Notes

Introduction

1. The image was initially a pencil study, then a watercolour transfer drawing, and finally an engraving. For its dates, see Iain Bain (ed.), The Watercolours and Drawings of Thomas Bewick and his Workshop Apprentices, 2 vols (London: Gordon Fraser, 1981), II, 161. 2. Robert Colls, Identity of England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 162. Colls’s point is well elucidated by Catherine Hall in Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Cambridge: Polity, 2002). 3. C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780–1830 (London: Longman, 1989). 4. See, for example, The Location of Culture (London and New York: Routledge, 2004), pp. 145–74. 5. Ibid., p. 9. 6. Edward Said’s famous analysis of Mansfield Park can be seen as an early example of this approach: Culture and Imperialism (London: Chatto & Windus, 1993), pp. 95–116. 7. See Alan Bewell, Romanticism and Colonial Disease (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Tim Fulford and Peter J. Kitson (eds), Romanticism and Colonialism: Writing and Empire, 1780–1830 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Tim Fulford, Debbie Lee, and Peter J. Kitson, Literature, Science and Exploration in the Romantic Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Peter J. Kitson, Romantic Literature, Race, and Colonial Encounter (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2007); Nigel Leask, Curiosity and the Aesthetics of Travel Writing, 1770–1840: ‘From an Antique Land’ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); Saree Makdisi, Romantic Imperialism: Universal Empire and the Culture of Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Alan Richardson and Sonia Hofkosh (eds), Romanticism, Race, and Imp- erial Culture, 1780–1834 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1996). 8. John Barrell, The Infection of Thomas De Quincey: A Psychopathology of Imperialism (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1991); see also Nigel Leask, British Romantic Writers and the East: Anxieties of Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). 9. Franco Moretti, Atlas of the European Novel 1800–1900 (London: Verso, 1998). See also his Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History (London: Verso, 2005). For a useful overview of literary geography that includes a discussion of Moretti (although written before the publication of Westphal’s La géocritique in 2007), see Andrew Thacker, ‘The Idea of a Critical Literary Geography’, New Formations, 57 (2005–6), 56–73.

176 Notes 177

10. On mapping and the unmappable, see J. Hillis Miller, Topographies (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995), p. 7. Recently Bertrand Westphal’s sophisticated theoretical study of ‘geocriticism’ has been translated into English. Unlike some other literary geographers, Westphal argues that a geocritical analysis starts with a particular place, rather than with a particular author or particular work. His work is rather too mired in the language of postmodernism for my taste, but is nonetheless an important study. Bertrand Westphal, Geocriticism: Real and Fictional Spaces, trans. by Robert T. Tally Jr (New York: Palgrave, 2011). 11. Timothy Morton, Ecology without Nature: Rethinking Environmental Aesthetics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), p. 170. The relation- ship between ecocriticism and geocriticism is interestingly discussed by Eric Prieto: ‘Geocriticism and Ecocriticism: Bertrand Westphal and Environmental Criticism’, Épistémocritique, 9 (2011), available at: www. epistemocritique.org/spip.php?article238&lang=fr (accessed 20 July 2012). 12. Morton argues that ‘fixation on place impedes a truly ecological view’; see The Ecological Thought (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), p. 26. For an opposite opinion that makes the local central to ecol- ogy, see Roger Scruton, Green Philosophy (London: Atlantic, 2012). 13. David Simpson, The Academic Postmodern and the Rule of Literature: A Report on Half-Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), p. 139. See also his Romanticism, Nationalism, and the Revolt against Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993). 14. Fiona Stafford, Local Attachments: The Province of Poetry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 85. 15. Ibid., p. 101. 16. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (London: J. Dodsley, 1790), pp. 68–9. 17. For a useful survey, see Keith Hanley and Greg Kucich, ‘Introduction: Global Formations and Recalcitrances’, Nineteenth-Century Contexts, 29 (2007), 73–88. See also Christoph Bode and Jacqueline Labbe (eds), Romantic Localities: Europe Writes Place (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2010). 18. Ursula K. Heise, Sense of Place and Sense of Planet: The Environmental Imagination of the Global (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 10. 19. Ibid., p. 42. 20. Roland Robertson, ‘Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity- Heterogeneity’, in Global Modernities, ed. by Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash, and Roland Robertson (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 25–44. 21. Robert Eric Livingstone, ‘Glocal Knowledges: Agency and Place in Literary Studies’, PMLA, 116 (2001), 145–57 (p. 148). 22. James Treadwell, Autobiographical Writing and British Literature, 1783–1834 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). See also Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 355–63. Other relevant studies of autobiography as a genre include Linda Anderson, Autobiography (London: Routledge, 2001); 178 Notes

Philippe Lejeune, On Autobiography, ed. by Paul Jean Eakin and trans. by Katherine Leary (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1989); Eugene Stelzig (ed.), Romantic Autobiography in England (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009). 23. David Hume, A Treatise on Human Nature, ed. by Ernest C. Mossner (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), pp. 299–311. 24. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness, trans. by Hazel E. Barnes (London: Routledge, 1958). 25. See Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another, trans. by Kathleen Blamey (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1994). Also, David Rasmussen, ‘Rethinking Subjectivity: Narrative Identity and the Self’, Philosophy & Social Criticism, 21 (1995), 159–72. 26. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative and Other Writings, ed. by Vincent Carretta (London: Penguin, 2003), p. xi. 27. John Keats, Selected Letters, ed. by Jon Mee (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 232. Further references to Keats’s Letters are to this edition and are in the text. 28. See, for example, J. Robert Barth, ‘Keats’s Way of Salvation’, Studies in Romanticism, 45 (2006), 285–97. 29. There is a compelling account of George and Georgiana’s time in America in Denise Gigante’s The Keats Brothers: The Life of John and George (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011). 30. Ibid., pp. 238, 249. 31. Ibid., pp. 248–9. 32. For an astute discussion of Keats’s self-reflexivity as a correspondent, see Daniel Gronland, ‘Manipulative Sympathies: Creativity and Sensibility in the Letters of Lamb and Keats’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Leeds, 2012). 33. Gigante, p. 243. 34. Ibid., p. 245. 35. This is despite the number of general studies of Englishness published in the last twenty years, including: Arthur Aughey, The Politics of Englishness (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007); Antony Easthope, Englishness and National Culture (London: Routledge, 1999); Krishan Kumar, The Making of English National Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Paul Langford, English Identified: Manners and Character, 1650–1850 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Peter Mandler, The English National Character: The History of an Idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair (London: Yale University Press, 2006); Jeremy Paxman, The English (London: Penguin, 1999). 36. Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837 (London: Pimlico, 1994), p. 6. Other important studies of British identities in the period include: J. C. D. Clark, ‘Protestantism, Nationalism, and National Identity, 1660–1832’, The Historical Journal, 43 (2000), 249–76. Colin Kidd, British Identities before Nationalism: Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) and Subverting Notes 179

Scotland’s Past: Scottish Whig Historians and the Creation of an Anglo-British Identity, 1689–c.1830 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim Smyth, The Making of the United Kingdom 1660–1800 (Edinburgh and London: Pearson, 2001). For a still interesting general study, see Raphael Samuel (ed.), Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity, 3 vols (London: Routledge, 1989). 37. Kumar, p. xi. 38. Ibid., p. 176. 39. See Gerald Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History 1740–1830 (London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1987). 40. Kumar, p. 178. 41. Ibid., p. 184. Colley provides an important example of this trend in the 1760s with her account of how John Wilkes appealed to the idea that Scotland was dominating the Union at the expense of ‘English liberties’ (pp. 105–17). 42. See Damian Walford Davies and Lynda Pratt, Wales and the Romantic Imagination (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2007); Murray Pittock, Scottish and Irish Romanticism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Katie Trumpener, Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997). For a useful summary of some of the issues raised by ‘Four Nations’ Romanticism, see Dafydd Moore, ‘Devolving Romanticism: Nation, Region and the Case of Devon and Cornwall’, Literature Compass, 5 (2008), 949–63. 43. Moore, p. 958. 44. See Michael Gardiner, The Constitution of English Literature (London: Bloomsbury, 2013). 45. Trumpener, p. 16. 46. Kathleen Wilson, The Island Race: Englishness, Empire and Gender in the Eighteenth Century (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), p. 3. See also, of course, Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, revised edn (London: Verso, 2006). 47. Wilson, p. 13. For a different take on this issue, see Robert J. C. Young, The Idea of English Ethnicity (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008). 48. For the history of racial theory, see H. F. Augstein (ed.), Race: The Origins of an Idea, 1760–1850 (Bristol: Thoemmes, 1999); Michael Banton, Racial Theories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); B. Ricardo Brown, Until Darwin: Science, Human Variety, and the Origins of Race (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2010); Philip D. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780–1850 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964); Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, 2nd edn (New York: Norton, 1996); David Higgins, ‘Art, Genius, and Racial Theory in the Early Nineteenth Century: Benjamin Robert Haydon’, History Workshop Journal, 58 (2004), 17–40; Nicholas Hudson, ‘From “Nation” to “Race”: The Origin of Racial Classification in Eighteenth-Century Thought’, Eighteenth- Century Studies, 29 (1996), 247–64; Nancy Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain 1800–1960 (London: Macmillan, 1982); Roxann Wheeler, 180 Notes

The Complexion of Race: Categories of Difference in Eighteenth-Century British Culture (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000). 49. Ian Baucom, Out of Place: Englishness, Empire, and the Locations of Identity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999) and Simon Gikandi, Maps of Englishness: Writing Identity in the Culture of Colonialism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). 50. Baucom, p. 18. 51. Ibid., p. 30. 52. See, for example, Amanda Gilroy (ed.), Romantic Geographies: Discourses of Travel, 1775–1844 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000); Leask, Curiosity and the Aesthetics of Travel Writing; Carl Thompson, The Suffering Traveller and the Romantic Imagination (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2007). 53. For Romantic women writers and nation, see Harriet Guest, Small Change: Women, Learning, Patriotism, 1750–1810 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); Angela Keane, Women Writers and the English Nation in the 1790s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Emma Major, Madam Britannia: Women, Church, and Nation 1712–1812 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); Anne K. Mellor, Mothers of the Nation: Women’s Political Writing in England, 1780–1830 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2000). 54. For an excellent analysis of the relationship between slave narratives and Romantic poetry, and particularly their shared heritage of Protestant spir- itual autobiography, see Helen Thomas, Romanticism and Slave Narratives: Transatlantic Testimonies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). 55. See Morton, Ecology without Nature, pp. 31–5.

1 ‘These circuits, that have been made around the globe’: William Cowper’s Glocal Vision

1. William Cowper, ‘Lines Written on a Window-Shutter at Weston’, in The Poems of William Cowper, ed. by John D. Baird and Charles Ryskamp, 3 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980–95), III, 208. The lines were retraced in 1834 and possibly again at a later date, so the version visible in the present day differs slightly from the copy text used by Cowper’s editors: see Poems, III, 352–4. 2. William Cowper, The Letters and Prose Writings of William Cowper, ed. by James King and Charles Ryskamp, 5 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979–86), II, 151. Further references to Cowper’s letters and prose writings are in the text. 3. Vincent Newey, Cowper’s Poetry: A Critical Study and Reassessment (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1982). 4. W. B. Hutchings, ‘William Cowper and 1789’, The Yearbook of English Studies, 19 (1989), 71–93 (p. 73). 5. Vincent Newey, ‘Cowper and the Condition of England’, Literature and Nationalism, ed. by Vincent Newey and Ann Thompson (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1991), pp. 120–39 (p. 134). Notes 181

6. Martin Priestman’s Cowper’s Task: Structure and Influence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983) includes a chapter on ‘Mental Topo- graphy’. It makes some valuable suggestions about links between individual and imperial crises in Cowper’s writings, and the importance of the image of the ‘circle’, but offers a general overview of the subject, rather than my more focused account of Cowper’s relationship to England and empire. 7. Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 166. 8. The Task, in The Poems of William Cowper, II, 188, ll. 36–41. Further references to The Task give the book number and line numbers, and are in the text. 9. Vincent Newey, ‘“The Loop-holes of Retreat”: Exploring Cowper’s Letters’, Cowper and Newton Journal, 1 (2011), 16–45 (p. 7). 10. Karen O’Brien, ‘“Still at Home”: Cowper’s Domestic Empires’, in Early Romantics: Perspectives in British Poetry from Pope to Wordsworth, ed. by Thomas Woodman (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), pp. 134–47 (p. 135). 11. Karen O’Brien, ‘“These Nations Newton Made his Own”: Poetry, Know- ledge, and British Imperial Globalization’, in The Postcolonial Enlighten- ment: Eighteenth-Century Colonialism and Postcolonial Theory, ed. by Daniel Carey and Lynn Festa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 281–303 (p. 299). For an original way of thinking about the global context of The Task, see Tobias Menely’s analysis of its connection to the Laki Eruption of 1793: ‘“The Present Obfuscation”: Cowper’s Task and the Time of Climate Change’, PMLA, 127 (2012), 477–92. 12. Kevis Goodman, Georgic Modernity and British Romanticism: Poetry and the Mediation of History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), Chapter 3; Mary Favret, War at a Distance: Romanticism and the Making of Modern Wartime (Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2010). See also Julie Ellison, ‘News, Blues, and Cowper’s Busy World’, Modern Language Quarterly, 62 (2001), 219–37. 13. Jon Mee, Conversable Worlds: Literature, Contention, and Community: 1762 to 1830 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 180, 177. 14. For a good recent overview of the letters, see Newey, ‘Exploring Cowper’s Letters’. 15. William Cowper, ‘Charity’, in The Poems of William Cowper, I, 337, ll. 25–6. Further line references to the poem are to this edition and are given in the text. 16. Alexander Pope, The Poems of Alexander Pope, ed. by John Butt (London: Butler & Tanner, 1970), p. 209. 17. William Cowper, ‘Yardley Oak’, in The Poems of William Cowper, I, 80, ll. 95–6. 18. It is likely that Cowper is drawing here on James Thomson’s ‘Summer’: ‘generous Commerce binds / The Round of Nations in a golden Chain’: The Seasons (London: A. Millar, 1744), p. 60. 19. For a useful general study (which focuses on fiction and therefore omits Cowper), see George Boulukos, The Grateful Slave: The Emergence of Race in Eighteenth-Century British and American Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge 182 Notes

University Press, 2008). See also Marcus Wood, ‘Emancipation, Fanon, and “the Butchery of Freedom”’, in Slavery and Cultures of Abolition, ed. by Brycchan Carey and Peter Kitson (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2007), pp. 11–41. 20. Tim Fulford, Debbie Lee, and Peter J. Kitson have some valuable things to say about Cowper and exploration, but they misread this letter. It does not suggest that Tahitians ‘possessed a sophisticated culture’, emphasis- ing in contrast that they are ‘defective’ in all areas other than dancing, and it does not do away ‘with the civilised/savage opposition’. Cowper had a low opinion of the French after the American Revolutionary War; comparing them to the Tahitians is meant to be insulting to both par- ties. See Literature, Science and Exploration in the Romantic Era: Bodies of Knowledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 62. 21. James King, William Cowper: A Biography (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1986), p. 281. 22. The Poems of William Cowper, III, 214–16 (l. 9). Cowper draws on an account of a man falling overboard in George Anson’s A Voyage around the World (1748). 23. The Poems of William Cowper, I, 404. 24. Ibid., 403. 25. A 1782 letter to Unwin analyses an incident when, while sailing in a storm in the Pacific, a flash of lightning reveals to Cook that he is about to crash into another ship. The improbability of this leads Cowper to read it as a sign that Providence was taking a special interest in Cook, and wanted him to know it (Letters, II, 50). 26. The Poems of William Cowper, III, 216. 27. Scott Hess, Authoring the Self: Self-Representation, Authorship, and the Print Market in British Poetry from Pope through Wordsworth (New York & London: Routledge, 2005), p. 177. 28. O’Brien, ‘Cowper’s Domestic Empires’, p. 135. ‘The Sofa’ may have been the original title for the whole poem: see Letters, II, 217. 29. Valuable discussions of Mai in relation to interactions between the met- ropolitan centre and exotic periphery can be found in Fulford, Lee, and Kitson, pp. 46–70, and Harriet Guest, Empire, Barbarism, and Civilisation: Captain Cook, William Hodges, and the Return to the Pacific (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), Chapter 6. 30. Fulford, Lee, and Kitson, p. 64. 31. See David Fairer, English Poetry of the Eighteenth Century 1700–1789 (Harlow: Pearson, 2003), pp. 233–5. 32. Cowper is, of course, referring to the case of James Somersett, an escaped slave tried at the King’s Bench in 1772. The presiding judge, Lord Mansfield, concluded that (in effect) slavery was illegal under English law. The idea that slaves cannot breathe English air seems to be taken from an argument made by Somersett’s counsel. 33. John Milton, The Portable Milton, ed. by Douglas Bush (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 64; The Poems of Alexander Pope, p. 195. 34. Thomson, p. 82. Notes 183

35. Ibid., p. 81. 36. See Cowper, Illustrated by a Series of Views (London: James Storer and John Greig, 1803), pp. 41–2. In ‘The Poplar-Field’ (probably composed in the summer of 1783), Cowper laments that some local poplars have been felled and no longer provide a shady retreat: Poems, II, 25. I am grateful to David Fairer for drawing these connections to my attention. 37. The strange fog was caused by the Laki volcanic eruption; see Menely. 38. See Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), Chapter 9. 39. For a discussion of Cowper, domesticity, and gender, see Andrew Elfenbein, Romantic Genius: The Prehistory of a Homosexual Role (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), Chapter 3. 40. This is a reference to the Levite Uzzah, who is killed by God: see 2 Samuel 6:6–7. 41. Ellison, Favret, and Goodman all provide useful accounts of this passage. 42. The Poems of William Cowper, II, 380. 43. In a letter of Lady Hesketh of 16 February 1788, Cowper’s feelings about the Hasting trial are interestingly ambivalent: he admits that the British have been ‘Tyrants in the East’ but nonetheless wishes to see the acquittal of Hastings and Elijah Impey (another school friend). Letters, III, 104. 44. O’Brien, ‘Cowper’s Domestic Empires’, pp. 139–40. Parts of this pas- sage are also discussed by Fulford, Lee, and Kitson, who emphasise how Cowper presents ‘imaginative participation’ in exploration through ‘viewing from a distance’ as a disinterested alternative to exploitative imperialism: pp. 18–20. 45. Goodman, p. 69. In part, Goodman draws on Benedict Anderson’s classic account of the role of print culture in creating a national community: see Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, revised edn (London: Verso, 1991). 46. Goodman, p. 87. See also Hess, pp. 187–9. 47. The Poems of Alexander Pope, p. 503. 48. Ibid., p. 203. 49. Ibid. 50. Newey, Cowper’s Poetry, p. 182. 51. For a lively account of the ballooning craze in the late eighteenth cen- tury, see Richard Holmes, The Age of Wonder (London: HarperCollins, 2008), Chapter 3. 52. See Paul Keen, Literature, Commerce, and the Spectacle of Modernity 1750–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), Chapter 2. 53. Holmes notes that significance of balloons to mapping (pp. 160–1).

2 Local and Global Geographies: Samuel Taylor Coleridge and the Wordsworths

1. Donna Landry, The Invention of the Countryside: Hunting, Walking and Ecology in English Literature, 1671–1831 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), p. 1. 184 Notes

2. Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (London: Vintage, 1994), pp. 95–115. For a more recent account of the geography of Mansfield Park, see Peter Knox Shaw, Jane Austen and the Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), Chapter 6. 3. Dorothy Wordsworth, The Grasmere Journals, ed. by Pamela Woof (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 78–9. In 1800–2, Dorothy also encountered ‘a merry African from Longtown’ (p. 32) and an ex- soldier whose ‘wife & children had died in Jamaica’ (p. 103). In the Prelude, Wordsworth writes of a disturbing encounter in the Lake District with a suffering traveller who turns out to be a soldier returning home after serving ‘in the tropic islands’: The Fourteen Book Prelude, ed. by W. J. B. Owen (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1985), pp. 90–2 (IV. 387–472). 4. Thomas De Quincey, The Works of Thomas De Quincey, ed. by Grevel Lindop, 21 vols (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2000–3), II, 56. 5. Grevel Lindop suggests that he may have ‘stepped out of the frontispiece of Marsden’s History of Sumatra (1811)’: The Opium Eater: A Life of Thomas De Quincey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 218. 6. Nigel Leask, British Romantic Writers and the East: Anxieties of Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 209. 7. See Leask, pp. 209–15 for a full analysis of this passage. 8. William St Clair notes that the changes in copyright law in 1774 led to an explosion in the availability of ‘the old canon’: ‘a man of limited edu- cation who had previously been restricted to an ancient chapbook with a few pages and a crude woodcut, could afford to buy Robinson Crusoe’: see The Reading Nation in the Romantic Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 138. Numerous editions of the novel, many of them very cheap, were produced during the period: ibid., pp. 507, 568. The Reading Experience Database provides a number of Romantic-period accounts of reading Robinson Crusoe: see www.open.ac.uk/Arts/reading/ browse_author_writings.php?s=Defoe&f=Daniel (accessed 14 February 2011). The importance of Robinson Crusoe to Coleridge’s writing has been extensively explored by Patrick Keane in Coleridge’s Submerged Politics: The Ancient Mariner and Robinson Crusoe (Columbia, MO and London: University of Missouri Press, 1994). 9. Quoted in Keane, p. 139. 10. As St Clair notes, (in contrast to Park and Bruce) many travel books were expensive, had relatively small print runs, and were often remaindered (pp. 555–60). However, they were widely reviewed in literary journals and, of course, also available to readers via circulating libraries. For a discussion of the influence of travel romances on Romantic writers, see Reggie Watters, ‘“We had classics of our own”: Charles Lamb’s Schoolboy Reading’, Charles Lamb Bulletin, 104 (1998), 114–28. For the reception of Bruce, see Nigel Leask, Curiosity and the Aesthetics of Travel Writing, 1770–1840: ‘From an Antique Land’ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), Chapter 2. Carl Thompson discusses the influence of Bruce, Park, and other travel writers in The Suffering Traveller and the Romantic Notes 185

Imagination (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). The influence of travel writing on Coleridge has of course been exhaustively documented, most famously by John Livingstone Lowes in The Road to Xanadu (1927). 11. See Ros Ballaster, Fabulous Orients: Fictions of the East in England, 1662–1785 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005) and Felicity A. Nussbaum, ‘Slavery, Blackness, and Islam: The Arabian Nights in the Eighteenth Century’, in Slavery and the Cultures of Abolition, ed. by Brycchan Carey and Peter Kitson (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2007), pp. 150–72. Coleridge claimed to have read Robinson Crusoe, The Hermit, and the Arabian Nights before he was six: Keane, p. 45. 12. The Fourteen Book Prelude, p. 106 (V. 462–78). 13. Thompson, Chapter 5. 14. William Wordsworth, The Five-Book Prelude, ed. by Duncan Wu (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), p. 197. 15. Ibid., p. 199. 16. Ibid., p. 201. 17. Thompson, p. 201. 18. The Five-Book Prelude, pp. 201–4. 19. Saree Makdisi, Romantic Imperialism: Universal Empire and the Culture of Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). 20. For a valuable account of empire in The Excursion, see Alison Hickey, ‘Dark Characters, Native Grounds: Wordsworth’s Imagination of Imperialism’, in Alan Richardson and Sonia Hofkosh (eds), Romanticism, Race, and Imperial Culture, 1780–1834 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1996), pp. 283–310. 21. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Collected Letters, ed. by Earl Leslie Griggs, 6 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956–71), I, 352–4. 22. Ibid., 354. 23. Ibid., 349. 24. Ibid., 350. 25. Useful accounts of the poem in context include Rachel Crawford, ‘Accident and Strange Calamity in “This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison”’, Romanticism, 2 (1996), 188–203; Kelvin Everest, Coleridge’s Secret Ministry: The Context of the Conversation Poems (Sussex: Harvester Press, 1979), pp. 242–58; David Fairer, Organising Poetry: The Coleridge Circle, 1790–1798 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 220–5; Felicity James, ‘Agreement, Dissonance, Dissent: The Many Conversations of “This Lime- Tree Bower”’, Coleridge Bulletin, 26 (2005), 37–57; Landry, Chapter 10; Lucy Newlyn, Coleridge, Wordsworth, and the Language of Allusion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), pp. 18–24; William A. Ulmer, ‘The Rhetorical Occasion of “This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison”’, Romanticism, 13 (2007), 15–27. 26. Paul Magnuson, Reading Public Romanticism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 54. 27. Robert Southey et al., The Annual Anthology, 2 vols (Bristol: 1799–1800), II, 140. All references to the poem are to this edition, unless otherwise noted. 28. Magnuson, p. 66. 186 Notes

29. The letter version has three different footnotes, the most significant of which is Coleridge’s assertion that ‘You remember, I am a Berkleian’: Collected Letters, I, 335. 30. In Coleridge’s Poems on Various Subjects (1796), which describes the author on the title page as ‘late of Jesus College, Cambridge’, the preface notes that three of the poems are by ‘Mr. CHARLES LAMB, of the India House: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Poems on Various Subjects (London, 1796), pp. i, xi. Lamb asked that the poems he contributed to the second edition (1797) be preceded by a title page identifying him with the same designation, so clearly he was unembarrassed by the connection. The Letters of Charles and Mary Anne Lamb, ed. by Edwin W. Marrs, 3 vols (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1975–78), I, 63; Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Charles Lamb, and Charles Lloyd, Poems, 2nd edn (Bristol: J. Cottle, 1797), p. 214. 31. ‘To the Rev George Coleridge’, The Collected Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 16: Poetical Works, ed. by J. C. C. Mays, 3 vols (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), I, part 1, 328. Further references to the Poetical Works use the abbreviation CPW. 32. Rachel Crawford, Poetry, Enclosure, and the Vernacular Landscape, 1700–1830 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), especially pp. 169–71. 33. John Barrell, The Spirit of Despotism: Invasions of Privacy in the 1790s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). 34. Barrell, p. 222. 35. For Sarah’s accident and the killing of Lamb’s mother in relation to the poem, see (respectively) Crawford and James. 36. ‘To the Rev George Coleridge’, CPW, I, part 1, 131. 37. CPW, I, part 1, 351. 38. Everest, pp. 170–2. James notes that the representation of the weeds slips between the ‘indicative and imperative modes’, suggesting anxiety and (with the footnote) a desire to instruct (p. 15). 39. For a detailed account of Coleridge’s abolitionism, see Keane, pp. 45–86. 40. Keane, p. 157. 41. Apart from Keane’s book, see, for example, J. R. Ebbatson, ‘Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner and the Rights of Man’, Studies in Romanticism, 11 (1972), 171–206 and Debbie Lee, ‘Yellow Fever and the Slave Trade: Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner’, ELH, 65 (1998), 675–700. 42. The Complete Works of William Hazlitt, ed. by P. P. Howe, 21 vols (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1930-3), XVII, 120. 43. Charles Lamb, Letters, I, 224. See also Lucy Newlyn, ‘“In City Pent”: Echo and Allusion in Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Lamb, 1797–1801’, The Review of English Studies, 32 (1981), 408–28. 44. John Milton, Paradise Lost, ed. by Christopher Ricks (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1989), p. 206. 45. CPW, I, part 1, 354. 46. William Bartram, Travels in North and South Carolina (London: J. Johnson, 1792), p. xxiii. 47. John Livingstone Lowes, The Road to Xanadu: A Study in the Ways of the Imagination, revised edn (London: Picador, 1978), passim. Bartram Notes 187

also influenced Wordsworth: see James, p. 18. See also Peter Larkin, ‘Landscape Sailing to a New World: British Romantic Poetry and the Unsettling of America’, Coleridge Bulletin, 17 (2001), 39–57. 48. Bartram, p. xviii. See Thomas Hallock, ‘“On the Borders of a New World”: Ecology, Frontier Plots, and Imperial Elegy in William Bartram’s Travels’, South Atlantic Review, 66 (2001), 109–33 and Matthew Wynn Sivils, ‘William Bartram’s Travels and the Rhetoric of Ecological Communities’, Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and the Environment, 11 (2004), 57–70. 49. Bartram, p. xvii. 50. Ibid., p. xviii. 51. Lowes argues that Coleridge had read Bartram as early as 1794–5 (pp. 468–71). 52. Ibid., p. 219. 53. As critics have noticed, Coleridge’s poem optimistically rewrites Wordsworth’s apparently misanthropic ‘Lines Left upon a Seat in a Yew- tree’ (1798), which notes that ‘he, who feels contempt / For any living thing, hath faculties / Which he has never used’. 54. Landry, p. 229. 55. Lynda Pratt, ‘The Literary Career of Robert Southey, 1794–1800’, 2 vols (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Oxford, 1998), I, 79–89. See also Lynda Pratt, ‘Interaction, Reorientation, and Discontent in the Coleridge-Southey Circle, 1797: Two New Letters by Robert Southey’, Notes and Queries, 47 (2000), 314–21. 56. Robert Southey, Poems (Bristol: N. Biggs, 1797), p. 79. 57. Pratt, ‘The Literary Career of Robert Southey’, I, 86. 58. Southey, Poems, p. 81. 59. See my article ‘Writing to Colonial Australia: Barron Field and Charles Lamb’, Nineteenth-Century Contexts, 32 (September 2010), 219–33. 60. Keane, p. 261; CPW, I, part 1, 310. 61. CPW, I, part 1, 309. 62. CPW, I, part 1, 384 (l. 164). 63. CPW, I, part 1, 353 (l. 72); 384 (l. 149). 64. Keane, p. 153. 65. Donald Pearce, ‘“Kubla Khan” in Context’, Studies in English Literature, 21 (1981), 565–83. 66. Collected Letters, I, 335. Griggs notes the connection to ‘Kubla Khan’. Whereas the composition of ‘This Lime-Tree Bower’ can be dated with reasonable precision to July 1797 (CPW, II, part 1, 480), that of ‘Kubla Khan’ is more problematic. Mays summarises the main possibilities (pp. 669–71); my own preference is for September or October 1797, due to the connection with ‘This Lime-Tree Bower’ and the letter to Thelwall. 67. Letters, p. 350; Holmes, pp. 166–7. 68. Julian Wolfreys, Being English: Narratives, Idioms, and Performances of National Identity from Coleridge to Trollope (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1994), pp. 24–5. 69. Lowes, pp. 332–40. 188 Notes

70. David Fairer, Organising Poetry: The Coleridge Circle, 1790–1798 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 294. Other useful accounts of the poem can be found in Simon Bainbridge, British Poetry and the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 67–79 and Everest, pp. 270–80. 71. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Fears in Solitude (London: Joseph Johnson, 1798), p. 12. Further references are to this edition and are in the text. 72. This line is cut in the Sibylline Leaves version of the poem. 73. CPW, I, part 1, 262 (ll. 12–13). 74. Fairer, p. 308. 75. As Ve-Yin Tee suggests, Coleridge needed to ally himself with the ‘anti- French’ mode of Tory propaganda ‘in order to validate his own position of dissent’; Coleridge, Revision, and Romanticism (London: Continuum, 2009), p. 20.

3 Labouring-Class Localism: Samuel Bamford, Thomas Bewick, William Cobbett

1. See Fiona Stafford, Local Attachments: The Province of Poetry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), Chapter 2. 2. William Cobbett, Rural Rides, ed. by Ian Dyck (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2001), pp. 268–9. Further references to Rural Rides are in the text. David Simpson’s astute analysis of the passage emphasises Cobbett’s ambiva- lence: ‘he has a commitment to the local but the habits of a cosmo- politan’: The Academic Postmodern and the Rule of Literature: A Report on Half-Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), p. 141. 3. A useful recent account of the politics of Rural Rides is Alex Benchimol’s ‘William Cobbett’s Geography of Cultural Resistance in Rural Rides’, Nineteenth-Century Contexts, 26 (2004), 257–72. 4. Ibid., p. 4. 5. William Cobbett, The Life and Adventures of Peter Porcupine (London: J. Wright, 1797), pp. 13–14. 6. For Cobbett’s attachment to hunting, see Donna Landry, The Invention of the Countryside: Hunting, Walking and Ecology in English Literature, 1671–1831 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), pp. 44–8. 7. Leonora Nattrass, William Cobbett: The Politics of Style (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 206–7. See Rural Rides, pp. 154–5. 8. Nattrass, pp. 207–8. 9. See ‘Summary of Politics’, Cobbett’s Weekly Political Register, 6 (Saturday 10 August 1805), pp. 193–202. 10. See, for example, his suggestion that the Scots’ ‘stinking “kelts” ought to be taken up, and the brazen and insolent vagabonds whipped back to their heaths and their rocks’; Rural Rides, p. 376. 11. Peter J. Manning, ‘William Wordsworth and William Cobbett: Scotch Travel and British Reform’, in Scotland and the Borders of Romanticism, ed. Notes 189

by Leith Davis, Ian Duncan, and Janet Sorensen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 153–69 (p. 158). 12. Ian Dyck, William Cobbett and Rural Popular Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 119–32. 13. Quoted in Dyck, p. 132. 14. Ibid., pp. 131–2. 15. Gillray’s image seems to have been taken up by Isaac Cruikshank in French Happiness, English Misery (1793), which appeared less than a month later. 16. Marcus Wood, ‘William Cobbett, John Thelwall, Radicalism, Racism, and Slavery: A Study in Burkean Parodics’, Romanticism on the Net, 15 (1999), paragraph 9, available at: www.erudit.org/revue/ron/1999/v/n15/ 005873ar.html (accessed 29 June 2011). 17. Quoted in Peter Kitson, Romantic Literature, Race, and Colonial Encounter (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2007), p. 39. In an early Rural Ride, he encounters ‘an old greyhound’ who has ‘a good deal more [reason] than many a Negro that I have seen’ (p. 31). 18. Benchimol, p. 264. 19. As Ian Dyck points out, in the Emigrant’s Guide (1829) Cobbett did come round to the idea of voluntary emigration for the struggling poor, although it remained his preference that ‘labourers not emigrate’; see William Cobbett and Rural Popular Culture, p. 156. 20. William Cobbett, A Year’s Residence in the United States of America (London: Sherwood, Neely, and Jones, 1818), p. viii. 21. William Cobbett, ‘To E. L. Bulwer, Esq., M. P.’, Political Register, 3 January 1835, p. 25. 22. His focus in later years seems to have been on moral, rather than struc- tural, reformation: see Passages in the Life of a Radical, 2 vols (London: W. Strange, 1844), I, 276–81 and II, 234–40. 23. For impressment in the period, see N. A. M. Rodger, The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy (Collins: London, 1986), pp. 164–82. 24. Samuel Bamford, Early Days (London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1849), p. 244. 25. Ibid., pp. 244–55. 26. Ibid., p. 246. 27. Ibid., pp. 254–5. 28. Ibid., p. 255. 29. Ibid., pp. 256–7. 30. Ibid., p. 260. 31. Ibid., p. 162. 32. Thomas Bewick, History of British Birds, 2 vols (Newcastle, Edward Walker, 1804), II, xv. 33. Ibid., p. xii. 34. Jenny Uglow, Nature’s Engraver: A Life of Thomas Bewick (London: Faber, 2006), p. 363. 35. A Memoir of Thomas Bewick Written by Himself, ed. by Iain Bain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 11. 190 Notes

36. The Fourteen Book Prelude, ed. by W. J. B. Owen (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1985), p. 36 (I. 296–300). 37. This trajectory is discussed in relation to gender by John Barrell in ‘The Uses of Dorothy: “The Language of Sense” in “Tintern Abbey”’, in Poetry, Language, and Politics (London: St Martin’s Press, 1988), pp. 137–67. 38. Memoir, p. 193. 39. It is notable that in British Birds, precise Linnaean taxonomy exists uneas- ily alongside unsystematic terms like ‘tribe’ to describe groups of species (e.g. ‘the Falcon tribe’, ‘the Heron tribe’, and so on). 40. Ibid., p. 33. 41. See Hereditary Genius (London: Macmillan, 1869). Galton noted in the introduction that as one can ‘obtain by careful selection a permanent breed of dogs or horses gifted with peculiar powers of running, or of doing anything else, so it would be quite practicable to produce a highly- gifted race of men by judicious marriages during several consecutive generations’ (p. 1). 42. Crichton was the subject of biographies by Thomas Urquhart (1652), Francis Douglas (1730), and Patrick Fraser Tytler (1819). 43. Memoir, p. 33. 44. Ibid., p. 65. 45. For Alfred, see pp. 94, 149. For Saxonism in the early nineteenth century, see Robert J. C. Young, The Idea of English Ethnicity (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008), Chapter 1. That Bewick’s approach to ethnology was unsystematic and sometimes tongue-in-cheek is suggested by an earlier passage in the Memoir where he writes of the need to remodel mankind, given that ‘Genus homo falls into three species: honest men, Knaves and Fools’ (p. 120). 46. Memoir, pp. 149–50. 47. Ibid., p. 152. 48. Ibid., p. 204. 49. Ibid.

4 John Clare: The Parish and the Nation

1. John Barrell, The Idea of Landscape and the Sense of Place 1730–1840: An Approach to the Poetry of John Clare (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972). For the ecological aspects of Clare’s localism, see, for example, Jonathan Bate, The Song of the Earth (London: Picador, 2000), Chapter 6, and James McCusick, Green Writing: Romanticism and Ecology (New York: St Martin’s Press, 2000), Chapter 3. 2. See, for example, John Goodridge, John Clare and Community (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013) and Mina Gorji, John Clare and the Place of Poetry (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2008). 3. Although Morton mentions Sartre in passing, other philosophers are given much more emphasis in his discussion. However, his call in the book’s final pages for a ‘radical commitment’ seems to me authentically Sartrean. Notes 191

4. For a suggestive account of poetry and place in the Romantic period, see Fiona Stafford, Local Attachments: The Province of Poetry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). 5. Clare’s attitude to the village community was an ambivalent one; a sense of alienation existed alongside a desire to celebrate communal rituals and customs: see Goodridge, and Sarah Houghton, ‘The “Community” of John Clare’s Helpston’, Studies in English Literature 1500–1900, 46 (2006), 781–802. 6. Roland Robertson, ‘Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity- Heterogeneity’, in Global Modernities, ed. by Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash, and Roland Robertson (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 25–44. As Richard Cronin remarks, ‘it is the object both familiar and strange that most excites [Clare]’: ‘In Place and Out of Place: Clare in The Midsummer Cushion’, in John Clare: New Approaches, ed. by John Goodridge and Simon Kövesi (Helpston: John Clare Society, 2000), pp. 133–48 (p. 140). 7. Peterborough MS A34, R6; John Clare By Himself, ed. by Eric Robinson and David Power (Manchester: Carcanet, 2002), pp. 40–1. Further refer- ences to JCBH are in the text. At the time of writing there is no com- plete scholarly edition of Clare’s prose. JCBH offers generally accurate transcriptions, but not all autobiographical material is included and the ordering and juxtaposition of fragments is inevitably open to question. The editors connect this passage with another autobiographical fragment to create a longer piece, but, having consulted the relevant manuscript, it seems to me to stand as a discrete entity. I have also re-inserted a deleted passage that appears in the endnotes to JCBH (p. 291). For a useful dis- cussion of the editorial problems raised by Clare’s autobiographical frag- ments, see Valerie Pedlar, ‘“Written by Himself” – Edited by Others: The Autobiographical Writings of John Clare’, in John Clare: New Approaches, ed. by John Goodridge and Simon Kövesi (Helpston: John Calre Society, 2000), pp. 17–32. 8. Jonathan Lamb, Preserving the Self in the South Seas 1680–1840 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), p. 6. See also Nigel Leask, Curiosity and the Aesthetics of Travel Writing 1770–1840: ‘From an Antique Land’ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). 9. Clare may not have found contemporary travel writing very interesting. In 1828 he wrote to the poet Thomas Pringle in South Africa that ‘I hope you intend to write more of your sojourn in Africa the notes are uncommonly entertaining & give more ideas to a Traveller at Home of those strange lands than one of Mr Murry or Colbourns table breaking Quartos’: The Letters of John Clare, ed. by Mark Storey (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), p. 438. Works of travel owned by Clare include Robert Boyle’s Voyages and Adventures (1780), James Cook’s Three Voyages Round the World (1824), and Charles Thompson’s Travels (1744); for a complete list of books in his library, see David Powell, Catalogue of the John Clare Collection in the Northampton Public Library (Northampton: Northampton Public Library, 1964), pp. 23–34. 192 Notes

10. John Goodridge and Kelsey Thornton, ‘John Clare: The Trespasser’, in John Clare in Context, ed. by Hugh Haughton et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 87–129. 11. Barrell, pp. 103, 120. 12. This link is also reflected in a passage in Sketches in the Life of John Clare. Clare associates his dislike of formal education with wandering: ‘I con- sidered walking in the track of others and copying and dinging at things that had been found out some hundred years ago had as little merit in it as a child walking in leading strings ere it can walk by himself’; JCBH, p. 16. 13. Barrell, pp. 120–1. 14. Ibid., p. 161. 15. Ibid., p. 166. 16. Morton’s work tends to problematise any clear distinction between space and place (e.g. 169–70). 17. Robert Bushaway, ‘From Custom to Crime: Wood-Gathering in Eighteenth- and Early Nineteenth-Century England: A Focus for Conflict in Hampshire, Wiltshire and the South’, in Outside the Law: Studies in Crime and Order 1650–1850, ed. by John Rule (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1982), pp. 65–101 (p. 68). For an interesting discussion of the wider ideological context of representations of woodland in the period, see Stephen Daniels, ‘The Political Iconography of Woodland in Late Georgian England’, in The Iconography of Landscape, ed. by Denis Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 43–82. 18. Bushaway, p. 80. 19. John Clare, ‘The Parish’, in The Early Poems of John Clare 1804–1822, ed. by Eric Robinson and David Powell, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), II, 775. 20. Early Poems, I, 159. 21. Alan Vardy, John Clare, Politics, and Poetry (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2003), pp. 24, 18. 22. William Wordsworth, The Fourteen Book Prelude, ed. by W. J. B. Owen (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1985), p. 39. 23. Lamb, Preserving the Self, p. 47. 24. In a related passage from ‘Sketches in the Life of John Clare’, he doubts the efficacy of these distracting romances ( JCBH, pp. 9–10) 25. For Clare’s association with gypsies, see Jonathan Bate, John Clare: A Biography (London: Picador, 2004), pp. 93–9; Goodridge and Thornton, pp. 103–8; Sarah Houghton Walker, ‘John Clare’s Gypsies’, Romani Studies, 19 (2009), 125–45. 26. John Clare, Poems of the Middle Period 1822–1837, ed. by Eric Robinson, David Powell, and P. M. S. Dawson, 5 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996–2003), IV, 344–5. 27. As Mark Storey notes with reference to ‘An Autumn Morning’, ‘Heronry’, and ‘November’, what ‘alarms’ Clare is that the landscape can appear ‘foreign’ as ‘part of a customary, seasonal activity: in other words the Notes 193

familiar contains within its opposite, the totally and frightening unfa- miliar’; see The Problem of Poetry in the Romantic Period (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 133–4. 28. Peterborough MS, A43, R127. 29. Poems of the Middle Period, II, 347–50. 30. Letters, p. 561. 31. William Cowper, The Letters and Prose Writings of William Cowper, ed. by James King and Charles Ryskamp, 5 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979–86), II, 151. 32. John Clare, Poems of the Middle Period, III, 479–83, ll. 3, 27, 55–6, 98. 33. It is notable that the more negative ‘fancys straining eye’ has replaced ‘wild fancys eye’ (‘The Mores’) and ‘fancys pliant eye’ (‘Snow Storm’), suggesting that ‘The Flitting’ is suspicious of romance. 34. John Lucas, ‘Places and Dwellings: Wordsworth, Clare and the Anti- picturesque’, in The Iconography of Landscape, ed. by Denis Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 83–97 (pp. 94–5). 35. John Lucas, England and Englishness: Ideas of Nationhood in English Poetry 1688–1900 (London: Hogarth, 1990), p. 160. It seems to me that the use of dialect words could separate a writer from an elite form of Anglo- Britishness in the period, but not necessarily from Englishness. 36. Clare, Early Poems, I, 208–9. 37. Ibid., 211. 38. Northampton Collection 10, p. 118. L’Orient had carried Napoleon to Egypt in 1798 and was the French flagship at the Battle of the Nile. It exploded after its magazine caught fire. Nelson’s coffin was carved from a piece of the ship’s main mast. One of Clare’s sources for L’Orient was probably William Burney’s, The British Neptune; or, a History of the Achievements of the Royal Navy, from the Earliest Period to the Present Time (London: Richard Phillips, 1807), part of Clare’s library now held at Northamptonshire Central Library. ‘John Clare 1813’ is inscribed on the flyleaf, suggesting that Clare had purchased the book himself before his poetic fame and therefore that it was important to him, in comparison to many of the other books in his library that were gifted by patrons. 39. Mary Russell Mitford, Recollections of a Literary Life, 3 vols (London: Richard Bentley, 1852), I, 195. 40. For Clare’s interest in the sea and naval matters, see Bridget Keegan, British Labouring-Class Nature Poetry (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2008), pp. 137–47. 41. Poems of the Middle Period, IV, 101. 42. Ibid., 104. 43. Clare, Early Poems, I, 38–9. 44. Ibid., 301–2. 45. Ibid., 248. 46. Ibid., 248, 250. 47. Clare, Letters, p. 49. 48. Ibid., p. 50. 194 Notes

49. Percy Bysshe Shelley, Shelley’s Poetry and Prose, ed. by Donald H. Reiman and Neil Fraistat (New York: Norton, 2002), p. 327. 50. For a helpful account of Clare’s politics, see Vardy, Chapter 8. 51. Letters, p. 51. 52. Letters, p. 657. 53. Poems of the Middle Period, III, 133. 54. A detailed account of Clare’s connection with the London can be found in Roger Sales, John Clare: A Literary Life (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), pp. 34–49. 55. George Deacon provides an invaluable resource for understanding Clare’s engagement with rural customs and songs: John Clare and the Folk Tradition (London: Francis Boutle, 2002). 56. John Clare, The Later Poems of John Clare, 1837–1864, ed. by Eric Robinson and David Powell, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), II, 1000. 57. Mina Gorji, ‘Clare’s “Merry England”’, John Clare Society Journal, 24 (2005), 5–24. 58. John Clare, The Prose of John Clare, ed. by J. W. and Anne Tibble (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1951), p. 96. 59. Poems of the Middle Period, IV, 205. 60. Letters, p. 563. 61. Keegan notes Clare’s fascination during the asylum years with the sea as a symbol of the self adrift: Nature Poetry, pp. 146–7. 62. Morton, p. 200. 63. The Later Poems of John Clare, ed. by Eric Robinson and Geoffrey Summerfield (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1964), p. 88. 64. Ibid., p. 44. Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage had a powerful influence on Clare, which suggests how he, like Byron, can be considered a poet of loss and exile. For an account of Clare’s fascination with Byron and his taking up of a Byronic persona, see Edward Strickland, ‘Boxer Byron: A Clare Obsession’, Byron Journal, 17 (1989), 57–76 and Storey, The Problem of Poetry, Chapter 6. 65. Clare and pugilism is discussed in Sales, pp. 130–44 and by Tom Bates in ‘John Clare and “Boximania”’, John Clare Society Journal, 13 (1994), 5–17. For pugilism and national identity, see Chapter 5 of this study and John Whale, ‘Daniel Mendoza’s Contests of Identity: Masculinity, Ethnicity and Nation in Georgian Prize-fighting’, Romanticism, 14 (2008), 259–71. 66. Bridget Keegan, ‘Clare’s “Completeness”: Izaak Walton’s Influence on Clare’s Nature Writing’, John Clare Society Journal, 23 (2004), 5–14 (pp. 11–12). 67. Gorji, ‘“Merry England”’, p. 23. 68. Morton, p. 200.

5 William Hazlitt’s Englishness

1. The Complete Works of William Hazlitt, ed. by P. P. Howe, 21 vols (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1930–3), X, 241–2. Further references to the Howe edi- tion are in the text. Notes 195

2. Anthony Easthope, Englishness and National Culture (London: Routledge, 1999), p. 62. 3. For Hazlitt’s philosophical views, see especially Roy Park, Hazlitt and the Spirit of the Age: Abstraction and Critical Theory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971) and Uttara Natarajan, Tom Paulin, and Duncan Wu (eds), Metaphysical Hazlitt: Bicentenary Essays (London: Routledge, 2005). 4. David Simpson, Romanticism, Nationalism, and the Revolt against Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 52. 5. Charles Lamb, ‘Jews, Quakers, Scotchmen, and Other Imperfect Sympa- thies’, London Magazine, 4, August 1821, pp. 152–6; William Cobbett, ‘To Money-Hoarders’, Cobbett’s Weekly Political Register, 55, July 1825, pp. 65–108. 6. Tom Paulin, The Day-Star of Liberty: William Hazlitt’s Radical Style (London: Faber & Faber, 1998), p. 104. 7. Gregory Dart, ‘Romantic Cockneyism: Hazlitt and the Periodical Press’, Romanticism, 6 (2000), 143–62 (p. 148). 8. For a useful recent account of how another literary monthly sought to accommodate and regulate pugilism, see John Whale, ‘Real Life in the London Magazine: Pugilism and Literature in the 1820s’, Sport in History, 31 (2011), 381–97. 9. For a detailed account of Regency pugilism, see John Ford, Prizefighting: The Age of Regency Boximania (Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1971). See also John Whale, ‘Daniel Mendoza’s Contests of Identity: Masculinity, Ethnicity and Nation in Georgian Prize-fighting’, Romanticism, 14 (2008), 259–71. 10. See Robert W. Malcolmson, Popular Recreations in English Society 1700–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), p. 145. 11. For Egan’s life and writings, see J. C. Reid, Bucks and Bruisers: Pierce Egan and Regency England (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971). 12. Pierce Egan, Boxiana: Scenes of Ancient and Modern Pugilism (London: 1812; repr. Leicester: Vance Harvey Publishing, 1971), p. 2. 13. Ibid., p. iv. 14. [ John Wilson], ‘Boxiana; or, Sketches of Pugilism. No. VI’, Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, 6, March 1820, p. 610. Bill Gibbons was a well- known organiser of fights. 15. [ John Scott], ‘The Lion’s Head’, London Magazine, 2, August 1820, p. 122. 16. Thomas W. Laqueur, ‘The Queen Caroline Affair: Politics as Art in the Reign of George IV’, The Journal of Modern History, 54 (1982), pp. 417–66. It is interesting to note that the common rhetorical association between prize-fighting and defence of the monarchy was to be made real at George IV’s coronation in July 1821. Due to concerns about possible crowd disorder, especially if (as actually happened) Queen Caroline was to attend, eighteen of the country’s top pugilists were employed to act as security: see Reid, p. 14. 17. ‘C. North’ [William Maginn], ‘Letter to Pierce Egan, Esq.’, Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, 8, March 1821, pp. 672–3. 18. Ibid., p. 674. 196 Notes

19. Ibid., p. 676. 20. Hazlitt in the Workshop: The Manuscript of ‘The Fight’, ed. by Stuart C. Wilcox (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1943). 21. Stanley Jones, Hazlitt: A Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 319. 22. Hazlitt in the Workshop, p. 17. 23. Ibid., p. 18. 24. Ibid., p. 48. 25. See, for example, the opening of Thomas De Quincey’s Confessions of an English Opium Eater: The Works of Thomas De Quincey, ed. by Grevel Lindop et al., 21 vols (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2000–3), II, p. 9. 26. Edward Duffy, Rousseau in England: The Context for Shelley’s Critique of the Enlightenment (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 83–4. 27. Cyrus Redding, ‘The Life and Reminiscences of Thomas Campbell (No. VIII)’, New Monthly Magazine, 29, February 1847, p. 245. Redding is clearly writing from the perspective of an age which viewed the excesses of the Regency with distaste. However, there is no reason to doubt the accuracy of his account, and the language used is similar to that of attacks of pugilism in the 1820s (such as appeared in The Times and the New Monthly itself). 28. The Selected Writings of William Hazlitt, ed. by Duncan Wu, 9 vols (London: Pickering and Chatto, 1998), IX, 225. 29. Ibid. 30. Marilyn Butler, ‘Culture’s Medium: The Role of the Review’, in The Cambridge Companion to British Romanticism, ed. by Stuart Curran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 120–47 (p. 143). 31. See Nanora Sweet, ‘The New Monthly Magazine and the Liberalism of the 1820s’, Prose Studies, 25 (2002), 147–62. 32. For a good example of the journal’s enthusiasm for ‘Progress’, see ‘Y. I.’ [Cyrus Redding], ‘The Good Old Times’, New Monthly Magazine, 8, November 1823, pp. 428–33. 33. [Cyrus Redding?], ‘Tokens of the Times’, New Monthly Magazine, 13, January 1825, p. 90. This article is unassigned in The Wellesley Index to Victorian Periodicals, but Redding is a likely candidate. 34. Ibid., p. 91. In a similar vein, the entry for ‘Fancy, gentleman of the’ in Horace Smith’s ‘Specimens of a Patent Pocket Dictionary’ reads simply ‘See Blackguard’: ‘H’ [Horace Smith], ‘Specimens of a Patent Pocket Dictionary No. II’, New Monthly Magazine, 11, November 1824, p. 453. 35. Jon P. Klancher, The Making of English Reading Audiences, 1790–1832 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), pp. 62–3. 36. Roland Barthes, Mythologies, trans. by Annette Lavers (London: Paladin, 1973), pp. 15–25. 37. The passage echoes Pierce Egan’s account of the Neat–Hickman bout, which Hazlitt probably read before composing his own. Listing the vari- eties of vehicles and people passing through Newbury the morning of the fight, Egan describes ‘Corinthians [men-about-town] and bang-up Notes 197

[stylish] lads showing their gallantry to the lovely fair ones, as they passed along, which were returned by nods and smiles, indicating that “none but the brave deserve the fair”’: Pierce Egan, Boxiana, ed. by John Ford (London: The Folio Society, 1976), p. 144. In the notes to his excel- lent nine-volume selected edition of Hazlitt’s writings, Duncan Wu states that Boxiana ‘does not […] include an account of the Hungerford fight’ (IX, 226). But in fact a new series of Boxiana was published in 1828–9 and this did include Egan’s newspaper account of the conflict between Neat and Hickman, which is reprinted in Ford’s selection. 38. ‘Actual Life in London’, The Annals of Sporting and Fancy Gazette, 1, April 182), p. 265. 39. It was reported after the Neat-Hickman fight that when the two men first met, Hickman asked of some bystanders, “Is this the b── Bristol b── that talks about fighting me? Why, I’ll take the shine out of him in seven min- utes.” See The Annals of Sporting and Fancy Gazette, 1, January 1822, p. 43. 40. Egan, Boxiana (1812; repr. 1971), p. 475. 41. Egan, Boxiana, ed. by John Ford, p. 151. 42. Ibid., p. 145. 43. Paulin, p. 31. 44. Wu notes that ‘Hazlitt is recalling Danton’s utterance in 1792: “De l’audace, encore de l’audace, toujours de l’audace, et la France est sau- vée”’. See Selected Writings of William Hazlitt, IX, 228. It is interesting to note that Hickman was supposed to resemble Napoleon: ‘Hickman, the Gasman; Memoir of his Life and Horrid Death’, The Annals of Sporting and Fancy Gazette, 3, January 1823, pp. 48–9. 45. Paulin, p. 82. 46. I have borrowed the ‘this/that/the other’ model from John Barrell’s The Infection of Thomas De Quincey (London: Yale University Press, 1991), Chapter 1. 47. ‘Character of Mr Burke, 1807’, in Selected Writings of William Hazlitt, IV, 290. 48. Pierce Egan, Boxiana, ed. by John Ford, p. 150. 49. Ibid. 50. P. G. Patmore, My Friends and Acquaintance, 3 vols (London: Saunders and Otley, 1854), III, 57. 51. For the politics of confession in Rousseau and Hazlitt, see Gregory Dart, Rousseau, Robespierre and English Romanticism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), Chapter 7. 52. Paulin, p. 45. 53. Dart, Rousseau, Robespierre and English Romanticism, pp. 216–22. 54. See Wu’s ‘Introductory Notes’ to Liber Amoris in Selected Writings of William Hazlitt, VII, pp. xi–xix. 55. Howe erroneously substitutes ‘true’ for ‘home’. 56. Hazlitt compares the yeoman to the pugilist Jem Belcher, who had been Champion of England between 1800 and 1805, just as (in another essay of 1821) he compares Cobbett to Belcher’s famous successor, Tom Cribb: ‘His blows are as hard, and he himself is as impenetrable’ (VIII, 50). 198 Notes

Cobbett was known as a supporter of pugilism and a friend of the Whig politician William Windham (1750–1810), who is mentioned as a mem- ber of the Fancy at the end of the essay.

6 Charles Lamb and the Exotic

1. The Letters of Charles and Mary Anne Lamb, ed. by Edwin W. Marrs, 3 vols (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1975–78), III, 154–5. Further references to Lamb’s letters up to October 1817 are to this edition and are in the text. Marr uses bold to show where Lamb has emphasised a word (e.g. by using larger letters than in the surrounding words). 2. More broadly, Lamb’s localism can also be seen to derive from Coleridge’s potentially outward-looking notion of ‘home-born Feeling’: see Felicity James, Charles Lamb, Coleridge and Wordsworth: Reading Friendship in the 1790s (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2008), p. 47. 3. As Lamb would have known, the Inner and Middle Temples derive their names from the Knights Templar, occupying the site of what was their headquarters until the Order was dissolved in 1312. 4. According to the OED, the first English use of the term in this way is in 1801. 5. Elia [Charles Lamb], ‘The Old and the New Schoolmaster’, London Magazine, May 1821, p. 492. As a child, Lamb seems to have been much more interested in the wider world. He describes being ‘fired by a perusal’ of James Bruce’s Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790) to attempt to trace the New River to its source: ‘Newspapers Thirty-Five Years Ago’, in Charles Lamb and Elia, ed. by J. E. Morpurgo (Manchester: Fyfield, 1949), pp. 41–2. He also had a penchant for reading stories of maritime adven- tures: see Reggie Watters, ‘“We had classics of our own”: Charles Lamb’s Schoolboy Reading’, Charles Lamb Bulletin, 104 (1998), 114–28. 6. Elia [Charles Lamb], ‘Jews, Quakers, Scotchmen, and Other Imperfect Sympathies’, London Magazine, September 1821, p. 152. In contrast to the Southey letter, this essay is careful to avoid expressing fear or hatred; Lamb writes in a footnote that ‘to nations or classes of men there can be no direct antipathy’ (p. 152). Hume, famously, could not find a coherent self, but only ‘a bundle or collection of different perceptions’: David Hume, A Treatise on Human Nature, ed. by Ernest C. Mossner (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), p. 300. 7. For a useful discussion of Lamb/Elia, see James Treadwell, Autobiographical Writing and British Literature, 1783–1834 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), Chapter 8. 8. The Letters of Charles and Mary Lamb, ed. by E. V. Lucas, 3 vols (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1935), II, 224. Further references to Lamb’s letters after October 1817 are to this edition and are in the text. 9. For an account of this event, its causes, and its consequences, see Winifred F. Courtney, Young Charles Lamb 1775–1802 (London: Macmillan, 1982), pp. 99–135. Notes 199

10. Ibid., p. 3. 11. David Chandler, ‘Charles Lamb and the South Sea House’, Notes and Queries, 249 (2004), 139–43. 12. Lamb’s mother Elizabeth also had £200 of capital bequeathed by Salt; for more details on the Lamb family finances, see Courtney, p. 90. 13. Charles Lamb, ‘The Old Familiar Faces’, in Charles Lamb and Charles Lloyd, Blank Verse (London: John and Arthur Arch, 1798), pp. 89–91, ll. 3, 18. 14. Kenneth Morgan, Slavery and the British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 59. 15. I owe this point to Jim Watt of the University of York. 16. Elia [Charles Lamb], ‘The South Sea House’, London Magazine, August 1820, pp. 142–3. 17. For ‘spots of time’ and modernisation, see Saree Makdisi, Romantic Imperialism: Universal Empire and the Culture of Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 1–22. 18. Jacques Derrida, ‘Plato’s Pharmacy’, in Dissemination, trans. by Barbara Johnson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp. 61–171. 19. For a detailed account of Lamb’s East India Company career, see Samuel McKechnie, ‘Charles Lamb of the India House’, Notes and Queries, 191 (1946), 178–80, 204–6, 225–30, 252–6, 277–80; 192 (1947), 9–13, 25–9, 53–6, 71–2, 103–6. See also Carl R. Woodring, ‘Lamb Takes a Holiday’, Harvard Library Bulletin, 14 (1960), 253–64. 20. ‘Charles Lamb: An Autobiographical Sketch’, New Monthly Magazine, April 1835, p. 499. This conceit was used several times by Lamb. In ‘A Character of the Late Elia, By a Friend’, ‘tomes of figures [...] might be called his “Works”’: London Magazine, January 1823, p. 21. In ‘The Superannuated Man’, Elia addresses the ‘Counting House’: ‘in thee remain, and not in the obscure collection of some wandering bookseller, my “works!”’: London Magazine, May 1825, p. 71. And in an 1817 letter to John Payne Collier, he states mendaciously that ‘I am pre-engaged for a series of dissertations on India and India-pendence, to be completed at the expense of the Company, in which know not (yet) how many vol- umes foolscap folio. I am busy getting up my Hindoo mythology; and for that purpose I am once more enduring Southey’s Curse’ (Lucas II, 220). 21. Quoted in Philip Lawson, The East India Company: A History (Harlow: Longman, 1993), p. 17. 22. See especially Nick Robins, The Corporation that Changed the World: How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational (London: Pluto, 2006). 23. Hugh Bowen, The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756–1833 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. ix. 24. Lawson, p. 103. 25. Robins, p. 152. For a useful summary of the opium trade with China, see Josephine McDonagh, De Quincey’s Disciplines (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 167–9, 174–6. 26. Robins, p. 9. 200 Notes

27. More detail on Lamb’s work can be found in Courtney, pp. 100–2. 28. Mss Eur Photo Eur 008. These include contractual documents binding him to the Company’s service in 1792, 1810, and 1816. 29. Mss Eur Photo Eur 008. 30. Mss Eur Photo Eur 017. As far as I am aware, this document has only been published in full once: by Carl R. Woodring in ‘Lamb Takes a Holiday’. 31. Mss Eur Photo Eur 017. 32. Bowen, p. 149. 33. Bowen, p. 141. 34. McKechnie, pp. 230, 26, 106. 35. In reality, though, Lamb did not give up smoking, noting in ‘A Character of the Late Elia’ that ‘in the use of the Indian weed he might be thought a little excessive’: London Magazine, January 1823, p. 19. 36. Elia [Charles Lamb], ‘Confessions of a Drunkard’, London Magazine, August 1822, p. 188. 37. The similarities and differences between Lamb’s and De Quincey’s treat- ments of the exotic are most apparent in the October 1821 number of the London Magazine, which contains the second part of the ‘Confessions’ alongside Lamb’s ‘Witches, and Other Night-Fears’: see my article, ‘Imagining the Exotic: De Quincey and Lamb in the London Magazine’, Romanticism, 17 (2011), 288–98. 38. As Nigel Leask has argued, in De Quincey’s writings opium works as a metaphor ‘for the effects of capitalism, in its newly developed impe- rial phase, upon the body politic’: see British Romantic Writers and the East: Anxieties of Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 171. 39. Derrida, ‘Plato’s Pharmacy’, in Dissemination, pp. 61–171. 40. ‘Oxford in the Vacation’, London Magazine, October 1820, p. 365. 41. Karen Fang, Romantic Writing and the Empire of Signs: Periodical Culture and Post-Napoleonic Authorship (Charlottesville, VA and London: University of Virginia Press, 2010), pp. 37–8. 42. Gerald Monsman reads this passage’s ‘textual lacunae’ differently, as representing ‘the equestrian frisking or curveting’ that Lamb describes: Confessions of a Prosaic Dreamer (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1984), p. 40. 43. Balachandra Rajan, Under Western Eyes: India from Milton to Macaulay (Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press, 1999), p. 55. Robert Markley has argued that Milton is particularly targeting the Dutch East India Company in this passage; see The Far East and the English Imagination (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 83. 44. Timothy Morton, The Poetics of Spice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 61. 45. Ibid., pp. 105–6. 46. ‘J. D’, ‘The Superannuated Man’, London Magazine, May 1825, p. 69. 47. Ibid., p. 73. 48. ‘Popular Fallacies: That We Should Rise With the Lark’, in Charles Lamb and Elia, ed. by J. E. Morpurgo, pp. 72–3. Notes 201

49. Felicity James was kind enough to read a draft of this chapter and directed me to her recent article, ‘Thomas Manning, Charles Lamb, and Oriental Encounters’, Poetica, 76 (2011), 21–35. It gives an excellent account of Manning as an explorer and the significance of his relationship to Lamb. There are, inevitably, a few parallels between our discussions, but her analytical focus is on Manning’s Tibetan Journal and his influence on Lamb’s ‘Dissertation upon Roast Pig’, rather than the correspondence. 50. The Letters of Thomas Manning to Charles Lamb, ed. by G. A. Anderson (London: Martin Secker, 1925), p. 114. The manuscript of this letter is reproduced as a foldout in the edition: I have been unable to trace the original. 51. Elia [Charles Lamb], ‘Distant Correspondents’, London Magazine, March 1822, p. 282. 52. For a more detailed analysis of Lamb’s essay, see Christopher S. Nield, ‘Distant Correspondents: Charles Lamb, Exploration and the Writing of Letters’, Romanticism, 10 (2004), 79–94 (pp. 85–9). See also David Higgins, ‘Writing to Colonial Australia: Barron Field and Charles Lamb’, Nineteenth-Century Contexts, 32 (2010), 219–33. 53. When Lamb encountered the doctor Joseph Ritchie, who was about to travel to Africa, at Benjamin Robert Haydon’s ‘Immortal Dinner’ in 1817, he supposedly exclaimed, ‘which is the gentleman we are going to lose!’; quoted in Nield, p. 80. 54. William Shakespeare, The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, in The Norton Shakespeare, ed. by Stephen Greenblatt et al., 2nd edition (New York: Norton, 2008), III. 1. 81–2. 55. For the idea of the ‘bourn’, see the brilliant discussion of Freud’s claim that ‘departure in dreams means dying’ in Nicholas Royle, The Uncanny (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), Chapter 17. 56. William Shakespeare, The Tragedy of Othello, in The Norton Shakespeare, I. 3. 142–4. 57. See Jonathan Lamb, Preserving the Self in the South Seas, 1680–1840 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), especially Chapter 2. 58. The Letters of Thomas Manning to Charles Lamb, pp. 90–1. 59. Marrs is here working from published sources, rather than a manuscript: hence his uncharacteristic use of italics to mark Lamb’s emphases, rather than bold. 60. John Gillies, Shakespeare and the Geography of Difference (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 29. 61. Peter Kitson, Romantic Literature, Race, and Colonial Encounter (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2007), p. 178. 62. Ibid., p. 179. 63. Ibid., pp. 180–1. 64. For the Exeter Change, Richard D. Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), pp. 38–9, 307–16. Altick also describes displays of exotic humans in chapter 20. 65. Kitson, Chapter 5. 66. Nield, p. 92. 202 Notes

67. As Jonathan Lamb points out with reference to Shaftesbury, ‘in opening up the undiscovered world, and all its monsters, [travellers] opened up also the terra incognita of the mind, those hidden spaces where ugly and unsociable impulses lie hidden’ (p. 6). 68. Peter Kitson, Forging Romantic China: Sino-British Cultural Exchange, 1760–1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 174. This important study was published just as I was putting the finishing touches to Romantic Englishness; for a useful discussion of Lamb and Manning in the context of Romantic representations of China, see Chapter 6. 69. [Francis Horner? or Robert Grant?], ‘Art. XIII. The Carnatic Question con- sidered’, Edinburgh Review, January 1808, pp. 462, 482. Another possibility is that Lamb thinks that he is quoting Southey; however, I cannot find the phrase in Southey’s writings. 70. Courtney cites an account of Manning discoursing to Lamb and others ‘around 1820’ about ‘the origin of cooking’ (p. 247). 71. Fang, p. 39. 72. Ibid., p. 54. 73. Elia [Charles Lamb], ‘Old China’, London Magazine, March 1823, p. 270. 74. Ibid., p. 272. 75. Fang, p. 62. 76. Ibid. 77. Fang suggests that the ‘Dissertation’ ‘resolves the problematic history of chinamania’ (p. 62). 78. Elia [Charles Lamb], ‘A Dissertation Upon Roast Pig’, London Magazine, September 1822, p. 245. 79. Denise Gigante, Taste: A Literary History (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2005), p. 105. 80. ‘Dissertation’, p. 246. 81. James has also noted this allusion; see ‘Thomas Manning, Charles Lamb, and Oriental Encounters’, pp. 31–2. 82. Nigel Leask, Curiosity and the Aesthetics of Travel Writing, 1770–1840: ‘From an Antique Land’ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 91–9. 83. Leask, p. 92. See also Carl Thompson, The Suffering Traveller and the Romantic Imagination (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2007), pp. 158–70. 84. Quoted in Thompson, p. 169. 85. ‘Dissertation’, p. 247. 86. Ibid., p. 248. 87. Gigante, p. 113. 88. James, ‘Thomas Manning, Charles Lamb, and Oriental Encounters’, p. 32.

7 ‘The Universal Nation’: England and Empire in Thomas De Quincey’s ‘The English Mail-Coach’

1. ‘The English Mail-Coach, or the Glory of Motion’ was first published in Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine in October 1849. Its companion piece, ‘The Vision of Sudden Death’, followed in December 1849. De Quincey Notes 203

grouped them together in Selections Grave and Gay (1853–60) as ‘The English Mail-Coach’. 2. See, for example, Robert Morrison, ‘Earthquake and Eclipse: Radical Energies and De Quincey’s 1821 Confessions’, in Thomas De Quincey: New Theoretical and Critical Directions ed. by Robert Morrison and Daniel Sanjiv Roberts (New York: Routledge, 2008), pp. 63–79. 3. Robert Maniquis, ‘Lonely Empires: Personal and Public Visions of Thomas De Quincey’, in Literary Monographs 8, ed. by Eric Rothstein and Joseph Wittreich (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 47–127. 4. John Barrell, The Infection of Thomas De Quincey: A Psychopathology of Imperialism (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1991); Nigel Leask, British Romantic Writers and the East: Anxieties of Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). 5. Daniel Sanjiv Roberts, ‘‘‘Mix(ing) a Little with Alien Natures”: Biblical Orientalism in De Quincey’, in Thomas De Quincey: New Theoretical and Critical Directions, pp. 19–43. 6. See also Andrew Franta, ‘Publication and Mediation in “The English Mail-Coach”’, European Romantic Review, 22 (2011), 323–30; Robert Hopkins, ‘De Quincey on War and the Pastoral Design of The English Mail-Coach’, Studies in Romanticism, 3 (1967), 129–51; Eva-Lynn Alicia Jagoe, ‘Degrading Forms of Pantomime: Englishness and Shame in De Quincey’, Studies in Romanticism, 44 (2005), 23–40; Robin Jarvis, ‘The Glory of Motion: De Quincey, Travel, and Romanticism’, The Yearbook of English Studies, 34 (2004), 74–87; Timothy Ziegenhagen, ‘War Addiction in Thomas De Quincey’s The English Mail-Coach’, The Wordsworth Circle, 35 (2004), 93–8. 7. Anne Frey, ‘De Quincey’s Imperial Systems’, Studies in Romanticism, 44 (2005), 41–61 (p. 43). 8. Frey, p. 50. 9. Mary Fairclough, The Romantic Crowd: Sympathy, Controversy, and Print Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 219. 10. Thomas De Quincey, ‘The English Mail-Coach, or the Glory of Motion’, in The Works of Thomas De Quincey, ed. by Grevel Lindop et al., 21 vols (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2000–3), XVI, ed. by Robert Morrison, 408–9. Further references are in the text. As Morrison points out, De Quincey had confused two different Palmers (613). 11. As Barrell argues (pp. 7–9), this apparent breach between insider and out- sider is healed through the encounter with the ‘jacobinical’ Birmingham coach that has the temerity to race the mail. 12. See Timothy Clark, ‘Derangements of Scale’, in Telemorphosis: Theory in the Era of Climate Change, Volume 1, ed. by Tom Cohen (University of Michigan: Open Humanities Press, 2012), pp. 148–66. 13. Fairclough, p. 213. 14. This is certainly England rather than Britain (the latter term is not used in EMC), even though ‘Edinburgh, Perth, Glasgow’ are mentioned as being served by the mail coach system. As Frey points out (p. 51), the scene 204 Notes

where De Quincey discusses the treasonous nature of ‘a tawdry thing from Birmingham, some Tallyho or Highflier’ (415) racing the mail coach with a sceptical Welshman suggests that the non-English members of Britain are not able fully to identify with the transcendent nation. That is not to say, however, that De Quincey’s claims about Englishness ‘con- tradict’ Linda Colley’s argument about the development of Britishness, as Frey argues (p. 43): I do not see how a single text can do this. 15. Grevel Lindop, ‘De Quincey and the Cursed Crocodile’, Essays in Criticism, 45 (1995), 121–40 (p. 137). 16. Robert Morrison, ‘De Quincey’s Addictions’, Romanticism, 17 (2011), 270–7. 17. Quoted in Lindop, p. 130. 18. Frey, p. 43. 19. Fairclough, p. 214. 20. Frey, p. 50; Fairclough, p. 215. 21. The Works of Thomas De Quincey, X, ed. by Alina Clej, 96. 22. See Andrew Rudd, Sympathy and British India, 1770–1830 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2010). 23. Ibid., 97. 24. Ian Balfour, ‘On the Language of the Sublime and the Sublime Nation in De Quincey: Towards a Reading of “The English Mail-Coach”’, in Thomas De Quincey: New Theoretical and Critical Directions, pp. 165–86 (p. 176). 25. The Works of Thomas De Quincey, XIX, ed. by Daniel Sanjiv Roberts, 366. 26. Balfour, p. 181. 27. Ibid., p. 186. 28. The Works of Thomas De Quincey, X, 255. 29. Ibid., 254. 30. Ibid., 261. 31. Ibid., 252, 261. Like many of his contemporaries, and some later critics, De Quincey (wrongly) saw Lamb as essentially apolitical. 32. The Works of Thomas De Quincey, XV, ed. by Frederick Burwick, 165. 33. The Pickering & Chatto edition has ‘appeal’ here, which seems to be an error. 34. Ibid., 166–7. 35. Ian Baucom, Out of Place: Englishness, Empire, and the Locations of Identity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 220. 36. See Literature of an Independent England: Revisions of England, Englishness and English Literature, ed. by Michael Gardiner and Claire Westall (London: Palgrave, 2013). 37. Damian Carrington, ‘Global Carbon Dioxide in Atmosphere Passes Milestone Level’, The Guardian, Friday 10 May 2013, available at: www. guardian.co.uk/environment/2013/may/10/carbon-dioxide-highest-level- greenhouse-gas (accessed 14 May 2013). 38. Clark, p. 150. 39. Dipesh Chakrabarty, ‘The Climate of History: Four Theses’, Critical Inquiry, 35 (2009), 197–222 (p. 222). Bibliography of Works Cited

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Note: ‘n’ after a page reference refers to a note number on that page.

Africa, 8, 23, 131, 132 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 15, 105, 110, America, 7–9, 14, 27, 37–8, 59 130, 156, 172, 193 n38 American Revolutionary War, The, Borrow, George, 47–8 18, 20, 24, 26–7, 36, 37, 182 botany, see natural history n20 Bowen, Hugh, 136 Anderson, Benedict, 81, 163, 183 boxing, see pugilism n45 British Navy, 46–7, 75, 193 n38 Arabian Nights, The, 48, 97, 168 Britishness, 9–11 Austen, Jane, 45–6 Brougham, Henry, 111 Australia, 58, 72, 132 Bruce, James, 48, 159–60 autobiography, 5–6, 11, 13–14 Buffon, Comte de, 154 Bulkeley, John, 24 Balfour, Ian, 171 Bulwer, Edward Lytton, 73 ballooning, 40–1 Burdett, Sir Francis, 111, 128 Bamford, Samuel, 15, 65, 103 Burke, Edmund, 60, 110, 131, 132, Early Days, 74–7 166 Passages in the Life of a Radical, Reflections on the Revolution in 189 n23 France, 4 Banks, Joseph, 30 Bushaway, Robert, 92 Barrell, John, 3, 52, 86, 90, 91, 163, Byron, John, 24 203 n11 Byron, Lord George Gordon, 3 Barthes, Roland, 119 Barton, Bernard, 140 Campbell, Thomas, 118, 120–1 Bartram, William, 55–7, 60 cannibalism, 150–1, 153 Battle of the Nile, The, 2, 169, 193 capitalism, 65, 71, 135–46 n38 Caroline of Brunswick, 114, 195 n16 Baucom, Ian, 12, 174 Carretta, Vincent, 6 Benchimol, Alex, 71 Chakrabarty, Dipesh, 174 Bewick, Thomas, 1–2, 15, 57, 65, China, 136, 147, 149, 151, 152, 74, 86 155–7, 158–60, 165 British Birds, 2, 77–8 Christie, John, 115 A General History of Quadrupeds, 77 Clare, John, 13, 15, 49, 86–7, 109, Memoir, 65, 78–85 128 Bhabha, Homi, 2–3 autobiographical prose, 88–98 Birkbeck, Morris, 7 ‘Childe Harold’, 107 Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, ‘Death of the Brave’, 102 113–15 ‘Death or Victory’, 102 Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich, 154 ‘Don Juan’, 107

219 220 Index

Clare, John – continued ‘Reflections on Having Left a ‘England’, 103–4 Place of Retirement’, 61 ‘The Flitting’, 98–101 ‘The Rime of the Ancyent and gypsies, 95–6 Marinere’, 54–9 ‘Hail England old England my Colley, Linda, 9, 204 n14 country & home’, 102 Colls, Robert, 2 ‘Helpstone’, 93 Columbus, Christopher, 48 ‘I Am’, 106–7 commerce, 22, 24–5, 32, 35, manuscripts, 191 n7 132–46, 157–8, 167, 173 ‘The Mores’, 97–8 Cook, Captain James, 21, 23, 24, and ‘native poesy’, 99–101, 105–8 28–9, 30, 36, 182 n25 ‘Nelson and the Nile’, 102 Cortéz, Hernán, 21, 23 The Parish: A Satire, 92 cosmopolitanism, 4, 65–6, 67, 125, personal library, 193 n38 132, 188 n2 and politics, 103–5 Cowper, William, 14, 16, 45, 48, ‘Remembrances’, 105 49, 98 and romance, 89, 94–7 Adelphi, 29–30 The Shepherd’s Calander, 105 ‘The Cast-Away’, 28–9 ‘Snow Storm’, 96–7, 98 ‘Charity’, 18, 21–4, 32, 35, 141 ‘The Songs of Our Land’, 105 letters, 17–18, 20–1, 24–9 ‘To Charles Lamb’, 106 ‘Lines Written on a Window- and travel writing, 191 n9 Shutter at Weston’, 17–18 ‘Waterloo’, 101–2 and politics, 19, 26–7, 43 Clark, Timothy, 164, 174 ‘The Poplar-Field’, 183 n36 climate change, 4, 174–5 ‘Table Talk’, 19 Cobbett, William, 15, 75, 111, The Task, 18, 19–20, 25, 30–44, 128–9, 170 47, 61 and autobiography, 68, 72 and travel writing, 20, 24–5, 40, and the French, 68, 73 42–3 Rural Rides, 64, 65–73 ‘Verses, Supposed to be Written and Scotland, 67 by Alexander Selkirk’, 28–9 A Year’s Residence in the United ‘Yardley Oak’, 21 States of America, 72 Crawford, Rachel, 52 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 4, 13, Cruikshank, Isaac, 189 n15 14–15, 16, 27, 43–4, 78, 149, Cummins, John, 24 158, 160, 186 n30 Conciones Ad Populum, 61 Dampier, William, 48 ‘Fears in Solitude’, 52, 60–3 Dart, Gregory, 112 ‘France: An Ode’, 60 Dartmouth, Lord, 24, 26 ‘Frost at Midnight’, 60 Davidoff, Leonore, 19 ‘Kubla Khan’, 54, 59–60, 158, 159 Defoe, Daniel ‘This Lime-Tree Bower My Robinson Crusoe, 47–8, 78–9, 89 Prison’, 49, 50–60 delocalisation, 13, 86, 88, 90–2, 94, metaphysics, 50, 57 96–8, 99, 107, 162, 173–4 ‘Ode on the Departing Year’, 58, De Quincey, Thomas, 16, 103, 159, 61 160 ‘On the Slave Trade’, 54, 61 Autobiographic Sketches, 171 Index 221

Confessions of an English Opium- Fancy Gazette, The, 120–1 eater, 47, 142, 162, 163, 200 n37 Fancy, The, see pugilism and crocodiles, 165–6, 168–9 Fang, Karen, 143, 158 ‘The English Mail-Coach’, 3, 162–75 Favret, Mary, 19, 20 ‘Recollections of Charles Lamb’, Field, Barron, 133, 149 172 food, 67–71, 157, 158–60 ‘Suspiria de Profundis’, 162, 172–3 forests, 21, 92–3 ‘Travelling in England Thirty Years Forster, Johann Georg, 24 Ago’, 170–1 France, 10, 13, 36, 43, 63, 64, 67–8 Derrida, Jacques, 135, 142 French Revolution, 4 devolution, 10, 174 Freud, Sigmund, 146 domesticity, 19–20, 52–3, 60, 62–3, Frey, Anne, 163, 169, 203–4 n14 166 Fulford, Tim, 31, 182 n20 Dyck, Ian, 67 Galton, Francis, 81 Easthope, Anthony, 110 George III, 137 East India Company, The, 13, 16, George IV, 114, 195 n16 37, 52, 130, 132–3, 135–46, 151, Gigante, Denise, 7–8, 159, 160 157 Gikandi, Simon, 12 ecocriticism, 3–4, 86–7 Gilbert, Humphrey, 48 dwelling, 3, 86–7 Gillray, James, 69 ecology, 3–5, 56–7, 78, 86 globalisation, 4–5 ecomimesis, 15, 83–5, 87, 96, 106, glocalization/the glocal, 5, 14, 18, 107, 128–9 20, 25, 30, 34–5, 44, 87 Edinburgh Review, The, 157 Godwin, William, 110 effeminacy, 15, 36, 61, 63, 67, 109, Goodman, Kevis, 19, 20, 39 113, 122–3, 125–8 Goodridge, John, 90 Egan, Pierce, 113, 115, 119–20, 121, Gorji, Mina, 105, 107–8 123, 196–7 n37 Gypsies, 77, 95 empiricism, 106, 110, 127–9 enclosure, 46, 64, 81–2, 87, 90, Hall, Catherine, 19 92–3, 97, 105 Harley, Robert, 134 ‘English Literature’ as a discipline, Hastings, Warren, 38 11, 129, 174 Hazlitt, William, 15, 105, 106, 130, environmental catastrophe, 35, 160 58–9, 144, 145, 174–5 Liber Amoris, 116, 118, 120, 125 Equiano, Olaudah, 6, 14 ‘Merry England’, 126–8 ethnicity, 11, 81–2, 166, 167, 169, ‘My First Acquaintance with 190 n45 Poets’, 54 eugenics, 81–2, 190 n41 Notes of a Journey through France Everest, Kelvin, 53 and Italy, 109–10 existentialism, 5–6, 8, 19, 86–7, 110, ‘The Fight’, 110–29 190–1 n3 ‘The Fight’, manuscript version of, 116–17 Fairclough, Mary, 163, 164, 169 The Spirit of the Age, 111 Fairer, David, 60 Heidegger, Martin, 3, 6, 86 family, 61–3, 166 thrownness, 6, 8, 110 222 Index

Heise, Ursula K., 4–5 ‘Jews, Quakers, Scotchmen, and Hickman, Tom, 111, 116, 120–4 Other Imperfect Sympathies’, Hill, Joseph, 24, 25 132, 198 n6 Hogarth, William, 128 letters, 130–1, 134, 137, 139, Hone, William, 106 140–2, 144–5, 146–57 Hume, David, 5, 132, 198 n6 ‘Newspapers Thirty-Five Years Hutchings, W. B., 19 Ago’, 198 n5 hybridity, 2–3, 153–5, 156, 159–60, ‘Old China’, 135, 157–8 165–7 ‘Oxford in the Vacation’, 143 ‘Popular Fallacies: That We Should imagination, the, 31, 48, 50, 72, 95, Rise with the Lark’, 145–6 96, 98, 108, 130, 158, 160 ‘Recollections of the South-Sea imaginative travel, 1–2, 18–19, House’, 134, 158 25–6, 40, 42, 55 ‘Rules and directions to be India, 14, 18, 27, 37–8, 52, 59, 136, observed by Mr Chambers’, 137, 141, 147, 150, 157 139 ‘The Old and the New James, Felicity, 160, 186 n38, 198 Schoolmaster’, 132 n2, 201 n49 ‘The Old Familiar Faces’, 133 John Bull, 69, 110 ‘The Superannuated Man’, 145, Junius, 123 199 n20 Lamb, John, 133 Kant, Immanuel, 154 Lamb, Jonathan, 89, 94, 202 n67 Keane, Patrick, 54, 59 Lamb, Mary, 133, 135, 140, 158 Keats, John, 6–9, 106 Landry, Donna, 45, 57 Keats, George, 7–9 Leask, Nigel, 47, 159, 163 Keats, Georgiana, 7–9 Lee, Debbie, 31, 182 n20 Kitson, Peter, 31, 154, 156–7, 182 letter writing, 7–9, 27, 149–50 n20, 202 n68 liberty, 34, 43–4, 74–7, 83, 110, 111 Klancher, John, 119 Lindop, Grevel, 166, 168 Kumar, Krishan, 9 literary geography, 3, 51–63, 177 n10 labour, 55, 75–6, 85, 135–46 localism, 3–5, 12, 17–18, 36, 53, 64, Lamb, Charles, 13, 15–16, 49, 51–2, 66, 86–8, 132 55, 57, 106, 111, 162, 165, 172, replicability of the local, 1, 5, 186 n30 12–13, 83 ‘A Character of the Late Elia By a Lockhart, John Gibson, 115 Friend’, 199 n20, 200 n35 London Magazine, The, 15, 105, 111, ‘Charles Lamb: An 113, 114 Autobiographical Sketch’, 136 Lowes, John Livingstone, 56 death, subject of, 130–1, 133, 134, Lucas, John, 100–1 136, 146, 147, 150 Lucretius, 38 ‘A Dissertation upon Roast Pig’, luxury, 22, 32, 36, 42–3, 61 135, 157, 158–61 ‘Distant Correspondants’, 149 Maginn, William, 115 dreams, 146 Magnuson, Paul, 51 ‘A Farewell to Tobacco’, 141 Mai, 26, 30–2, 40, 42 Index 223

Makdisi, Saree, 49 Paine, Thomas, 110 Maniquis, Robert, 163 paratext, 51–7 Manning, Peter, 67 Park, Mungo, 48 Manning, Thomas, 133, 135, 137, Patmore, P. G., 124–5 146–57, 159 Paulin, Tom, 112, 122–3, 125 maritime travel, 1–2, 21, 35–6, 42, Pearce, Donald, 59 46–7, 54–5, 74–5 see also British Percy, Thomas, 106 Navy pharmakon, the, 135, 142, 147, 157 masculinity, 13, 15, 19–20, 36, 61–2, Pitt, William (1708–78), 36 68, 109–10, 112, 113, 116, 117, place, concept of, 3–4 119–29 Poole, Thomas, 49, 52 Mays, J. C. C., 53 Pope, Alexander, 21, 34, 39–40 Mee, Jon, 19, 20 postcolonial theory, 2 metonymy, 4, 9, 57, 61, 64, 66, 73, Pratt, Lynda, 57–8 76, 84–5, 102, 147, 152–3, 155, Priestley, Joseph, 110 157, 164–5, 169–70, 172, 173 Priestman, Martin, 181 n6 Milton, John, 34, 150 Prince, Mary, 14 Paradise Lost, 55, 144 prospect, 31–2, 38–9, 41, 54 Monsman, Gerrald, 200 n42 public virtue, 22, 32, 36, 43, 80, 83, Moretti, Franco, 3 125 Morton, Timothy, 3, 87, 106–7, 108, pugilism, 67, 105–6, 107, 111–29 144, 190 n3, 192 n16 race, 11–12, 21, 63, 81–2, 154–5, national identity, historiography of, 166, 169, 174 9–12 radical politics, 10, 64–73, 74, 110, Nattrass, Leonora, 67 111, 114, 115, 129, 131–2 natural history, 53, 56–7, 77–8 Rajan, Balachandra, 144 Neat, Bill, 111, 116, 120–24 Redding, Cyrus, 118–20, 196 n27, Nelson, Horatio, 102 196 n33 Newey, Vincent, 19, 20, 21, 40 religion, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 28–30, Newman, Gerald, 10 44, 151 New Monthly Magazine, The, 105, Reynolds, John Hamilton, 106, 114, 113, 116–29 115 newspapers, 20, 35, 37–41, 47, 48, 80 Ricoeur, Paul, 5–6 Newton, John, 17, 25, 26, 28, 40–1, Roberts, Daniel Sanjiv, 163 42 Robertson, Roland, 5, 13, 87 Nield, Christopher, 156 Robertson, William, 8 Nile, Battle of the, 2, 169 romance, 48, 50, 89, 94–7, 150–1, nook, rural, 1, 17, 18, 27, 30, 36, 49, 153–4 60–1, 163, 165–6, 173 Romanticism, Four Nations, 10–11 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 5, 15, 118, O’Brien, Karen, 20, 30, 38 130 Omai, see Mai The Confessions, 124 opium, 37, 47, 136, 142, 151, La Nouvelle Héloise, 112, 124–6 158–60, 165, 166, 167, 168 Orientalism, 47, 59–60, 97, 155, Said, Edward, 45 157–61 Salt, Henry, 160 224 Index

Sancho, Ignatius, 14 Thompson, Carl, 48–9 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 5–6, 86, 190 n3 Thomson, James, 34–5, 59, 181 n18 savagery, 46, 60, 78–80, 159 Thornton, Kelsey, 90 scale, 7, 16, 20, 133, 149–50, 156, Thurtell, John, 118 162–4, 170–1, 173–5 Tibet, 147 Scotland, 67 tobacco, 141–2 Scottish Enlightenment, 111 Trafalgar, Battle of, 164, 169 Scott, John, 114 travel writing, 13–14, 20, 24–5, 40, selfhood, theories of, 5–6 42–3, 89, 94, 153–4, 184–5 n10, sentimentalism, 112, 117–18, 124–6 191 n9 Shakespeare, William, 112, 128–9 Trumpener, Katie, 11 As You Like It, 128 Hamlet, 145 Uglow, Jenny, 78 Henry IV, Part I, 128 Unwin, William, 26, 27, 30, 41 Henry V, 122, 128 King Lear, 160 Vardy, Alan, 93 Othello, 150–1, 153–4 Virgil, 168 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 101, 104 Voltaire, 8 Simpson, David, 4, 12, 110 Sinclair, Iain, 88 Walker, Sarah, 111, 112, 116–17, slave narratives, 14 120, 125, 126 slavery and the slave trade, 13, 18, Walton, Isaac, 106, 107, 128 23, 33–5, 42, 49, 54–5, 58, 59, warfare, 2, 13, 27, 60–3, 64, 101–2, 134, 182 n32 109–10, 126, 193 n38 abolition, 23–4, 34, 70 Waterloo, Battle of, 110, 126, 156, Smith, Charlotte, 14 164, 165 Southey, Robert, 51, 53, 57–8, 59, Waterton, Charles, 168–9 130–2, 146, 157, 159–60 Wedderburn, Robert, 14 South Sea Company, 133–4, 146 Westphal, Bertrand, 177 n10 South Seas, 18, 24, 30–2, 42–3, 182 Wilcox, Stuart C., 116 n20 Williams, Raymond, 36 Spain, 21 Wilson, John, 113–14, 119 Spenser, Edmund, 106 Wilson, Kathleen, 11 Stafford, Fiona, 4, 12 Windham, William, 112, 198 n56 St Clair, William, 184 n8, 184 n10 Wolfe, General James, 36 Story, Mark, 192–3 n27 Wolfreys, Julian, 60 sublime, the, 13, 50, 72, 75, 80, Wollstonecraft, Mary, 13 93–4 women readers, 120–1, 123–4, 125 Sweet, Nanora, 119 women writers, 13–14 sympathy, 25–6, 40–3, 63, 130–1, Wood, Marcus, 70 163, 169–70, 172 Wordsworth, Dorothy, 14, 16, 46–7, 51, 140, 184 n3 taste, 80–1, 83–6, 98 Wordsworth, Mary, 139 Taylor, John, 7, 98, 103, 104, 105 Wordsworth, William, 14, 16, 51, Thelwall, John, 50, 59 86–7, 88, 101, 131, 134, 140, Thomas, Helen, 180 n54 144, 184 n3 Index 225

The Excursion, 49 ‘spots of time’, 50, 88, 91, 93, ‘Lines Left upon a Seat in a 134 Yew-tree’, 187 n53 work see labour The Prelude, 30, 48–9, 80, 93 Wu, Duncan, 48, 118