Index

NUMBERS AND SYMBOLS African community, 151–4 4chan, 98, 114, 120, 121, 123 pushback, 152, 153 #DontHateCommunicate, 321 targets of cyber , 148 #Eraseracism campaign, 243 technology use, 152 #itstopswithme campaign, 245 Akdeniz, Yaman, 18–20 #ride with me campaign, 224 Alba, Davey, 11 All Together Now, 233, 242, 321 #Eraseracism campaign, 243 A Anti-racism App for school Abbott, Tony, 173 children, 243 Abdo, Maha, 184 CAPE project, 243 Aboriginal Australians. See Everyday Racism Mobile App, 243 Indigenous Australians Exit White Power project, 322, Abramovich, Dr Dvir, 122 347 academics, 224 Facebook page, 247 publications, 122 One Parramatta Project, 243 reactive strategies, 224 account, 247 acquiescence to racism, 301, 344 alt-right, 98, 124, 199, 204, 205, 211 Adelaide Institute, 116 Aly, Waleed, 152 ad hoc communities, 220, 224 amplifiers, 226

© The Author(s) 2017 359 A. Jakubowicz et al., Cyber Racism and Community Resilience, Palgrave Hate Studies, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-64388-5 360 Index analysis of regulation, 60 Australian Arabic Council, 160 Andrews, Kevin, 153 Australian Communications and Anglin, Andrew, 124 Media Authority (ACMA), anonymity, 264, 314 279 of , 153, 158, 167 Australian Defence League (ADL), anthropology, 54 183, 184, 186 narrative approaches, 55 Australian Human Rights virtual ethnography, 54 Commission (AHRC), 67, anti-Arab sentiment, 154, 161 244, 245, 328 anti-Chinese sentiment, 162 complaints to, 97 Anti-Defamation League (ADL), conciliation scheme, 272, 276 316, 317, 319, 320 dispute resolution, 272 anti-Muslim issues, 119, 121, 127–32 inquiry into racist violence, 111, anti-Muslim sentiment, 157, 159, 112, 118 170, 179, 181, 201, 203 Australian identity narratives, 196–8 responses, 183 Australian online Cyber Racism and Anti-racism App for school children, Community Resilience survey, 243 67 , 24, 53, 118–25, attitudes profiles of respondents, 168–70, 178, 185, 232, 234, 70, 72 309, 311, 316, 317 demographic profiles of Global Forum to Combat respondents, 69, 71 Antisemitism, 234 discussion, 89–91 interventions, 317–18 findings, 72–9 Online Hate Prevention Institute, methodology, 68 232, 238 Australian stakeholders in combating Spotlight on Antisemitism cyber racism, 327–34 campaign, 232 authoritarian populism, 206 response, 182, 185–7 authors of cyber racism, 79–83 “anti-white” racism, 340 antipathy towards diversity, 84 assigning blame to victim, 207, 209 ethnic groups, 80 assimilationist views, 196, 197 Awan, Imran, 131 Australia Day, 193, 239 awareness-raising among Web users, Indigenous counter-narrative, 193 326 IndigenousX response, 236–7 Muslims celebrating, 197 OHPI Campaign, 231 B Unity in Diversity campaign, 231, Back, Les, 4–5 238 Bannon, Steve, 10 Index 361

Bannon, Steven, 120 OHPI Australia Day Campaign, Bardot, Brigitte, 268 231 behaviour of racially excluded or Spotlight on Anti-Muslim suppressed groups, 30 Internet Hate, 232–3 believe in Bendigo campaign, 221 Canadian First Nations members, Berners-Lee, Tim, 20 28, 31 Bissonnette, Alexandre, 1, 5 CAPE project, 243 “Black” names, 113 Carleton-Taylor, Roanna, 342 Black Lives Matter (BLM) characterised, 237 movement, 204 Charlie Hebdo, 129, 268 Black, Don, 5, 95 Chinese community, 161–4 blogs, 220 anti-Chinese sentiment, 162 Bold Creative, 321 social media use, 161 Bolt, Andrew, 96, 97, 112, 133–6, ching chong girls’ tag, 114 340 Christensen, George, 121 bonding social capital, 33 civic participation, 34 Bostock, John, 24 civil society interventions, 304, Breivik, Anders, 1, 5 317–22 British National Party (BNP), 205 educational goals, 318 Buzzfeed, 165 encouraging ISP role, 318 bystanders media literacy programmes, 315 activation against racism, 341–42 national and international anti-racism, 341 coalitions, 318 cyber racism matrix, 334, 348 parallel stakeholder responses, opponents of racism, 341 325 strongly prejudiced, 347 research, 315 UNESCO report findings, 317, 319 C civil society organisations, 218, Caiani, M., 53 221–6, 230, 249, 250, 319 Campaigns affiliated with targeted group, #Apology, 239 225, 226 #InvasionDay2016, 239 amplifiers, 226 Everyday Racism Mobile App, cooperation between 243 organisations, 248 FECCA Youth Cyber-Racism proactive strategies, 221 Project, 247 reactive strategies, 221 National anti-racism campaign, unaffiliated, 226, 242–4 244 Civilination, 342, 345, 346 362 Index civility, 299, 317, 342, 348, 349 plan for building, 334–48 building culture of, 334, 336, practical ways to build, 31–5 341, 349 skill building, 34 children learning, 333, 348 state/economy/civil society nexus, effect of internet on, 301, 334 308 organisations, 342 visioning post-trauma future, 32 Clinton, Hillary, 98 community standards, 308 co-cultural approach to conciliation, 272, 281 communication, 30 content amplifiers, 225, 229 communication, 307 content analysis, 52, 53, 56 communication science, 55–6 content providers, 225, 229 communities, 224, 306 conversation analysis, 56 research and policy, 233 cooperation between organisations, community builders, 221–24 248 academics, 226 Corporation for Assigned Names and civil society organisations, 224 Numbers (ICANN), 15 government agencies, 226 Council of Europe, 302, 315, 328 grassroots activists, 224 convention, 328 community resilience, 31–4, Cybercrime convention, 299–349 additional protocol, 275 Australian context, 32 No Movement, 283 civic participation, 34 counter narrative civil society organisations, 319, Indigenous counter narrative, 237 330 counter-radicalisation, 303, 321, 327 combatting racism with, 2, 31 counter-speech, 320, 321 communication, 307 counter-terrorism narratives, 303 communication strategy, 32 creating positive alternative material, counter-radicalisation of Muslim 331 communities, 32 criminalisation of racism, 257, 258 definition, 31 carrier service used to menace, digital citizenship, 321 harass or offend, 257, 273 education, 34 Criminal Code Act 1995, 257, family environment, 334 273 flexibility and strength, 331 effectiveness of criminal sanctions, Indigenous Australians, 305 266 mentoring, 34 lack of consensus, 265–8 natural disasters, 32 problems with, 282 networks, 34 ‘psychic’ assault, 273 Index 363

state and territory laws, 273 chain of, 59 threats of violence, 273 civil society interventions, 317 criminology, 53, 60 community resilience to combat, critical discourse analysis (CDA), 51, 31–5 55, 56 complaints to AHRC, 67 crowd-sourcing, 320, 326, 330 coordinated action against, 325 crowdsourcing hate speech data, 229, cyber bulling and, 303, 348 234 denunciation of, 332 CSI-CHAT analysis tool, 235–6 depersonalised mob-mentality, cultural exclusion, 55 314 cultural inclusiveness, 198 educating about dangers of, 319 cultural inequalities, 12 effect of, 259, 301 cultural studies, 54 health, effects on, 65 Cultural Survival Australia, 151 online behaviour, effects on, 65, Curran, James, 95 66 , 261, 273, 284, 302, environments, 82–4 327, 334 equipping young people to Australian legislation, 284 overcome, 283 Broadcasting Service Act, 274 growth of, 47, 48 criminal prosecution, 273 harms inflicted by, 312 New Zealand law, 314 humour, disguised as, 261 New Zealand legislation, 284 ignoring, 78 strategies against, 302 impacts of, 65, 76, 77, 90 cyber hate, 53 intention to hurt and cyber-psychopathy, 100 humiliate, 3 cyber racism, 2, 45, 95, 199, 200, Internet regulation, 17 258, 299 multi-layered response, 259 anti-ethnic hate, 119 narratives, 193–212 attempts to regulate, 302 national identity narrative attitudes on regulation of, 84–9 construction, 198–9 Australian parallel stakeholders, online communities and, 54 329 online communities tackling, 220, Australian survey, 67–8 223 authors of, 79 online radicalisation and, 327 avenues of, 2 origins of concept, 4–6 beginnings of, 2–6 parallel stakeholder responses, blatant, 200, 206, 211 325 bypassing media gatekeepers, 314 perpetrators (see perpetrators) 364 Index cyber racism (cont.) criminalisation debate, 265 platforms where encountered, 74 educating internet users, 287 power of internet, 323–4 freedom of speech and, 262 prevalence of, 89, 299 gap in, 280–82 proactive responses, 225 government pressure to improve, public act, 271 280 racially inflected “work”, 113 ISP terms of service and codes of reactive responses, 224 conduct, 276–81 regulation (see cyber racism lack of consensus, 265 regulation) no express regime, 282 regulatory challenges, 314 penalties for perpetrators, 287 resisting, 319 pressure on content providers, responses to, 66–8, 78, 79, 90 285, 286 sadism and, 4–6, 99–101 recording and monitoring of sophisticated ideological online behaviour, 288 arguments, 203–6 reporting mechanisms, 286 survey on effects, 67 third party intervention, 287 targets (see targets) vilification laws, 270–2 UNESCO report, 317, 319 voluntary undertakings, 281 what makes an online racist, 101 without excessively curbing where occurs, 113–15 speech, 283 witnesses, 72, 73, 82 cyber racism research, 45 Cyber Racism and Community anthropology, 54 Resilience (CRaCR) project, communication science, 55 59, 148, 258 CRaCR project methodologies, ‘Encounters’ survey, 262 59 online survey, 67 criminology, 60 research methodologies, 59–60 cross-disciplinary overlap, 57 cyber racism matrix, 334–48 cultural studies, 54–6 cyber racism regulation disciplinary approaches, 47 Australia, 269–74 information science, 57 Broadcasting Service Act, 274 interdisciplinary approach, 60–1 civil penalty regime, suggested, methodologies, 57 284, 285, 287 participant-generated data, 58 closing gap in, 282–5 psychology, 56, 60, 61 conciliation, 272, 281 racist texts online, 46 content providers, 284 relationships between actors, data criminal law, 258, 270, 273, 274, and methods, 46 282 researcher-driven data, 58 Index 365

sociology, 50 effects of racism, 299, 300 transdisciplinarity, 48 e-mail, 220 Cyber Racism: listserve, 220 Online and the New Attack on empathy, 322, 344, 348 Civil Rights, 54 “empathy trumps hate” slogan, cyber swarming, 96, 127 348 cycle of acceleration, breaking, 346 children learning, 348 effect of internet on, 301 empowerment of internet users, D 303 Daniels, Jessie, 5, 54 Enikeev, Ruslan, 6, 16 Dark Triad, 98, 99, 105, 121 E-Safety Commissioner, 274, 303, Darwin, Charles, 22 330, 347 dating sites, 114–15 ethnocracy, 27, 122 de-escalating conflict, 345 ethno-cultural conflicts, 16 Demos, 320 ethnography, virtual, 54–6 denigrating victim, 209 euphemistic labelling, 206, 207 Devine, Miranda, 340 European Commission against digital citizenship, 321 Racism and Intolerance digital cultural studies, 54 (ECRI), 275, 288 The Dingoes, 120–3 Everyday Racism Mobile App, 243 discourse analysis (DA), 51, 56 exclusion narratives, 194, 197 disinhibition online, minimising, exploitation of workers, 9 318 external advocacy and support, 160 dispute resolution mechanisms, 272, 281 doxing, 322 F reverse, 347 Facebook, 3, 6, 10, 11, 16, 20, 21, Doyle, Michael, 279 55, 67, 68, 74, 78, 80, 84, Durban Declaration, 18 113, 114, 119, 120, 130, 149, 150, 152–5, 157, 158, 161, 164, 165, 170–6, 183, 184, E 196, 197, 219, 234, 246, 258, educating internet users, 287 261, 262, 264, 267, 276, 301, education, 34 306, 308–10, 315, 320, 321, educational goals, 318 330, 341–7 action, 318 Aboriginal Memes, 306 analysis, 318 advertiser boycott, 345 identification, 318 All Together Now, 243 366 Index

Facebook (cont.) Federation of Ethnic Communities’ Australian Human Rights Councils of Australia Commission page, 249 (FECCA), 223, 233, 246, 247 boosting posts, 219 Feigin, Joe, 102 collaboration with Demos, 320 FightAgainstHate.com reporting Community Standards, 277 tool, 230, 231, 234–6 counter-speech, 320, 321 framing harmful behaviour to appear cyber swarming, 96, 127 moral, 206 encouraging respectful behaviour, freedom of speech, 18, 97, 157, 168, 288 173, 262, 313, 315, 324 European Online Civil Courage balancing regulation, 261–3, 268 Initiative, 280 user views on, 262–3 Federation of Ethnic US First Amendment, 268, 313, Communities’ Councils of 317, 319 Australia, 247 flagging offensive material, 278 hate speech prohibition, 309, G 310, 346 gender, 5, 15 IndigenousX, 238, 241, 242 attitudes to regulation, 89 NetVizz, 130 targets and witnesses, 72 Online Civil Courage initiative, Generation XYZ, 120 321 Gephi, 130 Online Hate Prevention Institute, German Association of the Internet 229 Industry, eco, 66 pressure to improve regulation, German legal constraints, 309 280 Global Forum for Combat protections for users, 309 Antisemitism (GFCA), 119, Race Discrimination 234, 316, 317 Commissioner, 245 globalisation, 7, 8, 15 removing racist content, 286 Goldsmith, 324, 325 reporting racist content, 267, 278 Goodes, Adam, 134–6, 207–9 Spotlight on Anti-Muslim Google/Alphabet, 6, 10, 11, 16, Internet Hate campaign, 232 113, 120–4, 276, 280, 286, takedown rates for antisemitism, 301, 309, 311, 320, 321, 234 345 terms of service, 276, 277 advertiser boycott, 11, 345 volume of users, 264, 279 government agencies, 223, 225 fake news, 152 government intervention, 317 family environment, 334–6 grassroots activism, 218, 250 Index 367 grassroots activists, 224 I proactive strategies, 224 identity rhetoric targeting minority reactive strategies, 224 groups, 200–202 Gray, Kishiona, 54, 55 immigration policy, 10, 103, 104 incitement to racial hatred, 111–12 Indigenous H Health and Direct Racism, 239 Hanson, Pauline, 166, 203 Indigenous Australians, 75, 96, 103, Harmony Day, 17 111, 133–7, 148–51, 193, harms inflicted by racist speech, 195, 236, 239–42, 305 312–13 Aboriginal Memes, 278, 280, 306 group harm, 312 Aboriginal Memes petition, 224 hate speech, 17, 18, 55, 66, 84, 148, Australia Day, 231, 232, 238, 239 150, 155, 167, 178, 185, 186, Bolt article, 133 320–3. See also racist speech Cultural Survival Australia site, Article 4 of ICERD, 17, 18 151 criminalisation, 328 direct racism, 240 educating about dangers of, 323 disadvantage, 149 European environment, 315 Goodes incident, 134–7 Facebook prohibition, 310–11 health, 239 failure to delete, 310 IndigenousX, 218, 236, 306 forms of, 317 Invasion Day, 231, 232, 237, 239 freedom of speech and, 18 most harassed group online, 149 harms inflicted by, 314 Northern Territory Intervention, inter-group violence catalyst, 239 317 racism against, 280, 306, 307 ISP responses to, 311–4 resilience building, 305–8 resisting, 342 social media use, 149, 150 responses to, 182–7 Survival Island 3 game, 150 UNESCO report, 317, 319 targets of cyber racism, 148–51 Holocaust denial laws, 115, 268 Twitter account, 238, 239, 242 Holt, Michael, 1, 5 Unity in Diversity on Australia homophobia, 53 Day campaign, 231–2 Hot Copper, 165 Indigenous responses Houston, J.B., 33, 307, 308 IndigenousX community, 237–8 human rights and racist speech, IndigenousX, 218, 236–42 313 Aboriginal English, recognition humour, 343 of, 240 use of, 204 community resilience, 241 368 Index

IndigenousX (cont.) Internet, 2, 287 counter narrative, 237 access to, 7 cultural revival, 240 culture, circulation of, 7 Mabo day, 239 flow of capital, 10 National Apology anniversary, 238 globalisation and, 7, 8 optimism and excellence, 241 growth of, 6 resistance, 242 history, 6 solidarity, 242 key players, 8 industry platform codes and multilayered networking practices, 308–11 processes, 6–12 Information and Communications political economy of, 7, 8, 11, 16, Technology (ICTs), 14 17, 97 information science, 57 regulation of (see internet Instagram, 114, 161, 165, 176, 301 regulation) Institute for Strategic Discourse, 322 role in contemporary racism, 97 internalisation of racism, 300 user-generated content, 10 International Centre for the Study of why racists like, 95–8 Radicalisation and Political Internet Corporation for Assigned Violence (ICSR), 303 Names and Numbers International Convention on the (ICANN), 15, 16 Elimination of All Forms of Internet protocol suite TCP/IP, 18 Racial Discrimination Internet racism. See cyber racism (ICERD), 17, 18, 179, 260 Internet regulation, 7, 12–21, 258, Australia accepting obligations, 267 112 coordination and collaboration, Australian ratification of, 109 14 definition of discrimination, 109 cross-jurisdictional, 265 International Convention to Combat cyber security, 14 All Forms of Racial EC Convention on Cybercrime, Discrimination protocol to, 19 Australian reservation to art 4C, freedom of speech and, 258, 262, 328 263, 268, 269 UN ICERD groups, 323, 328 global level, 12 international human rights measures, global strategy, 18 260 International Telecommunications international protocols and Union (ITU), 12 standards, 275 internet freedoms and, 16 International Telecommunications lawlessness of internet, 264 Union (ITU), 12, 323 major challenges to, 263–9 Index 369

national systems, 15 labelling methods, 169 pornography, 16 NSW Jewish Board of Deputies, privacy protection, 14 182–3 racism, 17–21 religious discussions, 180, 181 racist content (see cyber racism responses to racism, 183–6 regulation) Jews, 115–25 volume of activity, 264 antisemitism, 118–25 voluntary codes of conduct, 258 ECAJ vs. Adelaide Institute, World Summit on the 116–25 Information Society (WSIS), (((echo))) device, 123 12, 13, 15 Holocaust denial, 115–19 Internet service providers (ISPs), 258 Jones, Jeremy, 116 encouraging active role by, 315 excuses for not protecting users, 311 K industry codes of conduct, 276 Kruger, Sonia, 165 lack of consensus on criminalisation, 265 pressure to improve regulation, L 280, 286 Latham, Mark, 121 removing racist content, 279, 287 Le Pen, Marine, 268 reporting racist content, 267, 277, LICRA, 324 278 Liddell, Colin, 204 terms of service, 276 LinkedIn, 165, 170 Internet-map, 6 Lipski, Sam, 119 interventions, 317 Lipstadt, Deborah, 118 Irving, David, 118 Love, Eric, 23 Islam, campaigning against, 125 “lulz” strategies, 100, 120, 121 Islamophobia on the Internet report, 232 Islamophobia register, 228 M Machiavellianism, 99, 105 McGonagle, Tarlach, 18 J Media and Communication Jakubowicz, Andrew, 122–4 Authority, 330 Jewish, Christian, Muslim media literacy programmes, 315, Association (JCMA), 223 318 Jewish community, 164–70 mentoring, 34 anti-semitism, 168–70, 178, 185 Metzger, Tom, 95 370 Index microaggression, 209 Islamophobia, 170, 187 alien in own land, 210 media coverage, 180 ascribing stereotypical responses to racism, 183 characteristics, 210 social media use, 171, 172 colour blindness, 210 surveillance, 172 denial of racism, 210 Muslim immigration ban, 203 harmfulness, 211 Muslims, 125–7 myth of meritocracy, 210 arrival in Australia, 126 microassaults, 210 attitudes to, 126 microinsults, 210 Bendigo Mosque case, 127–33 microinvalidations, 210 Change.org petitions, 131 Middle East conflict, 155, 165, 174, Stop the Mosque Facebook page, 180 127–31 Middle Eastern community, 154 Muslim Women’s Association, 183 anti-Arab sentiment, 154, 161 MyOpinion (now SSI), 68 anti-Muslim sentiment, 157, 159 Christian and Muslim groups, 155 Middle East conflict, views on, N 155–7 narrative analysis, 55 “Middle Eastern appearance” as national anti-racism campaign, 245 identifier, 155 National Anti-Racism Partnership percentage of population, 154 and Strategy, 67 politics, 155 National Challenging Racism Project religion and race, 155 (CRP), 69 minimising perpetrator’s role, 206 national identity narratives, 194–6, moral disengagement, 56, 101, 206–9 198 Adam Goodes incident, 208 colonisation, 195 assigning blame to victim, 207, construction, 198 209 cyber racism and, 198 euphemistic labelling, 206, 207 dominant White Australian framing harmful behaviour to culture, 195, 196 appear moral, 206 inclusion and exclusion, 194, 195, Multicultural Communities Council 197 of Illawarra, 233 rhetoric targeting minority multiculturalism, 103, 105, 195, groups, 200 198, 212, 312 social media, on, 198, 199 Muslim community, 197 ‘true’ Australian identity, 196 anti-Muslim sentiment, 179, 181 Natural Language Processing (NLP) controversial issues, 171 software, 59 Index 371

Nazism, 4, 53, 311, 324 tackling racism, 220 neo-Nazism, 118–20, 124, 164 Twitter, 220 Netanyahu, Benjamin, 122 online diaspora communities, 54 networked information environment, online dispute resolution systems, 179 272 Newsom, Clara, 122 online gaming communities, 54 New World Information and online harassment, 65, 66 Communication Order online hate, 218 (NWICO), 12 Online Hate Prevention Institute NGOs, 321 (OHPI), 119, 186, 306, 308, Nissim, Rivkah, 34 326 normalisation of racism, 299, 300, crowdsourcing hate content, 229 323, 343 data used in research and policy, strategies against, 322 233–5 Nye, L. Jarvis, 24 FightAgainstHate software, 326 Spotlight on Anti-Muslim Internet Hate campaign, 232 O Unity in Diversity on Australia Obama, Barak, 25, 102 Day campaign, 231, 232 One Nation, 166 online racist communities, 202–3 online behaviour, 65 online radicalisation, 303, 330, Online Civil Courage initiative, 20, 334 321 strategies against, 303, 324–6, online communities, 218–20 334 amplifiers, 225 online survey of attitudes, 59 blogs, 220 ooVoo, 55 builders, 221 opponents of racism, 348 classification, 220 Orbe, Mark, 30, 105 definition, 218 Orbe matrix, 105 endorsing and supporting those organised trolling, 322 running, 249 “outing” of racist posters, 347 Facebook, 219 News websites, 220 permanence, 221 P regular interaction, 220 Paradies, Yin, 29 of resistance and solidarity, Parenti, L., 53 217–50 Peinovich, Mike, 124 sources of content, 224 , 98 stakeholder strategies, 226, 229 Peris, Nova, 167, 257 372 Index perpetrators categories, 25 “anti-white” racism, 340 concept of, 21, 312 cyber racism matrix, 334, 348 difference, describing, 21 ethno-religious nationalists, 346 gender and, 5 fundamentalist religious beliefs, 346 hierarchies in telecoms also identifying as victims, 345 companies, 9 mildly prejudiced, 344 life experiences and, 27 opponents of racism, 339 psychological concept, 21 “outing” of, 341 racialised social environments, 27 strongly prejudiced, 345–6 and racism, 177–9 unaware amplifiers, 343 social and cultural construct, 21 unconcerned or unaware, 342 Race Discrimination Commissioner, Pewdiepie, 311 245 Pfefferbaum, R. L., 32, 33 race truth, 204 Phillips, Whitney, 100 racial categories, 25 policy focus, 218 racial defamation, 111 political economy, 97 racial discrimination, 110, 179 of Internet, 7, 8, 11, 16, 17 Racial Discrimination Act, 313, 328 political science, 52 s 18C, 270, 313 politics, 155, 165, 175 drafting, 110 “positive messages” to counter racial vilification provisions, 97, extremism, 303 109–13 production of hardware and racial hatred, inciting, 111 software, 9 racially demarcated societie, 102 Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 118 racial microaggression, 209–11 psychology, 56, 60, 61 racial science, 24, 28 psychopathy, 99, 100 racial vilification, 97, 109, 155, pushback, 152, 153, 181 179–81, 183, 313 criminalisation, 109–11 racism, 2, 3, 21, 45–61, 259 Q categories of race, 27 qualitative discursive analysis, 53 community resilience combatting, Quebec City 2, 31 murders, 1 cultural inequalities and, 12 data, 69 definition of, 3, 47, 260 R disciplinary approaches, 47 race, 21–31 effect on perpetrator and victim, 3 biological concept, 21 embedded in societal structures, 3 Index 373

ethnocracy, 27 religious fanaticism, 302 field of power, 105 cyber racism perpetrators, 348 freedom from, 268 online radicalisation, 321, 327 freedom of speech and, 97 reproduction of discursive racism, 55 hate speech, 1, 17, 18 research, 320 history of society and, 102 resilience, 90, 186, 187, 259, 301, , 22–4, 27 303–5 immigration policy, 10 communication processes, 307 internalised domination, 29 community, 306–8, 332, 333, Internet (see cyber racism) (see community resilience) Internet magnifying and altering, concept of, 304 48 indigenous communities, 305, legal context, 109–13 306 legal perspective, 260 personal level, 304 masculinities and, 5 plan for building, 334 power relationship, 2 regenerative, 307 social status accorded, 101 regulating, 282 structural impact in US, 102 strategies, 322 US racist politics, 23 resilience building, 218 western imperialism and, 13 IndigenousX, 242 what constitutes, 96 resistance what makes a racist, 101–8 community strategies for, 224 Racism It Stops with Me (RISWM) online communities of, 217, 250 campaign, 330 Resisting Hate, 342 racist hierarchies, 102 responses to cyber racism, 66, 68, 91 racist narratives, 193 responses to racism, 182 racist propaganda, 112 aggressive, 30 racist speech, 312, 313, 343, 344. Orbe matrix, 30 See also hate speech reverse doxing, 347 contemporary public attitudes, rhetoric targeting minority groups, 313 200 freedom of speech, 315, 324 “rogues galleries”, 347 harms inflicted by, 312 ISP responses, 308 racist violence, 111, 112 S HREOC Inquiry, 112, 118, 119 sadism and trolling, 99 Reddit, 165, 308, 347 Sarkozy, Nicolas, 324 regulation, attitudes on, 84 self-censoring online lives, 66 religion, 155, 156, 171, 179–81 sexism, 53 374 Index

Simon Wiesenthal Institute, 309, T 316 targets, 72, 82, 89, 90 skill building, 34 age, 73 Skype, 55, 124 alternative speech opportunities, Snapchat, 170 336 social activism, 304, 316–22 anti-racist views, 341 social Darwinism, 22 creating networks of support, 339 social ecology of users, 334 cyber racism matrix, 334, 348 social identities, 56 environment, 82 social media, 3, 5, 11, 17, 65, 66, ethnic groups, 75, 90 98, 118, 119, 194, 212 gender, 72 Australian identity narratives, 196 mildly prejudiced, 344–5 training, 34 opponents of racism, 339–41 social network analysis (SNA), 52 perpetrators also identifying as, social psychology, 56, 60 345 socio-cultural ideology war, 181 radical views, 347 sociology, 50–2, 59 resilience, 89–90 Sociology of Racism, 47 responses, 66, 68 solidarity strategies for de-escalating community strategies for, 224, conflict, 345 225, 242 strongly prejudiced, 345 online communities of, 218, 219, unconcerned or unaware, 342 250 targets of cyber , sophisticated ideological arguments, 147–87 203 Chinese community, 161 Southern Poverty Law Center heavily targeted communities, (SPLC), 5, 6, 319, 320, 331 147 Coloradans United Against Hate, Indigenous Australians, 148 333 Jewish community, 164 “Not in my town” initiative, 333 Middle Eastern community, Spence, N., 28–31 154–61 Spencer, Herbert, 22, 24 Muslim community, 170–7 state approaches, 311–6 responses, 182–5 Stormfront, 59, 114, 346 shared characteristics, 176–7 supply chains, 10 telecommunications companies, 9 support for victims of race hate, 339 text analysis software, 59 Survival Island 3 game, 150 thematic analysis, 56 systematic “othering”, 300 The Right Stuff (TRS), 121, 122 Index 375

Toben, Frederick, 116 ICERD groups, 323, 328 tool United States CSI-CHAT, 235 immigration policy, 10 FightAgainstHate.com, 230 National Public Health Strategy, transdisciplinarity, 48 31 Trollbusters, 346 racist politics, 23 trolling, 98, 331, 347 Unity in Diversity on Australia Day Jews, 96 campaign, 231 personality factors, 99 US First Amendment, 313, 317, Trump administration, 322, 323 319 Trump, Donald, 10, 204 Tumblr, 170 Turnbull, Malcolm, 122 V Twitter, 20, 68, 80, 114, 119, 120, van Dijk, Teun, 51, 55 124, 161, 162, 170, 171, 176, vilification laws, 270, 281 203, 273, 280, 286, 301, 306, virtual ethnography, 54–6 308, 309, 311, 315, 321, 343, Virtual Private Network (VPN), 346, 347 279 All Together Now, 243 virtual victimisation, 53 Federation of Ethnic Communities’ Councils of Australia, 247 W IndigenousX, 236, 241, 242 Wales, Jimmy, 346 Online Hate Prevention Institute, WeChat, 162–4 229 Weckerle, Andrea, 342, 345 Weibo, 162, 164 Weisman, Jonathan, 20 U White Australian culture, 195, 196 UK Premier League football clubs, White Australia policy, 103, 109 169 White power, 1, 3–5, 199, 211, 325, UN Alliance of Civilizations 346 conference, 234 Exit White Power project, 347 unaware amplifiers, 343 , 103, 123 UN Declaration on Human Rights, 13 white supremacist groups, 198 UNESCO report, 319–21 white supremacy, 55, 59, 95, 173 United Nations, 302, 311 witnesses, 72, 82 human rights conventions, 326, attitudes to regulation, 89 328 responses, 66, 68, 90 376 Index

World Summit on the Information Y Society (WSIS), 12, Yahoo, 324 13, 15 YouTube, 11, 68, 74, 80, 84, 113, World Wide Web, 55, 323, 332 114, 119, 155, 170, 171, 238, World Wide Web Foundation, 20 301, 306, 308–11, 315, 345 Wu, T., 324, 325 failure to delete offensive material, 311

X Xbox Live, 55 Z , 315, 324 Zuckerberg, Mark, 20, 21