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The End of the Line: the Nature and Politics of Resilience in Galveston, Norfolk, and New York City

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The End of the Line: the Nature and Politics of Resilience in Galveston, Norfolk, and New York City University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations 2017 The End Of The Line: The Nature And Politics Of Resilience In Galveston, Norfolk, And New York City William Fleming University of Pennsylvania, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations Part of the Landscape Architecture Commons, and the Urban Studies and Planning Commons Recommended Citation Fleming, William, "The End Of The Line: The Nature And Politics Of Resilience In Galveston, Norfolk, And New York City" (2017). Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations. 2283. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2283 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2283 For more information, please contact [email protected]. The End Of The Line: The Nature And Politics Of Resilience In Galveston, Norfolk, And New York City Abstract In the briny aftermath of Hurricanes Katrina (2005), Ike (2008), Sandy (2012), and Matthew (2016), community leaders along the East and Gulf Coasts of the United States are contemplating a radical shift in the planning, design, and management of their coastal zones. Breaking with a century-long tradition of coastal grey infrastructure planning, many of those communities--along with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)--are shifting their attention and their investments away from conventional forms coastal infrastructure and towards "nature-based strategies", or non-structural forms of coastal protection. But why do some communities opt for a softer, greener coast while others double-down on their investments in grey infrastructure? How do the nature-based strategies under consideration compare, performatively, to the more conventional forms of coastal protection? Using a comparative case study research design, I posit that three forces explain how and why Galveston, Norfolk, New York City and other communities along the East and Gulf Coasts develop their approach to coastal protection. The first is a product of each community's engineering legacy, or the historical approach to flood protection that developed during the 19th and 20 centuries and the culture that organized around those forms. The second is function of resilience politics, or the value judgements about who gets to stay and who must retreat, who is worthy of protection and who is not along the American coast. The final is a product of who leads the political coalition behind each community's resilience planning--with a particular focus on the differences between design-led and engineering or planning-led efforts. This dissertation advances the theory and practice of coastal planning and design and provides a framework for action along the Gulf and East Coasts of the U.S. Degree Type Dissertation Degree Name Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Graduate Group City & Regional Planning First Advisor richard j. weller Keywords climate change, coast, disaster, ecosystem services, green infrastructure, resilience Subject Categories Landscape Architecture | Urban Studies and Planning This dissertation is available at ScholarlyCommons: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2283 THE END OF THE LINE: THE NATURE AND POLITICS OF RESILIENCE IN GALVESTON, NORFOLK, AND NEW YORK CITY William John Fleming A DISSERTATION in City and Regional Planning Presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2017 Supervisor of Dissertation -------------------------------------------------------- Richard Weller, Martin and Margy Meyerson Chair of Urbanism and Professor and Chair of Landscape Architecture & Regional Planning Graduate Group Chairperson -------------------------------------------------------- Eugenie L. Birch, Lawrence C. Nussdorf Professor of Urban Research and Education, City & Regional Planning Dissertation Committee Richard Weller, Martin and Margy Meyerson Chair of Urbanism and Professor and Chair of Landscape Architecture & Regional Planning Frederick Steiner, Paley Professor and Dean, School of Design Francesca Ammon, Professor of City & Regional Planning Mark Alan Hughes, Professor of Practice, Faculty Director of the Kleinman Center for Energy Policy ii ABSTRACT THE END OF THE LINE: THE NATURE AND POLITICS OF RESILIENCE IN GALVESTON, NORFOLK, AND NEW YORK CITY William John Fleming Richard Weller In the briny aftermath of Hurricanes Katrina (2005), Ike (2008), Sandy (2012), and Matthew (2016), community leaders along the East and Gulf Coasts of the United States are contemplating a radical shift in the planning, design, and management of their coastal zones. Breaking with a century-long tradition of coastal grey infrastructure planning, many of those communities--along with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)--are shifting their attention and their investments away from conventional forms coastal infrastructure and towards "nature-based strategies", or non-structural forms of coastal protection. But why do some communities opt for a softer, greener coast while others double-down on their investments in grey infrastructure? How do the nature-based strategies under consideration compare, performatively, to the more conventional forms of coastal protection? Using a comparative case study research design, I posit that three forces explain how and why Galveston, Norfolk, New York City and other communities along the East and Gulf Coasts develop their approach to coastal protection. The first is a product of each community's engineering legacy, or the historical approach to flood protection that developed during the 19th and 20 centuries and the culture that organized around those forms. The second is function of resilience politics, or the value judgements about who gets to stay and who must retreat, who is worthy of protection and who is not along the American coast. The final is a product of iii who leads the political coalition behind each community's resilience planning--with a particular focus on the differences between design-led and engineering or planning-led efforts. This dissertation advances the theory and practice of coastal planning and design and provides a framework for action along the Gulf and East Coasts of the U.S. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. ii CHAPTER 1 — The End: The Nature of Coasts and Coastlines in an Era of Resilience .............. 1 Mapping the Nature of Risk along the American Coast ........................................................... 16 Case Study Research and Climate Change Adaptation .......................................................... 20 Disaster, Resilience, and Design ................................................................................................... 23 Plan for the Dissertation .................................................................................................................. 26 Image Library: Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................. 30 CHAPTER 2 — Unnatural Legacies: How the Coastal Engineering of Galveston, Norfolk, and New York Produced New Vulnerabilities and Undermined Each City’s Resilience ....................... 31 The Legacy of Coastal Engineering in Galveston ..................................................................... 37 The Ecological and Cultural Context of Galveston .............................................................................. 40 The North and South Jetties ............................................................................................................... 45 The Seawall, Grade-Raising, and the Great Storm of 1900................................................................. 48 The Jetty Field and Reverse Engineering the Coast ............................................................................ 56 Fortifying the Norfolk Coast ............................................................................................................ 58 The Ecological and Cultural Context of Norfolk .................................................................................. 60 The Port of Virginia and the US Navy .................................................................................................. 64 Holland in New York .......................................................................................................................... 68 The Ecological and Cultural Context of New York ............................................................................... 71 The Port of New York and the Wild Outer Boroughs .......................................................................... 75 Living with an Engineered Coast ................................................................................................... 77 Image Library: Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................. 80 CHAPTER 3 — Resilience Politics: How the Institutional Norms, Inter-Governmental Tensions, and Provincialism of Coastal Infrastructure Planning Undermines the Viability of Nature-Based Strategies ................................................................................................................................................ 111 Institutionalizing Risk, Undermining Resilience .....................................................................
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