–15 Whittle, Stephen 218 early research on 16 Witten, Tarynn M. 218, 223, 227, 229 essentialist theories 27 women’s studies 271 fertility, loss of 195 work films and documentaries 273–4 anti-trans attitudes 108–9 model of identity development 155–6 ‘coming out’ at 91 parenting studies 204–5 psychology of 252 people identifying as 88–90 WSW (women who have sex with women) 264 social exclusion of 170 sexual health of 133–4 studies of older 218 transmen 260 Yip, Andrew 95–6, 220, 223 physical health concerns for 141 young people young people’s identity development 153 disclosure to family and friends 162–5 see also transphobia exploring identity and finding a community 169–70 Transsexual Phenomenon, The (Benjamin) 9 films about 274–5 transgender see trans gaps and absences 170–1 ‘transgender emergence’ 158 models of identity development 153–9 transgression of gender norms 182 questions for discussion 171–2 transitioning 270 research limitations 153 of a parent 204–5 school bullying 165–8 gender reassignment 141, 176, 205, 261 sexual fluidity 159–62 in later life 224–5 sexuality and gender identity 151–3