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Introduction Notes Introduction 1. The image was initially a pencil study, then a watercolour transfer drawing, and finally an engraving. For its dates, see Iain Bain (ed.), The Watercolours and Drawings of Thomas Bewick and his Workshop Apprentices, 2 vols (London: Gordon Fraser, 1981), II, 161. 2. Robert Colls, Identity of England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 162. Colls’s point is well elucidated by Catherine Hall in Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Cambridge: Polity, 2002). 3. C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780–1830 (London: Longman, 1989). 4. See, for example, The Location of Culture (London and New York: Routledge, 2004), pp. 145–74. 5. Ibid., p. 9. 6. Edward Said’s famous analysis of Mansfield Park can be seen as an early example of this approach: Culture and Imperialism (London: Chatto & Windus, 1993), pp. 95–116. 7. See Alan Bewell, Romanticism and Colonial Disease (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Tim Fulford and Peter J. Kitson (eds), Romanticism and Colonialism: Writing and Empire, 1780–1830 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Tim Fulford, Debbie Lee, and Peter J. Kitson, Literature, Science and Exploration in the Romantic Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Peter J. Kitson, Romantic Literature, Race, and Colonial Encounter (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2007); Nigel Leask, Curiosity and the Aesthetics of Travel Writing, 1770–1840: ‘From an Antique Land’ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); Saree Makdisi, Romantic Imperialism: Universal Empire and the Culture of Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Alan Richardson and Sonia Hofkosh (eds), Romanticism, Race, and Imp- erial Culture, 1780–1834 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1996). 8. John Barrell, The Infection of Thomas De Quincey: A Psychopathology of Imperialism (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1991); see also Nigel Leask, British Romantic Writers and the East: Anxieties of Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). 9. Franco Moretti, Atlas of the European Novel 1800–1900 (London: Verso, 1998). See also his Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History (London: Verso, 2005). For a useful overview of literary geography that includes a discussion of Moretti (although written before the publication of Westphal’s La géocritique in 2007), see Andrew Thacker, ‘The Idea of a Critical Literary Geography’, New Formations, 57 (2005–6), 56–73. 176 Notes 177 10. On mapping and the unmappable, see J. Hillis Miller, Topographies (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995), p. 7. Recently Bertrand Westphal’s sophisticated theoretical study of ‘geocriticism’ has been translated into English. Unlike some other literary geographers, Westphal argues that a geocritical analysis starts with a particular place, rather than with a particular author or particular work. His work is rather too mired in the language of postmodernism for my taste, but is nonetheless an important study. Bertrand Westphal, Geocriticism: Real and Fictional Spaces, trans. by Robert T. Tally Jr (New York: Palgrave, 2011). 11. Timothy Morton, Ecology without Nature: Rethinking Environmental Aesthetics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), p. 170. The relation- ship between ecocriticism and geocriticism is interestingly discussed by Eric Prieto: ‘Geocriticism and Ecocriticism: Bertrand Westphal and Environmental Criticism’, Épistémocritique, 9 (2011), available at: www. epistemocritique.org/spip.php?article238&lang=fr (accessed 20 July 2012). 12. Morton argues that ‘fixation on place impedes a truly ecological view’; see The Ecological Thought (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), p. 26. For an opposite opinion that makes the local central to ecol- ogy, see Roger Scruton, Green Philosophy (London: Atlantic, 2012). 13. David Simpson, The Academic Postmodern and the Rule of Literature: A Report on Half-Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), p. 139. See also his Romanticism, Nationalism, and the Revolt against Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993). 14. Fiona Stafford, Local Attachments: The Province of Poetry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 85. 15. Ibid., p. 101. 16. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (London: J. Dodsley, 1790), pp. 68–9. 17. For a useful survey, see Keith Hanley and Greg Kucich, ‘Introduction: Global Formations and Recalcitrances’, Nineteenth-Century Contexts, 29 (2007), 73–88. See also Christoph Bode and Jacqueline Labbe (eds), Romantic Localities: Europe Writes Place (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2010). 18. Ursula K. Heise, Sense of Place and Sense of Planet: The Environmental Imagination of the Global (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 10. 19. Ibid., p. 42. 20. Roland Robertson, ‘Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity- Heterogeneity’, in Global Modernities, ed. by Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash, and Roland Robertson (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 25–44. 21. Robert Eric Livingstone, ‘Glocal Knowledges: Agency and Place in Literary Studies’, PMLA, 116 (2001), 145–57 (p. 148). 22. James Treadwell, Autobiographical Writing and British Literature, 1783–1834 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). See also Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 355–63. Other relevant studies of autobiography as a genre include Linda Anderson, Autobiography (London: Routledge, 2001); 178 Notes Philippe Lejeune, On Autobiography, ed. by Paul Jean Eakin and trans. by Katherine Leary (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1989); Eugene Stelzig (ed.), Romantic Autobiography in England (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009). 23. David Hume, A Treatise on Human Nature, ed. by Ernest C. Mossner (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), pp. 299–311. 24. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness, trans. by Hazel E. Barnes (London: Routledge, 1958). 25. See Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as Another, trans. by Kathleen Blamey (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1994). Also, David Rasmussen, ‘Rethinking Subjectivity: Narrative Identity and the Self’, Philosophy & Social Criticism, 21 (1995), 159–72. 26. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative and Other Writings, ed. by Vincent Carretta (London: Penguin, 2003), p. xi. 27. John Keats, Selected Letters, ed. by Jon Mee (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 232. Further references to Keats’s Letters are to this edition and are in the text. 28. See, for example, J. Robert Barth, ‘Keats’s Way of Salvation’, Studies in Romanticism, 45 (2006), 285–97. 29. There is a compelling account of George and Georgiana’s time in America in Denise Gigante’s The Keats Brothers: The Life of John and George (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011). 30. Ibid., pp. 238, 249. 31. Ibid., pp. 248–9. 32. For an astute discussion of Keats’s self-reflexivity as a correspondent, see Daniel Gronland, ‘Manipulative Sympathies: Creativity and Sensibility in the Letters of Lamb and Keats’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Leeds, 2012). 33. Gigante, p. 243. 34. Ibid., p. 245. 35. This is despite the number of general studies of Englishness published in the last twenty years, including: Arthur Aughey, The Politics of Englishness (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007); Antony Easthope, Englishness and National Culture (London: Routledge, 1999); Krishan Kumar, The Making of English National Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Paul Langford, English Identified: Manners and Character, 1650–1850 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Peter Mandler, The English National Character: The History of an Idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair (London: Yale University Press, 2006); Jeremy Paxman, The English (London: Penguin, 1999). 36. Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837 (London: Pimlico, 1994), p. 6. Other important studies of British identities in the period include: J. C. D. Clark, ‘Protestantism, Nationalism, and National Identity, 1660–1832’, The Historical Journal, 43 (2000), 249–76. Colin Kidd, British Identities before Nationalism: Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) and Subverting Notes 179 Scotland’s Past: Scottish Whig Historians and the Creation of an Anglo-British Identity, 1689–c.1830 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jim Smyth, The Making of the United Kingdom 1660–1800 (Edinburgh and London: Pearson, 2001). For a still interesting general study, see Raphael Samuel (ed.), Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity, 3 vols (London: Routledge, 1989). 37. Kumar, p. xi. 38. Ibid., p. 176. 39. See Gerald Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History 1740–1830 (London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1987). 40. Kumar, p. 178. 41. Ibid., p. 184. Colley provides an important example of this trend in the 1760s with her account of how John Wilkes appealed to the idea that Scotland was dominating the Union at the expense of ‘English liberties’ (pp. 105–17). 42. See Damian Walford Davies and Lynda Pratt, Wales and the Romantic Imagination (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2007); Murray Pittock, Scottish and Irish Romanticism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Katie Trumpener, Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997). For a useful summary of some of the issues raised by ‘Four Nations’ Romanticism, see Dafydd
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