Journal of Religion and Theology Volume 4, Issue 1, 2020, PP 1-7 ISSN 2637-5907

Judaism, Genetics and Racialisation

Simon dein* Consultant psychiatrist in Essex UK specializing in ... He holds a PhD in social anthropology from University College London, UK. *Corresponding Author: Simon dein, Consultant psychiatrist in Essex UK, specializing in ... He holds a PhD in social anthropology from University College London, UK. Email: [email protected].

ABSTRACT After discussing genetic studies on Judaism in diverse ethnic and cultural groups, this paper examines the use of DNA testing to confirm Jewishness. Finally, I discuss the implications of these genetic findings for the racialisation of Jews. I conclude that the concept of race cannot be applied to Jews but Jewishness has a significant genetic component.

INTRODUCTION they are to each other. The division between the races is blurred. Today the term ancestry is used Genetics and the Reinvention of Race rather than race. The few existing differences Using genetic data to understand history is far reflect diverse environments and external factors, from new. Early scholars attempted to use rather than underlying biological factors. blood groups while today sophisticated technical Rosenberg et al (2002) employed cluster abilities allow for much more accurate analysis. analysis to examine human population structure. The Human Genome Project in 2003 created the The authors focused upon genotypes at 377 possibility of examining human ancestry by autosomal microsatellite loci among 1056 genetics. Nicholas Wade (2014) in his A individuals deriving from 52 different populations. Troublesome Inheritance: genes, race and human The results indicated that the main source of history - argues that genetic differences in human human genetic variation was between populations can manifest into unpredictable individuals rather than between ethnic groups. differences between the two groups and indeed No absolute differences between ethnic groups there is a biological basis for race. This book has could be found, the only differences were in received significant criticism in terms of its relation to relative frequency. Social scientists incarnation of race science. generally argue for race as a social construct While scientific research, much focusing on human lacking biological basis and potentially has genome mapping, has consistently demonstrated that harmful social effects. Complete genomes from the concept of race lacks scientific rigour, diverse geographical locations demonstrate that reproducibility, is not scientifically valid and we even between Africa and Europe, for example, cannot divide humans up into discrete groups there is no single absolute genetic difference; no based upon visible features.Popular classifications single variant exists where all Africans possess of race are largely based on skin color alongside one variant and all Europeans another one, even features like height, eyes, and hair. when disregarding recent migration. There is no evidence that separate races of Harvard geneticist David Reich (2018) has humans can be found naturally and the idea of asserted that although genetics doesn't support race is a sociocultural construct based largely the idea of specific races, he acknowledges the upon skin colour. As a species we share 99.9% concern that genetic findings could be used to of our genetic constitution and thus the justify the notion of race. But he emphasises that evidence suggests we are more similar to each biological differences do exist between different other than different. As Chou (2017) states, populations. there is much ambiguity between postulated Judaism and Genetics races and much variation within them. In fact two people both of European descent may be This paper focuses upon Jewish genetic research more similar genetically to an Asian person than and is in line with anthropological scholarship

Journal of Religion and Theology V4 ● I1 ● 2020 1 Judaism, Genetics and Racialisation which sees genetics as a cultural, social and Jewish populations demonstrated greater genetic political practice. Mc Gonigle and Herman similarity than paired Jewish and non-Jewish (2015) note how genetics has been deployed in populations (Kobyliansky et al1982). three related realms relating to Jewish identity: The term haplotype denotes a set of DNA ‗There are three key ways in which Jewishness variations, or polymorphisms, that tend to be has moved to the molecular realm, with genes inherited together. Two Y lineages have been being defined as Jewish: ; found among Jews- ‗e J haplotype‘ and genetic testing for both disease and Jewish ‗YAP+4‘. Jews worldwide demonstrate a identity; and human ova and sperm donation, as significant degree of genetic affinity with Arab in the field of assisted conception. In these populations like Syrians and Palestinians, while different conceptual arenas, Jewish genes and some groups considered as Jewish by other Jews inheritance are defined in different ways, including the Jews of Cochin in Kerala, the opening up a wider space of ambiguity around Bene Israel of Mumbai and Ethiopian Jews do Jewish identity and definition not appear to possess these specific genes. In a study of Y chromosome biallelic haplotypes, Here I largely focus upon population genetics Hamer et al (2000) found that over 70% of and identity. Population genetics involves Jewish men and half of the Arab men whose exploring Jewish history through analysis of DNA was examined had inherited their Y DNA; Jewish history is traced through genetics chromosomes from the same paternal ancestors in an attempt to find a common historical origin who had inhabited this geographical region for of Jews in Biblical Palestine. It focuses upon the at least several thousand years. He postulates statistical probabilities that DNA haplotypes - that Jews and Arabs share a common ancestor. groups of alleles in an that are The study concluded: ‗the paternal gene pools of inherited together from a single parent-will be Jewish communities from Europe, North Africa, more frequent within specific identified groups. and the Middle East descended from a common While of great interest and of significant Middle Eastern ancestral population‘ (Hammer practical application, DNA testing can be et al 2000: 6769). This study argues that deployed to assess the likelihood of developing contemporary Jewish communities are certain diseases through measurement of DNA descended from Ancient Hebrews. mutations but this topic will not receive further consideration here. Finally genetic testing has As Julia Egorova (2014) notes, the idea that been utilized in assisted conception. Again this Jewish communities worldwide are not only will not be further discussed. culturally similar but also genealogically connected, remains prominent within both the Jews emerged as a distinct cultural/ religious Jewish and non-Jewish public minds. group living in the Middle East around 4000 Contemporary Jewry comprises an aggregate of years ago. Since that time they have maintained ethno religious communities who hold religious, continuous traditions both in this area and also historical and cultural traditions in common. in the various diasporic communities in which There is historical evidence suggesting shared Jews reside. Additionally others have converted origins in the Middle East, followed by in the Jewish fold. As Falk (2014) rightly subsequent migrations resulting in Jewish questions ‗Are the Jews a religious community, communities in Europe, Africa and Asia- the a socio-cultural entity, an ethnic-biological Jewish Diaspora. classification, or what?‘While Jews have traditionally been referred to as a ‗people‘ do Behar et al (2010), deploying high-density bead genetic commonalities between diverse Jewish arrays to genotype individuals, found that most communities exist? Given the complexity of Diasporic Jewish communities originated in the Jewish migration histories, is it possible to trace Levant thus lending support to the historical them to common ancestry in the Middle East, or evidence. According to these authors: ‗The most rather, are they more genetically related to their parsimonious explanation for these observations non –Jewish neighbours. What is the is a common genetic origin, which is consistent significance of genetic findings for the with an historical formulation of the Jewish racialisation of the Jews? people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant.‘ Early research on Jewish descent using blood groupings and serum markers indicates that The idea that there are Jewish signals for most Jewish diaspora groups derive from the Jewishness genetically is described in geneticist Middle East. This research found that paired David Goldstein‘s 2008 book Jacobs Legacy; A

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Genetic view of Jewish history. This discusses narrative of the ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry, small genetic variants in the DNA. He discusses even though it is based on only two loci, the the transmission of Jewishness of Jewish males male and female genetic marker – very tiny, if manifested through the y - chromosomes and the revealing, slices of the human genome. The DNA mitochondrial inherited from their studies of the Y chromosome and mtDNA do mothers. He further asserts that steady rates of not support the once-popular notion that Jews mutation allow us to assess how long human are descended in any great numbers from the population had been separated and he can trace Khazars or some Slavic group, although it‘s maternal and paternal contributions separately. evident that some Jews do have Khazarian blood. The Khazarian theory has been put to rest In his book he argues the tradition of the priestly or at least into perspective‘ heritage of the Cohens passes from father to son over thousands of years, has a basis in the Other recent authors however question these modern Cohens. This idea is compatible with findings. For example Elhaik (2012) asserts: the oral tradition asserting that Cohanim are ‗‘ roots lie in the Caucasus — a direct descendants of Old Testament priests and region at the border of Europe and Asia that lies ultimately go back as far as Aaaron, Moses‘ between the Black and Caspian seas — not in brother (see Thomas et al 1998). This Cohen the Middle East. They are descendants, he Modal Haplotype has received the most argues, of the Khazars, a Turkic people who attention among genetic researchers interested in lived in one of the largest medieval states in Judaism. Eurasia and then migrated to Eastern Europe in Ostrer (2012) in Legacy: A Genetic History of the the 12th and 13th centuries‘. Jewish People similarly argues for a biological basis Furthermore this author states that despite decades for Judaism. The book‘s coverstates: ‗Ostrer shows of genetic research these ‗genetic threads‘ are not that Jews from different Diaspora groups are linked confirmed through the examination of any genetic by the genetic threads that provide a biological basis nucleotides, haplotypes, or genetic regions and to for Jewishness.‘He refutes the Khazar theory of date these ideas remain contentious among Ashkenazi ancestry which argues that the geneticists, historians and other social scientists. Ashkenazi Jews descended from the Khazar‘s, a multi-ethnic seminomadic group of Turkish Likewise Costa et al (2013) examined peoples, who lived central Asia from the 7th to the mitochondrial genome sequences Jews and non- 10th centuries A.D. For this author the findings of Jews from the Near East, Europe, and the genetic studies support a significant, but variable Caucasus. Mitochondrial DNA is transmitted component of shared Near East ancestry, alongside through the maternal line. The study suggested varying degrees of admixture and introgressive that, in contrast to the existing evidence for hybridization from the corresponding host many Ashkenazi males, where the Y diasporic populations. The term introgressive chromosomal DNA indicates a likely origin in hybridization refers to gene movement from one the Near East, the female lineage of Ashkenazi species into another‘s gene pool. Genetic studies Jews appear to have substantial ancestry in which focus upon Ashkenazim— both prehistoric Europe rather than the Levant or pertaining to their paternal and maternal Caucasus. lineages—indicate that they are of both Middle Similarly, Begley (2012) asserts that for North Eastern and European descent. In agreement African Jews, auto somal genetic analysis in Behar et al (2013) state: 2012 revealed that North African Jews are ‗We confirm the notion that the Ashkenazi, genetically close to European Jews. This finding North African, and Sephardi Jews share indicates that North African Jews originate from substantial genetic ancestry and that they derive biblical-era Israel rather than descending from it from Middle Eastern and European natives who converted to Judaism. populations, with no indication of a detectable African Jews Khazar contribution to their genetic origins.‘ The Bantu speaking Lemba of South Africa Jon Entine (2007) in Abraham‘s Children: Race, have made longstanding claims to have Jewish Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People origins. This tribe consists of 70,000 - 80,000 states: members in central Zimbabwe and northern ‗Taken together, the Jewish male and female South Africa and possesses Jewish customs. lineages offer a fascinating, if controversial, For instance they do not eat pork, forbid certain

Journal of Religion and Theology V4 ● I1 ● 2020 3 Judaism, Genetics and Racialisation combinations of permitted foods, cover their February 2019 - the Israeli Newspaper Haaretz heads with skull caps, conduct ritual animal ran an article reporting how the chief rabbi of slaughter, celebrate holy day once a week and Israel was requesting DNA test to confirm place a star of David on their gravestones. Jewishness in order to issue marriage licences. According to oral tradition they are descended In a similar way Russian speaking Israelis from seven Jewish men leaving Israel 2000 started to move to Israel from countries from the years ago. They prefer endogamy, preferring former Soviet Union in the 1990s. They have their children to marry other members and also been asked to take DNA test to certify their discourage marriage to a non-member. Their Jewishness. To many, these facts would be seen sacred prayer language comprises a mixture of as disconcerting given the ideas of Jewish race Hebrew and Arabic. They have a religious with deeply implicated in the holocaust. artefact which is a replica of the biblical Ark of Ideas of genetic identity have been strongly the Covenant called "ngomalungundu"- the contested by the Israeli NGO group -Shavai drum that thunders, asserting that this ark was Israel- who provide education and support for built 700 years ago from the remnants of the isolated Jewish communities and who stress that original ark. DNA testing indeed suggests a Jewishness cannot be reduced to biology and genetic element found amongst other Jewish that the Jewish people are about more than just priest line known as Cohenim, however, the genetics. The chairman of this group- Michael tribe are now predominantly Christian or Freund- asserts that while genetics cannot be Muslim. used as a marker for Jewish identity, on the Parfitt used a relatively new genetic technique other hand, genetic studies scientifically validate genetic to identify markers on Y-chromosome the Jewish historical narrative. of Lemba males. These were compared to other Relatedly the past ten years have witnessed a groups with whom the member might have rise in home DNA tests to examine genetic shared a common ancestor long ago. This study identity and ethnic image; this is a part of their suggests some members of the Suba clan appear use in diagnosing genetic disorders. Now there to have an ancestral connection to Jewish are even tests which can determine whether you populations. have Jewish markers for instance the Jewish The Igbo Jews are one of Nigeria's largest ethnic marker test claims to be accurate given results groups. A sub group claims descent from the three weeks after receiving the sample and cost lost tribes of Israel and are therefore Jewish. £99. The sample is analysed against 16 standard However, recent DNA testing found no STR markers. The DNA testing for Jewishness connection with Jews. The results demonstrate does not test for a generalised Jewish ancestry that there is no possible ancestral link between but rather a specific variant on the mitochondrial Igbo and the Jews. DNA passed down through the mother but is found exclusively in Ashkenazi Jews. DNA testing for assessing Jewishness If someone carries this specific mitochondrial Proving Jewishness can present extreme DNA marker there is a 99% chance the person is difficulties for new immigrants to Israel whose on Ashkenazi ancestry. There is evidence that Jewishness may be doubted by orthodox most of the genetic testing for ancestry rabbinic authorities (Kahn 2000: 73).While demonstrates results which correspond to many people see themselves as Jewish it can be geographical areas Chinese, British and West very difficult to obtain official recognition from African. Judaism however is a religious or the Israeli Rabbinate. In the past three decades cultural identity. After the Ashkenazi Jews the burden of proof has become increasingly arrived in Eastern Europe around a millennium stringent and bureaucratic to such an extent that ago these communities remained segregated by some who fail to provide the requisite force and customs, only mixing occasionally documentation must undergo a full conversion with local populations. This isolation narrowed process. In recent years genetic testing has the gene core which gives rise to a set of become a tool utilised by rabbis and rabbinical identifiable variations which sets them apart courts to establish an individual‘s Jewish status- from other European populations at the a form of genetic citizenship (Mc Gonigle and microscopic level. Herman 2015). Many Jews from the former These genetic findings reshape not only how we Soviet Union are required to undergo DNA understand ourselves but also how we testing to confirm- their Jewish heritage. understand others. Genetic data provides a new

4 Journal of Religion and Theology V4 ● I1 ● 2020 Judaism, Genetics and Racialisation form of Jewish self -understanding and identity. became prominent over the last decades of the Genetic markers suggesting a genetic link to the nineteenth century. The term anti-Semitism Jewish people are now one of a number of originated in the 1870s by the German publicist markers of Jewish identity. But as Egorova Wiemar (1819 - 1904) who saw Jewish social (2009) argues genetic identity has not super- cultural traits as a consequence of their biological ceded other forms of what it means to be a Jew, essence. To this extent Jew -hatred became racism especially Halachic definitions. Genotypes of sematic race and allowed for biological cannot prove Jewish status and no haplotype is justification to socio -cultural discrimination. The necessary or even sufficient for confirming argument that biological differences between Jewish identity. people underlie their social difference became marked in the 20th century reaching its climax in This genetic identity is based upon pre-existent the catastrophic manifestations of the Nazi regime. ideas of race, race science and genealogy in In the mid-19th century genetics used probabilistic Judaism. It is problematic according to this populations and adopted ideas deriving from author to integrate genealogical notions of DNA structure. For Falk, despite considerable Judaism with those based upon cultural and consanguinity, It is not possible to identify a religious affiliation. Jewish status is conferred Jewish genotype. either through having a Jewish mother or from ‗conversion‘ into Judaism. Given the Nazi attempt to exterminate the Jews based upon their perceived racial distinctiveness, Genetics and the racialisation of Jews any assertion of the genetic basis of Judaism is Without doubt findings from genetics and extremely concerning. However while the race biotechnology have made a deep impact upon concept has biological and social meaning that are culture and society. The term geneticisation was difficult to disentangle, I would argue that we introduced by sociologist Abby Lippman cannot simply dismiss scientific findings based (Lippman 1991). She saw it as a process by upon their possible social implications. We cannot which inter- individual differences are defined ignore the fact that Jews share a common genetic by their DNA and reinforces ideas of thread but this is not enough to describe Jews as distinguishing social groups by their biological a race. The studies cited above certainly reinforce traits. For her geneticisation redefines what are the argument that Jews share a common physicality. seen as significant differences between people, These genetic findings among Jews have leading to the development of hierarchies already taken up by far right political groups to among people based on differences in their fuel their anti-Semitic agendas. As one example DNA. Paul Rabinow argues how ‗the new the White supremacist group alt –right promotes genetics will prove to be an infinitely greater nationalist and anti-Semitic ideologies and calls force for reshaping society and than was the for the establishment of a white ethno-state. revolution in physics, because it will be Members of this group promote the use of embedded throughout the social fabric at the ancestry testing to ‗prove‘ their pure white micro level by medical practices and a variety of heritage and rule out undesired descent from other discourses‘ (1992: 241). For him genetics African and Ashkenazi Jewish groups. results in the emergence of new and more diverse group identities, but he does not deny Finally can we argue that genetic findings that these findings can reinforce traditional support Jewish tradition? While DNA findings notions of identity such as race and gender. As can be deployed to inform historical research, as Troy Duster (2005) argues new genetic studies Egorova (2010) argues, geneticists and historians can contribute to the ‗rebiologisation of race‘ have been keen to separate their disciplines from (Duster 2005). Genetic research has rekindled each other. Geneticists emphasise the need to unresolved issues pertaining to the of keep some distance from historical evidence to human difference. maintain ‗objectivity‘, while historians have questioned the validity of genetic findings in What are the implications of these findings for their discipline. Despite the fact that geneticists the now discredited notion of race in physical and historians appear to be familiar with each anthropology? Falk (2014) argues vehemently other‘s research and agree to engage with it to there is no evidence supporting the existence of some extent, they still remain keen on a Jewish genotype. This author argues that separating their respective disciplines. although a discrimination of Jews has been widespread over the past two thousand years, While scientific discourse has often been the idea that Jewish identity is biological deployed to challenge and discredit biblical

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Citation: Simon dein., "Judaism, Genetics and Racialisation", Journal of Religion and Theology, 4(1), 2020, pp. 1-7 Copyright: © 2020 Simon dein. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

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