1 Photojournalism: Its Development and the Impact of Citizen-Led

Photojournalism: Its Development and The Impact of Citizen-led

Journalism on its Evolution.

Rosie Hartley

1200804

Submitted to Norwich University of the Arts on 30th January 2015, in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BA (Hons) Photography.

Abstract

This research report looks at the ethics within photojournalism, using case studies of Steve McCurry’s ‘Afghan Girl’ (Fig. 2), Kevin Carter’s “Sudanese

Girl’ (Fig. 3), Nick Ut’s ‘The Terror of War’ (Fig. 1) and citizen-led media sites, such as LiveLeak, with an aim of understanding photojournalism’s development and evolutionary changes. The report has a focus on manipulation of imagery within the mainstream media, from staged video by

CNN to the release of images that contain incorrect information with the New

York Post and attempts to answer the question about why we are shown manipulated imagery. The report found that the manipulation and censorship of imagery within the mainstream media has influenced the audience into becoming the journalists and, due to the quality of their images, amateur photographers and ‘iPhoneographers’ are replacing professional photojournalists, but that also found that citizen-led journalism isn’t without its own censorship or manipulation issues.

Table of Contents Chapter One: The Ethical Implications of Photojournalism 7 Nick Ut’s “The Terror of War” 8 Steve McCurry’s “Afghan Girl” 9 Kevin Carter’s “Sudanese Girl” 11 Chapter Two: Amateur versus Professional 13 Chapter Three: LiveLeak – Providing information or breaching privacy? 18 Chapter Four: The Audiences Understanding of Visual Manipulation 23 Conclusion 28 Bibliography: 29

Table of Illustrations

Figure: 1 Title: The Terror of War Author/Artist: Ut, Nick Year: 1972 Available: http://www.talkvietnam.com/2014/11/nick-ut-honoured-at-lucie- awards/ Date Accessed: 11/12/2014

Figure: 2 Title: Afghan Girl Author/Artist: McCurry, Steve Year: 1984 Available: http://www.shootingfilm.net/2012/11/afghan-girl-story-of-most- recognized.html Date Accessed: 11/12/2014

Figure: 3 Title: Sudanese Girl

Author/Artist: Carter, Kevin Year: 1993 Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kevin-Carter-Child-Vulture- Sudan.jpg Date Accessed: 09/01/2015

Figure: 4 Title: Lessons from the Storm Author/Artist: Lowy, Benjamin/Time Magazine Year: 2012 Available: http://topics.time.com/hurricane-sandy/ Date Accessed: 20/01/2015

Figure: 5 Title: Untitled Author/Artist: al-Otaibi, Abdul Aziz Year: 2014 Available: http://www.buzzfeed.com/ryanhatesthis/the-viral-image-of-the- syrian-boy-sleeping-between-the-grave#.gp9bXNwW7 Date Accessed: 09/01/2015

Introduction

The privilege of ethical, un-manipulated imagery in media is one that not many people can say they have experienced, however with the uprising of citizen-produced journalism and photojournalism this appears to be changing, affecting what is being seen both on user-updated websites and in the mainstream media. This report will initially look at the ethical implications of photojournalism by studying Nick Ut’s ‘The Terror of War’ (1972), Steve

McCurry’s ‘Afghan Girl’ (1984) and Kevin Carter’s ‘Sudanese Girl’ (1993), and then at comparing professional photographers to amateur photographers and iPhoneographers and the effects that the latter has had on photojournalist’s jobs. It will then look at the rise of freedom of speech websites such as

LiveLeak and how they’re redefining the media by providing an uncensored look at the world around us and, finally the audiences understanding of censorship and manipulation of imagery in the mainstream media. By looking at these factors, this allows us to begin the conversation that what is being fed to us as truth needs to be questioned as it is often tailored, either to fit a political agenda or for sensationalism.

Chapter One: The Ethical Implications of Photojournalism

“Never expose someone to ridicule and humiliation; they have to live with the fallout the photograph will bring, whereas you may have moved on to the next tory and suffer no consequences.” (Demotix, 2014)

The power of journalism and photojournalism is one that is almost unparalleled, not much else can whip people up into a frenzy than a well- thought headline or front page image, whether this be coverage be good, such as in Stephen Sutton’s case, the nineteen-year-old suffering from terminal cancer who managed to raise £5m for the Teenage Cancer Trust

(Cooper, 2014. Ellis, 2014), or bad in the case of the Rupert Murdoch owned

New York Post who published images of who they believed to be the main suspects in the April 2013 bombing of the Boston Marathon, despite the authorities not yet having released information on who they deemed to be suspects (Fung and Mirkinson, 2013). The image highlighted two people the

New York Post believed to be the men in an image being passed around by the Authorities and landed the subjects in desperate bid to prove their innocence, with Salah Barhoun, a seventeen-year-old, telling ABC News that he went to the police to clear his name (Rahmanzadeh, Leong, Riley, Leuci and Schwartz, 2013). In a clear exploitation and twisting of the truth, The New

York Post landed in hot water amidst claims of irresponsible journalism, having already been criticized, not only for claiming that a Saudi man was responsible for the bombings, who later turned out to have nothing to do with them, but also for misrepresenting the numbers of the amount of people who

died in the attack (Fung and Mirkinson, 2013). Irresponsible and unethical journalism can change the way the subject is perceived, but when the subject can make or break a photojournalist’s story, the discussion of ethics in photojournalism and where the lines blur on exploitation can be a difficult one.

Nick Ut’s “The Terror of War”

(see fig. 1)

Winning the Pulitzer Prize in 1972, Nick Ut’s photograph of the napalm bombing of Vietnam was one of the most horrifying images of the Vietnamese war. The image depicts nine-year-old Kim Phuc in the center of the frame, running naked through a group of clothed children and armed soldiers and crying for help with a huge black cloud of smoke behind her. It was revealed that during the fighting, South Vietnamese fighter planes mistook the refugee camp below for ‘Viet Cong’ fighters and started dropping bombs. As the planes drop their final bombs on the refugee’s, Ut remembers “I said, 'Oh my

God, the napalm.' They had bombed all morning, but not with napalm.” (Ut,

2014) Published through the Associated Press (AP) to newspapers

worldwide, including the front page of the New York Times, the image forced people to address a difficult question about whether photojournalists should help their subjects. There was, and still is little information available to help inform photographers on how to help their subjects during the scenes they are photographing. Whilst helping their subjects might help save lives, in doing so there is a risk that they would become “complicit with their subject, and remove some of the distance necessary for journalistic objectivity.” (Bersak,

2006) This didn’t stop Ut however who after snapping this photograph immediately put his camera away and went to help the little girl, transporting her to the nearest hospital and now remains in contact with Phuc and her family in Ontario, Canada (Jones, 2014).

Steve McCurry’s “Afghan Girl”

(See Fig. 2)

Steve McCurry’s ‘Afghan Girl’, taken in a refugee camp in 1984 and published on the front page of The National Geographic, sees the image of a young, unknown, Pakistani take up the entirety of the frame. Her piercing eyes capture and hold the audience’s attention to the point where not noticing her torn clothing and dirty face could almost be forgiven. The image “became the

National Geographic Society's most recognized photograph in its 114-year history” (The Washington Post, 2001) The image of the girl affected by war sling-shotted McCurry’s career, as he quickly became one of the best-known photographers of our time, but this wasn’t without backlash as he was often confronted with people accusing him of exploiting the girl (Recka, 2012). In

2002, when the woman was eventually found and named as Sharbat Gula, it was revealed that she was deeply unhappy with McCurry having taken her photograph, not understanding what this was as she had never been photographed, or even seen a camera, before (Newman, 2002). McCurry stated at an exhibition opening in 2011 “We’re continually in contact with her today and we make sure she’s taken care of and that she’s been compensated for the picture – that’s been an on-going process since 2002.”

(McCurry, 2011.)

Kevin Carter’s “Sudanese Girl”

(See Fig. 3)

Wanting to document the rebel fighting he felt the world was overlooking,

Kevin Carter self-funded a trip to Sudan, which was experiencing a famine

(Dowling, 2008). With the United Nations having recently cut back on the amount of aid operations in the country due to the fighting, Kevin Carter was enabled to photograph many of the people affected by the famine. His photograph of a Sudanese girl during this time went on to cause a lot of questions about the ethics surrounding photojournalism and what is and isn’t appropriate to photograph. Published in the New York Times on the 26th

March 1993 (Cate, 1999), the girls tiny, frail body right in the forefront of the image being framed by vapid wasteland around her would almost be shocking enough of an image, but adding in further context of the vulture sat no more than a couple yards behind and the feeling of death being imminent punches you in the gut, hard. It’s uncomfortable and difficult to look at, and a few months after winning the Pulitzer Prize in 1994, Carter took his life due to depression, barely a year after the image was taken (Dowling, 2008),

meaning it must have been difficult for him to produce too. Ethically, Carter received a huge amount of backlash for the image with many people accusing him of being immoral for not helping the girl escape death, but aside from chasing away the vulture, which he eventually did after sitting and waiting for twenty minutes in the Sudanese sun for the vulture to open its wings to achieve the perfect shot, would he have been able to save her? (Everything2,

2000) Carter’s image went on to become “an icon of Africa’s anguish”

(Macleod, 2001) and James Fallows claimed it “did more than any other news story” (Fallows, 1997) by being published in hundreds of magazines, relief organization leaflets and newspapers worldwide, even being used as an

Amnesty International poster, but the area was tragically decimated before any further aid reached the people of Ayod (Dowling, 2008).

Chapter Two: Amateur versus Professional

Image sharing site Instagram, which launched in 2010 and now has over 300 million monthly active users who generate an upload of 70 million photos on average per day (Instagram, 2015), and Facebook, which started to allow users to upload high quality images 22nd March 2012 (Facebook, 2012), have become commonplace within almost every home. More and more people are finding an interest in photography and sharing their day-to-day lives on a public platform, leading to the argument that ‘iPhoneography’, a term coined in November 2008 by Glyn Evans (http://www.iphoneography.com/, no date), and furthermore that ‘iPhoneographers’ were shaping the way that we would see images in our media, such as newspapers and news websites (Evans,

2013).

So what is, traditionally speaking, a professional photographer? According to

Nikon and Canon who both have ‘pro’ versions of their websites that require a username and password to get into, a professional is someone who earns

100% of their income through photography (Rockwell, 2008). Zack Arias in a session with CreativeLIVE thinks it’s far simpler than that stating that he believes a professional to be “consistent, can be relied on and is a problem solver” and that if you have a picture to show then you are a professional, whether there is a paycheck accompanying that image or not (Arias, 2010). In recent years, professional photojournalists and their jobs have come under threat and there are a few excuses floating around for the reasons why, one of the most popular being that everyone now has access to some kind of

camera capable of producing good, broadcast-able quality images and video blurring the lines between amateurs and professionals even further. At least, this is the excuse Jack Womack of CNN stuck to when he fired a handful of their Image and Sound staff in November 2011, twelve of whom were photojournalists comprised of “four in New York, five in Washington, one in

Miami, and one in Los Angeles” (Reuters, 2011). Firing photojournalists has become a bit of a trend ever since with the Chicago Sun-Times following suit and sacking it’s entire 28-person strong photographic department in May 2013

(Associated Press, 2013), Sports Illustrated firing the last of it’s six full-time photographers in January 2015 (Britton, 2015) and the Associated Press (AP) firing it’s photographers left, right and centre, despite being one of the biggest media houses supplying images to the mainstream news industry (Associated

Press, no date).

It seems, however, that it isn’t just Jack Womack who is willing to speak out on his beliefs that amateur photographers are now capable of the high standard of professional photographers. On talking about the discontinuation of the Flickr Pro subscription to their website, which allowed ‘Pro’s’ more storage space and bigger image uploads, Marissa Mayer, the current president and CEO of Yahoo!, stated in a press conference:

... was a decision that we would not have the Flickr Pro piece anymore,

and that all - there's no such thing as Flickr Pro, because today, with

cameras as pervasive as they are, there is no such thing really as

professional photographers, when there's everything is professional

photographers. (Mayer, 2013)

(See Fig. 4)

Whilst many people were arguing, and probably will continue to argue, that

‘photographers’ with iPhone’s are incapable of producing images to the same high standard that professional photojournalist’s with bulky, high-tech cameras can (Frost, 2013), Time Magazine did something unprecedented for it’s 12th November 2012 issue. Hiring five iPhoneographers, Michael

Christopher Brown, Benjamin Lowy, Ed Kashi, Andrew Quilty and Stephen

Wilkes, to go out and document Hurricane Sandy as it thrashed the northeast coast of America. Time’s photographic director Kira Pollack also gave each of them, who all use Instagram heavily, access to the Time’s official Instagram account to upload their images to (Bercovici, 2012). Pollack says that although using Instagram as a tool for covering news quickly and effectively was an experiment, she claims it was not one that came about through the

‘trendiness’ of Instagram. Pollack states, “We just thought this is going to be the fastest way we can cover this and it’s the most direct route.” The collection

of images was later featured on Lightbox, the photography blog for Time

Magazine, and was “one of the most popular galleries we’ve ever done” driving 13% of the websites traffic, subsequently the magazine’s Instagram account went on to gain 12,000 new followers within a 48-hour’s of the images being uploaded (Bercovivi, 2012).

One of the images from the experiment, taken by Benjamin Lowy, ended up on the front page of the issue, which documented Hurricane Sandy, and for many people highlighted the main issue of using iPhone photos in replacement of high-quality produced images from a DSLR designed for the job, the reproduction resolution (Pollack, 2012). Pollack argues that this wasn’t an issue upon using it for the cover however, stating “there’s almost a painterly quality to it” (Pollack, 2012) creating a debate within itself on the beauty of destruction. The image, which was a crop of the original image and is one of ten uploads to Instagram every second with the hashtag sandy

(Lowy, 2012), allowed Lowy to reflect on his practice, and taking to Tumblr to explain his conversion from a traditional photography format and into mobile photography, he says:

For years, I have worked with bulky digital cameras, always mindful of

the technical manoeuvres from setting the shutter speed and aperture

to editing and toning on a computer screen. In the last few years I have

discovered that my iPhone has allowed me to capture scenes without

feeling that I am once again on the job. To “point and shoot” has been

a liberating experience. It has allowed me to rediscover the excitement

of seeing imperfections and happy accidents rendered through the lens

of my handheld device.” (Lowy, 2012.)

There are still many, however, who feel that with digital manipulation applications, such as Instagram, and the transformation into using images produced through such apps as a new form of journalism takes away from the documentary core of photojournalism with the ease of editing an image with effects and filters (Bercovici, 2012) and it seems that whilst Pollack disagrees, she does accept that “that’s always a conversation in photojournalism and a very important one.” (Pollack, 2012)

Chapter Three: LiveLeak – Providing information or breaching privacy?

“There is a difference between a charitable endeavor and a breach of privacy.” (Lam and Swan, 2014.)

With the capacity for amateurs to get as large of a platform as professional photojournalists, provided mainly through the use of user-updated internet sources such as Instagram, Twitter, LiveLeak and Reddit, this opens up a huge opportunity for people who are living in affected areas to get their images seen. Seen initially with the Occupy movement where both journalists and photojournalists were physically barred from gaining access into Zuccotti

Park in New York (Walker, 2012), amateur photographers from inside the park were able to take images of police brutality and upload them immediately to

Twitter, adding to the hashtag OccupyWallSt which was available to read like a running, constantly updating news story. But at what point does the release of information turn from being a charitable endeavor to produce a come about of change and into an invasion of privacy?

Professional photojournalist’s are generally regarded as having to adhere to guidelines, at least in regards as to what kinds of images can be published

(Reuters, 2008). LiveLeak is a British website founded by Hayden Hewitt in

2006 who’s aim is to give the voice back to the public and allows citizen- created footage of war, politics and world events and politics to be published on the website (The New Freedom, 2008). It has created a platform that

allows the users who uploaded these images to become the journalists and it has become almost notorious for its uncensored imagery. A quick search of the most popular videos available to watch pulls up some interesting results, the first video with 8626605 views and nearly 600 comments is footage from

1st March 2008 of an A320 plan nearly crashing during a crosswind approach in Hamburg (User: stefan171 (http://www.liveleak.com/c/stefan171), 2008).

The next is a video of twins sharing a bath together, tightly wrapped in each other’s embrace with the caption reading, “Twins were born, but haven’t realised” (User: reggaereggae (http://www.liveleak.com/c/reggaereggae),

2013) The third video, in stark comparison, is that of ‘leaked’ footage from a mobile phone of Saddam Hussein’s execution (User: nWatcher

(http://www.liveleak.com/c/nWatcher), 2006).

But having almost no censoring on their website meant that not only were people documenting bad crashes and protests given a platform for their stories, so were members of The Islamic State (ISIS). On August 2014, ISIS uploaded a video to LiveLeak containing footage of the beheading of James

Foley, an American journalist and video reporter (User: Liveleak Content, http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=a69_1408615973, 2014), which landed the creators of the website in hot water. Speaking earlier in 2013, during an interview addressing Facebook introducing a six-month ban on all beheading videos with BBC Newsnight’s Jeremy Paxman and the Chief Foreign

Correspondent for the Sunday Telegraph Colin Freeman, the founder Hayden

Hewitt expressed that such images were allowed on LiveLeak because “it falls within a certain sense of freedom” (Hewitt, 2013) but acknowledged that the

types of people watching these images might not be coming from a place of

‘purity’. Colin Freeman argues strongly that upon allowing these images to be seen by such a large audience, it is a breach of privacy. He says that by uploading the video, the terrorist has achieved access to an audience that they shouldn’t have access to and that by viewing the images we’re no longer looking at what the victim wants us to look at, we are complicit with the terrorist by looking at what they want us to view. He did however acknowledge that on some occasions these types of images could have a cathartic effect with reference to the video and images released by Khaled Saeed’s family

(Freeman, 2013), who was murdered by police under President Mubarak’s regime in June 2010, which sparked universal outcry during the Arab Spring and moved thousands of people to protest living under unfair and inhumane regimes (Ahram Online, 2012).

In a statement posted to the LiveLeak website on 24th August 2014, Hewitt writes about the decision to no longer allow ISIS a platform to put out what he believes to be ‘advertising’ (Hewitt, 2014). Hewitt explains that while the website will still play host to videos which are deemed to document the reality of what is happening in the Middle East and will still provide a platform for people who live in the area under ISIS command as he believes these people only document “such horrors because they want the world to see what they are living through”, the website will no longer allow videos that are the like of the James Foley video (Hewitt, 2014). Hewitt states that there is a difference between documenting and advertising and that he had become aware that there were production companies involved in creating more beheading videos

that were being distributed out through websites such as LiveLeak to reach a western audience and influence with their message, in the hopes of gaining supporters and recruits. At the end of the statement Hewitt explains that the decision not to allow such images and censor what their viewers see comes for the first time in now around fifteen years of being “involved in strong, online media.” (Hewitt, 2014)

Whilst LiveLeak actively promotes the idea of freedom of speech (Hewitt,

2014), in January 2015, Facebook released a new flagging feature, which would allow users to change the algorithm, accordingly dependent on the amount of ‘flags’, of images, videos and text-based posts so that they didn’t occur as frequently on newsfeeds (Owens, 2015) and it is already causing issues, with some people claiming that it actually goes against freedom of speech, allowing users with enough manpower to censor what it seen on our newsfeeds (Watson, 2015). Paul Joseph Watson discusses, on the YouTube channel PrisonPlanetLive, that agenda-driven political subgroups, governments or corporations could misuse the feature to censor information that challenges their beliefs, effectively ensuring that if a post accumulates enough complaints it will not gain enough traction to be viewed by the size of the audience it could have potentially previously reached. (Waston, 2015.)

It’s becoming common knowledge that the government and major corporations hire companies to sway online opinion, and in 2010 it was revealed that a Toronto-based manipulation company called Social Media

Group had been hired by The Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and

International Trade, responsible for the East Coast seal hunt, to monitor and counter information released by the anti-sealing movement (The Canadian

Press, 2010). The company’s role was to find ‘questionable’ comments in online forums and platforms, such as Facebook, and alert the government.

The government would then pass the comments on to employees, recently trained in online posting, who worked for either the Department of Fisheries and Oceans or Foreign Affairs, and would flag these items as spam and post instead information which they deemed to be more accurate. Watson argues that Facebook has given companies such as the Social Media Group an easier way to manipulate what the audience can and cannot see. He also claims that this could have what he calls a ‘Barbara Streisand effect’ in that when a post is not viewable in one place, it causes it to gain more attention in other places. (Waston, 2015)

Chapter Four: The Audiences Understanding of Visual Manipulation

“As consumers of media we are more familiar with the idea of ‘breaking’ news than ever before.” (Attridge, 2013)

Looking at the algorithm, created by James Hays and Alexei Efros during their time completing PhD’s at Carnegie Mellon University during 2009 (Hays and

Efros, 2009), which allows entire images to be made up of composite images it’s not hard to understand the audiences distrust of major news corporations and their understanding of censorship, and this is changing the way that news is being reported. The audience is coming to understand that the images photojournalists are producing are being manipulated, from cropping the image to change its meaning to complete edits consisting of changing landscapes, such as the famous cover of the National Geographic which moved the layout of the Egyptian Pyramids to allow them to fit on the page

(Perlberg, 2012), to giving celebrities new bodies in the case of InTouch magazine which put Bruce Jenner’s head on Stephanie Beacham’s body

(Snopes, 2015). This distrust has arguably meant that user-generated news, or citizen-led journalism, appears to have found an audience of which to target.

According to official data collected from Google’s server, one of the biggest spikes in interest surrounding manipulated images was that of the image released directly to British Petroleum’s (BP) own website showing the clean-

up attempts of BP’s oil spill in 2010 (Google, no date). The image, which claimed to have been taken from the helicopter whilst in the sky over the spill, had been edited to remove part of a control tower appearing in the top left of the image and the colours of the image had been changed to reflect that of the aircraft being in the sky and the water cleaner, but the questions came when the edit still showed the pilot holding a pre-flight checklist and the control gauges showing that the helicopter’s door was open, a ramp was open and that the parking brake was engaged. (Hough, 2010)

Revisiting Nick Ut’s ‘The Terror of War’ (see fig. 1), or rather looking at the iteration of the image that is most commonly known, the image first published was one where the image has been cropped down so that the image centers in on the girl showing the horror and the pain in her face as napalm burns her.

The original however shows a much wider perspective with the girl much further to the left of the frame and with more soldiers around, one mindlessly cleaning his camera as if nothing was happening. The un-cropped image leaves a question that still remains unanswered, was the image cropped for dramatic effect? To fit a political agenda? Or to avert from creating controversy about why the soldiers in the image were so nonchalant?

It’s not uncommon for video footage to be manipulated, or even staged, by mainstream media, as was the case with Danny Abdul-Dayem, known as

‘Syria Danny’ (Friends of Syria, 2013). Danny was interviewed by media corporations such as the BBC, Sky News, The Guardian and al Hiwar, each of which featured him giving conflicting stories, but the most notable was one of

his multiple CNN interviews. Footage emerged of Danny coordinating the staged interview whilst waiting to be connected to Anderson Cooper, who would be conducting the interview, asking someone off-camera “Did you tell him to get the gunfire ready?”, talking with the cameraman about what he was going to say regarding the recovery of dead bodies and a reminder to reinforce the message that Assad’s forces were carrying out indiscriminate violence (Watson, 2012). It was picked up by the audience that Danny’s interview was faked and CNN interviewed him a second time in the hopes of assuring people that the story was true, but when asked about how the footage was leaked Danny repeats multiple times “we should have deleted it”

(Abdul-Dayem, 2012), instead raising the question on why he was so insistent that excess footage from an interview already aired should be deleted. His story also changed regarding the recovery of dead civilian bodies that had previously been killed “400 metres” away from his location to claiming that he recovered bodies from shelling that was occurring 15 kilometres away in a different city. (Elmassian, Kelanee, Kardous and al-Kadri, 2012)

(See Fig. 5)

Amateur photographers and the power of Instagram and Twitter isn’t without its own manipulation however, as was found out in the case of Abdul Aziz al-

Otaibi, a keen photographer from Saudi Arabia, who took an image of a young boy sleeping between what appeared to be two graves, a piece which was supposed to be an art statement about the eternal, undying love children have for their parents and “how the love of a child for his parents is irreplaceable.

This love cannot be substituted by anything or anybody else, even if the parents are dead.” (al-Otaibi, 2014) The image, which featured two mounds of stones formed to look like graves with a young boy lying through the middle of them covered by a blanket, was tweeted by an American Muslim convert, known as @americanbadu on Twitter, to his 174,000 followers(http://www.twitter.com/americanbadu, accessed 20/01/2015) with

the caption claiming that the image was from Syria and suggested that the boys parents we killed by the Assad regime currently in place (Doornbos,

2014). Within minutes the image had thousands of re-tweets, and despite the backstory of the image being available on al-Otaibi’s Facebook page, the image was still being sold as one taken in Syria, with even an Syrian relief authority, @Yathalema, from Kuwait re-tweeting the image to their 205,000 followers (http://www.twitter.com/yathalema, accessed 20/01/2015). In an interview with the only reporter who rang him to fact-check, al-Otaibi expresses his upset and annoyance with his image being taken and used

“totally out of context and use it for your own propaganda.” (al-Otaibi, 2014)

Conclusion

In conclusion, with the audience having more of a journalistic voice, the way that we’re consuming news is changing and it’s becoming more difficult to define the line between what we have a right to see and what unethically exploits people but creates a sensational story, and even harder still to censor images which do cross the ethical line without sparking a debate about freedom of speech.

From professional photojournalism to amateur produced imagery, almost every image we see is manipulated, and even if it hasn’t been edited it’s becoming more apparent that it has been taken in such a way as to make the audience feel a particular way, to make us sympathise with a particular subject or to help reinforce the message of the article it sits within, reducing the ability for the audience to be subjective and draw their own conclusions from the images they are viewing. Images that are taken down from Facebook and the like always tend to find new, slightly less censored platforms on websites such as LiveLeak, and of course the Dark Web, but that’s not to say that images that exploit their subjects or are unethical to display don’t make their way into our daily newspapers or on to news websites. In the future I believe we can expect to see more citizen-led news that replaces the traditional tabloids and mainstream media, and it will be readily available to view, almost fresh from the scene as it unfolds.

(Word Count: 4817.)

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