Volume 6, Issue 4(9), April 2017 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair – 530 017 – Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS

Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Founder and President Research Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Mumbai Lima Peru

Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Prof. Igor Kondrashin Vice Chancellor, Patna University The Member of The Russian Philosophical Former Director Society Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Studies, New Delhi & The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Dr.V.Venkateswarlu Vizianagaram Assistant Professor Dept. of Sociology & Social Work Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr. N.S. Dhanam Russian Philosophical Society Department of Philosophy Moscow, Russia Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Department of Mechanical Engineering Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education GITAM University University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Department of Computer Science Coordinator University of Pune,Pune A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering Dr.S.Kannan University of Novi Sad, Serbia Department of History University Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Department of English Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India GITAM University Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences Dr.K.Chaitanya University of Sapienza, Rome Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Technology Al-Mustansiriyah University People’s Republic of China College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics Dr. Bipasha Sinha University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Librarian Prof. N Kanakaratnam Kalasalingam University Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Dr. K. John Babu Assistant Professor Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Department of Sahitya Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha,

Dr.T.V.Ramana Prof. R. Siva Prasadh Department of Economics, Andhra University Institute of Advanced Studies in Education Campus, Kakinada Andhra University, Visakhapatnam ® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought. C O N T E N T S

Volume 6 Issue 4(9) April 2017 S. Pg. No No 1. Review of Book on Tribal and Rural Development: 1 Various Facets and Innovative Strategies by Mohammad Awais and Naheen Haidor Zaidi Praveen Hoogar and Ashwini Pujar 2. Causes and Consequences of Anxiety among Adolescent 6 Students of Residential Schools in Nellore City K. Murugaiah and Y. Veena 3. Swami Vivekananda’s Philosophy for Present Society 18 A.V.Krishna Rao 4. Land Use Land Cover Dynamics as A Prelude for Soil 29 Resource Degradation in South Western Part of Ethiopia, Chora District in Focus Alemayehu Abera and Mengie Belayneh 5. Arts of Masses in – A Cultural Perspective 45 Ankam Jayaprakash 6. Health Status of Women in Andhra Pradesh District- Wise 59 Analysis V.Usha Padmini 7. A Philosophical Inquiry for the Existence of ‘Pati’ in Saiva 71 Siddhanta T. Sebasthi John Baskar 8. Masulipatam Municipality it’s Role – On Health and 85 Medical Services M. Suseela Rao 9. The Jaina Concept of AhimSà and Anekànta:An 104 Important Apparatus to Remove Religious Conflicts T. Lalsiamkimi 10. Man’s Nature and Attitude as Enfolded in Irving Layton’s 109 Poems V.Rajalakshmi and R.Venkatraman 11. A Study on Awareness of Micro Insurance Policies With 119 Reference to Visakhapatnam District S.Pushpalatha

12. Mangona/Chaugin:A∙Chik Songsarikculture and Religion 129 Rajesh M. Marak

13. Regional Bhakti Movement in Medieval India 141 P.Ganga Reddy

14. Funding of Higher Education of Mongolia 154 Batchuluun Jalbasuren and Nyamaa Nyamsuren

15. Women an Ideological View 166 Batchu Prabhakar Rao

16. Crisis vs Leadership 173 Bompada Janardanarao and Jaladi Ravi

17. Barriers to Women’s Career Progression 194 Bindiya

18. Dr.B.R.Ambedkar Views on Indian Federalism –A Critical 207 Appraisal Anugandhula Srinivas

19. The Indian Capital Market – An Overview 217 G.Chandra Mouli

20. Economic Empowerment A Solution for Women 228 Exploitation S. Pichaipillai

21. Rising in Teaching Skillful English to the Engineering 234 Students Shaik Mohimood

22. The Individualized approach to Yoga in the 241 Krishnamachary’s Tradition P.S. Sreevidya

23. Academic Leadership Performance in Ethiopian Higher 253 Education Institutions- Its Challenge and Practice in Samara University Focus R.Ranranathan and Abraham Gebreyohanns Brhan 24. Globalization Effect on Indian Culture 274 Ch. Kishore

25. Reforms in the Capital Market : A Study 280 G.Chandra Mouli

26. Targeted Advertising Using Behavioral Data & Social 299 Data Priyanka M. Sahu and D. M. Sable

ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Dr. K. VICTOR BABU Impact Factor :4.527(2016) M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India

Editorial……

It is heartening to note that our journal is able to sustain the enthusiasm and covering various facets of knowledge. It is our hope that IJMER would continue to live up to its fullest expectations savoring the thoughts of the intellectuals associated with its functioning .Our progress is steady and we are in a position now to receive evaluate and publish as many articles as we can. The response from the academicians and scholars is excellent and we are proud to acknowledge this stimulating aspect. The writers with their rich research experience in the academic fields are contributing excellently and making IJMER march to progress as envisaged. The interdisciplinary topics bring in a spirit of immense participation enabling us to understand the relations in the growing competitive world. Our endeavour will be to keep IJMER as a perfect tool in making all its participants to work to unity with their thoughts and action. The Editor thanks one and all for their input towards the growth of the Knowledge Based Society. All of us together are making continues efforts to make our predictions true in making IJMER, a Journal of Repute

Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief

SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW www.ijmer.in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 4(9), APRIL 2017 REVIEW OF BOOK ON TRIBAL AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT: VARIOUS FACETS AND INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES BY MOHAMMAD AWAIS AND NAHEEN HAIDOR ZAIDI

Praveen Hoogar Ashwini Pujar Department of Anthropology Department of Anthropology Karnatak University, Dharwad Karnatak University, Dharwad

The book has 19 chapters which were written by various authors from different disciplines as such Economics, Education, Anthropology, Commerce, Sociology etc. Authors were from 12 state of India; Karnataka, Kerala, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir,Tamilnadu, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Puducherry, Assam, Himachal Pradesh and New Delhi. I presented here these things to endorse the editor’s effort and they have chosen chapters from various disciplines and from different states in India. By this they have tried to give multiple aspects of Tribal and Rural Development. This book depicts various facets and Innovative strategies relating to Tribal, Rural and Development issues in real manner. Reviewer has analyzed all 19 chapters and made classification broadly into three domains for the sake of presenting review; 1. Tribal and Rural Women and Development 2. Socio-Cultural and Economic Status 3. Health and Nutrition

1. Tribal and Rural Women Ningeshan et.ai shows that women’s participation is SHG’s apparently for financial assistance or getting loan facility followed by raising their savings through SHG’s. Very interestingly no one has opined the reason for joining SHG for the betterment of Social, Cultural and political purposes. Hence in traditional institution, women do not say in the decision making process and credit is considered as

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the men’s domain. However this problem is resolving by means of building the confidence into individuals through training, giving equal opportunity to be a leader, ultimately giving them a chance to represent and share their opinions. Basak M.K narrated the situation of migrated adivasi women of tea gardens especial to Tarai and Dooars. Tea gardens grew up on the account of appropriate soil, favorable climatic condition, seasonal rainfall, temperature and above all availability of cheap laborers. Here he has rightly pointed out that developments within the family were more important for female than male migration, further he has frankly presented the fact that what are the works she has to do? What will be the timing? etc. and he also say the problems which an young tribal labour women facing, she would be using for sexual purposes by the leaders, tea planters and Sardars. Sankar.C presented the study is to analyze the economic empowerment of rural women through SHG in yelagiri (Vellure) district. He examined socio-economic status of rural women, brought out the progress and development of SHG in Yelagiri district and their recovery performance. Then author has suggested some suitable remedies to empower women. Baby. K andRamu. R discussed in detail about the major challenges, weakness, prospects, the role of micro finance and SHGs, their impact on employment generation, poverty eradication, women empowerment, enhancing living standards, development of production and consumption level, etc. 2. Health And Nutrition PujarAshwiniet. al studied the distribution of ABO and Rh blood groups among the Hindu Gowli’s, who is the endogamous group of Daddikamalapur village. Authors have also calculated Goodness of Fit, ABO gene frequency, Rh frequency and they have also mentioned a table on distribution of ABO gene frequency in different Caste group of

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Karnataka. It helps us to compare different ethnic groups. Present studied community shows higher the ‘B’ gene frequency. According to Maurant’s (1976) observation among South Indian Caste groups ‘A’ gene is in higher frequency. So that clearly concluded with high frequency of‘B’ gene distribution among Hindu Gowli of Daddikamalapur is not inconformity with Maurant’s observation. Hoogar Praveen and PujarAshwini tried to examine the effect of habits like drinking, Tobacco and tea on both Blood Pressure and Glucose variations and what extent they have shown their effect. Social, economical status etc is also taken into consideration. In this chapter they have a truth that life style of an individual has great effect on or role to play in controlling both high Blood pressure and Diabetes. Due to modern sedentary life style Diabetes and Blood pressure is rapidly increasing around the world. Vedapurieswaran.S discussed on what is Health? Importance of health, nutritional status of women, factors affecting health, etc. This chapter has also presented socioeconomic status and found out the women’s health condition in study area. Analyzed theirhealth elements with sexual demographic details. 3. Social, Cultural and Economic Status In this section author would like to give remaining 12 chapter apart from above 07 chapters which are also reflect Socio-cultural and economic aspects of their respective studies. These 12 chapters mainly concentrated on the exact subheading mad for this section. Das Kartik has made an effort to discuss the criteria for the social identity of tribes, inter disciplinary relevance, Issues of tribal development, constraints and suggestive measures. Here he has given attention to explain immensely affecting tribal development, like gap in infrastructure, rural indebtedness, modification of present ST status, insurgency problems, problems of tribal identities, feasibility of separate fund, ethnic conflicts etc.

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Joshi R.A and Vyas F.S chapter entitled “Tribal and Labour problems in Indian context” but throughout chapter authors speak only about tribe and tribal labours. Problems of tribal labour has presented in this chapter are not much different from labours facing in general. Author has also made an account of tribal unrests, suggestions to rectify problems criteria to be considered a group as a tribe by T.B.Naik. Kapoor Anju and KanvarPromila has studied a tribal community from Himachal Pradesh that is the Gaddi. They have also mentioned here about tribal name comes from areas where they reside for example;Kinners from the place Kinnour, Lahaules and Speitians form the places called Lahaul and Speiti, Pangwalas from Pangi and studied tribe Gaddi is from Bharmour. The Gaddi refers to a territorial group or a special class of people who are semi-pastoral and semi- agriculturalist tribe, who use to spend a fair share of their life time in migration. Authors have given an account of cultural and traditional aspects of the tribe Gaddi. They have listed some common festivals of Gaddi along with the festival name they have also mentioned the time of celebration and their specialties. Ganesh Parvathi et.al has raised valid question and try to think on it in a very crucial period of global warming and many environmental or natural hazards are alarming. We came across many mining scams in our country and I personally insist scholars from various disciplines should take an initiative to study such places in every aspect at least anthropological, sociological, economics, geographical, geological and very importantly in health aspects etc. in present chapter authors discussed on mining profile of India, challenges for mining, its impact on tribal communities etc. SomkuwarAwanish revealed the things related to Gramasabha and he called the Gramasabha as an instrument of big change. Am

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completely agreed with author this small unit of Governance and public may bring or make any miracle in the people’s life and in the villages.

Finally I would say this book covers multi geographical, multi research areas, multi background authored chapters. Hence it is very useful for researchers, organizations working on tribes and rural people, and for policy makers.

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CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF ANXIETY AMONG ADOLESCENT STUDENTS OF RESIDENTIAL SCHOOLS IN NELLORE CITY

Prof. K. Murugaiah Mrs. Y. Veena Professor Research Scholar Dept. of Social Work Dept. of Social Work Sri Padmavati Mahila Sri Padmavati Mahila Visvavidyalayam Tirupati, Andhra Visvavidyalayam Pradesh Tirupati, A.P Abstract

Anxiety is a basic emotion consisting of fear and uncertainty that appears when an individual perceives an event as a threat to the ego or self-esteem. Anxiety is common in adolescents world wide as it is in India-Adolescence, known as a phase of transition from childhood to adulthood (10 yr – 19 yr) [UNICEF, 2011] is an age of opportunity but poses many challenges for the individual. In addition to the bodily and mental changes they experience are the expectations placed on them by parents and the society. The present study was aimed to find gender differences in anxiety levels among the adolescent students of residential schools in Nellore city, Andhra Pradesh. The sample consisted of 100 adolescents (Males-50, Females-50) who were selected through purposive sampling. Taylor manifest anxiety scale was administered to collect the data. The results obtained indicate that while significant gender differences did not exist, students do differed in their anxiety levels while many students were able to manage their anxiety levels, some needed additional help for which interventions are suggested in this paper.

Introduction

Anxiety is common in adolescents worldwide, as it is in India (Costello, Mustillo, Erkanli, Keeler and Angoid, 2008). It is associated with substantial negative effects on the individuals social, emotional

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VALUE:2.286VOLUME 6, ISSUE 4(9), APRIL 2017 and academic success (Essan, Conradt and Petermann, 2000). Specific effects of anxiety include poor social and coping skills, often leading to avoidance of social interactions (Weeks, Coplan and Kingsbury, 2009). Other consequences of high levels of anxiety are loneliness, low self esteem, perceptions of social rejection and difficulties in forming friendships (Weeks et al.2009). Anxiety can result from various causes the most common cause in India being parents educational expectations and pressure for academic achievement on the adolescents (Deb, 2001). While the causes and consequences of anxiety among Indian adolescents are well understood, there is a lack of interventions that can be effectively applied to help with the issue. Adolescence, known as a phase of transition from childhood to adulthood (age 10-19 yrs) (UNICEF, 2011) is an age of opportunity, but poses many challenges for the individual. In addition to the bodily and mental changes they experience, are the expectations placed on them by parents and the society i.e. Career decisions, academic achievements, positive peer relation etc. (Brown & Lason, 2002). Juggling between these with a repertoire of limited resources can be difficult, making the adolescent vulnerable to problems (Grusec, 2011). One such problem can anxiety, which if uncontrolled and unmanaged, can affect the adolescent’s quality of life.

Anxiety can typically be referred to as one’s response to stress, with the stressful stimuli being physical, psychological or environmental challenges. Various forms of anxiety include excessive worrying, a sense of fear, restlessness, overly emotional responses and negative thinking. Anxiety can sometimes be a serious problem and affect one’s quality of life.

Nellore city in Andhra Pradesh is known for providing quality education through the establishment of the residential schools so as to train the young brains right from their childhood to chanalize their forces and interests for perusing professional education in future. www.ijmer.in 7

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These schools are for students from class VI to X (6th to 10th). The students are admitted regardless of their socio-economic background. The main objective of these residential schools are to train children from rural areas and providing them with an education on par with the best residential schools in the country. This is to reduce inequity between students coming from various socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds.

Review of Literature

This section presents some of the literature on the causes, consequences, individual differences in experience of anxiety. As mentioned earlier, anxiety can be caused by various stressful stimuli, but among Indian adolescents the major cause of anxiety comes from the educational and emotional aspects of their life. The most commonly identified problems being anxiety about exams and performance, strict regimentation by the school or controlling their temper (Mumthas A Mushira, 2014).

Once the adolescents experience high levels of anxiety frequently, it can develop into a trait and can wreak havoc on their academic performances, as many studies have proved that students consistently experiencing high anxiety perform poorly in academics (Chapell, Blanding, Silverstein, Takahashi, Neuman, Gubi and McCamn, 2005) and that grater anxiety in general was associated with poorer academic achievement (Luigi et al 2007). Anxiety also affects the individuals cognition such as a reduced memory span, low concentration, lack of confidence and poor reasoning power (Sene et al. 2007).

Some researchers propose that men and women experience anxiety differently in frequency and intensity Chapell et al. (2005) found females experienced higher anxiety than male students, Mclean, Asnaani, Litz & Hoffmann (2011) found that female adolescents were

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anxious more frequently than their male counterparts. Whereas a study conducted by Devine, Fawcell, Szus A Dowker (2012) found that no gender differences emerged between boys and girls in terms of anxiety, rather anxiety was viewed to depend more on individual differences in terms of personality, previous experience, environment etc.

Some researchers also claimed that the level of anxiety experienced not only depends on the individual differences, but also the situation. Studies found that when adolescents were to face a stressful situation such as appearing for Final Exams, entering a speech competition, playing in a sports tournament etc. they experienced higher levels of anxiety than they did otherwise (Ryan, 2005; Baviskar Phalke & Phalke, 2013).

Rationale

India is home to 243 million adolescents, who make up approximately a quarter of the population. It becomes important for the future and well-being of the nation itself to ensure the well-being of adolescents. Also to see that their journey into adulthood is a pleasant one. Adolescents are especially prone to developing high levels of anxiety. Anxiety, whether as a state or personality trait can affect the well being and quality of life of the adolescent when present in high levels. Anxiety has been known to affect the adolescents self-esteem, socialization, coping skills academic achievement etc. (Weeki et al. 2009) all of which are components of a healthy development. Therefore, there is a need to help adolescents maintain intermediate levels of anxiety, so that it may help improve their quality of life rather than harming.

Objective

Following object was formulated:

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 To find the causes and consequences of anxiety among students of residential schools of Nellore City, considering gender differences.

Hypothesis

Below cited hypothesis was framed:

 There will be gender differences among the participants in terms of the anxiety level they experience.

Method

Plan and design

The study was a survey design where the patterns of anxiety among residential school students were studied with gender (males, females) as the independent variable and anxiety level (low, intermediate, high) as the dependent variable.

Statistics used

In addition to descriptive statistics, independent t-test and chi- square were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 20.0.

Participants / Sample

The sample consisted of 100 participants (males-50, females-50) from Residential schools of Nellore ranging in age from 11-16 years (M = 14.51, SD = 2.33). The sampling technique used was purposive sampling (non-probability sampling). Informed consent was obtained from all the participants.

Tool

Taylor manifest anxiety scale was used to measure levels of anxiety of participants. It was developed by Janet Taylor in 1953 and has since been used to measure anxiety as a personality trait and as a state of arousal. It is known to measure “manifest anxiety”, which

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VALUE:2.286VOLUME 6, ISSUE 4(9), APRIL 2017 refers to “anxiety” that is evident and self-perceived.” The questionnaire consists of 38 statements which are about the participant and are to be answered with true or false. It has high reliability (0.81), validity (0.75), and an internal consistency of 0.84. The questionnaire can be used to measure multiple facts of anxiety relating extensively to worrying thoughts which may impair normal functioning in the individual. According to the scoring manual, scores 0 to 5 represent a low level of anxiety, 6 to 15 represent an intermediate level of anxiety and 16-38 indicate a high level of anxiety.

Procedure

The Head Master/ Principal of the school was approached and informed about the purpose of the study, then consent was taken. After establishing rapport with teachers and students the questionnaire was administered, and appropriate instructions were given. The participants and the school was thanked for taking part in the study.

Results

Keeping in view the objectives, the mean score of the participants was found to be 14.72, indicating they show intermediate levels of anxiety. On running t-test (Table 1), it was found that while Males (M = 14.62) scored marginally lesser than females (F = 14.82), no significant differences were found between their scores. This indicates that there is no effect of gender on anxiety experienced by adolescent students of Residential schools of Nellore. While the average score of the participants reflected intermediate anxiety in running Chi-square (Table 2) it was found that 67% of participants showed intermediate levels of anxiety, with 62% of the male sample and 72% of the female sample showing intermediate anxiety. Whereas, 33% participants showed high anxiety levels with 38% of male participants and 28% of female participants showing intermediate anxiety. The

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relationship between gender and anxiety levels was not found to be significant.

Discussion

On analyzing the results, the t-test in particular it is known that the mean score of the participants falls under the category “Intermediate anxiety level”. According to Lowe, Papanastasiou, DeRuyck & Reynolds (2005) low and high anxiety levels both affect the individual negatively, whereas intermediate levels have been known to have positive effects on performance of various tasks. The students may be able to manage anxiety levels through good peer relations, support and mentoring from teachers, meditation and physical exercise and a positive environment provided by the school (Bhosale, Singura and Thismatrao, 2015). Students also seem to benefit from the Adolescent Education Programme initiated by the Government to help adolescents understand themselves better in terms of hormonal changes, physical and sexual maturity.

The male and female participants did not show significant differences in their anxiety levels, although many studies have found males and females to differ in experiencing anxiety (Mclean, Asnaani, Litz & Hoffmann, 2011). There have also been many studies that are congruent with this study (Devine et al 2012) and state that way an individual experiences anxiety depends on their personality, environment, parenting and life experiences rather than gender. Therefore the hypothesis is not accepted.

Table-1: Descriptive Statistics and t-values showing scores on the measures of anxiety.

Residential School Students, Nellore

Measures Male (n = 50) Female (n = 50) T P TMAS 14.62 (4.09) 14.82 (4.07) 2.0 .807

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*TMAS – Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale

Table-2: Chi-square showing levels of anxiety of participants based n Scores on TMAS

Anxiety levels of participants

Gender Low Intermediate High Total Males 0 (0) 62 (31) 38 (19) 100 Females 0 (0) 72 (36) 28 (14) 100 Total 0 (0) 67 (67) 33 (33) 100 Chi-square 26.99

P > 0.5 (numbers in parenthesis represent total no. of cases in each category)

From the results (Table 2), it is seen that while the average score of the participants represents intermediate levels of anxiety, not all of the participants’ scores reflect that. It was noticed that while 67% of the participants are able to manage their anxiety well and show intermediate levels of anxiety, the other 33% fail to do so and show high levels of anxiety. It is to be remembered that the data was collected a week prior to the participants exams, which may have led the students to exhibit higher anxiety (Ann Mary, Masslin, Francklin & Sheeba, 2014). Although it may have been contributed to by other factors such as staying away from family, lack of coping strategies, inability to adjust to the environment, general performance anxiety, introversion (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, Merikangas & Walters, 2005) pressure from parents for academic achievement etc. (Munthas & Mushina, 2014). These adolescents may need additional help to bring down their anxiety levels so that their quality of life may not be affected by it, interventions have been suggested for the same.

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Interventions

 While there are policies and programmes like the Adolescent Education Programme that help adolescents understand bodily growth and maturity, there isn’t much that can help them deal with the psychosocial changes that accompany adolescence, one way to reduce psychological problems among adolescents would be to employ a psychologist at every school. While support and counseling from peers and teachers can be helpful, it cannot be a substitute from counseling from a trained professional.

 Anxiety can often result from irrational or negative thoughts where even a small disappointment may be perceived as a huge rejection, and affect the adolescents self-esteem. This can be prevented using cognitive restructuring a component of cognitive Behavioural Therapy or Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy where irrational thoughts are challenged and disputed by alternative thoughts that are more realistic and neutral in nature, if not positive.

 Simple, techniques to reduce anxiety provoking thoughts are positive self-talk, where the dialogue with oneself is a positive set of statements instead of typical negative self-talk induced by anxious thoughts (can be achieved through practice) and thought stopping where when one becomes conscious of negative thoughts, tries to stop the thoughts from going any further. Both these techniques are directed at bringing the anxiety experiencing individual from the state of ‘learned fear’ to ‘learned optimism’.

 For performance anxiety, which may result from inadequate preparation, stress, lack of self-confidence or procrastination the most effective method is to learn to be assisted in learning to manage time, chose the right priorities and set SMART goals www.ijmer.in 14

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(specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, within a time frame). Another thing to remember would be to re-think when having worrying thoughts by acting oneself questions like: How is this helping ? Is this going to make things better ? What can I do instead that will actually help? In such situations mindfulness meditation can also be helpful. Mindfulness meditation can be done to clear the mind of unwanted stressful thoughts by focusing on the present, detaching from other things and improving one’s sensory input. Mindfulness meditation is also effective in reducing stress and anxiety. Other relaxation techniques such as guided imagery or visualization can also be practiced to reduce anxiety. Breathing exercises if practices for a few minutes every day are also an effective way of reducing anxiety.

 Lastly, some habits that can be inculcated by the adolescents in their daily lives to improve quality of life and reduce anxiety are altruism, gratefulness, appreciation of nature, a non- judgemental attitude, trying to live in the present and praying.

Conclusion

To conclude the study as no gender differences were found in terms of anxiety the hypothesis was not accepted. Since it was observed that while some students were able to maintain intermediate levels of anxiety, some of them failed to do so showing high levels of anxiety, for which interventions in terms of therapies, simple techniques and habits were suggested.

REFERENCES

 Ann Mary, R., Marslin, G., Franklin, G., & Sheeba, C.J. (2014). Test anxiety levels of board exam going students in Tamil Nadu, India. Bio Med Research International 2014.

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 Baviskar, Plalke & Phalke, (2013). A Study of Socio Demographic Factors and their Association with Depression, Anxiety and Stress in Junior College Students in a Rural Area of India. International Journal of Scientific Research. DOI: 10.15373/22778179.  Bhosale, S., Singru, S.A., & Khismatrao, D. (2015). Study of psychosocial problems among adolescent students in Pine, India.  Breuer, A. (1999). Biofeedback and Anxiety. Psychiatric Times. 16 (2), 12.  Brown, B.B., & Larson, R.W. (2002). The kaleidoscope of adolescence. The world's youth: Adolescence in eight regions of the globe, 1-20.  Chapell, M.S., Blanding, Z.B., Silvcrstein, M.E., Takahashi, M., Newman, B., Gubi, A., & McCann, N. (2005). Test anxiety and academic performance in undergraduate and graduate students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(2), 268.  Costello, E.J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, C., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of general psychiatry, 60(8), 837-844.  Deb, S., Chatterjee, P., & Walsh, K. (2010). Anxiety among High School Students in India: Comparisons across Gender, School Type, Social Strata and Perceptions of Quality Time with 'Parents. Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology, 10. 18-31.  Devine, A,, Fawcett, K., Szflcs, D., & Dowker, A. (2012). Gender differences in mathematics anxiety and the relation to mathematics performance while controlling for test anxiety. Behavioral '" and Brain Functions, 8(1), 1.  Essau, C.A., Contradt, J., and Petermann, F. (2000). Frequency, comorbidity and psychosocial impairment of specific phobia in adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(2), 221- 231.  Grusec, J.E. (2011). Socialization processes in the family: Social and emotional development. Annual review of psychology, 62, 243-269.  Harris, H.L., & Coy, D.R. (2003). Helping Students Cope with Test Anxiety. ERIC Digest.

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 Kessler, R.C., Chiu, W.T., Dernier, O., & Walters, E.E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of general psychiatry, 62(6), 617-627.  Lowe, P.A., Papanastasiou, B.C., DeRuyck, K.A., & Reynolds, C.R. (2005). Test score stability and construct validity of the Adult Manifest Anxiety Scale-College Version scores among college students: A brief report. Measurement and Evaluation in, Counseling and Development, 37(4), 220.  Luigi, M., Francesca, D., Maria, D.S., Eleonora, P., Valentina, G.D. and Benedetto, V. (2007). The Role of Anxiety Symptoms in School Performance in a Community Sample of Children and Adolescents. BMC Public Health 7 (347) doi: 10.1186/1471-2458- 7-347.  McLean, C.P., Asnaani, A., Litz, B.T., & Hofmann, S.G. (2011). Gender differences in anxiety disorders: prevalence, course of illness, comorbidity and burden of illness. Journal of psychiatric research, 45(8), 1027-1035.  Mumthas, N. S., & Muhsina, M. (2014). Psycho-Social Problems of Adolescents at Higher Secondary Level. Guru Journal of Behavioral and Social Sciences, 2(1), 252-257.  Ryan, C. (2005). Experience of musical performance anxiety in elementary school children. International Journal of Stress Management, 12(4), 331.  Sena, Whitaker, Lowe, Patricia, Lu, and Steven. (2007). Significant predictors of test anxiety among students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40 (4), 360-376  Spielberger, C.D. (1983). State Trait Anxiety. Mind Garden Inc., California.  UNICEF. (2011). Opportunity in Crisis: Preventing HIV from early adolescence to young adulthood, UNICEF.  Weeks, M., Coplan, R.J., & Kingsbury, A. (2009). The correlates and consequences of early appearing social anxiety in young children. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23(7), 965-972.

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SWAMI VIVEKANANDA’S PHILOSOPHY FOR PRESENT SOCIETY

A.V.Krishna Rao Director MSFS Dyanashram Visakhapatnam

Swami Vivekananda, the great Hindu monk who was loved and admired by everyone has become a legendary figure in the history of India and the world. He was born on January 12, 1863 to his parents Vishwanath Datta and Bhuvaneswari Devi. His parents gave him the name Narendranath Datta, and in short they call him Narendra meaning “lord of men”. It was thought and believes by his parents and relatives that this young lad would become a great personality one day as he was born on the day of Makarasankranti festival which is a very important Hindu festival day and it is believed as auspicious. When he was such a very young boy he has all the great qualities like courage, simplicity and straightforwardness. He was bold and courageous in giving his intended message to every mankind equally not considering their caste, creed, colour, and nationality. One prominent quality of Swami Vivekananda was the completeness of his vision. His mission was both national and international. His vision was to promote peace and human brotherhood which is the very core of his luminous being. Once he told his friends “Don’t believe what others say unless you yourselves know it to be true.” In the later years when he addresses a large gathering and audience, he repeatedly proclaimed and say: Do not believe in a thing because you have read about it in a book. Do not believe in a thing because another man has said it was true. Do not believe in words because they are hallowed by tradition. Find out the truth for yourself and that is true realization.

His divinely mother who is very religious played an important role in moulding and bringing up her son in a very caring way and

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making him to understand the goodness of living a good human being. Narendra once experience the unjustly behaviour in his school for which he complained to his mother, being a God fearing mother she humbly consoled her son by saying “My son why should you bother, if you are right? Be truthful and righteous then you will lead a good life. But also she warned him that every now and then you would encounter unfairness and disagreeable moment for upholding the truth; but whatever the situation may be you should not desert it.” His mother has been a great source of encouragement for him to do the right. Many years later he admitted himself to the audience by saying that, I am greatly indebted to my loving mother for all the knowledge I have acquired. It was she who has taught me everything to do right and right alone. “In India, mothers are the custodians of the cultural training of their children. Therefore, the entire future of the country is completely in the hands of mothers.” 1 Swami Vivekananda was all for the people of India, he says that man making is my mission. He was not able to concentrate and be at peace by seeing his own countryman in misery, distress, poverty and in pain. “The reason that we Indians are still living, said Swami Vivekananda, in spite of so much misery, distress, poverty, or oppression from within and without, is that we have a national ideal, which is yet necessary for the preservation of the world!” what is that national ideal? Spiritual quest – attaining perfection through self-discovery, self-knowledge and self-fulfilment – has been the one single dominating impulse of the individual and collective life in India. Religion forms the backbone, the life current of the nation. Hence, the ideals of “Renunciation and Service” have permeated our outlook of life.”2

Swami Vivekananda says that whatever religion to which you belongs, we are all connected with a common thread as being an Indians. The way to be happy is to make others happy. He says that it is time to give up all kinds of differences and quarrels for our well-being

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and development because these problems will blind us from happiness and cheerfulness of life. With the giving up of quarrels all other improvements will come. “.....instead of this world going on with all its friction and clashing, if all mankind today realise only a bit of that great truth, the aspect of the whole world will be changed, and, in place of fighting and quarrelling, there would be a reign of peace.”3 He also says that when one is physically sound and healthy disease germs can never attack and live in his body, only when the body is weak. He is pointing this to our spiritual strongness, if we are growing spiritually chances of committing wrong is very dim. He says why people go to Church, Temple, Mosque and other sacred places for worship of the living God, for I have seen nothing but God is all my life. Treat everyone man and woman as God; serve the Lord Himself in serving the poor, the illiterate, the ignorant, the afflicted and the sufferer who are around you. Let these be our God and remember service to all these alone would be considered as the highest religion. Instead of fighting and quarrelling among ourselves which is the poison of development we should develop a passion for one another and devote ourselves wholeheartedly to furthering the welfare and take pleasure in bringing harmony and peace. The pain and suffering which we are encountering now is all because of our enmity towards one another and yet it does not open our eyes. This could hamper for social regeneration which is very implicit.

Swami Vivekananda was very clear and he could envisage the matchlessness of the divinity in all human beings. For him the only God to worship is the human soul in the human body, of course all animals are temples too, but men is the highest. According to him, “No books, no scripture, no science can ever imagine the glory of the self that appears as man, the most glorious God that ever was, the only God that ever existed, exists, or ever will exist...”4 He could visualised the divine self in every person and accepted that every individual is the

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temple of God. Swamiji in exhortation said “....for the good of our nation, for the welfare of our country, and for the good of humanity, open your hearts, make you true and steady to work for the immense change which must come, whether we exert ourselves or not.”5

Swamiji in his famous lecture delivered in Madras called upon the people to emphasize their support for the country: My India, arise! Where is your vital force? It is in your immortal soul. Each nation, like each individual, has one theme in this life, which is its centre, the principal note round which every other note comes to form the harmony. If any nation attempts to throw off its national vitality, which has been practicing over the centuries through transmission, that nation dies. For the country England political power is its vitality whereas for India spiritual life is the most important aspect of the national life and likewise different vitality for other countries. Therefore, it will not be fruitful if we throw away our religion which is the core of our national life and replaced it with other vital force like politics or humanity. By doing so, it will destroy our uniqueness of living a spiritual identity. Swamij avow that, every man has to make his own choice; so has every nation. We made our choice ages ago. And it is the faith in an immortal soul. I challenge anyone to give up. How can you change your nature?

Swami Vivekananda a divine personality who always aims for a greater understanding of living a spiritual life would encourage his devotees too to involve themselves in strengthening spiritual habits. He has experienced the higher object of realizations and proclaimed that, I started going to that man (Sri Ramakrishna), day after day, and I could understand and realised that religion can be given. One touch, one glance, can change a whole life. “My whole life has been changed by the touch of one of these divine men.”6 I have read about Buddha, Christ and many great individuals in ancient times in India how they would stand up and command by saying “Be thou whole,” and the man

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became whole. I now believe it and found to be true, when I myself saw this man (Sri Ramakrishna), all doubts were vanished. All this is possible, my master would say, “Religion can be given and taken more tangibly, more really than anything else in the world.” 7 It is not that one should convert to another religion and make a new belief, but one should become a better person with his own religion and beliefs. One day the Master (Sri Ramakrishna), in a delighted mood, said to the devotees: “There are many opinions and many ways. I have seen them all and do not like them any more. The devotees of different faiths quarrel among themselves. Let me tell you something. You are my own people. There are no strangers around. I clearly see that God is the whole and I am a part of Him. He is the Lord and I am His servant. And sometimes I think He is I and I am He.” 8

In this present situation of men making himself as the centre of attention wanted to uplift himself and praise himself, Swamiji warned that this could lead to self destruction and demoralising the unity of a society and also one should know all these will make you weak physically, intellectually and spiritually. Different religions are different pathways to the temple of God. Let every man and woman believe and accept that their own religion is true and also thinks that even others religions are also true. It is unacceptable when you say that only my religion is true and others are false. All religions are true, they lead to the same God. When this truth is accepted then there is life in it, because only truth alone is the strengthening power to enlighten us to live a good life. “Therefore my plan is to start institutions in India to train our young men as preachers of the truths of our scriptures in India and outside India. Men, men- these are wanted: everything else will be ready; but strong, vigorous, believing young men, sincere to the backbone, are wanted. A hundred such and the world become revolutionized. The will is stronger than anything else. Everything

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must go down before the will, for that comes from God: a pure and strong will is omnipotent.”9

The regeneration of India was the ever chronic subject for Swami Vivekananda. There were two very important missions which he wanted to set up a Vedic College and a convent for women. A convent for women should be separated from the Belur Monastery and constructed on the bank of the Ganges under the supervision of the Holy Mother. All the women would become a teacher, they should be trained in this convent and after their trainings they shall take up the responsibilities in educating Indian women. Swamiji had a great compassion for the poor and the uncared masses of the people. He was all the time in pained because of this neglected group of people. In 1901 a group of people from Santhal community had come to dig the grounds for monastery. They were considered as someone outcaste from the society and they engaged themselves into manual labours, because they were poor. But Swamiji had a warmed heart for this people, he called them and talked to them and enquired about their misery life. Talking to them and listening to them has given him the joy and happiness because he could know and understand them more. He decided to host a great meal for them in cooking some good food which they have never tasted in their life so far. After the food was served and the labourers had their filled Swamiji told them; you are the Narayanas or Supreme Being. I am very much delighted today because I have entertained the Lord Himself by feeding you. “No man can really see God except through these human manifestations.”10 He admits that I could see God in them how simple and honest they are! And later when he talked to his followers at Belur Math he informed them about this poor people and exhorted them to help this people to relieve their miseries and comfort them. By doing so it should be considered as the greatest service of monasticism. This people required education, food, health, and the knowledge of science and technology to raise their standard of

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living. The attempt to teach metaphysics to empty stomachs was sheer madness. The masses everywhere were leading the life of animals on account of ignorance and poverty; therefore these conditions should be removed. “The worker for India’s regeneration must renounce selfishness, jealousy, greed, and lust for power; and they must dedicate themselves to the service of the poor, the illiterate, the hungry, and the sick, seeing in them the tangible manifestations of the Godhead.”11 Being a great soul and wholly dedicated for the masses of the country and always have the great concerned for the betterment of the poor and downtrodden people Swami Vivekananda requested all his followers to do the same like him. And he says “...if there were to be any sort of worship, he would suggest getting a poor man, or six, or twelve, as their circumstances would permit, everyday to their homes, and serving them, thinking that they were Narayanas.”12

Swami Vivekananda prayed to the Lord seeking His blessings and help. In the meantime “He became friendly with the Hindu Maharajas who ruled over one-fifth of the country and whose influence was great over millions of people. Through them he wanted to introduce social reforms, improved methods of education, and other measures for the physical and cultural benefits of the people. The Swami felt that in this way his dream of India’s regeneration would be realized with comparative ease.”13 Swamiji felt what is good in building monasteries, religious houses and saving money for religious building projects when many of our poor brothers and sisters are looking for shelter and food, and they are living under the trees for want of place to stay. They have nothing to eat and wandering here and there in search of food for survival. “Be good, and evil will vanish from you. The whole universe will thus be changed. This is the greatest gain to society. This is the great gain to the human organism.”14 His main attention was focused on the improvement of social status of his countrymen. The regeneration of India was uppermost in his mind. He

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said, “I have a great mission to fulfil and I am in great despair at the smallness of my power. My guru asked me to dedicate my life to the regeneration of my motherland. Spirituality has fallen to low ebb and starvation stalks the land. India must become dynamic again and earn the respect of the world through her spiritual power.” 15

He humble himself when many of his wealthy friends and followers requested him to go to the west and offered him money for the journey, he refused them by saying that if only it is the wish of the Mother that I should go to the west, then we can collect money. He had written a letter to Mother Sarada Devi informing about his desire of going to the west, she had given her consent in blessing him to move ahead with his plan and believing that this should be Ramakrishna’s desire too for Swamiji to go to America. His desire to go to America was to preach about religion and also to find out if there could be any means that can help his countrymen in removing poverty and distress. He has a clear vision for the regeneration of India. He exhorted his followers to examine themselves and stand up for the growth of the masses and suggested that instead of doing all kinds of religious activities for self purifications, learning and study of the scriptures and for the attainment of moksha, let us dedicates ourselves in going to villages for the service of the poor. “To a disciple who wanted to practise spiritual discipline to attain his own salvation, the Swami said: “you will go to hell if you seek your own salvation! Seek the salvation of others if you want to reach the Highest. Kill out the desire for personal mukti. This is the greatest spiritual discipline.” 16 What are the brand marks of Swamiji? It is those inner qualities and characteristics that reveal the heart of Swami Vivekananda within us. The most outstanding characteristic of Swamiji is the willingness to uplift the poor and distress. He claimed that without the uniform circulation of the national blood all over the body there cannot be any progress in the country. It is cleared from one’s own body experience, when a finger or

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a toe is injured the whole body cannot function correctly even if the other part of the body is healthy. “The solution is not by bringing down the higher, but by raising the lower up to the level of the higher.” 17 Swami Vivekananda is explaining that his primary reason for coming among us was not to be served, but to serve. There are so many people whose goal in life was to exploit their position for personal advantage. But for Swamiji his crowning mark was that he cared more about what happened to others than about what happened to himself. Over the years we have read and understood the main objective of Swami Vivekananda is that he is committed in the lives of all his people. “The mission of Vedanta, according to Swamiji, is to inspire everyone with this life-giving message of the Upanishads – Arise, Awake, and stop not till the goal is reached. The goal he intended to mean here is all- comprehensive and brings all-round development to the human life.”18 The concept of untouchable and maintaining caste should be thrown out and call in all that are poor and destitute, fallen and downtrodden. The Great Mother India will never awake until and unless the national blood flow uniformly to all part of the body. We are one in the name of our Great Mother India.

After so much of meditation I could realised which is the noble truth in living a worthy life. Go on doing good, thinking good thoughts continuously that is the only way to achieve happiness. Love, truth, unselfishness they form our highest ideal, because in them lies such a manifestation of power. Swamiji says that serving the poor and needy are the blessed people because when you serve these people you are serving the Lord. He is present in all beings. Therefore you are worshipping God in serving all beings. He also warned if you exploit any beings you are bound to receive His curse because we are all equal before the Lord.

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Foot notes: 1. Swami Tathagatananda, Meditation on Swami Vivekananda, Vedanta Society of New York, New York, p. 211. 2. Ibid, pp. 209-10 3. Jnana-Yoga: The yoga of knowledge, Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, pp. 339-340. 4. The complete works of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, Vol. III, p.196. 5. Lectures from Colombo to Almora, Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, p.226 6. Jnana-Yoga: The yoga of knowledge, op.cit., p 341 7. The complete works of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, Vol. III, op.cit., p. 184 8. Swami Nikhilananda, Vivekananda: A biography, Ramakrishna- Vivekananda Center, New York, p. 28. 9. The complete work of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, Vol. III, op. cit., p. 204. 10. The complete work of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, Vol. III, op. cit., p. 61. 11. Swami Nikhilananda, Vivekananda: A biography, Ramakrishna- Vivekananda Center, New York, op. cit., p. 51. 12. Lectures from Colombo to Almora, Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, 1978, op.cit., p. 308. 13. Swami Nikhilananda, Vivekananda: A biography, Ramakrishna- Vivekananda Center, New York, op. cit., p. 48. 14. Jnana-Yoga: The yoga of knowledge, op.cit., p 341 15. Swami Nikhilananda, Vivekananda: A biography, Ramakrishna- Vivekananda Center, New York, op. cit., p. 40. 16. Ibid, p.149 17. Selections from The complete works of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, op. cit., p. 285 18. Swami Tathagatananda, Meditation on Swami Vivekananda, Vedanta Society of New York, New York, op. cit., p.179 References: 1. The complete works of Swami Vivekananda,Vol. I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII & VIII Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, 1947. 2. Swami Nikhilananda, Vivekananda: A biography, Ramakrishna- Vivekananda Center, New York, 1953.

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3. Swami Tathagatananda, Meditation on Swami Vivekananda, Vedanta Society of New York, New York, 1994. 4. Selections from The complete works of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, 2008. 5. Jnana-Yoga: The Yoga of Knowledge, Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, 2009. 6. Lectures from Colombo to Almora, Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, 1978. 7. His Eastern and Western Admirers,Reminiscences of Swami Vivekananda, Swami Chidatmananda, Calcutta, 1964. 8. Romain Rolland, The life of Vivekananda and the Universal Gospel, Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, 1960. 9. Sailendra Nath Dhar, A comprehensive Biography of Swami Vivekananda (Part I & II), Vivekananda Prakashan Kendra, Madras, 1976. 10. P.K Narayan, The Universal Light, P.K Narayan, Trivandrum, 1980.

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LAND USE LAND COVER DYNAMICS AS A PRELUDE FOR SOIL RESOURCE DEGRADATION IN SOUTH WESTERN PART OF ETHIOPIA, CHORA DISTRICT IN FOCUS

Alemayehu Abera Mengie Belayneh PhD Candidate at Arba Minch University & PhD Candidate at Arba Minch University & Lecturer, Department of Geography and Lecturer, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies Environmental Studies Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities Mettu University, Mettu, Ethiopia Mettu University, Mettu, Ethiopia

Abstract

This study was aimed to examine land use land cover change effects on soil resource degradation in Chora district. Through purposive and simple random sampling methods a total of 161 respondents were selected from the district. To achieve the objectives of the study both qualitative and quantitative methods of data analysis were used. The paper has assessed the trend and main driving force of land use and land cover change (LULC) in the districts and its impact on soil degradation. Satellite image was also used and supervised image classification was done to identify land use/ land cover change of the study area for different years using ERDAS Imagine image processing software. The study area is one of the most affected parts of Ethiopian that suffered from soil resource degradation of varying categories that are aggravated by over grazing, inappropriate land use practices, and land use land cover change. This threat stems from the depletion and degradation of the forest cover of the area. The implications of these changes suggest that the land use/cover changes have skewed to the rampant conversion of areas once covered with forest to agriculture without adequate use of soil and water conservation and rehabilitation practices. The survey result showed that change in LULC negatively affects the potential use of an area and ultimately lead to soil degradation. The study result also revealed that in the area low to

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moderate erosion hazardous areas are found in north and central and eastern parts, while high to severe erosion risk areas are concentrated in the intensively cultivated hilly southern localities. Finally, suggestions have been forwarded based on the findings of the study.

Key words/Phrases: land use land cover, Soil degradation, GIS and Remote sensing

Introduction

The natural environment consists of various valuable natural resources such as air, water, soil, land, forest, flora and fauna which are basic for human life and development. Any change brought about in one of these components is counter balanced by some other changes in another component of the environment (Agele et al, 2000). Soil is one of the most important natural resource all over the world as it plays an important role in the ability of ecosystems that provide diverse services necessary for human wellbeing. However, this precious resource, mainly in the developing world, has been deteriorated and lost in an alarming rate as a result of poor management practices (Yohanis, 1989). Soil erosion is one form of resource degradation and the most dangerous ecological process in developing country (Taffa, 2002). As a result, the severity of the global erosion problem is becoming worsening. Like many other developing countries across the globe, significant land use land cover changes (LULC) have occurred in Ethiopia since the last century. These changes were primarily due to anthropogenic activities, in connection with the population increase and due to land use changes, including deforestation, over grazing, and improper cultivation of agricultural land which led to accelerated soil erosion and associate soil nutrient deterioration (FAO, 1986; Hurni, 1993; Woldeamlak et al., 2003; Taffa, 2002). Although there are many factors influence on soil erosion, plant cover and land use change have

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been considered as the most important factors affecting on the intensity of soil erosion (Woldeamlak et al., 2003).

In Ethiopia soil resource degradation has become a serious problem affecting all spheres of social, economic and political life of the population. It is one of the major challenges to agricultural development and food security of the country. As studies reveal, high intensity of rain, extensive deforestation, improper farming practices, overgrazing and population pressure on resources and land use land cover changes (LULC) have resulted in severe soil resource degradation. Such problem is also common in Chora district where land use land cover change aggravated soil resource degradation. Therefore, this paper focused on analyzing land use land cover change effect on soil resource degradation in the area under study.

Statement of the Problem

Soil resource degradation is one of the major challenges in agricultural production in many parts of the world, especially in developing nations, such as Ethiopia in general and Chora district in particular. A large part of the districts’ land is exposed to severe soil erosion, land fragmentation, deforestation and land pressure. Land use land cover (LULC) change associated with climatic and geomorphologic conditions of the area have an accelerating impact on the land degradation (Aklilu, 2006). Natural as well as human-induced land use land cover change (LUCC) has significant impacts on regional soil degradation, including soil erosion, nutrient leaching, and organic matter depletion (Sanders, 2004). The district has been exploited and degraded continuously. As a result, majority of rural inhabitants are suffering from food insecurity. This is mainly because of that the soil is incapable to support cultivation caused by soil erosion and its related problems. In the area, erosion problems and measures to tackle were rarely investigated. Consequently, severe erosion continues to affect the farmers’

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livelihoods. The rich top-soils have been washed off by runoff and the remaining sub-soils are exposed and generally deficient in available minerals. The study areas are characterized by steep and undulating terrain and susceptible to soil erosion. The area also receives heavy rain, which is concentrated in few months of the year. Besides, land use land cover change such as deforestation activities accelerated the problem in the area.

In light of the above mentioned problems that are observed in the area, the application of latest advances in geospatial technologies such as Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are very important in understanding the effect of land use land cover change on soil resource degradation. The emergence of computer based science such as GIS and RS has provided a platform to identify patterns of land use change in the area and their influence on the soil degradation to get optimal solutions for the identified problem. Thus, this study was aimed to examine land use land cover change effect on soil resource degradation in the district understudy.

Materials and Methods

Study Area description

The study was conducted in Oromia Regional state, Ilu Abba Bora zone, in Chora district which is located in the south western of Oromia regional state, Illu Ababora Zone. Astronomically, the district is located 8o 9’. 49o 51’. in the north and 35o 6’. and 35o 38’. East. The total area of the district is 1387.97 km2 (Chora agricultural office, 2015).

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Figure 1: Administrative map of the study area

Research Design

The nature of research problems most often dictates the methodology of the study (Kothari, 2004). The particular research design employed for this study will be descriptive type of study utilizing survey method. This is because the study requires description of how the response of households looks like in light of contemporary environmental problems.

Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

In this study, two types of sampling techniques were employed. These were purposive and stratified random sampling methods. Chora district was purposefully selected as a research setting due to the fact that there are severe soil resource degradation problems in the districts due to land use land cover changes. In addition to this, in the area, research works are very little and there are no studies done so far on such issues in the area. Consequently, the study was partially intended to fill this gap. In order to obtain the sampling units or respondents the

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researchers’ employed stratified simple random sampling method. Because it was believed that this method would not affect the representation of the samples as Head of households represent from each kebeles and this method gives equal chance of being selected for each households. Head of Households will be stratified according to their goti to conduct the survey in the area. All in total 161 of the total Household heads /respondents of the total head of the households were randomly selected by applying proportional sample allocation method from the “gotis.” The sample size in each stratum is proportional to the size of stratum. This was determined by the following formula:

nh = (Nh / N )xn where, nh = Sample size of the stratum

Nh = Total population of the stratum

N = Total population (i.e. total HHs)

n= Total sample size

Source: (Kothari, 2004)

Data Sources and collection instruments

In order to get reliable and valid data so as to achieve the objectives of the study, the researchers collected data from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data were collected through household survey questionnaire, interview, field observation and Focus Group Discussion (FGD). The researchers also used Global positioning System (GPS) instrument to collect field data. Besides, satellite images were also used as primary sources to classify land use land cover types of the study area. To achieve the intended objectives, Landsat image of was used to classify land use land cover of the study area and it was processed using ERDAS IMAGINE 9.2 image processing software and arcGIS 10.3. in order to check the accuracy of LULC change classification, error/confusion matrix and Kappa Index was run. To supplement the primary data, secondary sources of data were collected

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from various documents, books, journals, reports, electronic media (internet), etc. To collect primary data for the study, the researchers used above mentioned data collection instruments for their own advantage one over the other and for the purpose of their complementarities.

Method of data Analysis

The data Collected via various methods of data collection instruments were analyzed, summarized, and presented through qualitative and quantitative methods. The data collected through questionnaire were quantitatively tabulated, interpreted and presented by using certain Stastical methods such as percentages and mean; the analysis will be made by using SPSS version 20 and Ms Excel. Besides, the data collected through interview, personal observations and focus group discussion were analyzed qualitatively. In addition to this, maps, figures, pie chart, and cross tabulations were used. Satellite image was used to classify current land use land cover of the study area by applying Remote sensing and it was processed using ERDAS IMAGINE 9.2 image processing software. Finally, the classified land uses and change map was produced using Arc GIS software.

Result and discussion

Land Use/Cover Dynamics (LULC) as prelude to soil degradation in the study area

The data collected from different sources are processed and analyzed using arcGIS 10.3 and ERDAS 9.2 software to generate the land use land cover classification and change in the Chora woreda. Thus the result was generated for the two years land use land cover change map for the year 1990 and 2015 and the classification accuracy was assessed using confusion/error matrix and Kappa statistics. Therefore, the overall classification accuracy assessment and kappa statistics result for the year 1990 and 2015 were 89.32%, 0.86 and 86.13%, 0.85

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respectively. A reliable land cover classification, the minimum overall accuracy value computed from an error matrix should be 85% (Anderson et al., 1976) and kappa statistics above 0.85. In the study area, major land cover and use classes were agricultural area (26.155%), built up area (0.2905%), Grass land and Bare land (28.513%), vegetation (38.094 %) and the water body (6.9472%).

Figure 2: Land Use Land Cover Map of Chora Woreda in 1990

Table 1: LULC classification of the area in 1990

LULC Types Area In Ha Percent % Water Body 7151 6.9472 Forest area 39212 38.094 Agricultural land 26922 26.155 Built Up area 299 0.2905 Bare and Grass 29350 28.513 Land

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Figure 3: Land Use Land Cover Map of Chora Wored in 2015

Table 2: LULC classification of the area in 2015

LULC Types Area In Ha Percent % Water Body 126 0.1229 Forest area 24990 24.369 Agricultural land 42559 41.502 Built Up area 1553 1.5144 Bare and Grass Land 33319 32.491 In 2015, the land use land cover types of the area were agricultural area (41.502%), built up area (1.5144%), Grass land and Bare land (32.491%), vegetation (24.369%) and the water body (0.1229%).

Figure 4: Land Use Land Cover Conversion Map of Chora Wored from 1990 to 2015

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Table 3: LULC conversion map of Chora woreda from 1990 to 2015

LULC Conversion Area in Ha Area in Present Water Body 2.25 0.002 Water Body to Built Up 0.36 3E-04 Water Body to Forest 3541.68 3.421 Water Body to Bar and Grass land 3298.05 3.186 Water Body to Agriculture 474.66 0.459 Built Up Area to Forest 3.69 0.004 Built Up Area to Bar and Grass land 224.1 0.216 Built Up Area to Agriculture 132.03 0.128 Forest to Water Body 1.08 0.001 Forest to Built up Area 1.35 0.001 Forest 23512.68 22.71 Forest to Bar and Grass land 14465.97 13.97 Forest to Agriculture 1487.7 1.437 Agriculture to Forest 9.09 0.009

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Agriculture to Bar and Grass land 10053.63 9.712 Agriculture 16884.81 16.31 Bare and Grass Land to Water Body 0.36 3E-04 Bare and Grass Land to built up area 6.57 0.006 Bare and Grass Land to Forest 1000.35 0.966 Bare and Grass Land 18666.27 18.03 Bare and Grass Land Agriculture 9750.69 9.419 The result indicates that there was grater dynamicity in the land use and land cover of the watershed with in the 25 years period. The agricultural land was highly increased within this time period mainly due to economic forces, demand for food, settlement (the area near the settlement areas are cleared and kept for agriculture for the fulfillment of their needs). Whereas water body and forest land were rapidly decreased in the area.

The extent of bar land was also increased significantly mainly because of deforestation as the forest cover significantly decreased in the area, which leads to loss of fertile top soil and poor agricultural productivity. There was high reduction of vegetation covers due to deforestation, fuel wood, extensive cattle grazing, and settlement, in effective management and forest disease. Thus, these high level land use land cover changes have an extensive influence on the soil resource degradation from year to year. There are different indicators that verifies the existence of sever soil resource degradation in the area under study. The development of rills and gullies and removal of fertile top soil are the major indicators of existence of prevalent soil resource degradation in the area and the researchers also verified through field observation. Land use land cover change (LULC) such as deforestation and transformation of forest land into agricultural land has resulted in intensive and high degree of soil resource degradation as data obtained from field survey reveals. Therefore, these are the basic indicators of

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existence of soil degradation and even increasing rate from time to time.

The causes of soil degradation are various as it has relations with various aspects of nature like climate, topography, economic activities and others. Temporal or permanent removal of soil is among the land degradation types and it is caused by different practices of human beings and nature. The major causes of soil degradation mentioned by farmers included erosive rains (existence of intensive rain fall), steep slope (topography), and little use of soil conservation practices, damaged conservation structures, and tillage, which makes the soil loose and bare as well as land use change overtime. Rainfall leads to significant soil loss mainly at times of seedbed preparation. The result in this study also confirms that soil degradation by water is the major challenge for agricultural land/ soil/ degradation. The result from focus group discussion about the major land degradation is that sometimes unexpected intensive rain comes and washes the top fertile and prepared agricultural land for cultivation. However, erosion by wind is not as such a problem for soil erosion in the area. This is mainly because unlike other parts of the country the area is relatively better covered by forests and almost year round there exists rain. Even though, type of erosion which exerts influence on soil erosion is caused by water /rainfall/, there are different root causes that make the soil degradation in general that led more vulnerable for erosion and low productivity. The major causes identified by farmers, DA and woreda agricultural office workers of the Chora district are: Population pressure, Topography/slope of the area, Farmers’ perception and attitude, Land Use/Cover Dynamics (LULC), Knowledge and use of conservation techniques and Intensive cultivation and absence of fallowing. This threat stems from the depletion and degradation of the forest cover of the area. Loss of biodiversity is associated with land

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use/land cover changes that are related to a range of biophysical and socio-economic drivers.

The implications of these changes suggest that the land use/cover changes have skewed to the rampant conversion of areas once covered with forest to agriculture without adequate use of soil and water conservation and rehabilitation practices. The survey result showed that change in LULC negatively affects the potential use of an area and ultimately lead to soil degradation. The study result also revealed that in the area low to moderate erosion hazardous areas are found in north and central and eastern parts, while high to severe erosion risk areas are concentrated in the intensively cultivated hilly southern localities.

Conclusion

Soil degradation is one of major threat to the agricultural economic development of Ethiopia that contributes to the prevailing of food insecurity in a country. It is sever in in areas where there is more land use land cover change is very common. There are different factors that cause such an alarming increase in the soil resource degradation. As the survey result indicates the major factors for the occurrence and increment of soil degradation in the study area include: Population pressure, Land Use/Cover Dynamics, knowledge and use of conservation techniques, Intensive cultivation and absence of fallowing. Land use/cover changes have skewed to the rampant conversion of areas once covered with forest to agriculture without adequate use of soil and water conservation and rehabilitation practices. The survey result showed that change in LULC negatively affects the potential use of an area and ultimately lead to soil degradation.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study the following recommendations are forwarded for the betterment of the soil conservation method in the area:

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The major and recent challenge for the occurrence of soil erosion in the area was the conversion of vegetation land to agricultural land or forest degradation. Thus, the government and other stakeholders should work to minimize forest degradation and to create some off farm activities.

Creating awareness on the farmers about soil erosion, conservation and its importance for soil fertility and productivity through the cooperation of the DAs, woreda and zonal agricultural and natural resources management office and other stockholders should be delivered.

Rapid population growth is major cause for the shortage of farm land which inturn lead to transformation of forest cover land to agricultural land. Hence, concerned government bodies should plan to implement agricultural diversification, family planning, intensive agriculture and incoming population.

Conservation and management strategies should be applied

Afforestation and reforestation mobilizations and practices should be done by the government in collaboration with other stakeholders

Financing the local people in restoring and the forest Reference

 Agele, S.O. Iremiren, G.O. Ojeniye, S.O. (2000). Effects of tillage and mulching on the growth, development and yield of late‐season tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L) in the humid south of Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Science 134:55‐59.

 Aklilu A. (2006). Caring For Land, Best Practices In Swc In Baressa Watershed High Lands of Ethiopia, Wageningen University Netherlands

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 FAO, 1986. Ethiopian Highland Reclamation Study. Final Report, Vol. 1. FAO, Rome.

 Hurni H (1993). Land degradation, famine and land resource scenarios in Ethiopia. In: Pimentel D, editor. World

 Soil Erosion and Conservation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 27-61.

 Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology, Method and Techniques, New Age International Private Ltd. Publisher, New Delhi.

 Sanders, D. (2004). Soil Conservation, in Land Use ,Land Cover and Soil Sciences, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford

 Taffa T. (2002). Soil and Water Conservation for Sustainable Agriculture Mega publishing enterprise, Addis Ababa.

 Woldeamlak B and Geert, S. (2003). Farmer’s participation in soil and water conservation activities in Chemoga watershed, Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia Tropical resource management papers. NO 44,Wageningen University, Netherlands

 Yohannes G.M. (1989). Crop production and conservation methods in Andit Tid area, Northern Shewa. Soil Conservation Research Project, Addis Ababa.

Acknowledgements

Above all to Almighty God is the glory for giving us all the patience and strength to complete our study against all odds. Secondly, we wish to thank Mettu University for providing us financial requirement and

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encouragement to conduct and accomplish our study. Thirdly, thanks are owed to all individuals who contributed for this research namely enumerators, all key informants, household heads and participants of focus group discussions for their kindly support in providing us with necessary information for our study and for all kinds of assistance provided during data collection. Especially, to those people who scarified a great length of their precious time in providing us with the necessary data through interview and discussion. The Last but not the least, we are also very much indebted to our friends who encouraged us to accomplish this work and provided us with all necessary supports as well as advice in one way or in another way during our study time for the successful completion of the paper.

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ARTS OF MASSES IN TELANGANA – A CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

Ankam Jayaprakash Junior Lecturer in History Government Junior College Kodumur,Dist: Kurnool (A.P.) Abstract of the Paper:

The Art, Culture and Traditions of Telangana is a fusion of the Telugu and Persian culture dating back to the Nizams and Mughals. Hence, there is an influence of Hinduism and Islam. Since Buddhism was the dominant religion upto the 6th century it was also the home of Mahayana Buddhism. This can be observed in the monuments of Nagarjunakonda and the World University at the Sri Parvata presided over by Acharya Nagarjuna. In the 12th century the Kakatiyas and the Chalukyas revived Hinduism and Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire restructured old temples and built new ones.

Key Words: Telangana Arts, Parsian Culture, Nirmal Paintings, Cultural Era.Humanitariat Arts.

Introduction

Art is a necessity- an essential part of our enlightenment process. We cannot as a civilized society, regard ourselves as being enlightened without the art forms.

Prof.KenDauby, Artist

Telangana was carved out of the former Andhra Pradesh with Hyderabad as its capital. The name ‘Telangana’ is derived from the word ‘Trilinga’ meaning the place of three lingas as according to legends Lord ’s lingams are found on three mountains , Kaleshwaram and which form the boundaries of

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Telangana. It is mentioned in the Mahabharata as Telingadesha and it is said that the people of this land sided with the Pandavas in their battle against the Kauravas in the War. It is also mentioned in the Aitreyabrahmana, and Puranas.

Amidst the hills and forests of Adilabad one of the districts of Telangana is the small town of Nirmal. It has been considered the land of art and crafts. The big community of craftsmen in Nirmal are referred to as ‘Nakkash’. This town is famous for its paintings known as Nirmal paintings. These paintings were greatly admired and patronised by the Mughal rulers in the medieval period and it is said that Lady Hydri later on brought the craftsmen to Hyderabad to promote their growth and development. In this, traditional art scenes are painted from the Hindu epics- Ramayana and Mahabharata. The paintings have been influenced by the Indian Schools of Art like Ajanta, Kangra and from Mughal miniatures. The colours used in these paintings especially the familiar gold colour are produced indigenously from extracts of herbs, gum, vegetable dye and minerals. The paintings, whether depicting the grace of a dancer or the rhythm of a musician, enrapture the viewer. It is said that in the past the Nizam of Hyderabad on visiting Nirmal was given a grand welcome with the artisans decorating the venue and seat of the Nizam in such a way that an intricately designed banana bud suspended over the Nizam’s seat unfurled and a cascade of golden petals were showered on the Nizam. This so overwhelmed him that he began to patronise the artisans.

Deccani Paintings

Deccani paintings are a style of miniature paintings which flourished among the Deccani Sultanates in peninsular India in the late 16th century. It was a combination of Vijayanagar wall paintings and Persian influence with elongated figures and landscapes with floral

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backgrounds. The colours used were rich and luminous predominantly in gold and white.

These paintings originated from the word ‘kalam’ meaning pen and ‘kari’ meaning work. Colourful designs are applied on cloth using vegetable dyes. Scenes from Hindu mythology are depicted though Persian designs and motifs are included due to the influence of Muslim rulers. Hand carved blocks are used to do the outlines and main features and the pen is used for finer details.

These paintings are stylised versions of Nakashi art which is an art form practised in Cheriyal district of in the Telangana region. They are used for storytelling and their themes are drawn from folklore and mythology like the Puranas and Epics. The format of these paintings is narrative like a film role or a comic strip. They were traditionally used by the balladeer or story telling community known as ‘Kaki Padagollu’. They went from village to village singing and narrating their ballads with music and dance displaying these scrolls in a series of horizontal or vertical panels on a stage erected on four poles with a horizontal bar. The length of the scroll depended on the length of the story and each scroll could have about 50 panels. The panel depicting that particular part of the story would be displayed as the bard would narrate the story. In modern times instead of a continuous scroll single pictures are painted as wall decorations. The making of the canvas is an elaborate procedure with Khadi cotton, rice starch, white mud, boiled tamarind seeds and gum water. The artists then sketch the outline on the canvas with a brush made of a stick with squirrel’s hair. They are painted in vivid hues with the red colour predominantly in the background.

Sculptures

Sculptures made of stone, marble or wood are made in the Telangana region into various animal and bird forms. Sculptures of

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deities in various forms in intricate and aesthetic styles are crafted by the artisans. Examples of fine sculptures can be seen in the in Warangal, the built by the Kakatiyas in the town of Hanamakonda in Telangana and the Alampur temples in Mahbubnagar. Telangana has many museums which have prized collections of different civilisations depicting the culture of the various kingdoms of the state. They are-

Salar Jung Museum

It is one of the three National museums of India and is located in the city of Hyderabad in Telangana. The art objects were collected by three generations of the Salar Jung family with the major portion of the collection acquired by Salar Jung III (Nawab Mir Yousuf Ali Khan) who devoted his entire life to collecting rare and precious art objects. It was originally stored in his ancestral palace ‘Dewan Deodi’. Thereafter his heirs decided to form a museum to store the various artefacts, books and manuscripts in 1968. The collection comprises antiques and art objects not only from India but also from Western, Middle East and Far East countries. It is a treasure house of art from different cultures like Roman, Greek, Hindu, Jain Buddhist, Islamic and Christian culture and a cultural centre for research projects, exhibits as well as an educational centre. These include paintings, sculptures, metal ware, carvings, ceramics, ivory, lacquer ware, porcelain, metal ware, glass etc and a huge library of books, journals and manuscripts.

AP state Museum or Hyderabad Museum

It is located at Hyderabad’s public garden and is the state’s oldest museum. It has many galleries containing bronze and stone sculptures, paintings, textiles, manuscripts, arts and antiquities representing Vijayanagara and Chalukyan period including Buddhist artefacts.

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Nizam Museum or City Museum

This museum which is situated in the palace (Purani Haveli) of the last Nizam of Hyderabad Asaf Jah VII (Osman Ali Khan Bahadur) contains treasures which include artefacts of swords, daggers studded with precious stones, figurines, Neolithic pottery, coins of Satavahana period etc.

National History Museum

This museum is located inside the Nehru Zoological Park in Hyderabad and contains many artefacts and stuffed dummies of extinct animals and birds.

CRAFTS

This craft form is said to have originated in Iran centuries ago and brought down by migrants. It has been nourished and maintained by future generations of practitioners and is said to have derived its name from the town Bidar of the erstwhile princely Hyderabad state now currently part of Karnataka. It is the unique art of silver engraved on metal. It involves four stages of manufacturing namely casting, engraving, inlaying and oxidising. Black colours for surface ornamentation are used for Bidri art which does not fade easily and is accompanied by silver and gold coatings. An alloy of zinc and copper called gunmetal is used for this art. Flower vases, jewellery boxes key chains and other artefacts are made which is very popular all over the world.

Dokra Metal Craft

This metal craft could be seen centuries earlier in the artefacts of Mohenjo Daro. It is a bell metal craft which combines skills of metallurgy with wax technique and though it originated in West Bengal, Chhatisgarh and Jharkhand it travelled to Orissa and Andhra Pradesh mainly in the district of Adilabad. Dokra is an ancient

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technique of casting wherein wax threads are wrapped around an inner core of clay model. Molten brass or bronze is poured into an opening which has been covered with another layer of clay. It is a very labour intensive work and each piece crafted is different from the other. Simple art forms and traditional designs are made like tribal Gods, figurines, caskets, bowls etc and its aesthetic beauty is in great demand in India and abroad.

Nirmal TOYS AND handicrafts

Initially the Nirmal artisans restricted themselves to art form. But later local talent was exploited and decorative and utility articles began to be manufactured. Nirmal toys are carved out of Puniki wood or ‘Puniki Chekka’ which is flexible and light and can be cut into various shapes and sizes. The various parts of the toys are then coated with ‘Chinta Leppam’ which is a specially prepared glue prepared from boiled tamarind seeds and sawdust and coated with white clay which smoothens any depressions or ridges present in the toys. The artefacts and wall plaques are made of teak wood which is well finished on lathe before painting the preconceived design. Then Duco paint in the desired background colour is sprayed on the plaque and finally the artisan paints the design. The quality and beauty of the finished products is breath taking. In modern times experimentation with various hues and shades without moving away from tradition has been evolved. A variety of aesthetic household and office furniture and decorative furnishings too are made by the craftsmen.

This needle craft is practised by the Banjaras or tribals of Telangana. It is made up of needlework with geometric patterns of squares, diamonds and triangles. Colourful and different types of stitches with mirror work, beads and shells are made on rich and brightly coloured clothes. These are different from the embroidery and design work of the tribals of Gujarat and Kutch region. These beautiful

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designs and intricate patterns are used in clothes, bags, bedspreads and bring an exotic look to the decor of a place.

Bronze Castings

The bronze castings of Telangana are world famous and detailed information can be obtained from the Shilpa Shastras which is a text from the Gupta period on the methodology of casting images in metal. The Vishnusamhita an appendix to the Vishnu Purana refers to wax modelling for making metal objects. The ancient Sanskrit text Manasara Shilpa has a chapter entitled Lost wax Method or Maduchhistha Vidhanam giving details of casting idols in wax. The Abhilasitartha Chintamani or Manasollasa written by King Bhulokamalla Someshvara of the Chalukya dynasty gives detailed description of lost wax and casting methods. Srikumara’s Silparatna contains instructions on the hollow casting procedure. Studying all these detailed procedures the craftsmen make the idols with accurate measurements and descriptions of the deity in proper proportion bringing out the salient features and characteristics. Several coatings of clay on a finished wax model are used to create the mould which then imparts intricate curves to the cast image.

Lacquer Ware

Lac is said to have been first mentioned in 1590 AD in Aaine Akbari written by Abul Fazl. Lac is a gummy deposit obtained from insects which are tiny and red in colour and which thrive on certain species of trees. This craft involves applying lacquer on wood in different colours which is done on a lathe or ‘turned toys’ and can be machine or hand operated. A light species of wood called Ankudu karra is generally used and the lacstick is pressed against the woodenware to be lacquered. Designs are painted on toys and figures using a brush. The lac is applied in a dry state. The lac is softened with the help of the

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heat evolved from the friction during the revolving of the woodenware and enables the colour to stick.

The most popular form of lacquer ware are the lac bangles studded with mirrors, beads and stones in attractive colours and designs. Besides this many decorative items like bowls, vases, containers etc are made.

Telangana has a music tradition of Carnatic music and folk music. The different forms of folk music are –

Oggukatha

It is a traditional folk singing art carried out by some communities who sing songs in the form of ballads in praise of their tribal Gods and on Lord Shiva moving from one place to another. They narrate and dramatise the stories of the Gods.

In this the story tellers or balladeers narrate stories in song form using the Sarada Stringed Instruments.

DANCES

Perini Shivathandavam is a dance which originated in the Kakatiya dynasty which ruled for nearly two centuries and established their kingdom in Warangal. It was performed in front of the idol of Lord Shiva before the soldiers set out to fight in the battle. It is called the ‘Dance of Warriors’ and is usually performed only by males. Evidence of this dance form can be seen in the sculptures of the Ramappa temple in Warangal in the sanctum sanctorum or Garbha Gruha of the main temple. This dance is performed vigorously to the beats of drums as the dancers feel the power of Shiva entering their body as they invoke him in a deep abstract way and is considered highly invigorating and intoxicating. This dance form was on the verge of extinction after the decline of the Kakatiya Empire but has been revived in recent times.

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Gobbi Dance

It is performed during the Sankranthi festival and derives its name from ‘Gobbillu’ or ‘balls of cow dung’ which are placed in the middle of rangoli designs made in front of houses. These are then worshipped along with rituals, kumkum, turmeric and flowers. In the EVENING young girls sing and dance around the Gobbillu in a circular manner similar to the Garbha dance of Gujarat.

Burra Katha

This is a form of storytelling using a musical instrument called ‘Burra’. This art evolved from a dance called Tandana Katha which was a popular means of entertainment for the rural masses. A Burra Katha group consists of three artistes the main artist being in the centre dressed with a long flowing dress called angaraksha , a colourful turban with a crest feather, a tight pyjama or dhoti, a colourful waistband and musical bells on his ankles. He holds a Burra (a kind of Tambura) in his hand and sings the ballads while playing the instrument. He is called the storyteller or Kathakudu and his stories are based on mythology or history. He also wears a metal ring called Andelu in his right hand and holds another ring in his left hand and beats music with them. He is accompanied by two other artistes one on either side called Vantalu who are similarly dressed and play the instruments called Barralu or Budigalu or dhaki which are earthern drums of two heads. One of them is called the Rajkiya who enlivens the session with his satirical political and social commentary and the other is the Hasyam clown for comic relief. The ballad compositions contain a variety of songs in content and form in different meters.

Dandaria dance

This dance is generally performed by the Gonds of the hilly region of Northern Hyderabad with Dandas or sticks. The male dancers wear colourful costumes and strike their sticks dancing to the

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accompaniment of trumpets and drums with musicians leading the procession. They go from village to village and even the hosts sometimes accompany them in their dance. According to the Gond legend, Dandaria was an ancient Gond hero who was the creator of this dance and he was originally a descendant of the Pandavas thus the Gonds believe they too are descendants of the Pandavas and joyously celebrate this dance.

Dhamal Dance

This dance is in mime form and performed by the Siddhis of Hyderabad region. The Siddhis are said to be originally from Africa and Abyssinia who were brought into Andhra as slaves in the 12th century to perform guard duties in the palaces by the Hindu Kings. The ruling classes used them as sailors, soldiers and guards. It is in the form of martial art using shields and swords and they perform various steps and is a ceremonial dance performed during marriages to the accompaniment of various musical instruments. Their exotic dances with special war like movements and exotic colourful costumes reflect the flavour of their land of origin.

Mathuri Dance

This is a special dance performed by the Madhuri tribe of Adilabad during the rainy season of the month of Shravan. Unlike in most of the dance forms which are performed predominantly by men including roles of women, this dance is performed by both men and women with men in the outer semi circle and women in the inner circle. The men strike small sticks while women clap to the accompaniment of secular and devotional songs. These tribes were said to have been originally from and hence their dance is said to bear resemblance to the Ras Leela dances of Uttar Pradesh.

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Bhamakalpam and Gollakalapam

These are famous folk art forms of traditional drama written by Sidhendra Yogi in the 7th century. Kalapam is a one act folk play in a simple traditional dance drama form. A Sutradhar gives the main running commentary of the sequence and each character narrates his story with another character making comments or asking questions. The main emphasis is Satthvikabhinaya with Bhakti or Shringar Rasa. This dance form with emphasis on moral values was initiated by Sidhendra Yogi to differentiate it from the dances performed by the nautch girls of those times. He trained young boys from the Brahmin community with complex expressions and elaborate gestures as in the Kuchipudi dance form with philosophical stories forming the main theme wherein a simple milkmaid explains to an erudite Brahmin concepts of Dharma and the philosophy behind the various incarnations of God on earth.

Bathukamma Festival

This festival is celebrated by the women of Telangana during Mahalaya Amavasya or Bhadrapada Amavasya in the month of September – October during Navratri for a period of nine days and is now declared the State Festival of Telengana. The first day is on Mahalaya Amavasya and the last day culminates on Ashwayuja Ashtami or Durgashtami two days before Dussehra. This day is called Pedda Bathukamma or Saddula Bathukamma. ‘Bathukamma’ or ‘Divine Mother Gauri– Life Giver’ is said to be the patron Goddess for women. Women DRESS up in traditional finery, clean their courtyard, use cow dung as base and decorate it with various designs of Rangoli using rice flour. For the first five days five small cone shaped lumps with cow dung are arranged in the courtyard. Men help in gathering various kinds of flowers including rare and wild flowers found in the various plains of the region. These flowers are decorated and scented

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and stacked in a conical mound with a lotus or pumpkin flower on the top along with a symbolic mound of turmeric depicting Goddess Gauri. In the evening women form a circle around it clapping and singing folk songs slowly revolving around in small steps. The songs invoke the blessings of the various Goddesses for the happiness, good health and prosperity of their families.

This Boddemma festival commences nine days prior to Bathukamma festival and concludes on Mahalaya Amavasya. It is a festival for unmarried girls. The courtyard is cleaned and decorated with turmeric, flowers and Rangoli. An image of Boddemma is prepared in seven layers with earth in the shape of a Gopura. In the EVENING all unmarried girls sing and dance around it praying to the Goddess for an early and successful marriage.

Bonalu

This festival is celebrated to pray to Goddess Mahakali and began during the period of the Nizams. It is said that during the outbreak of plague in the 18thcentury in Hyderabad, people prayed that they would instal an idol of Mahakali if the disease was destroyed and hence this festival is celebrated. Another version states that the Goddess returns to her parental home in the month of Ashadi and the occasion is welcomed and celebrated as Bonalu. Women and unmarried girls dress up in traditional finery dancing with Bonam (balancing pots) to the rhythmic beats of drums. Devotees offer a Thottelu or a small colourful paper structure supported by sticks as a mark of respect. The brother of the Goddess represented by Pothuraju is a man anointed with turmeric and vermilion draped in a red dhoti with bells in his ankles who dances to resounding drums and leads the female dancers to the temple. Streets are decorated with neem leaves and the Goddess is offered cooked rice with milk and sugar in brass or earthern pots decorated with neem leaves, turmeric and vermillion.

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Sadar

The people belonging to the Gola caste or the Yadav community celebrate this festival on the second day after Diwali and it is also known as the Dunnapothula Panduga or the Buffalo festival. Buffaloes are decorated in festive colours, turmeric with bells around their necks and are taken around the streets. Competitions are held and awards are presented to the owners of the buffaloes.

Samakka Saralamma

This festival is held once every two years in the month of February and is celebrated for four days attracting a large number of pilgrims to Warangal. Samakka and Saralamma are the mother and daughter duo revered as tribal Goddesses. According to legends they fought against the unjust and unfair rulers of the kingdom and are worshipped and revered to this day. All the tribal population gather together and offer prayers and Thulabaram (offering objects equal to body weight) generally of jaggery to the Goddesses. They then take a dip in the Jampanna Vagu where Jampanna was said to be the son of Samakka and he died sacrificing his life for the sake of the tribal people in his battle against the Kakatiya rulers.

Conclusion:

This festival is celebrated by the Kolam tribes of Adilabad and falls in the Kolam month of Satti. It lasts for three days. Bhimanna or Ayak is the principal deity of the Kolam tribe. He is represented by a carved mace of wood crowned with peacock feathers, a pot with a belt of bells or anklets and small dolls made of mud, which are stored in a thatched shed. On a holy Thursday these relics are then brought to the heart of the village. The deity is then bathed at a hill stream and brought to the enclosure and animal or fowl sacrifice is carried out and offered to the deity. The meat is then cooked and offered to everyone.This annual festival is held in Medak on the holy

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Mahashivaratri day in a sacred place where the seven tributaries of the Manjira River join and flow together. Telangana has a rich culture and tradition and the artefacts and crafts made by the artisans are in great demand throughout the world. Their historical designs on cloth and their folk and traditional arts are well known and have been passed down to generations of artisans and weavers.

References: 1. Nikki Stafford (2006). Finding Lost: The Unofficial Guide. ECW Press. p. 174. 2. What Is Hinduism?Modern Adventures Into a Profound Global Faith. Himalayan Academy Publications. 2007. 3. "Non Resident Nepali – Speeches". Nrn.org.np. Retrieved 1 August 2010. 4. "BBCVietnamese.com". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 1 August2010. 5. "Religions of the world: numbers of adherents; growth rates". Religioustolerance.org. Retrieved 1 August 2010. 6. "India has 79.8% , 14.2% Muslims, says 2011 census data on religion". First Post. August 26, 2015. Retrieved 2015-09-22. 7. Clothey, Fred (2006). Religion in India : a historical introduction. London New York: Routledge 8. Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Cārvāka/Lokāyata, Anthem Press, pages 26–29 9. Johannes Quack (2014), Disenchanting India: Organized Rationalism and Criticism of Religion in India, Oxford University Presspage 50 with footnote 3 10. KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, page 67; Roy W Perrett (1984), The problem of induction in Indian philosophy, Philosophy East and West, 34(2): 161–174;

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HEALTH STATUS OF WOMEN IN ANDHRA PRADES DISTRICT- WISE ANALYSIS

V.Usha Padmini Lecturer in Economics Government Degree College (Men), Srikakulam

“Nearly five women die every hour in India from complications developed like severe anemia both during pregnancy and child birth” - -- World Health Organization.

Abstract:

Andhra Pradesh, the Sunrise State under vision 2029, started its journey towards a happy and globally competitive society. The Government of Andhra Pradesh focuses on social infrastructure with a view to provide basic minimum requirements to all. However, The socio-economic survey (2016-17) and Health surveys warned the state for growing number of caesarean births and anaemia among pregnant women and children in the state. Hence this paper makes an attempt to find out the reasons for the problems so that the deficiencies may be rectified at the district level.

Key words: Social Infracture, Anaemia, Sunrise state.

Introduction:

Andhra Pradesh, the sunrise state focused its vision on the welfare of the people. Andhra Pradesh has set the target to become the top three high performing states in India by 2022 and the best state in the country by 2029. Andhra Pradesh has also adopted the Global Sustainable Development Goals 2030 to direct and drive the social and economic development policies and progress in the state. The SDGs 2030 constitute 17 goals which cover economic growth to social issues for comprehensive and inclusive growth. The Andhra Pradesh government has taken a holistic approach by combining 15 themes of

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Kutumba vikasam and 10 themes of Samaja vikasam and linked them to SDGs. Both Samaja vikasam andKutumba vikasam include maternal health as one of the themes which shows impact on health index of the state. Health Index consists of Infant Mortality, Maternal Mortality and Expected Life at Birth.

The Socio-economic survey of India 2016-2017 revealed that Andhra Pradesh stood at 8th place with regard to health index. Moreover, It also revealed the fact that the infant mortality rate is more in rural areas (41) and less in urban areas (25). Further the anemia rate is more in women to men and attributed much to maternal mortality rate and infant mortality rate. In this scenario this paper tries to examine the health status of women in general and the maternal health status in particular in various districts of Andhra Pradesh and the provisions made by the government for the welfare of mother and child.

Objectives of the Study:

The paper tries to examine and analyse the following

1. To examine the status of demographic goals of the state,

2. To review the provisions made by the state government for the welfare of the mother and child,

3. To analyse the proportion of caesarian births in public and private institutions and reasons thereof,

4. To examine the proportion of anemia of the pregnant women and children in various districts and factors attributed to it

5. Suggestions and conclusions.

Methodology:

The paper uses secondary Data from Sample Registration System publications; National Family Health Survey-4 (2015-16)

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published by The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, The Socio- economic Survey (2016-2017) reports of India and Andhra Pradesh and Internet.

I. Status of the Demographic goals of the state:

The Goals fixed for the state under Infant Mortality Rate, Maternal Mortality Rate are <25 and <80 respectively. Through implementation of various planned departmental programmes in a structured process over the years has culminated in achievement of the set demographic goals in the following manner. Status of achievement in Demographic Goals in Andhra Pradesh are shown in Table- I.

Table I .

Present Status of the Demographic Goals in A.P.

Sl No Name of the Indicator Goal Andhra India Pradesh

1 Maternal Mortality <80 92 167 Rate(MMR)

2 Infant <25 37 37 MortalityRate(IMR)

3 Under 5 Mortality Rate <30 40 45 (U5MR)

4 Estimated Male Expected 68.4 68.8 Life at Birth(2016-20)

5 Estimated Female 72.1 71.1 Expected Life at Birth (2016-20)

Source: SRS Bulletins & Census 2011.

*The figures are for the combined state

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II. Provisions made by the Government for the welfare of the mother and child

The state Government has been taking several steps as under for the welfare of the pregnant women and newly born children.

 Pradhanmantri Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA)-- ---To provide full natal checkup and identify high risk cases so as to decrease the maternal morbidity and mortality thereby giving “A positive outcome” for Safe motherhood and Healthy infant.  Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY)----Financial Assistance to encourage institutional deliveries  Janani sisu suraksha karyakram___Nutritious food to pregnant women  Thalli bidda Express____Providing referral transport to the pregnant women  Child immunization and NTR baby kits  Other Initiatives as 24-hours mother child health centres, registration through mother child health card, Comprehensive emergency obstetric and neonatal care services, web portal for tracking mother and child, special new born centres and so on.

III. District wise analysis of Institutional births:

It is made possible to raise the proportion of institutional births to a higher level of 91.6% in the state with implementation of several programmes. Excepting Kurnool district almost all the districts achieved more than 85% of institutional births. However, the ratio of deliveries at public institutions is less when compared to private institutions. The beneficiaries of Janani Suraksha Yojana are also different in different districts. Table- II shows district-wise data of the above details.

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Table II.

District-wise data of Institutional births and JSY beneficiaries. (In percentages}

Sl District Institutional Births at Janani Suraksha No births public Yojana institutions beneficiaries

1 Anantapur 89.9 46.9 9.4

2 Chittor 94 53 29.9

3 East Godavari 96.9 41.6 8.8

4 Guntur 97.5 35.2 24.7

5 Krishna 96.4 36.8 18.4

6 Kurnool 75.5 36 13.8

7 Prakasam 91.4 29.4 12

8 Nellore 96 26.3 6.1

9 Srikakulam 91.2 42.3 23.9

10 Visakhapatnam 85.5 46.5 22.5

11 Vizianagaram 90.7 50.7 26.6

12 West Godavari 97.2 27.3 19.9

13 YSR Cuddapah 93.7 25.5 14.4

14 ANDHRA 91.6 38.3 17.4 PRADESH

Source: NFHS-4 (2015-2016)

It is observed that institutional births in public hospitals are less as the facilities are not available and shortage of trained doctors.

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However, the percentage of deliveries in government hospitals are mostly found in rural areas due to less private hospitals. Most of the urban institutional births are found in private hospitals. The two districts viz, Chittor and Vizianagaram have successfully implemented public hospital deliveries more than 50%, where the beneficiaries of Janani Suraksha Yojana are also more when compared to other districts. Anantapur, East Godavari, Nellore, Prakasam districts are lagging behind in propagating the financial assistance under JSYfor births delivered in an institution.

IV. Analysis of caesarean births – Public and Private Institutions:

World Health Organization suggests that caesarean births in any area should be in between 5-10% of total deliveries. It also says that if the percentage is less than 5, may be an indication of lack of needy and strategic medical facilities. It is an alarming issue if the percentage exceeds 15. National Family Health Survey conducted by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare provided a benchmark data to examine the progress in the health sector. The survey revealed the fact that proportion of caesarean births are growing at an alarming rate in Andhra Pradesh. The following Table-III provides the data regarding the proportion of caesarean births in public and private hospitals.

Table III

. Percentage of caesarean deliveries in different districts

Sl No District Births delivered by caesarean section

Public facility Private facility

1 Anantapur 14.1 48.9

2 Chittor 20.6 53.7

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3 East Godavari 22.2 63.9

4 Guntur 42.6 58.0

5 Krishna 30.6 66.2

6 Kurnool 19.8 51.9

7 Prakasam 23.5 50.7

8 Nellore 41.7 57.9

9 Srikakulam 33.7 55.5

10 Visakhapatnam 26.1 60.5

11 Vizianagaram 22.8 58.3

12 West Godavari 38.9 71.7

13 YSR Cuddapah 10.0 40.5

14 ANDHRA PRADESH 25.5 57.0

Source: NFHS-4 (2015-2016)

It is a known fact that normal delivery is always preferable to caesarean deliveries. The growing tendency towards caesarean births is an alarming factor which needs attention. Normal deliveries are preferable due to

* mother can feed the baby immediately after delivery which is very crucial to the baby health.

* No risk of infections due to operation

* No problems of anesthesia dosage

* No need to take bed rest for a long period

* No back pain problems

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* Less hernia problems in future

* No scope of scars on the abdomen and skin problems

* Less infections and less future health problems to babies

The reasons for growing caesarean births cannot be completely attributed to the private doctors. It is examined that both the patient family and health personnel are responsible for the problem. The reasons may be analysed as the following

On the medical side,

1. Development of advanced technology to help high risk pregnancy cases is being misutilised

2. Taking less time and there no need to wait for hours together

3. Financial benefits are multi-pronged, in the form of staying accommodation charges and more medicines and more charges from various tests

4. Risk of delivery in the last moment is minimized

On the patient side,

1. Lack of stamina to bear the labour pains

2. Lack of patience on the side of family members and pregnant woman to wait for normal delivery

3. Sensitive brought up and changing life style makes the patients more sensitive

4. Superstitious beliefs of the family members to get the new baby as per their favorable time and star

5. Last but not least, anemia of the pregnant women which is the cause and effect of caesarean deliveries

V. Anemia of Pregnant women and children:

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Twelfth five year plan lays down the national goals to prevent and to reduce the anaemia among women and children. The Food Security Act of India considered women as the head of the family and assures food security to all. Prime Minister’s”Maternity benefit scheme” provides financial assistance to working pregnant women. However the socio-economic survey of India 2016-2017 reveals that anemia is a major problem in India and there is a wide variation between men (26.9%) and women (60%) with regard to the proportion of anemia. It says that in Andhra Pradesh 60% of women is anemic and 58.6% of children in the age of <59 months are anemic. The following table -IV shows district wise data of anemia.

Table IV

. Proportion of women and children to total with anaemia

Sl No District Pregnant women Children age age 15-49 years 6-59 months

1 Anantapur 53

2 Chittor 58.8 46.6

3 East Godavari 56.2 63.1

4 Guntur 33.6 68.1

5 Krishna 58.1

6 Kurnool 51.8 54.5

7 Prakasam 57.9 56.3

8 Nellore 59.2 50.4

9 Srikakulam 70.6

10 Visakhapatnam 64.5

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11 Vizianagaram 78.7

12 West Godavari 55.1

13 YSR Cuddapah 59.4 55.8

14 ANDHRA PRADESH 52.9 58.6

Source: NFHS-4 (2015-16)

The figures state that more than 50% of the pregnant women are anemic, that is (<11.0 g/dl %). Inspite of the efforts made by the state. The survey could not get the data in some of the districts. Though Guntur district is able to reduce the anemia rate among pregnant women to 33.6, most of children are found anemic. Backward districts of Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam are highly anemic which needs more attention.

VI. Suggestions and conclusions:

The NFHS (2015-16) fact sheet which is a benchmark for further studies as stated by International Institute for Population Sciences, provided wide range of district wise statistics for the first time. From the above findings, the following suggestions may be made;

1. Kurnool district registered less number of institutional births. Hence strengthening of medical personnel to encourage institutional births is needed.

2. The beneficiaries of Janani Suraksha Yojana are very few in Nellore district and moreover caesarean deliveries are more both in government and private hospitals in the district. This needs a keen and careful observation.

3. Chittoor district registered highest number of deliveries in public facility. The proportion of anemic pregnant women and children is also at lowest levels among various districts. The literacy of women in Chittoor district is 67.7% and 39% of women are with 10 years of

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schooling which resulted in only 25% of child marriages.Hence this district may be selected as the model district.

4. Vizianagaram and Srikakulam districts are with less female literacy rates where anemia of children is prevalent, that is three-fourths of children are anemic. Establishment of separate schools and colleges for girls is the need of the hour.

5. Nellore and Y.S.R.Cuddapah districts registered very less number of deliveries at public institutions. Strengthening of the public health personnel is required.

6. It is an astonishing factor to observe that the caesarean deliveries in private hospitals are very high in Krishna (66.2%), East Godavari( 63.9%), West Godavari(71.7%), and Visakhapatnam (60.5%). Most of the deliveries are caesarean both in public and in private hospitals in Guntur district. The rate is very much high when compared to World Health Organisation‘s norms. Hence post operational effects of caesarean births have to be widely propagated . Otherwise the women of these districts have to face many health problems in future.

7. Janani Suraksha Yojana cheques are to be issued to the delivered women by taking the correct bank account Xerox as the surname of the beneficiary is different before and after marriage.

The paper tries to highlight the importance of women literacy to reduce child marriages, to reduce anemia among children and to increase the institutional births. Instead of taking common measures to all districts this paper suggests to take apt measures in various districts by focusing on exact discrepancies. It is also helpful to include in curriculum at high school level about the provisions made by the state, the health problems of women and children and the need to take nutritious food for healthy growth of future citizens.

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References:

1. National Family Health Survey-4 (2015-16), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

2. Census of India, 2011.

3. Tweifth five-year plan, pp16-17,and table 20.6.

4. World Bank, World Development Report2012, Table 1,p-15.

5. ASha a Bhende and Tara Kanitkar, “Principles of Population Studies”, Himalaya Publishing House.

6. V.K. and S.K.Misra, “Indian Economy”, Himalaya Publishing House,31st Revised Edition.

7. The Socio-economic survey (2016-17) , India.

8. The Socio-economic Survey (2016-17) , Andhra Pradesh.

9. Journals, Yojana and Kurukshetra

10. The Hindu and Enadu daily News papers

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A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY FOR THE EXISTENCE OF ‘PATI’ IN SAIVA SIDDHANTA

T. Sebasthi John Baskar Assistant Professor Department of Tamil A.V.C. College (Auto), Mannampandal Mayiladuthurai, Nagai,Tamilnadu Abstract

Saiva Shiddhanta is very much crammed by the spiritual experiences of Appar, Sundharar, Manikkavasakar, Sambhandar ect, they were completely in God and thus they had no grounds to doubt the existence of God. However this tradition proves the reality of God by employing rational arguments. The Saiva Siddhanta strongly believes that the reason never contradicts with the revealed truths rather it strengthens and compliments the religious understanding. The rational inquiry will be useful for those who do not accept the Sabdha (verbal testimony) as a valid knowledge. And also the Siddhanta accepts three pramanas as valid sources of knowledge to prove the existence of God. I substantially bring out in this paper by analyzing the arguments expounded in favor of the existence of God in Saiva Siddhanta. It is also very interesting to note how prudently the Siddhantians explain the existence of God as Efficient Cause and Moral Governor of the world. And the Lord Siva remains ever as the efficient cause of the world. So it is very clear that Siddhantians believe Lord Siva is the supreme over all and they worship Him as the one who is Birthless.

Key words: Existence, Compliment, Supreme, Efficient cause and Moral Governor.

Introduction:

The existence of ‘Pati’ (God) is different from the existence of the world. We are limited being but trying to reach the unreachable which is God. That is why religions are defined “as the hunger of the soul for

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the impossible and the inconceivable. The religious impulse is deep down in every human heart. This impulse in man desires to break through this life and existence to get beyond in to that infinite realm and in which we find a great light.”1 So the religion is the way in which the souls attain the ultimate spirit which is God (Pati) himself.

The five proofs of St. Thomas Aquinas for the existence of God are known as the five ways. By going for rational arguments St. Thomas never wanted to minimize the importance of scripture and revelation. In his Summa, he said a good deal about both. His first step was to use philosophical arguments to lay the foundation the second was to complete the job by appealing to scripture. St. Thomas also says that the best way to prove the existence to God is only through the effects. He proves God by using five ways but then among these ways he finds the posterior as the best method to prove the existence of God. So coming back to Saiva Siddhanta system which is a theistic school and therefore, there is no need to prove the existence of God, because it fully agrees with the existence of the Supreme Being. “The Siddhanta is positive that God is the one, and this indicated severally as He or She or It. He is neither with form or formless. He is the supreme reality and is a single super conscious being with unlimited wisdom. He is beyond the reach of the senses and mind. Thus it is said that God cannot be comprehended but the love of God can be experienced in our lives”2.

This system is highly packed by the religious experiences of many saints namely, Appar, Sundharar, Manikkavasakar, Sambhandar ect., they were fully in God and thus they had no reasons to doubt the existence of God. Though the system is religious one it proves the

1 Sreenivasa Rao. CH., “Can we know God”, Indian Philosophical Annual.Vol.7, p.140 2 Sebasthi John Baskar T. “ The philosophy Behind the Basic Tenets of Saiva Siddhanta”, International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Modern Education, Volume 3, Issue 1, P.163

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existence of God by employing rational arguments. The Saiva Siddhanta strongly believes that the reason never contradicts with revealed truths rather it strengthens and compliments the religious understanding. The rational inquiry will be useful for those who do not accept the Sabdha (verbal testimony) as a valid knowledge. In this paper we can analyze the arguments expounded in favor of the existence of God mainly based on Saiva Siddhanta. It is also very interesting to note now prudently the Siddhantians explain the existence of God as an efficient cause and moral governor of the world. “There are numerous and various philosophies in India and in the world and among these the Saiva religion and Siddhanta philosophy occupy a prominent place. Saiva Siddhantam philosophy is considered to be one of the most perfect, clearest and cleverest system of human thought. Not only if gives logical explanations but also opens up a new stratum to revisit and to rebuild contemporary belief and understanding about Pti (God)”3

Inference (Aunmana):

The Siddhanta accepts three pramanas as valid sources of knowledge. They are Pratyaksa (perception), Anumana (inference) and Sabdha (verbal testimony). Though this system accepts Sabdha as highest pramana but it also gives equal importance to Anumana for more than one reason and this helps the ordinary people to understand the nature of the Supreme Being. “In Saiva Siddhanta the concept of God is accepted as highest realities. After proving the existence of God, it is natural to one to probe in to the nature and attributes of God. One can easily understand the nature and the attributes of the Supreme being

3 Sebasthi John Baskar T. “ The philosophy Behind the Basic Tenets of Saiva Siddhanta”, International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Modern Education, Volume 3, Issue 1, P.163

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from the very arguments employed by Saiva Siddhanta to prove the existence of God”4

The entire philosophy of God in Saiva Siddhanta is divided into two broad sections. The first section deals with the nature of god and the second is further divided into two and the first one is to prove the existence of God through arguments whereas the other proves the existence of god by refutation the opinions of other schools. The epistemology of Siddhanta clearly denotes that the inference is a valid source for proving the existence of God. Dr. Edwin Savundranayagam supports this by saying that this inference plays a key role in the epistemology of Saiva Siddhanta. It is said that the “inference by which some truth or fact is inferred from a given premise, or from some manifest or admitted reason which has an inseparable connection with it”5. “The author makes a two-fold distinction of inference, the first one is Tan-poruttanumanam, inference for one’s self, and the second one is Pirar-poruttanumanam, inference for the sake of others. The first process consist in determining something from given premises. In these premises are contained six particulars, they are three varieties of Paksham and three varieties of Ethu”6 . Here I will not be able to explain all of them but then I would like to mention about Aunpalathi- Ethu which is one of them is the division of Ethu. “This principle is based on the fact that there can be no effect where there is no cause. Hence it follows, that where theories no god, there could be no world; if there were no soul, there could be no body; if there were no mayei there could be no material visible existence; If there were no clay, there would be no earthen vessel”7. So it is made clear that there can be no

4 Sebasthi John Baskar T. “ The philosophical Nature of God in the Medieval Literature of Saiva Siddhanta”, An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal , Year 3, No. 7, P.139 5 Hoisington H.R., Siva Gnana Potham of Meykanda Deva, P.9 6 Ibid., p.9 7 Ibid., p.11

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effect without the cause. And therefore the existence of world proves the existence of a cause which is God.

Causality of the world:

The philosophy of Saiva Siddhanta is built on the intuitions of saints and sages who were Jivanmukatas. These saints, who have had God experience, want us to use our thinking as much as we can. Saint Tirumular says “direct your thinking as for as it can go. Express the Truth as best as you can even if denied our Lord verily exists, seek ye the good well-tried path”8. The saints have given expression to their religious experience in hymns and psalms of exquisite beauty singing the praises of gracious Lord who had saved them from the fetters of samsara and calling on men to take refuge under his sacred feet. Manikkavacakar who sings the greatness the Supreme Being, brings out thus “He is the Ancient one who created the creator of all; He is the God, who preserves the preserver of things created; He is the God, who destroys the destroyer; But thinking without thought, regards the things destroyed”9. Appar, speaking of this supreme transcendence of the Lord Siva, he sings “that a hundred odors of creators and preservers have perished, Siva is the God of Gods (Deva Deva) who created the creator of all, preserves the preserver of things created and destroys the destroyer. He is the beginning, middle and the end, unknown even to the Trimurtis”10. In the same way Sambandhar speaks of the “three –eyed Lord whom the Trimurtis, who are the foremost among devas, worship as the one who is Birthless”11.

According to Saiva Siddhanta the world is real and crated by God. The relationship between God and the world can be understood clearly, if

8 Devasenapathy V.A., OF Human Bondage and Divine Grace, P.5 9 John H. Piet, A logical presentation of Saiva Siddhandha philosophy, P.55 10 Valiaveetil, Liverated Life: Ideal of Jivanmukti in indian Religious Specially in Saiva Siddhandha. P.74 11 Ibid.,p.74

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we understand the relation between cause and the effect. The contingent world exists necessarily as an effect and God is the causes for this effect. The proofs for the existence of God in Saiva Siddhanta are, based on the existence of the world. It strongly believes that the world exists. The following are different opinions regarding the existence of the world by the Indian system of thought. The world is sunya or maya the world has always been in existence and the world is naturally combination of four elements (Earth, Either, Fire and Water). These above mentioned opinions regarding the existence of the world were refuted with sufficient reasons by Saiva Siddhantians. So by refuting the opinions of the other schools it establishes the truth that the world really exists. If we come to a conclusion by saying that the world is real then there arise another problem. That is to know who the cause for this world is. The views on the causality of the world can range from Occidentalism to transcendentalism. Occidentalism and spontaneous creations were refuted by Saiva Siddhanta. And thus proposes the Siddhants theory of Satkaryavada (pre-existence of effect). This theory indicates the existence of the effect in the cause in an un- manifest form. Most of the major religions, namely Christians, Islam and Hinduism, will accept the idea of direct creation of the world. It is said that God created the world out of nothing. But Saiva Siddhanta puts forward a different theory of creation that is indirect creation which means that nothing comes out of nothing and Asat does not come from Sat and this supports the theory of indirect creation of the world.

We experience from out day to day life that a chair is made out of a tree, steel from a ore ect in the same way, world is a material body and its origin must be also from material substance. According to Saiva Siddhanta God is Sat and the world is Asat. Therefore, He cannot directly create the world. The theory of Satkaryavada also affirms this idea of creation. Saiva Siddhanta speaks about three causes namely the efficient cause, instrumental cause and material cause in the act of

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creation. To explain the relation of the world, the Saiva Siddhanta brings out a simile, to produce a pot we need clay, a potter, wheel and stick. The potter is and efficient cause of the pot, God created the world by making use of His Cit-Sakti and Maya. So therefore we conclude God as the efficient cause, Cit-Sakti as instrumental and Maya as the material cause of the world. It is said in the one of the fundamental doctrines of Saivism “that God as Absolute Transcendent Being apart from the world, is pure Saivam –Sat. When we regard him in relation with world, He is energy or Cit-Sakti”12.

Meykandar also step by step establishes the fact that there must be a creator who is the cause of this world. The principle of sufficient reason requires that such a cause must exist. “One of the basic facts of the daily experience is the reality of the world. The world is real because it appears and what does not appear does not exists, for example the hare’s horn or the sky –flower. From our sense experience we also know that the world is constantly undergoing change. The world consists of finite beings male female and neuter and is subject to the three processes of origination, maintenance and destruction. This fact of experience argues to the existence of a creator who is the cause of this process. The first cause is the supreme Lord Siva”13. That is why it is said that Siva is unknown even to the Trimurtis. So it is clear that everything originates from Him. He is not only the efficient cause but also the material cause, in the sense the maya, the material substratum of creation, is inseparable from Him and ultimately dissolves into Him. Above all He is the final cause, the supreme goal to which the whole creation tends as its final consummation. He is truly the Alpha and the Omega. Arulnanti Sivacharyar says in his attempt to speak about the supreme Lord, “who is beyond speech and thought and is unknowable

12 Devasenapathy V.A., OF Human Bondage and Divine Grace, P.5 13 Valiaveetil, Liverated Life: Ideal of Jivanmukti in indian Religious Specially in Saiva Siddhandha. P.74

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even to the Gods, will expose him to the ridicule of the wise ones and he goes on to say that the one can know Him through the scriptures through reasoning and through meditation and Only if the grace of the Lord favors one”.14

The saints are conscious that it is only the grace of the Lord that enables them to speak about Him. Appar says ‘unless we see Him with the eye of His grace we shall not be able to describe Him as of such and such a form, color etc.”15 For Appar, a clear proof of God’s existence is that He answers the prayers of His devotees. Manikkavasakar repeatedly sings of the Lord’s gracious manifestations on earth to his devotees and claims that “I have seen the Lord with my own eyes, recognized Him as Siva”.16 So Manikkavasakar proves the existence of the unseen Lord. It is also said that “the supreme one is like vowel which gives meaning and significance to the consonants. Meykandar states the position clearly thus; when the Rigveda says ‘One’ it means that reality is one that the Lord is one”.17 Manikkavasakar says “see him, that one whose title is the only one”. 18 The first sutra of the Siddhiyar sets forth the reasoning thus ‘since the Universe constituted of parts like ‘He ‘, ‘She’ and ‘It’ is subject to the states o9f emergence, stay and absorption in a regular order, there must be someone who thus causes it to come in to existence. So the universe must have a destroyer, in to whom it was taken up when it went out of existence, for its efficient cause when it comes back into existence. The destroyer,

14 Ibid.,p.73 15 Ibid., P.74 16 Ibid.,p.76 17 Devasenapathy V.A., OF Human Bondage and Divine Grace, P.5 18 Ibid.,p.17

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who is eternally free and intelligent, causes the world to come into existence”.19

This idea is clear from the understanding of the Tamil word ‘Ul-porul’ is something which appears, by virtue of which it is said to exist. In contradiction to this an ‘il-porul’ never appears, by virtue of which it is said not to exist. A further Siddhanta inference is that whatever has a visible form must be subject to the laws of origin, existence and end. On the other hand, that which has no form by which it can become manifest is a mere fancy, like the ‘horn or a hare’ or flowers of the atmosphere. It is a non-reality something which is not, and which therefore never appears. Meykandar reasons that world can perceive because that three processes are applicable”.20 So this first sutra brings out very clearly that “At the end of time, Siva alone remains; for he is the destroyer of all. When the world is brought back from its state of cause into its state of effect, other Brahmans, Visnus and Rudras will appear. Siva is the first God. Other than He, no true god exists”.21 So Siddhanta finally concludes that a watch needs a watch maker, a pot needs a potter, a book requires an author to come into existence and in the same way the world which is a finite needs an efficient cause for its existence, which is said to be the infinite.

Moral Governor:

Saiva Siddhanta strongly believes in the theory of Karma i.e. human beings are rewarded or punished according to their past deeds. The future life will be based on the quality of deeds one does in the present, Saiva Siddhantians put forward a unique theory in this context that even the souls which are engaged in good actions will be rewarded

19 Devasenapathy, Saiva Siddhanta: As expounded in the Sivajnana- Siddhiyar and its six commentaries, Chennai: G.S. Press, 1960, P. 69 20 Piet H., A logical presentation of Saiva Siddhandha philosophy, P.48 21 Ibid.,p.55

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according to the merits of their karma. Thus siddhanta explains the social, economical inequalities and indifferences found in the world. Man is not born accidentally in a given situation rather he is born in this or that particular situation because of his action. This view is clearly explained by K Sivaraman in his work he, says that “man’s birth in a particular socio-biological milieu together with all that it implies is not just an accident but a definite link in a chain of deeds and consequences deserved , and meted out as deserved by man”.22 This is known as law of karma or the law of retribution. When the soul is enveloped by Anava mala, it is not intelligible and therefore the soul by itself can not choose the karma which belongs to it. The Saiva Siddhanta brings here clearly the idea of God as the moral Governor who is intelligible and who will make sure each soul will get the benefit of its action. “Karma is God’s will, His Grace which implies that the His knowledge of what is truly right and wrong for man”.23 So it is God that takes account of the deeds of the self and awards their due fruit. God (Pati) is the moral Governor who is responsible in controlling the moral order of the souls. Saiva Siddhanta believes in the theory of transmigration that the soul will be born again and again till it is cleansed from the malas. This idea is contained in the term karma samsara which means passage. It is also said that karma is either good or bad, performed without harmony by the mind, speech and body. By good karma we do well to all sentient being and by bad karma we injure all. So the supreme Lord understands our desire and makes us suffer pleasure of pain accordingly. The Siddhantians are very emphatic in their answers they say that “the bondage can be overcome only by the grace of God. Even as a mother plunges into the water to rescue her child which has fallen into it, His grace operated to provide the soul with b body and a world in which it lives, in order to help the soul to

22 Sivaraman A., Saivism in philosophical perspective, P.157 23 Ibid., p.163

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overcome bondage. Like the sun which dispels physical darkness, the Lord, by His grace, subdues spiritual darkness. The Lord and His grace are inseparable”.24

Hindu theistic tradition speaks of the way of the monkey and cat. The young one of the monkey has to cling to its mother and this shows to emphasize the effort that is necessary on its part. But the kitten without any effort of it s own is carried about by its mother. To emphasize the overall importance of the Lord’s grace and the weakness of the human will, even such a renewed ascetic as saint pattinattar sings “I am not like the young one of the monkey. I cannot help my weakness. It is my Lord who must remove this evil from me and out of compassion treat me as a cat does its kitten”.25 But the soul sooner or later has to show willingness to receive grace. The Lord is ready to bestow grace but the does not force it on the soul. He awaits its willingness. The theistic position is nearly summed up in Saint Augustine’s work that is to say “without God, we cannot; without us, God will not”.26

Conclusion:

To prove the existence of God, Saiva Siddhanta formulated the arguments in two different fields. Those are moral and physical. The proofs are strongly supported by rational arguments from the philosophical text of Sivajnanapotham, Saiva Siddhanta Theology and the Saivism in philosophical perspective and in other books which are connected to Siddhanta philosophy. The arguments formulated from the physical world ar3e based on two aspects; change and contingency. The Saiva Siddhanta schools have observed people and things coming in to existence and perishing after a period of time. We observe a

24 Devasenapathy, OF Human Bondage and Divine Grace, p.87 25Ibid., p.88 26 Ibid., p.88

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continuous change in the world. This change is attributed to the efficient cause. The other ground of the argument is the contingency of the world. Metaphysically speaking this contingent world, can be not-be but be the necessary being, can’t not-be. The official commentary of the Saivajnanapotham already affirms the existence of the necessary being by saying tharupavan oruvan vendum which necessarily implies the existence of the giver. “ God or Deity is the source of all things; it is beginningless and endless, eternal and omnipresent; IT is the origin of all; all things proceed from IT”27

The other argument which is put forward by the Siddhantaians for the existence of God is drawn from the moral order. The philosophical works of the Siddhanta clearly portray to us that the moral order originated from god who is considered as the moral Governor of the world. God is the author of morality and He is the pure intelligent Being who controls the order of the Universe. Therefore both physical and moral orders of the Saiva Siddhanta have to be sustained by the first cause and the moral governor. Saiva Siddhanta theology brings out very clearly the up most qualities of Saiva by saying “victories is Siva, mass of consciousness, the One, the Omnipresent, the Eternal, the Ever free, the Lord, the Tranquil, the Unique Germ of the world, the Favorer of all”.28 Here I would like to highlight two important qualities of siava. First one is the Lord which means, the One who is capable of exercising Lordship. That is to say, he cannot be directed by another God. He is not a non-cause, as it is through the very concept of causality that he himself is proved to exits. The second is the Unique Germ of the world, which means that siva is the efficient cause of the

27 Sebasthi John Baskar T. “ The Mind –blowing Teachings of Thiruvalluvar in a Philosophical perspective”, Research Chronicler - An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal , Vol IV, Issue IV, P.15 28 Dunuwila Rohan A., Saiva Siddhanta Theology: A Context for Hindu- Christian Dialogue, p.119

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world. So it is very clear that Siddhantians believe Lord Siva is the supreme over all and they worship as the one who is Birthless.

Bibliography

1. Devasenapathy V.A., OF Human Bondage and Divine Grace, Chennai: Annamalai University, 1963.

2. Devasenapathy, Saiva Siddhanta: As expounded in the Sivajnana-Siddhiyar and its six commentaries, Chennai: G.S. Press, 1960.

3. Dunuwila Rohan A., Saiva Siddhata Theology: A Context for Hindu christian Dialogue, Delhi: Jainendra press, 1985.

4. Hoisington H.R., Siva Gnana Potham of Meykanda Deva, Chennai: Manorama Press, 1976.

5. John H. Piet, A logical presentation of Saiva Siddhandha philosophy. Madras, 1952

6. Sebasthi John Baskar T. “ The philosophy Behind the Basic Tenets of Saiva Siddhanta”, International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Modern Education, Volume 3, Issue 1, P.163, 2017

7. Sebasthi John Baskar T. “ The philosophical Nature of God in the Medieval Literature of Saiva Siddhanta”, An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal , Year 3, No. 7, P.139, 2013

8. Sebasthi John Baskar T. “ The Mind –blowing Teachings of Thiruvalluvar in a Philosophical perspective”, Research Chronicler - An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal , Vol. IV, Issue IV, P.15, 2016

9. Sivaraman A., Saivism in philosophical perspective, : At Bharagava Bhushan press, 1973.

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10. Sreenivasa Rao. CH., “Can we know God”, Indian Philosophical Annual. Vol. 7, Chennai: Avvai Achukkoodam, 1973.

11. Valiaveetil, Liverated Life: Ideal of Jivanmukti in indian Religious Specially in Saiva Siddhandha.

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MASULIPATAM MUNICIPALITY IT’S ROLE – ON HEALTH AND MEDICAL SERVICES M. Suseela Rao Lecturer in History SRR & CVR Govt. Degree College Vijayawada Introduction Masulipatam municipality was provided health and medical services to his people has been discussed in this article. Health was one of the greatest earthly blessings.A healthy environment personal and environmental hygiene is crucial for the health and well being of individual and communities. Health is essentially matter for the individual in the sense that no matter how extensive and efficient the health services in a country are its people cannot be healthy unless the individual members are alive to their health needs1. The general state of public health in every country depends on the measure of adjustment the relations of the individual and the race to the environment. The clinical researchers have shown that all the diseases that occur to the mankind are on the account of lack of personal hygiene and environmental hygiene, the later leading to contamination of water, food, and soil and so on2. Man is a social being and humans characteristically associated with each other for their mutual protection and advantage. From the interaction involved in dealing with the problems of social life, there has been emerged a recognition of the importance of community action in the promotion of health for prevention of diseases and treatment of diseases3. Indigenous medical system: Indian indigenous medical system was called as Ayurveda.Ayurveda mentioned in Adharvanaveda the fourth Veda of Vedic literature in ancient India. It discussed regarding the health and the life expectancy. The village physicians practicing at their homes on the basis of traditional learning and preparing the medicines from herbs, leaves and roots available in and around the villages and in the forests4.

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Medical and health services were rendered by the Mauryan king Asoka in third century B.C. He built hospitals and rest houses for both the men and cattle. The best era of Indian medicine was contemporary with the ascendancy of Buddhism from B.C. 3rd century to 7th century A.D. and the public hospitals established by some rulers. The works of Charaka and Susrata belong to this period. The physicians acquainted with and understood the preparation of wide range chemical compounds, and were prescribed the internal use of metallic substances. Where experiments were made practical results ensued, as with the introduction of the iron and quick silver in medical practice5. As Buddhismdisappeared from Indian society the hospitals disappeared. Medical knowledge was handed over to Vaidyas, a lower caste and they in turn handed over medical practice to village Kabirraj, the pharmacopoeia supplemented by spells and fasts6. During the medieval period, the Arabs and Turks brought into India a system of medicine prevailing in West Asia called ‘Unani’. The Musalman physicians were called ‘Hakims’ during the reign of Tughluq dynasty not less than seventy hospitals and twelve hundred physicians were worked as state employed doctors. Firoz-Shah-Tugluq founded a hospital known as ‘Dur-ul-Shafa’. Arab physicians were appointed to treat the patients and provisions were made for the supply of medicines, for the public benefit7. British period: Indian medical department was established in the year 1786. Before the establishment of medical department in Madras presidency there was not organized system of public health services were provided. The western system of medicine introduced by British in the beginning was mainly intended to serve the British army, civil servants, and European trading communities.8 Care of the sick is a fundamental need of community life and arrangements to deal with illness were present in all societies in some form. As it was an elementary need care of the sick has always been closely linked with the economic and social development of the people. A hospital is an institution that is built, staffed and equipped for the identification and diagnoses of disease and the treatment such as both medical and surgical needs of the sick and the injured. Hospitals

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have long ago existed in every civilized country. Poverty of which sickness and mortality or perhaps the chief causes has a direct effect on the resources of food, clothing, and housing and so on9. Surgeon-General is the head of the medical department in Madras presidency and also administered by a Inspector of Hospitals with a secretary attached. Zilla or Civil Surgeon was the head of the district medical office who became the district medical and sanitary officer in 1883. There were no provisions laid for medical services in the towns in India Act XXVI of 1850 and the Madras towns’ improvement Act of X of 1865. Indeed it was the Towns Improvement Act of 1871 made provisions for medical relief in towns in municipalities. Similar provisions were made in the local fund act of 1871 for installation of medical institutions in the municipalities. In accordance with the provisions of Towns Improvement Act, Masulipatam municipality took over the management of the hospital existed in the town since 1864.10. Municipal hospitals and health care: Medical institutions were established since 1860, for the relief of the natives as well as for the treatment of company’s servants. The principal hospital is always situated at the head quarters of the district. It is under the immediate charge of Civil Surgeon. The head quarters hospital of Kistna District in Masulipatam, was started in the year 1864 and it came under the control of municipality in 1871. Under towns improvement and local fund act of 1871 gave impetus to open new hospitals and dispensaries in the towns of madras presidency. In the year 1872, a branch dispensary was opened in Masulipatam for public purpose in addition to main hospital.11 The pattern of the staff in the hospital was one surgeon and one hospital assistant during 1883 and an additional post of assistant surgeon and hospital assistant was sanctioned. The availability of beds was 24 in the year 1896 and its strength was increased upto 129 by the end of 1941and by end of the 1946 it was rose to 150 beds. The blood bank and X-ray department was added in the year 1846. The municipality hospital is provided training to the compounders12. The percentage of total cost paid by government was Rs3.52 per head.by the end of 1945. The health of the town is dependent upon various factors like, climate, sanitary arrangements, safety drinking water, prevention and

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control of epidemic diseases. Health condition of the Masulipatam municipality is to a certain extent affected by the seasons. On commencement of the rainy season during the rains, rheumatics and chest and respiratory diseases were more common than during hot weather. In the cold weather the inhabitants of the municipality suffer from fevers and disease of the kidneys. Mortality from epidemic diseases like fevers, dengue, plague, and small-pox occurred frequently. Different kinds of fevers like Malaria, Dengue and Typhoid was most prevalent diseases in the town and occasions the greatest mortality. It is an endemic, but is always more during the rain and cold weather and more especially during the months of November to January when cold winds blow from forest and hill area. It is induced by the habit of the natives sleeping outside their houses and exposing themselves to the influence of the wind, and it is aggravated by their practice of treating by starvation. The rain falls during the months of July to end of the September by south-west monsoon. From the months October and November constitute the post monsoon are retreating monsoon season. The known cyclones generally hit the town in the months of October and November. It causes several thousands of death both men and cattle. And it follows epidemic diseases like Cholera and viral fevers13. The town received highest rain fall in the month of October, 1864 is 234 mm and 208mm in the month of November in the same year. The rainfall for the past 5 years was as follows: 506mm in august in 1886,297mm in October in 1889 sa wll as in october in 1892 town received 674mm and n November in 1915,rain falls 326mm and in the month of September in 1917 town received rain 443mm. Average rain fall during 1870-71 is 33 inches. The clothing of natives in general and of the poor in particular is in sufficient protection against the wet and cold of the monsoon months. The highest temperature recorded in during the year 1880 was 460. The highest temperature recorded on 25th May in the year 1906 was 47.80 C. The average temperature records in the town during the summer season in the months of April and May. The commodities and necessaries of daily life are plentiful and comparatively cheap. The general state of health is good in Masulipatam town. 14

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The most prevalent diseases are fevers, diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, small-pox and other bowl-complaints.in the town of Masulipatam. Government dispensary and medical institutions became popular among public. The government dispensary has in-ward wing which was attached to the hospital. It treated a number of 267 as in- patients and a number of 5372 as out-patients during the year of 1878- 79.the same head quarter hospital was treated a number of 177 as in- patients and a number of 9105 as out-patients during the year 1879-80 and it was treated a number of 138 as in-patients and a number of 9252 as out-patients in the year 1880-81.15 During 1872-73, municipalcouncil spent an amount of Rs2336/ on medical and public health. During 1874-75, municipality incurred expenditure onpublic and hospitals was Rs 7056/ and on vaccination Rs 273/ spent during the year 1879-80. Municipal council spent an amount of Rs 300/ towards vaccination during the year 1883-84Dysentery and diarrhea was least in Masuliapatam when compared to other municipalities during 1894.16 Masulipatam municipal council constructed out-patient dispensary at Gilakaladindi, which was fisherman village, for the purpose of poor fisherman people during the year 1904. During 1904, government hospital was treated a number of 429 as in-patients and 32450 as out-patients, and in the year 1905, it treated a number 435 as in-patients as well as 29658 as out-patients. The number of patients in receipt of treated in municipal hospital was 24664 during year 1911. Municipality spent an amount of Rs 7252/ towards public health government hospital during 1912.17 There were a number of 532patients treated as in-patients and 23220were treated as out-patients during 1915.the hospital buildings were old and unsuitable. Hence the buildings had been patched and made some repairs. There were a number of 655 patients treated as in- patients and 25808 treated as out-patients during year1917.The number of in-patients admitted was 520 and the number of out-patients was treated 23004 during the year 1918.the head quarter hospital was under the control of the government. Municipal dispensary was located at the centre of the town. Municipal council maintained two dispensaries for women and children. During the year 1919, municipal council opened one Ayurvedic dispensary and one Unani hospital, they

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extends their services not only to the town people but also to surrounding village.18 During the year 1938, Masulipatam municipal council constituted an advisory committee for better administration and for better medical services with the following members. 1.K.L.Narasimha Rao. 2.K.Sithapathi Rao. 3.D.V.Ramana Rao. . Maternity and child welfare: One of the important features of the health department was the attempt to control infant mortality. In any civilized country care for mother and child health should be given preference. Maternity and child welfare centre became most important health services rendered by the municipality. It stands right at the threshold of a welfare state. It is the first that ought to be taken in welfare state. The Masulipatam municipality opened a women and child hospital way back to 1994.19 Women and children dispensary was housed in a hired building in the center of the town. Accommodation for out – patient is ample. No in-patient was taken. During the year 1905 there were 5828 patients were treated and a number of 4912 children were treated. The women and children’s dispensary was taken over by the council on 1st April 1921. As for the medical relief to the town, the head quarter hospital, the municipal dispensary and the large number of popular private practitioners meet with the requirement of the town, So for as medicine and surgery are concerned. During the year 1928 a number of 6952 patients received treatment at dispensary for women and children. The municipal council has opened a second baby welfare center at Balaramunipeta.20 Masulipatam municipal council opened a baby center in the year 1925 but few years later it was abolished. The municipality opened a maternity and child welfare centre in June, 1938 which was housed in a building built at a cost of Rs. 11,000/- donated by the King Edward VII memorial charitable trust at Englishpalem. Hence it was named as Edward memorial hospital. Municipality opened another centre in Bandar Fort during the year 1947.21

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Under the auspices of the district branch of the Red Cross society, a hospital for women constructed at a cost of Rs. 1.00 Lakhs in the year 1944 named after Suryavathi Mahanthi Maternity hospital with 22 beds. A maternity and child welfare centre was concerned with the care and supervision of anti – natal and intra – natal cases, care of infants and mothers during the puerperal period and supervision and care of the pre – school child and instructions to mothers on health matters is needed. 22 The child welfare center was proved good relief to the needy and poor. The center became very popular in the town, day by day it spread among the inhabitants of the town. Every day 40 to 50 babies were look after in the centre. Maternity and child welfare center achieved a great success on control of infant mortality. The council maintained two midwives to attend to labour cases in the town. One was attached to the main hospital to attend to call for public and other was in the dispensary. During the year 1945,there was one women medical officer with seven midwives working in the maternity child welfare centre.23 Masulipatam municipality wastaken action to propagate and bring awareness among women regarding mother and child health. Council was doing well to secure a trained health visitor for the centre. It propagated in the form of pamphlets.

1. By distributing pamphlets regarding various health topics. 2. By distributing pamphlets on local vernacular. 3. Health exhibition was also arranged by showing health and nutrition for babies for babies on a large scale. Since 1942-43 Government have agreed to pay grants equal to one – fourth of expenditure on maternity and child welfare.24 Infant mortality was generally high in India,because of the ignorance of the masses and the mismanagement of labour cases by a large number of on qualified barber midwives. Hence medical and health departments taken steps to control and reduce the infant mortality in the town.25

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Epidemic diseases: The epidemic diseases Act was passed in 1897 and the governor general of India conferred special powers up on local authorities to implement the necessary measures for control of epidemics. Control and prevention of epidemic diseases was an important part of the work of the medical and sanitary department. Enormous religious gatherings were sources of epidemic diseases and careful sanitary arrangements are mad to lessen the danger. Proper attention was mad to control and to give treatment to contagious diseases and epidemics in madras presidency. Under the Act, measures to prevent the outbreak of epidemic diseases and steps were taken to control it. On the nature and character of epidemics security measures were taken for control and cure. Before the enactment of Act, no measures were taken to prevent the epidemics. The clothing of natives in general and of the poor, in particular, is insufficient protection against the wet and cold of the monsoon months. The labouring class have frequently to toil for their livelihood in wet clothes, besides sleeping on the floor rendered damp by the weather and poor hygienic conditions, draught and famines cause for the frequentlyoutbreak of the epidemics.26 The enormous religious gatherings which take place periodically in my places through the country are sometimes source and spread of epidemic diseases.27 cholera: Cholera was water borne disease. Cholera can be controlled if municipality able to supply safety drinking water. Cholera is infection of the small intestine by some stains of the bacterium Vibrio Cholerae symptoms may range from none to mild to severe the classic system is large water diarrhea than lasts a few days. The dehydration may results in the skin turningblench. Transmission is mostly from the local contamination of food and water caused by poor sanitation.28

Cholera entered in Bombay in the year 1865 and it was entered into Deccan in the month of November, 1868 and spread to Hyderabad in the month of June 1869. It advanced into Kurnool and from there it

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spread into the districts of Cuddapah and Bellary. Cholera is almost absent in Masulipatam during 1870. During 1885-86 Cholera prevailed to a great extent in all talukas of the Godavari Districts. Cholera outbreaks in the month of February, 1908 in a sporadic form it continued to the year 1909. It claimed a number of 65 deaths out of 127 attacks in 1908 as well as the death toll reached 179 out of 395 attacks in the year 1909. Cholera was prevailed in the epidemic form during 1910 and there were 149 attacks out which 74 deaths occurred from cholera. During the year 1912 the deaths caused due to cholera was 19 people.29 In the year 1927 there was a severe outbreak of cholera engulfing the Krishna district. There was again an outbreak of cholera caused by a contagion from Nellore district.30 Cholera outbreaks on 2nd June, 1918 by importation and continue to prevail till in the month of August. It claimed 45 deaths out of 68 attacks. There was no cholera traced in the year 1924. Again cholera was claimed 24 deaths out of 60 attacks during the year 1928. During the year 1929 cholera broke out for the two months it was responsible for 59 deaths.31 During the year 1938 cholera was spread over in the town. The cholera cases were imported from the rural areas of the district. Later on the epidemic found its way to the weaker spots in the town i.e. Gilakaladindi a fisher man hamlet situated at the tile end of Krishna canal. This spot of the town Gilakaladindi and the Fort has always borne and brought of cholera in the town. There were 56 attacks and 9 deaths of cholera was recorded in the town. The people of this hamlet depended entirely upon the Krishna canal raw water for their drinking use and being fisher man are very poor manual labourers and live under the most insanitary conditions eating stale or rotten fish and drinking contaminated water. A number of 4239 ant cholera inoculations were given in all during the epidemic of which 2500 were done within first one month i.e. in the month of July of the epidemic. Special staff consisting of one sub assistant surgeon, three sanitary inspectors and other menial staff was appointed. Drinking water wells and ponds were chlorinated and temporary stand pips were provided at Fort. The epidemic was brought under control and town was free from

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cholera. The protector water was supplied to the suburbs of the Masulipatam town.32 Due to precautionary measures taken by the municipality the deaths caused by cholera was reduced. There was one attack and one death during the year 1945. The case was reported near Mustankhanpeta, it was indigenous. All the wells in the town were chlorinated. The deaths due to cholera wereunder control.33 Masulipatam municipality was taken up the measures to control and destruction of fleas. Destruction of fleas was done by insecticide with two types of methods: Use of insect powder, second one method was of killing fleas with the use of vapour poison throughcleaning and washing of walls and floors.34 Plague: Plague is a disease causes death and spreads quickly to a large number of people. Plague can be spread in the air, by direct on contact, or very rarely by contaminated under cooked food. Plague is an infectious disease that is caused by the bacteria, Yersiria Pestis. Bubonic plague affects in lymph nodes, Septicemia plague affects in blood vessels, and 35pneumonic plague affects in lungs. The bacterium carries and spreads by fleas and rats. India has suffered from a wide spread epidemic of plague. The first trustworthy information of the occurrence of plague in India dates from the year 1812 broke out in cutch and Gujarat, in the year 1829 wasprevalent in Punjab, and in the year 1836 reported inRajaputana. In the year 1898, severe epidemic form in madras presidency. At the time neither the people nor administration had any practical experience or acquaintance with the clinical work connected with the diseases. To control the spread of plague government pays half the expenditure on the disease by municipality. During the year 1917, Hyderabad was being infected with plague and large number of Muhammadans to this town for temporary sojourn. One of the arrivals was suspected to have been suffering from plague , considering the large number of arrivals from Hyderabad, it became necessary to provide isolation sheds to meet possible contagious and two sheds were raised in the out-skirts of the town at a cost of Rs 530-11-4. There was no plague during the decade of 1930s in the town.36

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Small-pox: Small-pox was an infectious disease caused by neither of two virus variants.variola major and variola minor. Small-pox infects in small blood vessels of the skin and in the mouth before disseminating. Variola major was severe and most common form with amore extensive rashand higher fever from 10to15 days. Fever with muscle pain, head ache and prostration and sometimes vomiting and back ache occurs and small reddish spots on the mouth, tongue palate and throat.37 Small-pox was one of the three major epidemic diseases in the country. Cholera and plague were the two other major diseases. We already discussed regarding cholera and plague. However, small-pox was totally eradicated from the country. But during 19th century and early 20th century, frequent eruption of disease occurred different parts of the country. Most of the victims suffered from disease, and who escaped from death became blind or disfigured. A great work has been done in the protection of the people from the scourge of small-pox. In the year1802 Dr. james Anderson, introduced vaccination in madras presidency. Compulsory vaccination was introduced in Masulipatam municipality around 1880.38 Small-pox was appeared as early as 10,000B.C.in Nile valley and in Mesopotamia. The disease spreads quickly from Middle East reaching India duringfirst millennium B.C. It was caused by the variola virus which enters into the body throughlungs and is carried in the bloodstream to the body other internal organs. It spreads to the skin, where it causes the character of rash. Incubation is usually 12to14days. After which victims start to suffer from fever, headache, back ache and Vomiting. The rash appeared three days later, starting off as small pink spots that quickly grow bigger and slightly raised. By the third day, they turn into the blisters, which have a sunken sear and the pock mark. Death is usually as a result of blood poising, internal bleeding, and virus moves into the spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes. Prejudices have led the natives to suspect the benevolent intentions of the government. One of the chief objections were brought forward to vaccination was that ‘Marriamma’, the goddess of small-pox would be offended if artificial means were adopted to avert the malady.39

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A great work has been accomplished in the town to protect from the scourge of small-pox. Temperate areas like, India the numbers of small-pox infections were highest during the winter and spring. It spreads by air and by contact of human beings. The English physician Edward Jenner demonstrated the effectiveness of cowpox to protect humans from small-pox.40 Small-pox expends its force on the younger member s of a community, two- thirds of the small-pox mortality occurs in children under12 years of age. During the year 1877, deaths were occurred due to small-pox was 43 in number, and in1878, deaths were occurred 86, in both the years below 12years children lost their life.41 It prevailed in a sporadic form, and it was responsible for 119 deaths during 1917. During the year small-pox caused 44 deaths during the year 1919. There were 89 deaths on account of small-pox during the year 1923.small-pox was prevailed in certain months of the year 1924,here and there and consequently a temporary vaccinator was appointed for six months in addition to the two permanent incumbents. There were 89 deaths on account of small-pox.42 From1925to 1928, there was no out-break of small-pox during the years. There were only two stray cases of death of small-pox during the year 1928. There was no outbreak of any kind of epidemics during 1930.small-pox was broke out ihn an epidemic during the year 1935 and it was continued in the year 1936.it was prevailed in the town causes 14 deaths in 1935 and 35 deaths in the year 1936. Effective steps were taken to check the spread of the disease. Vaccination work was improved further and the number of successful rate was increased. 43 `There were a number of 72 attacks out of which 10 deaths were occurred in 1937, as well as a number of 23 attacks out of which 2 deaths were took place during the year 1938 due to small-pox. The disease prevailed in an epidemic form during the months of January, February and March of 1938.the rest of the year was free from small- pox. There was 70in number of attacks out of which 12 deaths recorded during the year1945. Deaths occurred only among the persons those who are not vaccinated. 44

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Vaccination: Vaccination was a department existed even before sanitary department established. Vaccine virus was first brought to India by Dr.James Anderson and it was introduced in Madras Presidency. Vaccination is one of the chief measures adopted by the municipality to control the spread of epidemic diseases. It was a modern discovery and new to the people of the country. The history of vaccination can be traced way back to 1802 when a superintendent general of vaccination was appointed in India after the discovery of the small pox vaccine. The beginning people were averse to the vaccination, due to religious beliefs. One of the causes that mauririamma, the goddess of small pox would be offended if artificial means were adopted to prevent the disease. Vaccination was not made compulsory for a long time.45 Several methods were adopted to induce the people to get them self vaccinated. Such as the payment of an Anna or two were rewarded the vaccinators who had done good job. But all these methods are not satisfactory. In 1870 the vaccination work was transferred to the supervision of sanitary commissioner and their staff. In 1880 an Act was passed for the compulsory vaccination of children in municipality. In municipality the vaccinators are maintained by municipal authorities. Depots are established for manufacturing and storage of calf-lymph.46 In 1882 the sanitary commission recommended the government that the local authorities might be empowered to make vaccination compulsory for all infants of above three months. In 1885 vaccination was made compulsory throughout the Madras Presidency. In 1924 vaccination was made less painful by the use of glycerin lymph.47 In 1934 revaccination was made compulsory throughout the Madras Presidency. Another noteworthy future of the year was the appointment of women vaccinators by presidency municipalities to facilitate vaccination among the communities observing purdah.48 Towards vaccination to the people to prevent from small pox and other epidemics in the town municipality has spent a sum of Rs.300/- in the year 1877 as well as an amount was spent towards

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vaccination Rs.385/- in the year 1878 and an amount Rs.280/- in the year 1879. Municipal hospital made vaccination to 717 people out whom 693 cases were successful during the year 1877-78 and in the next year i.e. 1878-79 municipality made vaccination to the people a number of people 1531 out of which 1456 were successful and in the year 871 people were vaccinated out of which 841 cases were successful during the year 1880.49 During the year 1904 a number of persons 1130 were vaccinated out of which 1067 cases were successful. In the next year 1905 a number of persons 1325 were vaccinated out of which 1154 cases were successful.50 During the year 1929 the total number of vaccination cases performed was 2437 out of which 1995 was successful. During the year 1933 the number of cases vaccinated was 2454 out of which 2093 was successful and in the year 1934 the number of cases vaccinated was 2591 out of which 2225 was successful. During the year 1944 a number of vaccinations performed was 16708 and the success rate was 86 per cent.51 During the year 1946 there were three permanent vaccinators and four additional vaccinators have been working for mass vaccination and usual preventive measures carried on promptly. Total number of vaccinations performed during the year 18600 out of which the successful rate was 94 per cent achieved.52 Registration of births and deaths: Births registration was started in the Madras Presidency in the year 1865. In a civilized country, both births and deaths are registered by amendment of law. This is of great advantage. The object is not to enable more taxes to be imposed but to benefit the inhabitants. An accurate system of registration of births and deaths can ensure predation of effective health administration. Medical and health administration can possible when proper record and available of statistics regarding births and deaths. It reveals the health conditions and hygienic conditions of the people but also the spread of epidemic disease in the town. The government passed an Act on the registration of births and deaths during the year 1873. Towns’ improvement Act of 1878 gave

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impetus to the registration of births and deaths. Vaccination and sanitary staff was responsible for the maintenance of record of registration of births and deaths. The registration and maintenance of vital statistics in the municipality was made compulsory under section of 243 to 249 of Madras district municipalities Act of 1884.53 During the year 1878-79 a number of 844 births and 941 deaths were recorded. In the year 1879-80 a number of 619 births and 649 deaths were registered in the town. During the year 1904 a number of 1161 births and 1464 deaths were recorded. In the next year i.e. 1905 a number of 1251 berths and 1095 deaths were registered in the town. During the year 1906-07 a number of 1247 births were taken place as well as in the next year i.e. 1907-08, 1312 births were recorded. During the year 1908-09 a number of 1370 births were taken place as well as the number of deaths were being recorded 1252 in the year 1907-08 and a number of deaths recorded 1352 in the year 1908-09. The deaths were increased in the year 1908-09 was due to prevalence of cholera in the town.54 The health of the town suffered much owing to the abnormal rainfall, which caused the sub-soil water to raise a high level and penetrate and polluted water supply during the year1915. This accounts for the increase of diseases and consequent mortality.55 The municipal council maintained four registrars for recording births and deaths in four different parts of the town and their work was controlled by the health officer. During the year 1929, the number of births recorded 1705and in the year 1930, the number decreased to 1667, due to infant mortality otherwise improper maintenance of births records in the town. During the year1928, the number of deaths occurred were 1278 where as in the year 1929, the deaths recorded were 1383. The increase was due to greater number of deaths under old age and infantile mortality.56 During the year 1933, the number of births took place was 1887, where as in the year 1934, the number of births recorded was 2334. During the year 1933, the number of deaths recorded was 1403, where as in the year 1934, the number was recorded 1403. The town was free from epidemics in both the years.57During the year 1937, the number of births recorded was 2462, where as in the year 1938, the number of

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births was 2433. During the 1937, the number of deaths recorded was 1633, was to the slightly heavy mortality under Typhoid, pneumonia and diarrhea. During the year 1945, there were 2373 births took place, and in the same year , the n7umber of deaths occurred was 1585 were recorded.58 Health exhibition: There was a health and welfare association exists in the town during 1922. It arranged an exhibition and in that connection series of health lectures were delivered by eminent doctors like Bogaraju and others in the town hall. The exhibition proved a success having been attended by large number of ladies and gentlemen. The association also had done useful work in baby welfare.59 The health week was celebrated in the month of February,1928. Health exhibition was held at town hall and two local child welfare centre. Baby shows, lectures, cinemas shows and sports were being conducted. Health propaganda was pursued throughout the year and 70lectures were delivered on health subjects at various places with the aid of magic lantern. Propaganda work was carried on by the health staff and with the town health committee every year. it celebrated national health and baby week with complete success.60 During the year 1937, nolectures were delivered, but in the year 1938, forty five lectures were delivered by the health staff. The sanitary inspectors and vaccinators during their routine out-door works in the wards gave talks explaining about the importance of vaccination for protection from small-pox. Posters and leaflets on small-pox and vaccination was prominently exhibited and freely distributed during the health week.61 It was proposed to celebrated national health and baby week in the month of November, but it was cancelled due to heavy cyclone hit the town. But how ever, a single day celebrations was conducted on 17december 1938 with a baby show and public lectures held in Brindavanam talkies where 300babies and 500mothers were gathered and prizes were distributed it the best children. Two lectures were conducted on ‘how to live hundred years’ and on maternity and child welfare. All these activities were conducted with the help of town hall, health committee and Red Cross Society.

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Conclusion: Indian medical department was established in the year 1786. Medical institutions had established from the year 1850 for the relief of the native as well as for the treatment of company’s servants. The principle hospital always situated at the head quarters of the district. It was town’s improvement Act 1870 made provisions for medical relief in the towns and municipalities. In addition to head quarter hospital, municipal council opened a dispensary, one unani, and one Ayurvedic hospitals in the town. The head quarter hospital started with 24 beds and the number of beds were raised to 150 by the end of the 1947. It provided training to compounders. The most prevalent diseases are fevers, diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, small pox, plague and bowl complaints in the town. The district headquarters hospital of Masulipatam rendered services not only to the people of the town but also to the people of Krishna district. Besides the government hospital, there were many a number of private practitioners’maintained hospitals. Masulipatam municipality established women and children hospital way back to 1894. Edward VII memorial charitable trust opened maternity child welfare centre as well as red cross society of town opened another maternity child welfare centre provided services to women and children in the town. Masulipatam town was a busy commercial sea port since 17th century. The population of the town was gradually increased from decade to decade and it was reorganized as a city by the government of Madras Presidency. The population of Masulipatam which was 35,056 during the year 1872 and it was increased to 42,129 during the year 1911 and the population was increased to 59,146 during the year 1941 and finally the population was reached to 77,953 during the year 1951. Masulipatam town faced the major problem of epidemic endemic diseases. They visit the town frequently. The three major epidemic diseases were small pox, cholera, and plaque. They caused for many deaths in the town through years. Municipal council was taken up the control and preventive measures of epidemic diseases in the town. The vaccination program was carried on in the municipality in view of the prevalence of epidemic and endemic diseases especially small pox and cholera. The measures were taken by the municipality gives fruitful

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and they gave good results. The severity of epidemic diseases were reduced and for some years cholera was absent. Masulipatam municipality tried to improve health conditions and hygienic atmosphere in the town. Municipal council was taken steps to control and prevent dogs and pigs, thereby to reduce dog bite diseases and pig borne diseases in the town. Masulipatam municipality evinced keen interest in recording vital statistic of the town. The registration of births and deaths was made compulsory in the town. The health propaganda was conducted by health staff in the town in every year through distributed pamphlets, conducting health weeks and baby shows, exhibitions conducted by health committees and Red Cross society of the town. Masulipatam municipal council tried and put its best efforts to prevent epidemic and endemic diseases and to reduce deaths and infant mortality. But it could not achieved fully successful to maintain good health conditions and to improve towns medical and health amenities. Its achievements on the whole though not remarkable in this vital functions of a municipality but were satisfactory to a great extent. Reference

1 Clifford .R.Anderson, Your Guide to Health, Pune, 1997, P.22. 2 Park. J.E., Park Book of Preventive and Social Medicine, New Delhi, 1971, P.9. 3 William Benton, The New Encyclopedia of Britanica, Chcago, Vol.XV, P.202. 4 Shankar Sastry Veturi, Ayurveda Ithihasam (tel), Hyd. 1987, Telugu Academy, P.3. 5 Fishman. A.T., Culture Change and under privileged, Madras, 1941, P.58. Romila Thapar, A History of India, Vol.I, London 1966, P.255. 6 Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol.IV, Oxford, 1908, P.458. 7 Subbareddy. D.V., Medicine in India, Medieval of 16th century, 1940, P.49. 8 Government of india , report of the health survey and development committee. Vol,-IV., new delhi. 1946. P.11. Maclean. C.D. , OP. CIT., vol.iv. part=II .18855. MADRAS. 9 Govt. of India report of the Health Survey and Development of Community, Vol.IV, Delhi, 1946, P.11. Maclean.C.D. Manual of administration of Madras presidency, Vol.I, Part 2, 1885, Madras, P.154 Rudolf Hoernel, Studies in Medicine of Ancient India,NDelhi, 1907, P.53. 10 Raja Gopal. Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteer, Krishna.Hyd 1977, P.197. 11 Administrative report of madras presidency. 1872-73. P.209. 12 Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol.IV, Oxford, 1908, P.462 Raja Gopal. Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteer, Krishna.Hyd 205. 13 Ibid, P.23 14 Rajagopal., op. cit. p.456 15 Adminstratve report of madras oresidency.1880-81. Madras. P. 266. 16 Administrative report of madras presidency. 1880to 1884. And 1894-95.

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17Go no. 1246m. local and municipal sheet. 5th aug 1911. Masulipatam. 18Administrative report of masulipatam . 1915 to1918. 19 Rajgopal., Kistna district gazetteer. hyderabad 1975. P. 196 20 Go No. 1803.m. Local and municipal sheet. 30 Aug 1905. Minutes of the masulipatam municipal council. 1928 21 Rajgopal. Op. cit. pg No. 208. 22 Ventarao. V. Local self government in AP. P. 201 23 Minutes of the Masulipatam municipal council, 1945. 24 Minutes of the Masulipatam municipal council, 1925. 25 Imperial gazetteer of india . Vol.cha.XIV.p.463 26 Imperial gazetteer of india.Vol.cha.XV.P.475 27 Ibid 28 Encyclopedia of medical sciences 29 Administrative Reports of Masulipatam Municipality, 1907-1912. 30 Administrative Reports of Masulipatam Municipality, 1927. 31 G.O.No.5367.M.Local and municipal sheet.25th Nov.1929. 32Minutes masulipatam municipality 1938. 33 G.O.No.1994.M.Local and municipal sheet.27th Sept.1945. 34 Ibid 35 Encyclopedia of medical science. 36 Go. No. 1424.m . local and municipal sheet. 22aug1917. 37Encyclopedia of medical seience. 38 Venkata rao. V. op. cit. p. 193. 39 Maclean. C.D. , op.cit. p.512.s 40 Ibid. p. 513. 41 Administrative report of madras presicency. 1878-79. P. 274. 42 Go.no.3276.m. local and municipal sheet. 19 nov 1924. Masulipatam. 43 Go.no.688.m. local and municipal sheet. 20feb 1936. 44 Go.no.1994.m. local and municipal sheet. 27sep1945. 45Imperial gazetteer of india . Vol.cha.XIV.p.478 46 Venkatarao V op.cit.p.194 47 Administrative report of Madras Presidency.1925.p.264. 48 Administrative report of Madras Presidency.1935.p.471. 49 Administrative report of Madras Presidency.1877-1880. 50 G.O.No.1803.M.Local Municipal Sheet.30th Aug.1905. 51 Administrative report of Masulipatam municipality .1929-44. 52 Administrative report of Masulipatam municipality .1946. 53 Madras district municipalities Act of 1884. 54 Administrative report of Masulipatam municipality .1904-09 55 Administrative report of masulipatam municipality. 1915. 56 Go. No. m. 5367. Local and municipal sheet.25nov 1929. 57 Go. No. 261.m. local and municipal sheet. 12jan1934.s 58GO. NO. 4687.M. LOCAL AND MUNICIPAL AHEET. 27SEP1939. Go. No. 1994. M. local and municipal sheet. 29sep1945. 59 Go.no. 748.m. local and municipal sheet. 26april1922. 60 Go. No. 688.m. local and municipal sheet. 20feb1936. 61 Ibid.

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THE JAINA CONCEPT OF AHI§SÀ AND ANEKÀNTA: AN IMPORTANT APPARATUS TO REMOVE RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS

T. Lalsiamkimi Research Scholar Department of Philosophy University of Madras,Chennai Abstract

There is a very close relationship between life and religion because religion helps people transcend social problems and make them live together peacefully with mutual love. But today ironically, so much of human slaughtering and torturing is going on in the name of religion at various places. Innocent people lost their lives, due to religious conflicts. People cannot stay together as a big happy family in society and cannot have unity like before due to religious discrimination which was done by those who called themselves a true devotee.

The very nature of human value is at stake and human existence is insecure in its own environment. The salvation of these despairs and victimization lies in a possibility of regaining emotional, spiritual and intellectual vitality. It is in this direction the present article deliberates upon the emerging issues to peace and harmony of all religions with reference to the Jaina concept of ahi§sà and anekànta. These two greatest contributions of Jainism are the most relevant and crucial to frame inter-religious dialogues and toleration of other religion.

Ahi§sà can be defined as not-injury, respect for life or equality in Jainism, whereas, anekànta is the understanding of a thing from a different point of view. It described reality has many natures.

Keynotes: Ahi§sà, Anekànta, Jainism, Inter-religious dialogues.

Introduction

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There are two important features in Indian life, one is ideology and practice of non-violence and the other one is appreciation of the harmony and toleration within religions, caste, creeds, cultures and language. However, due to the rise of religious fanatics in religions this unique quality has changed into violence and discrimination. Religion can inspire people and make them undaunted in the face of death. However, countless disasters have been broken out when religious extremist and terrorism combined with each other. Currently, the world experienced drastic changes in the name of religion. Therefore, the religious based terrorism spread rapidly around the world. Our duty here is to replace religious conflicts into religious harmony. Keeping in view, this article is an attempt to assess the Jaina concept of ahimsa and anekànta for initiating inter-religious dialogue for the purpose of getting rid of religious violence and conflicts.

The basic tenets of Jainism can be epitomized in two words, Ahi§sà and Anekànta the two principles of co-existence, philosophically and socially. The deeper significance on ahi§sà consists in the elimination of war, tensions, cessation of conflicts among States and religions, the maintenance of universal peace and promotion of social welfare. Whereas, Anekànta is based on the conviction that a thing is constituted of various aspects and its opposite understanding requires the deliberation of as many aspects as possible. The understanding of a thing from different points develops a peaceful co-existence.

Jainism is hailed as the system that has chief concern in non- violence in the Indian philosophical traditions. Jainism placed non- violence as the unique feature of both the philosophy and theology of the tradition and discussed its epistemological and metaphysical implications. The preaching and practice of ahiṁsà is the most important task in Mahāvīra's life and teachings. It is the law of life, law of love; it consists not in claiming (aparigraha) but in giving (dàna.).i Mahāvīra makes the most marvellous combination of moral and

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spiritual space. The basic principle on which the practice of non- violence rests is that what holds good in respect of oneself equally applies to the whole universe.

The concept of anekànta is central in Jaina philosophy. Mahāvīra is usually accepted as the original propounder of anekànta doctrine. The word anekànta means `not one' or `more than one'. Anekànta has metaphysical as well as epistemological dimension in Jainism. It may be a view of reality as being pluralistic, many sided or expressing it in multiple forms. The result is that no absolute prediction of reality is valid. Therefore, the Jaina says that, `he, who knows all the qualities of one thing, knows all the qualities of all things'.ii Those who take different viewpoints together and grasp all the aspect of a thing have right understanding.

Ahi§sà and Anekànta: A Framework for Religious Toleration

Anekàntavàda is a metaphysical as well as philosophical doctrine, leads to an ethic of ahi§sà.iii The teaching of anekànta leads to respect for all non-violence in thought, word and deed. Since reality is manifold, an ordinary person is not expected to know all its characteristics. This means it's contain many limitations, many extensions and relations, many point of views. According to the concept of anekànta, a thing may be know from various angle and all such views may be correct in their respective angles. Therefore, anekànta is a doctrine which keeps a knower in his own limitations. No one can declared his knowledge as the only right and complete and that of other being as totally wrong, by doing so he commits hi§sà. To avoid hi§sà one should respect others point of view.

The Jaina philosophy is characterized by toleration, understanding and respect of other fellow beings. In the case of religion, toleration of other faiths leads to mutual understanding and peaceful co-existence of all religions. Lack of religious toleration among

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different religions is the result of communalism, violence and unprecedented persecutions. Mutual understanding and toleration of different religions are the most important weapons to establish peace and harmony in society. Gandhi, the Father of the Nation knows the important of these two by saying that ``the need of the moment is not one religion, but mutual respect and tolerance of the devotees of the different religion''. According to Gandhi, `religions are different roads converging to the same point. What does it matter that we take different roads as long as we reach the same goal '.iv

When a person adopts the concept of anekànta, he/she knows how to tolerate other religion, because he knows that reality have manifold characteristics. With regards to religions, following the noble example of tolerance and understanding of all other religions, everyone must know that, one should not honour one's own religion and condemned other religion of others, but one should honour other's religions like his own. So doing, one helps one's own religion to grow and renders service to the religions of others too. Whosoever honours his own religion and condemns other religions, in so doing he injures his own religion more gravely. In order to have an inter-religious dialogue, let all listen, and be willing to listen to the doctrines professed by other religious preachers. This act of respects of other religions will fulfil only when anekàntavàda is involved. The Jaina concept of anekànta, helps a person to cultivate the attitude of toleration and mutual understanding towards syncretism. It helps to reconcile non- violent, peace and harmony in society.v

Conclusion

Religion is an important component of human civilization and its contribution to mankind is undeniable. The ethical and legal norms it advocates still play an irreplaceable constraints role of people's behaviour for peace and stability of human society. But religious-based

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terrorism undermined international peace and social stability, which lead the international community into deep fear. If people use violence to combat with religious terrorism, this will only lead to more conflict of civilizations and more severe social panic. Conflicting differences between religious groups and peoples cannot be solved through violence. The only remedy is adopting non-violence (ahi§sà) and respect others point of view (anekànta). The Jaina concept of anekànta despite all religious differences and it will pave the way for freedom of religion. This mutual understanding of different religion will remove religious conflicts, then it will leads to the practice of ahi§sà in society.

In all religions, the concept of equality, toleration and mutual understanding is propounded by the founders and is being practice by the followers. Different religions cultivate and propagate the basic freedom, respect for human life, communal harmony, etc., and these are the principal dogma of every religion. No religion in its essence and manifestation advocates, intolerance and conflicts. The removal of intolerance and religious conflicts lies in respect for person and other points of view.

i . Geeta, Mehta, Ahimsa From Mahavira to Mahatma, Gandhi Smiriti and Darshan Samiti, New Delhi, 2008, p-31-32. ii . M.I. Laskar, S. Kar Purkasthya amd M.D. Sharma, An Introduction To Indian Philosophy, Alpha Publishing House, N.E, p-48. iii . Alok Tandon, Anekantavada and Ahimsa: A Framework For Interreligious Dialogues, Indian Philosophical Quarterly, University of Poona, January, 2002, p-107. iv . Walotemjen, Religious Toleration: Exploring Peaceful Co-existence In a Multi Faith Context, NEIWAC Voice, Souvenir, 2016, p-15. v . G. Bhadru Naik & V. Rajashekar (Ed), Buddhism: World Peace and Harmony, Sree Bhagavan Publications, Hyderabad, 2010, p-26.

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MAN’S NATURE AND ATTITUDE AS ENFOLDED IN IRVING LAYTON’S POEMS

V.Rajalakshmi Dr.R.Venkatraman Research Scholar Research Guide SCSV University SCSV University , Tamil Nadu Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu

Irving Layton has laid out in the Foreword to A Red Carpet for the Sun, the themes that he handles in the poems:

‘ So I ‘ve written – besides my joy in being alive to write about them has been about this singular business evil: the tension between Hebrew and Pagan, between the ideal and real. The disorder of glory of Passion. The modern tragedy of the depersonalisation of men and women. About a hideously commercial civilization spurring hideously deformed monstrosities. [3]

Layton’s two anthologies ‘Europe and Other Bad News’ and ‘ For My Neighbours in Hell ‘ and some other poems in other anthologies give us a real picture in which destructive elements which predominate the world are exposed. This mass evil has grown alarmingly and the reasons for it are studied by means of psycho analysis in modern times.

This picture of the destructive elements of man is perfectly revealed in poems like “For my Neighbours in Hell”, “Killing”, “Sex” and “Long slow Suicide” and Breeding of Cadavers: Under the guise of love” Paleness and daze are the constituents of ugliness of the neighbours in hell. The neighbours referred to are specialists in mass murder bestiality, viciousness and several other unlovely and unpalatable aspects of human culture. The doers of these evils never learn from history. They become “reptiles with a conscience”, and conscience in a reptile always goes berserk. The “psyche frozen reptiles” are caught between their pleasure providing instincts of

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sadism, hypocrisy, arrogance and bigotry on the other hand. The ‘ego’ in them becomes ineffectual. Therefore, they cannot redeem themselves. They bring damnation unto humanity.

Irving Layton takes up the task to expose mass evil outside man. Human viciousness is another dimension of decadence. This is treated in detail in “Ghulag”(Europe and Other Bad News 49). Man gets caught in the unfathomable viciousness and perversity. At this juncture, he has to grapple with horror and perversity. ‘ Viciousness’ and ‘Perversity’ take different shapes just like the snake shedding its slough and growing a new one. So decadence defies man’s understanding. He is unable to even the surface of decadence.

The mass extermination of the Jews during the Second World War, by the destroyers namely the Germans happened because they thought that the remedy for the preservation of purity of the whites rested with mass murder and destruction of the Jews. Layton describes the Jewish trauma, as the scream of the “white throats” in the name of love truth and justice, gates of prison and chambers, leading to “bitter wrong” were opened up for the jews.

Layton’s corruption of man is characterized by the ability to rationalize ferocity. This makes him the only real cruel animal- this is revealed in ‘Paraclete’ ‘Abel Cain’ etc. The recurring symbols of man’s cruelty, the tormenting and massacring of animals is found in a series of poems such as “Cain” “The Bull Calf” and “The Mosquitoe”.

In most of his poems, the dominant themes are the human will to destroy. Man is thus stinking with guilt in pushing farther and farther into the realms of evil, that he looks fearfully at the remaining moral scars. Layton sees a city in flames and all its inhabitants seeking to save themselves. But there are some evil creatures who profit from the delightful facts that their fellows are suffering:

And the rest of the populace their mouths disturbed

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by anunusual gladness bawled thanks to his cowely

and ravaging ally asking only for more light with which to see

their neighbours’ destruction.

According to Layton man is the only animal that finds pleasure and merriment in the pain of others. This view is told in “ If Euclid were your Analyst” and “ His Holiness is Right “.

I went to the slaughter house

It’s time

Man

Is an animal

different from others.

(Ibid 121. The Whole Bloody Bird)

Layton scorns human baseness and vile nature. But this nature is dispelled into nothingness when he is in the solace of nature. Human vileness is exposed in the poem “Needles”.

I expelled from my lungs

my immediate scorn

The next afternoon

on the exact spot

a tall pine tree had sprung up

its sharp needles glittering in the sun

I pierced my skin with one.

And drew a wrinkle of blood

The relief still feels good

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and there are enough of them

to last in a life time.

The brutality and animalism of man is talked in detail all over his poems and Layton exhorts his sons to be wary of “ that animal called man”. According to him, man is a queer beast, different from giant reptiles, hawks and repulsive monsters present in the forest and sea. He feels that no one can modify or restrain the beastliness of man.

This is made explicit in “ After Auschwitz”:

Believe I an ageing poet

of the twentieth century

neither the Old Testament

nor the new

Or the saying of the Koran.

Or the Dhammapada.

Will ever modify or restrain

the beastliness of man.

Envy and lust rule men’s lives. This is shown in the poem. “The Way to Go”. Lust loses its efficiency but envy can’t be rooted out from man completely. They are concealed in man to the maximum degree. The poem “ The Election ” deals with the perversity and envy, present in man. The way to come out of such nihilistic attitude is poetry. The poem “ Fertile Muck “ states this:

There are brightest apples on those trees

but until I, fabulist have spoken

They do not know their significance

or what other legends are hung on their back like garlands

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boughs twisting

like a rumour.

The winds noise is empty. ( A Red Carpet for the Sun 126 )

In all his poems, Layton’s deep rooted affinity and concern for his community is conveyed. He talks of the devilish atmosphere in Europe. It is bereft of the concepts of love, truth and justice. There are contrary standards in the world.

. . . we live in a time

when atrocity’s the norm

and survival the sole merit

In 1980 everyone live

With some gas in his lungs

None will die of it.

( Europe and other Bad News 53 )

The mass killing of Jews by the Germans during the Second World War due to race psychosis is at length lamented by Layton. The mass murder and destruction of Jews is a symptom of man’s decadence, according to the poet. Layton appeals, to man and his conscious mind to understand his psychological degradation. Layton is very much concerned about man’s wellbeing and emancipation from the miseries and oddities of life is explicit in most of his poems. Layton feels that man should rise above the evil forces and never yield to them. He can make his life meaningful and rhythmic. Psychological ills and hypocrisy mar man’s progress.

In the poem “Dracula” man’s decadence is projected and this decadence in man leads to nihilism. The destroyer is presented as “Dracula” metaphorically with “crimsoned incisors and hovering

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blackness”. The destroyer thirsts for human blood. This idea is presented in the poem “Ghouls”.

when you are being savaged

by some lawless goon

and people are watching

Don’t look to them for help

and you sink to your knees

and blood runs from face to hands.

“The murderous century” which was there during the mass killing of Jews during the Second World War and the insensitivity of the writers to these war crimes against humanity is hated by the poet:

. . . . men could finer sing

For someone’s suffering

Laugh with you and after

Envy you ...... for your laughter

O these talented beasts

Might on your dead eyes feast

Or pluck them from your head

Plant jouquel in their stead

( Ibid 88 )

Man is a being whom nature is afraid to confront. This is spoken of in “Like a Mother Demented “. Nature acts like a demented mother caressing her children. The congenital characteristics of man, infirmity, untruth and hypocrisy make him understand truth, strength and directness. One thing in him leads to an understanding of another

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quite opposite thing, and a balance is thus achieved. With verve and will man can vie in life otherwise he is fit for nothing. This idea is the overlying one in “ Heraclitus”.

Evil is not externally present in man, but it is within him, according to Layton. It should not be nursed and this belief is laid out in “ The Talisman”:

There is a crack

in the soul of every man

and woman

that opens up to betrayed and worse

Just a small hairline crack

and devil walks in.

(The Gucci Bag I )

The evil in man is a flaw and temptation frailty and sin. The dispensation of evil involves the act of overcoming the obstacles in life, which is a talisman

by itself:

Layton hates materialistic persons. He wants man to shun wealth. In “New Tables“ he describes the materialists thus:

Whom noone loves or understands

whom even the Gods

with their lovely waterfalls and mists

stave completely expunged from their memory.

( A Red Carpet for the Sun 77 )

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Even Gods abandon these materialists. They are doomed and damned forever, and they aren’t ever understood or loved by any person. Materialists are ailing people and can never be redeemed. They are like shadows or poisonous mushrooms battered by the sun. But Layton finds a meaning in the life of materialists. He hopes that the objects of nature such as the sun, the barking dogs and delicate flowery children make his life significant. Man feels that he is under a spell of “sudden glory of emotions” and wishes to live with objects of nature hopefully. Man’s psyche is animalistic. The afflicted are presented as fish which is a helpless creature:

silly fish

They think it is the moon

and are caught

severe and bitter are their disappointed mouths

In “ Paraclete “ Layton reveals authoritative stance of man’s inclination to sadism. He himself stands as the Messiah picturing the psychosis of man:

It is life itself offends the queer beast

And fills him with mysterious unease

consequently only half movements

Delight him writhings tortured spasm

Or whatever can stir his domain

By defect or ugliness

Or maimed flutters from weakness like a bud.

(The Improved Binoculars – 54)

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Man is an enemy to himself and nature’s accomplice too. In his destruction, a creative psychological and natural perspective is becoming impossible. This is revealed in the following lines:

We dredge and dredge

as horror struck

We find our condemned

selves on the stage.

In the poem “ Theology “ Layton believes that man is created by his own goodness, desire and light. He is not the creation of God. These qualities don’t come to the surface because evil overshadows them. This is so because “Will is absent in Man” “evil blows up that fire “. So man remains defeated despite the possibilities of emerging promisingly.

The state of man as a defenceless creature is presented through a metaphor in the poem, ‘The Peacock’. Man is helpless and remains like a peacock which moves about ‘without defence’. Man’s defence in his conscious being and that is within himself. When he is unaware of his psychic consciousness, he becomes defenceless, if he is aware he becomes a talisman to himself. He has to be understood in the right perspective and this is made clear in “There were no Signs”:

By walking I found

Where I was going

By intensely hating how to love

By loving whom and what to love

By grieving, how to laugh from the belly

Out of infirmity, I have built strength

Out of untruth, truth

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from hypocrisy, I weaved directness

Almost I have the boldness to be that man

Another step

And I shall be where I started from.

(Collected poems)

The congenital characteristics of man – infirmity, untruth and hypocrisy make him understand his strength, truth and directness. Even in “ The Warm After Dark” man’s governable appetite for malice and his evil wit is presented. But he is awakened by the ‘sweetness of love’. Thus nature becomes a repository to humans because of its warmth. Even the poem “ The World “ talks of man’s “enduring pleasure of cruelty” and egotism, callousness and avarice.

Layton says in his ‘Red Carpet for the Sun’- Foreword that man is a rational animal; he is a dull witted animal who loves to torture. Out of the ironic approach itself, Layton argued that only poetry could effect the long sought release. But the best part of any today is the hell that he carries inside him”. Only poetry can transform that into freedom, love, intelligence.

In a world where corruption is the norm and enslavement universal, all art celebrates him – art prepares the way for his coming. Poetry gives dignity and utterance to our distress and thus enables man to hope and become compassionate and reasonable.

Books cited  Francis Wynme. Irving Layton and His World Toronto EWW Press 1984.  Keith. W.J. Canadian Literature in English London: Longman 1985  Mandel Eli Irving Layton Ed. William French. Toronto:Forum House Publishing Company, 1969  Metcalf John. What is Canadian Literature? Guelph Red Kite Press. 1991.

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A STUDY ON AWARENESS OF MICRO INSURANCE POLICIES WITH REFERENCE TO VISAKHAPATNAM DISTRICT S.Pushpalatha Sr.Asst Professor Department Of Management Aurora Pg College , Ramanthapur ,Hyderabad Abstract:

Insurance which is meant for providing the social security in developing economies, has failed to do in case of India especially. Social and economic disparities and exclusion is getting higher day by day, particular the rural areas. Rural population has to look at various risk and hardships. Low income households are vulnerable to risk and economic shocks. Single method for the poor in care for themselves is micro insurance. Life insurance in rural households is viewing as resources to save money to fulfil long time family goals, such as purchasing of land or meeting the expenditure of daughter’s marriage. Not like in urban areas, where the buying of insurance is influenced by tax consideration, rural consumers are bound to prefer endowment and anticipated endowment product with policy terms of 25 years and further then. Viewing the choice of rural households for saving, life cover, the insurance regulator Insurance Regulatory & Development Authority (IRDA) has requested companies to make “innovative saving product for rural markets”, instead of making themselves to present pure term insurance wrap to carry out rural business quotas. By serving poor earning families deals with uncertain risks, from micro insurance they can easy upholds the financial security and maintain significant risks situations.The study focuses on the awareness of micro insurance policies in India with reference to Visakhapatnam District.

Keywords : Micro Insurance, Financial Risk, Risk, Insurance .

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INSURANCE- AN INTRODUCTION

“An insurance contract is an arrangement in which one party, the insurer, accepts significant insurance risk from another party, the policyholder, to compensate the policyholder if a specific uncertain future event impacts the policyholder.”

Insurance is one of the demanding financial products in India. Its basic motto is to protect the family of any uncertainty in life. So it is long term investment and need knowledge about that. Indian life insurance is too old. It is there from British Period and after nationalization; it has come fully under Government

Concept of Micro Insurance

Low-income persons live in risky environments, vulnerable to numerous perils, including illness, accidental death and disability, loss of property due to theft or fire, agricultural losses, and disasters of both the natural and manmade varieties. The poor are more vulnerable to many of these risks than the rest of the population, and they are the least able to cope when a crisis does occur.

Micro-insurance is the protection of low-income people against specific perils in exchange for regular premium payments proportionate to the likelihood and cost of the risk involved. Micro insurance is essential to ensure financial support for the large chunk of rural and urban poor population in the country, especially when it comes to insuring their lives or property for a small quantum of premium. While these products offer coverage to low income households in the rural areas, it helps insurers increase penetration in the rural markets. IRDA has also set a target for insurers to generate a certain portion of their business from the rural markets by selling micro-insurance products.

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Objectives of the study

1.Identify and analyze the factor leading to the development of micro- insurance in India at the movement.

2.To study the perception of Insurance holders on Micro Insurance Policies offered with reference to Visakhapatnam District.

Methodology of the study

The primary data has been collected through the structured questionnaires/schedules – one for insured persons and one for insurance companies. In these questionnaire, various aspects of micro insurance such as Awareness, Affordability, Adoptability, Availability, Reasons, Change in economic & social conditions after the micro insurance, and Problems faced by people and companies. In addition to this, the discussions were also made personally with officials of Insurance Companies, Government Officials, NGO’s,Gram Pradhans, and Academicians in this regard. The research study area is limited to Visakhapatnam district only. In this study area purposively micro insurance in life is choosen for identifying the problems and prospects of life insurance holders in micro insurance segment

Khalily5 (2008) examined the characteristics and qualities of micro insurance product provided by Microfinance Institutions. He examines the present state and future challenges and in-depth analysis of the state of micro insurance depth practices, organization and management of micro insurance through the microfinance institutions

Syed M. Ahsan9(2009) The study reveals that the prevalence of threat and susceptibility in front of the poor is well documented. In malice of advances in microcredit, suitable managing instruments still limited, and as an outcome, poverty rounds catch many poor families for an unlimited period. Extensive rural organisations are found to be naturally of self insurance nature, and thus there is a necessity for

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dealing with personal risks within an area as well as hazards at the stage of areas.

Poonam Arora14(2009) The study shows that the knowledge level of micro insurance products among the poor people is very low. Also most of the people think that insurance is affordable by rich class of the society. Poor people don’t prefer to invest into insurance to bear any kind of unpredictable risk. Thus insurance companies must focus to remove risk conceptions among the people and try to attract as much poor population. And this only possible with good creation of awareness about micro insurance.

Need For the Study.

The several aspects of micro insurance schemes related to the life of the persons who are insured, what amount of premium they are paying and can pay minimum & maximum in future, and what method of paying premium has been adopting. Is insuring under micro insurance fulfill their expectation, what types of problems they face due to which they purchase micro insurance, what kind of coping strategies they are adopting, what challenges they face when dealing with insurance companies, which company mostly people preferring public or private insurance companies and how they are performing into the market and lastly, the most important aspect of the study that how micro insurance helps poverty alleviation and brings social change into the society.

Analysis on the study

Table - 4. 1: Distribution of Sample Respondents by Gender group

Sr. No. Gender Frequency Per cent

1 Male 152 76.0 2 Female 48 24.0

Total 200 100.0

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From the table no. 4.1 it can be observed that among the 200 sample respondents, 152 male members are (76.0) per cent while 48 female members are (24.0) per cent interviewed for better information. Therefore majority were the male respondents who have taken the micro insurance.

Table no. 4.2 Distribution of sample by age group.

S. No. Age Frequency Per cent 1 18-29 29 14.5 2 30-39 105 52.5 3 40-49 55 27.5 4 50-59 11 5.5 Total 200 100.0

From the table no. 4.2 it can be seen that out of the total 200 sample respondents interviewed, 14.5 percent of the respondents are in the age group of 18 – 29 years, 52.5 percent of the respondents are in the age group of 30 – 39 years, 27.5 percent of the respondents are in the age group of 40 – 49 years and 5.5 percent of the respondents are in the age group of 50 – 60 years. Majority of respondents belong to active working age group of 30-59 years.

Table – 4.3: Distribution of respondents by Occupation

S. No Occupation Frequency Percent

1 Farmer 65 32.5

2 Unskilled worker 43 21.5

3 Skilled worker 84 42.0

4 Petty trader 8 4.0

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Total 200 100.0

From the above table no. 4.3 it can be observed that out of total 200 respondents surveyed 32.5% of the respondents are farmers, 21.5% are unskilled workers, 42% are skilled workers and 4% were petty traders. It can be concluded that majority of the respondents were from the category of skilled workers followed by farmers, then by unskilled workers and then lastly petty traders.

Table – 4.4: Distribution of Sample Respondents by No. of family members

No. of family S. No. Frequency Percent members

1 4 members 121 60.5

2 6 members 68 34.0

3 More than 6 11 5.5

Total 200 100.0

From the table no. 4.4 it can be seen that out of the 200 people interviewed 60.5 percent of the families were consisting of 4 members in the family,34 percent were consisting of 6 members in the family and 5.5 percent were consisting of more than 6 members in their families. Majority of the respondents are small families consisting of 4 members.

Table –4. 5 Distribution of the respondents by Type of house

S. No. Type of house Frequency Percent

1 Kucha 50 25.0

2 Pucca 69 34.5

3 Semi Pucca 73 36.5

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4 No house 8 4.0

Total 200 100.0

From the table no. 4.5 it can be observed that out of the 200 respondents interviewed 25 percent of the respondents are having Kuccha houses, 34.5 percent of the respondents have Pucca houses, 36.5 percent of the respondents have semi Pucca houses and 4 percent of the respondents were not having their houses.Majority of the respondents were from the category of the people having semi Pucca houses followed by Pucca houses and then Kuccha houses and lastly very few persons were not having the houses.

Table – 4.6: Distribution of the respondents by Annual family income

S. No. Annual family income Frequency Percent 1 Less than 15000 7 3.5 2 15001-30000 18 9.0 3 30001-45000 15 7.5 4 45001-60000 95 47.5 5 More than 60000 65 32.5 Total 200 100.0 From the table no. 4.6 it can be seen that among the 200 respondents interviewed, 3.5 percent of the respondents were having their annual family income less than 15,000, 9 percent of the respondents were having their income ranging between 15,000 to 30,000,7.5 percent of the respondents were having the income ranging between30,000 to 45,000,47.5 of the respondents were having their income ranging between 45,001 to 60,000 and 32.2 percent of the respondents were having their annual family income more than 60,000.Majority of the respondents were having their annual family income ranging between 45,001 to 60,000.

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Table – 4.7: Source of knowledge on Micro Insurance.

Ranks S. Options Total No. Value 1 2 3 4 5 6

Friends, 29 23 11 42 23 72 200 0.406 1 Family, (14.5) (11.5) (5.5) (21.0) (11.5) (36.0) (100.0) (0.425) Neighbours Gram 51 11 49 29 41 19 200 -0.371 2 Panchayat (25.5) (5.5) (24.5) (14.5) (20.5) (9.5) (100.0) (0.468) Advertisement through 13 32 29 37 65 24 200 0.371 3 insurance (6.5) (16.0) (14.5) (18.5) (32.5) (12.0) (100.0) (0.468) companies Advertisement 11 36 42 49 34 28 200 0.086 4 by (5.5) (18.0) (21.0) (24.5) (17.0) (14.0) (100.0) (0.872) government Personal 43 61 36 27 22 11 contact by (21.5) (30.5) (18.0) (13.5) (11.0) (5.5) 200 -0.943* 5 Insurance (100.0) (0.005) Agents NGOs,SHGs 53 37 33 16 15 46 200 -0.429 6 and MFIs etc (26.5) (18.5) (16.5) (8.0) (7.5) (23.0) (100.0) (0.397) Source: Computed from primary data Note: *significant at 1% level = Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. From the Personal contact by Insurance Agents, majority of respondents (30.5%) has assumed first rank, (21.5%) has second rank, (18.0%) has third rank and (5.5%) of respondents has specified lowest rank and the remaining NGOs, SHGs and MFIs etc., (26.5%) of respondents preferred first rank followed by (23.0%) has second rank, (18.5%) has third rank and the remaining (7.5%) of respondents has assumed lowest rank.

The positive and high rank correlation for taking micro insurance is the reason for ‘advertisement by government’ (0.086) followed by ‘friends, family, neighbors’(0.406), ‘advertisement through insurance companies’ (0.371). In the negative and high rank correlation is obtained for the reason ‘NGOs, SHGs and MFIs etc.’ (- 0.429) and ‘Gram Panchayat’ (-0.371). The reason ‘personal contact by insurance agents’ (-0.943) is significant at 1% level. From above analysis it can be concluded that the main sources to know about Micro

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Insurance are advertisement by government, friends, family, neighbors and advertisement through insurance companies. Table – 4.8: Reasons for Purchasing Micro Insurance

S. Ranks Reasons Total No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 value

Financial security 71 50 22 15 18 24 200 - 0.600 1 after death of earning member (35.5) (25.00 (11.0) (7.5) (9.0) (12.0) (100.0) (0.208)

- To work as a 45 48 68 19 14 6 200 2 0.771*** collateral security (22.5) (24.0) (34.0) (9.5) (7.0) (3.0) (100.0) (0.072)

- 34 53 66 23 15 9 200 3 Future investment 0.771*** (17.0) (26.5) (33.0) (11.5) (7.5) (4.5) (100.0) (0.072)

For the purpose of 26 4 18 26 65 61 200 0.696 4 child education (13.0) (2.0) (9.0) (13.0) (32.5) (30.5) (100.0) (0.125)

To meet regular 12 33 15 77 40 23 200 0.486 5 health care expenses (6.0) (16.5) (7.5) (38.5) (20.0) (11.5) (100.0) (0.329)

For the purpose of 8 12 15 40 48 77 200 1.000* 6 marriage (4.0) (6.0) (7.5) (20.0) (24.0) (38.5) (100.0) (0.000) Rank wise distribution of sample respondents regarding micro- insurance is presented in the table4.8 .

The positive and high rank correlation for taking micro insurance is the reason for the purpose of marriage is 1.00 which is significant at 1% level followed by 0.699 for purpose of child education followed by 0.486 to meet regular expenses. The negative and high rank correlation is -.6000 on financial security after death of earning member followed by -0.771 on the reasons working as future investment and collateral security which is significant at 1% level of significance .

From the above analysis it can be concluded that main reasons for purchasing micro insurance are for the purpose of marriage,or the

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purpose of child education and for the purpose to meet regular expenses.

Suggestions

 To create large portion of awareness among the respondents it’s very important to understand the condition at local and national level with effective customer orientation by companies and government.

 Micro Insurance individual and group policies pricing must be done as per the reasonable need and also which provide assistance to various risks. By this consumers gets more attracts to purchase micro insurance and pay more premium.

. Micro Insurance in low income sectors the penetration is a very great task. Insurance Companies require to know at what stage micro insurance is reasonable for the low incme population and very supportable and play a role in proving vulnerability security to the BPL persons till they are in a situation to deal it ourselves.

 To reduce the expenses towards outreach of rural customers because of distant locations and poor infrastructure it is suggested to involve mediators and different agencies like NGO’s ,micro finance institutions (MFI’s),community based organizations, self help groups, village governing bodies, Cable TV operators etc for providing the information base for designing new products and techniques. Delivery mechanisms can also be developed with the help of rural branches of commercial or cooperative banks like RRBs.

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MANGONA/CHAUGIN:A∙CHIK SONGSARIKCULTURE AND RELIGION

Rajesh M. Marak Research Scholar Dept. of Philosophy N.E.H.U., Shillong Culture

Philosophically, man is a thinking being; he is a rational being from all the Anthropological point of view, and man is a social being1 too. The way of life in the society where he live give rise to what is popularly known as “Culture”. The term “Culture” is derived from Latin word “Colo”, meaning “to cultivate”(Knowledge, Culture And Value,1976).‘Culture’, as Edward Tylor defines it, ‘is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’.2 Michael Amalasdoss states that one popular way of looking at culture relates to the word itself. Culture as in ‘agri-culture’, refers to cultivation. It is made to refer to the cultivation of the human personality, his physical and mental gifts. Culture is the way of life in which a group of people live, think, feels, organize themselves, celebrate and share life.However, in Songsarik context, culture means dakbewal meaning natural way of life which are mostly relating to agricultural activities.

Culture is a community’s expression of its worldview i.e. its interpretation of the reality around it or what can be called its philosophy, expressed through its customs, social relations and organisation, language, rituals, festivals, dress, ornaments and arts. It culminates its identity. Human culture and human society are made by men; it is a projection of a structure which already exists in the maker’s mind is the view of Levi-Strauss.Every tribe have own culture inherited from their ancestors, and preserve the identity.The A∙chiks, one of the

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major tribe of Meghalaya state, India,have rich culture, which is preserved through the ages in the form of festivals, folktales, folklores etc. They are great zeal to preserve and promote Songsarik, the traditional, culture and identity.

Belief and Practices

The Songsarik A∙chik belief in life after death, transmigration (gidingnap) and rebirth are deep-rooted. The soul which is known as janggi silchi does not perish along with the dead body. But the soul remains and again turns into a new flesh, body and life in the manner of reincarnation and transmigration. On this conception, the Songsarik perform the special rites known as Mangona/Chaugin, apost- funeralceremony. Moreover, the main significance of the Mangona/Chaugin ceremony stands for the departed soul to be born again in one’s own family lineage and village. On the ground of life after death, the question may be raised whether the belief is based on the concrete evidences or not. Scientifically and rationally, it may be rejected as a lack of concrete evidences. But, however, it is a matter of faith and mystery, so in term of socio-religious culture, it has some significance in the life of the people.

The Songsarik believed that Dakgipa Rugipa, Nokgipa Biambi, is the Creator of the Universe. She has made the human being in her own image. She is the God of all souls, and has the power to decide upon every human soul after death either to send again into the world or not. All the souls will be under her care and controlling power. All will be under the judgments and the reward will be in the time of reincarnation. Songsarik believe thatsoul is immortal and re-birth is considered as a state of reward or punishment. During Mangona/Chaugin rites therefore debts are repaid and misunderstandings and problems are resolved. Those who live a virtuous life will attain bliss or reborn into higher stages, being

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destined for more accomplishments in the next human existence, such as:the lowest form is in the shape of an insect or a plant; the next form is an animal or a bird;the other is in the form of human being as a lame, a blind, and a deaf;the highest stage of reincarnation is in the form of human being into the same motherhood and in the same village as before.

Observation of Ceremony

A post-funeral is a ceremony for celebrating, sanctifying, or remembering the life of a person who has died. Funerary customs comprise the complex of beliefs and practices used by a culture to remember the dead, from interment itself, to various monuments, prayers, and rituals undertaken in their honour. Customs vary widely between cultures, and between religious affiliations.

Post-funeral ceremony is not being observed regularly by the Songsarik people. It is observed only if and when a person dies in the village. If it happens so, they decide either to observe or not to observe, depending on financial position. It incurs heavy expenditures, so it depends upon the economic condition of the family.To observe this rite, much in advance preparation and plan is required. If the family has decided to observe the Mangona/Chaugin, then they organizedafter the harvesting of paddy has been fully gathered and brought home. Agriculture being their main occupation and rice the staple food crops; their main festivals and ceremonies always coincide with the various stages of cultivation. They attach much importance to worship God who ruled throughout the seasons and thus obtained their blessings in the form of good harvest. After the Dru- Wanbola/ Wanna/ Wangala, the thanksgiving festival, Mangona/Chaugin, a post funeral ceremony is the next popular rite among the Songsarik people, and it is observe for the three consecutive days and two nights in the Atong region.The

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Atong is one of the sub-tribe or unit among the twelve sub-tribes or units of A∙chiks. Origin of the ChauginCeremony

In ancient days, human beings are considered as immortal. Similarly, the traditional A∙chiks are also believed that men were immortal until the first death which brought about malady. The following is a narration of Gongsin Dawa Sangma (Apasong Agana, 2010) of Marakgre village is illustrated as an example.

Traditionally, the first among man to die was a man called Me∙gam Gairipa, Mande Singeripa Me∙gam Dimrang Chada Gongman Mande Dimrim Me∙gam Dimsim. He was the husband of Grimchi Bachari and son of Alime Dingsime. In the beginning, Me∙gam Gairipa dwelt in the land of Mangsang but later on shifted by the River Simsang. He was very strong and a man of status.

One day, along with his daughter, Gairi Singeri, they went to the market called Anti Racha A∙king Gitel Dimdimpatal Chalang Agal. From there, after passing through Rongtitdu Chamegaru, they came to the river Gijangbra Dilsing Gitel. At that time, Sangma Sangreng A∙ning Ranja Do∙pa Chiring had put out a wicker basket to trap fish. On seeing them crossing the river, he requested by saying, “Please do not cross in front of my fishing-trap”. But Me∙gam Gairipaunder estimate him and crossed the trap and scares away the fish, for which Sangma Sangreng got angry and cursed him.

All of a sudden, Me∙gam Gairipa felt his head grow heavy and felt feverish. Then, they crossed Sokchuan Bri Meruan A∙ding and reached Anang Adilkang Te∙matchiPongro.There the son of Karupa,

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lesser spirit Misi Saljong’sslave Rimerinok Kalme Do∙olMisi Chengmatpa Saljong Chengchipa, an edible lizard, locally it is called Matpu,was sharing about his previous night dreams with the people, where in the dreams he was captured by Me∙gam Gairipa, Mande Singeripa.

Meanwhile, Me∙gam Gairipa and Gairi arrived at that particular place and captured Rimerinok in reality. On his capture, Rimerinok requested Me∙gamGairipa to have mercy on him and released him since he was a slave of Misi Saljong. Me∙gam Gairipa instead of forgiving but rather seized it from Asra Malenggoka for the dinner.

By capturing Rimerinok, both the father and daughter crossed the Kapera Ginggarap and spent the night at Daram Dasing Raka Ganda, A∙song Gagitik Chiga Changsiram. On the capturing of Rimerinok, Me∙gamGairipa was beaten by Misi Saljong which succumbs to dead on the following mid-nigh. Soon thereafter, for the first time, death appears in the human society.

After death, the spirit of Me∙gam Gairipa went on to dwell in Balpakram,the land of the spirits3, but he did not feel at home because of loneliness. So his spirit in the form of human being went back home with beef and beaded necklaces. Upon seeing the father, one of his sons called out to his mother. At the moment, Grimchi Bachari, a wife of Me∙gam Gairipa was out catching shrimps in the stream with her late husband’s nephew, did not believe it and fail to turn up. Me∙gam Gairipa was embarrassed at this and so he decided to return to

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Balpakram. His son, who was overjoyed on father’s return, jumped suddenly on the jal∙eng, a veranda, and unfortunately fell on the ground and died immediately. For the negligence of his wife, Me∙gamGairipaalong with the spirit of his son proceeds to Balpakram. Thus, the father and the son became the first inhabitants of Balpakram. After catching shrimps, Me∙gam Gairipa’s wife returned home and found the beef and beaded necklaces that her husband had brought with him and thus believed that he had indeed come. Grimchi Bachari traced the footsteps all the way to Balpakram via Bogia and Chanapa’s breathing place, after crossing ChitmangHills, Matchu Boldak Karam, Me∙mang Misal Cha∙ram, on the edge of Mangru Mangram across the Chianggal Chidimmak, shecalled out her husband to come home along with her. Gairipa Singeripa denied returning in his old form, but on her request he promised to return in the form of dellang, a small hut and kima, a memorial post, through Chaugin and Mangona ceremony as a rebirth in the wombs of one of his close clanswomen. He asked her to return home and marries someone from his gresokchi, a nephew of same matrilineal bloodline. Then, she returned home and did exactly as she was instructed which was accepted and appreciated by the family members, relatives and the peoples.

The post-funeral ceremony is mainly based on the story narrated by Shri. Gongsin Dawa Sangmaof village Marakgre. Almost all the socio-religious cultural beliefs and practices of the A∙chik society have a strong faith in the story of Me∙gam Gairipa. The philosophical values and reality of the story has greatly manifested in the way of the A∙chik people. Therefore, the traditional socio-cultural activities not

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only aims at merely satisfying our theoretical and speculative interest but also aims at realizing the highest value of human souls.

Moral Duty on Funeral and Post-Funeral Ceremonies

Death is a subject which is of the deepest interest to everyone. The terror of death overshadows the lives of all mankind. It brings considerably unnecessary sorrow, suffering and anxiety to the survivors who are anxious to know about the fate of the departed souls. It is almost as if we have taken on death as just another disease to be conquered. But the fact is that death is inevitable. Death is as much a part of human existence, of human growth and development, as being born. Death is not an enemy to be conquered or a prison to be escaped. It is an integral part of human live that gives meaning to human existence.However, human ability to recognize death as an event has led them to many unanswered questions. All the Indian contemporary thinkers and philosophershave aim to elucidate the meaning of death, and thus helping human beings to overcome their fear.The Greek philosophers like Socrates and Plato have taught: to philosophize means nothing more than to study the problem of death and find the root cause to eliminate it. However, Buddha says if there is birth then there will be death. None can resist the universal supremacy of death. Death is the law of all life. And Schopenhauer called death “the truly inspiring genius of philosophy”. Science and Technology has been given their best effort to overcome the so-called death, but till today, they remained futile. To a certain extent, they have done wonderful work through surgery and medicines which brings some relief and hope for the human society. Yet, death remains as inevitable and erratic as before. As a result, in the contemporary society, people continue to look upon funeral rites based strongly in religious tradition to give comfort and solace for the bereft family, friends and well-wishers.In present society, without funeral ceremony, human beings simply would not have any means of processing the impact of death on our existence. It is

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the religion which consoles and encourages him in all such time of crisis. Religion gives right shelter to him. He gets mental peace and emotional support. It encourages him to face his life and problems. Furthermore, the formulation of ritual within funerals is especially important because ritual plays a vital role in providing a sense of familiarity and expected structure within those chaotic natural processes that lie outside of human control. The common societal patterns and repetitiveness of ritual provide a sense of stability in times of personal or social disorientation. Death is, however, not only inspirer of artistic imagination. It has strongly influenced the ethical attitude of human beings as well. Death was the great instructor of those noble characters in history whom we venerate as heroes, saints or martyrs of science.

The problem of death is a universal question. But the answer to that question is different from cultural and regional as well. In addition to different ways of dealing with those members of the culture who are dying, different human societies have also offered a variety of explanations for the phenomenon of death and its meaning for human existence. The A∙chik peoples of Songsarik community have given lots of importance just after thedeath of a person. The basic idea behind the Songsarik’s following all these funeral traditions called Mangona/ Chauginis to show reverence to the deceased person. The community shares the feelings of oneness and motivates each other basing on traditional funeral and post-funeral rites.

Generally, death is a natural necessity caused, but it is extremely important to the A∙chik society. For them, death is not the end of their life because they believe inthe doctrine of immortality of soul, transmigration and re-birth.4 In Songsarik point of view, soul has to surface on this physical world for generation to generation. They believe in the wheel of life and cyclical way of rebirth of souls, either high or low position. The stages of reincarnation continue for many

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generations until the final release, is gained. There are seven stages5 of release of the soul from karmic matter in Songsarikconcept. They are: Ballikging, Sippora, Chengkinna, Ringdocheng, Gabatra, Kongkinna- Ronse Chirikra, and Songje Balrikra. The first stage occupies the shortest length of salvation, and will continue till the last stage for complete release. The complete release is expected when one shall live the pure and holy life. The belief in salvation from reincarnation and transmigration has restraint the human beings from immoral activities. All the soul will attend the salvation once they live a Silesian life. There is no concept of heaven or hell inSongsariks religion. However, Balpakram, the land of the spirits, the National Park in the district of South Garo Hills, remain as the ultimate Purgatory for the departed souls.Therefore, the soul of the deceased will rest inBalpakram till the reincarnation.

Reincarnationis a common belief among the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans of classical times. Reincarnation is also the belief of many indigenous tribal people, such as the American Native tribes of the Iroquois, Dakota, Huron, Kiowa, Hopi, Tlingit, Inuit, and other Alaskan Native tribes. A Songsarik religion is probably one of the oldest beliefs of theA∙chik people, with its origins probably dating back to the Stone Age, who has strong faith on the theory of reincarnation. Reincarnation incorporates the conviction that each individual human life and the lessons learned during it become part of a greater cycle of human existence. The total accumulation and integration of our experiences in all these lives make up our personal path toward the essential spiritual realization sometimes termed awakening.

But now-a-days, the concept of rebirth or reincarnation has become more popular in the West in recent years due to the influence of Tibetan Buddhism, especially, the Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, written by Sogyal Rinpoche, (2002). This book becomes the best seller in the USA and has been widely read throughout the developed

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countries by new generations who are concerned with alternative thinking and eastern cultural perspectives. Similarly, when Skeptical Carl Sagan asked Dalai Lama what he would do if a fundamental tenet of his religion (reincarnation) were definitively disproved by Science? The 14th Dalai Lama answered; “If Science can disprove reincarnation, Tibetan Buddhism would abandon reincarnation … but it’s going to be mighty hard to disprove reincarnation”. Tibetans do not believe that the separation of body and spirit at death is permanent. They believe that the spirit can be called back to the body or in case of permanent death lead the spirit on its journey to a better form of existence, through recitations from the Tibetan Book of the Dead (W. Y. Evans- Wentz, 2010). Naturally, people concern with life beyond death was simulated by the ideas contained in such philosophies and beliefs.

Scientific views on Soul

In the culture of Science, there are two major rules that largely govern or limit the scientific process or view. One of the scientific knowledge is founded on empirical evidence. So, the facts, which are demonstrated through direct observation and experiment, may be accepted as true. The second rule necessarily derives from the first, suggests that all phenomena must be explained through natural process rather than supernatural means. The first rule is actually defined by science which is separated by philosophers and other thinkers depending on the ground of knowledge. Science (or the scientific method) is really a method of investigation and learning, one that has proven to be particularly effective. If any information is obtained in a way that violates this first rule, and violates the scientific method, then by definition it is not in the realm of science. In contrast, the second rule is more of a bias or leaning that comes as a consequence of the scientific method. If supernatural phenomena exist, they cannot be explained by science. If any supernatural phenomena do exist; they are not subject to

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experiment and observation, and therefore science is not equipped to explain them, or really even to accept that they exist.

Conclusion

The practices of rites and rituals are an essential component of the Songsariks. It will indicate how the rites and rituals partly shape social organization. The practice of rites and rituals, with a deep faith in it, turns them into such a culture in which they are bound to live truthful, honest and faithful, and fear of committing sins. So their cultures are the elements that specifically inspire Songsariks to be noble and admirable. Furthermore, Culture can be called as the cultivation of the inner excellence of character. It is the harmonious development of the intellectual, emotional, and volitional elements in the self. Harmonious self-development is the keynote of true culture. Physical culture is not an integral part of ethical culture. But it is the most important means to the realization of the end. Culture is self-development which means development of individuality into personality. The moral life is always a personal life. The individual’s personal life is gradually enriched and widened into selfless life of devotion to the common good of the society. So self-realization is the highest good.6

Traditionally, Mangona/Chaugincan be considered as a meeting place where people indulged in many recreational activities. Further, it provides an opportunity to the different villagers and communities to share and entertain their cultural identities. The social activities that associated with Chaugin ceremony arechera ring∙a/ sola, gonda doka, rere ring∙a, hohogeraring∙aand kabe sola.These are the traditional songs of theA∙chik tribe which delight the liveliness of the indigenous culture. Besides,the traditional songs,the game and sports like gando makkal pala, a kind of freestyle wrestling is also organized, and it keeps them physically fit and strong. Apart from game and sports, marriages are arranged for the young boys and girls,and hence the community

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lives as a unity.In this way, it has been much done to capture the interest of the youth as well as to showcase the culture of the A∙chik and preserve it for posterity. The performing of rites and rituals itself legitimizes and reinforces community values of the Songsarik, based on their religious belief and practice. In reality, it is the culture that gives meaning and depth to their lives, and solidarity to their social structure.

End Notes

1. Sinha, Jadunath. A Manual Of Ethics. 11th Rpt. Kolkata: New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd., 2006, p. 38.

2. Tylor, Edward B. Primitive Culture, London, 1891, p. 1.

3. Sangma, Semeri Alva B. Rites of Passage in the Garo Oral Literature, Akansha Publishing House, New Delhi, 2012, p. 18.

4. Sangma, Prabodh M. Glimpses Of The Garo Heritage And Philosophy, D. J. Publication, Tura, 2010, p. 106.

5. Interview: Raksam, Sol Me∙a, Nuru-Mande Heritage Society, Ballonggre, Tura, West Garo Hills, Meghalaya, 27th July 2015.

6. Sinha, Jadunath. A Manual Of Ethics. 11th Rpt. Kolkata: New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd., 2006, p. 37.

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REGIONAL BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

P.Ganga Reddy Assistant Professor of History Government Degree Bhainsa Adilabad Dist. Telangana State Abstract

Social Formation and Developments in the field of religion, folk art and language in India during the medieval times have been important milestones in the evolution of the composite culture of India. New religions movements like Sufi and Sikhism along with Bhakti movement contributed to this process. If you look around, you will see the impact of Islam on many aspects of Indian culture. You might have visited some famous monuments in India. These monuments stand as the symbols of the composite nature of Indo-Islamic culture in India. You can also see how various religions in India, including Islam, have influenced each other. Besides, every region in India is famous for giving shape to some folk art or the other. Development of folk arts through which the common people display their creativity is another significant aspect of Indian culture. The various regional languages that we speak Today too have an interesting history which evolved during this period. This research article to be discussed and focus on describe the political situation of India in medieval times; examine the influence of Islam on Indian religion; trace the growth of the Bhakti and Sufi movement;

Key Words: Social Formation, Regional Identity, Aristocrats, Historical identity, Cultural aspects, Slaves and Luxury System

Introduction:

I Search for God and found only myself.

I searched for myself and found only God.

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- Sufi Proverb

When the Muslim invaders came to India they decided to make it their home. They intermarried and took to the culture of the Indians. There was a mutual exchange in ideas and customs. In dress, speech, manners and intellectual outlook, the two influenced each other very profoundly. Some of these changes are described below. The Indian society was divided into four major groups. They were the aristocrats, the priests, the towns people and the peasants. The aristocrats included the Sultan and his relatives, nobility and the landholders. There were also the Hindu rajahs, chiefs, Hindu merchants and bankers. They concentrated all the wealth as well as the power in their hands. Needless to say that they were a group of very powerful people. They lived in great style and luxury. The Sultan outmatched everyone in this. He had to do it so as to maintain his superiority and his status. He had to show that he was different from the others. Whenever a new sultan came to the throne, the Khutba or sermon was read out in his name in the Friday prayers at the mosques and coins were issued in his name. This established the new ruler on the throne. To maintain his distinction as the ruler, he was provided with many officers and servants at the royal household where he lived in great luxury. Even the nobility imitated his style and showed off their wealth.

Trade was flourishing and many new towns came up to encourage trade. Some communities like the Banias, Marwaris and Multanis made trade their special vocation. The banjaras traded in caravans and were continuoulsy on the move carrying goods from one place to another. Delhi was the centre for the incoming as well as outgoing goods. There was rice from the East, sugar from Kanauj, wheat from the Doab and fine silks from the South. Besides, there were luxury goods like metalware, ivory, jewellery, cotton textiles and many other. Goods from outside India like East Africa, Arabia and China also came to Delhi. According to Ibn Batuta, Delhi at that time was a

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magnificent city. The growth of trade encouraged the use of money and at this time came into use the silver tanka (coin). It was the most commonly used currency and was introduced by Iltutmish. Even the system of weights, that were used at that time, continued to be in use until the recent adoption of the metric system. When Islam came to India, Hinduism was in vogue. But by this time Hinduism had degenerated itself. There were superstitious beliefs, rituals and sacrifices. Brahmans had become very powerful and the caste system was very rigid. The people, especially the lower classes, were ill-treated. Islam was the opposite of what was in practise among the Hindus. It talked of equality, brotherhood and oneness of God. There were no dogmas in Islam. On the other hand, it had a simple doctrine and a democratic organisation. The coming of Islam did not bring in many changes in the political structure of the country. On the other hand, it challenged the social pattern of society. The important result of this contact was the emergence of the Bhakti movement and the Sufi movement. Both the movements were based on the fact that God was supreme, all men were equal for Him and Bhakti or devotion to Him was the way to achieve salvation.

Rise of Islam and Sufism

The Muslims first came to India in the eighth century AD mainly as traders. They were fascinated by the socio-cultural scenario in this country and decided to make India their home. The traders who came to India from Central and West Asia carried back with them traces of Indian science and culture. As a result they became cultural ambassadors of India by disseminating this knowledge to the Islamic world and from there to Europe. The immigrant Muslims also entered into matrimonial alliances with the local people and learned to live together in harmony. There was mutual exchange of ideas and customs. The Hindus and Muslims influenced each other equally in dress, speech, manners, customs and intellectual pursuits. The Muslims also

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brought with them their religion, Islam which had a deep impact on Indian society and culture. Let us find out more about Prophet Mohammad and Islam in this lesson. Prophet Mohammad preached Islam in the seventh century AD in Arabia. He was born in AD 571 in the Quraysh tribe of Arabia. He migrated to Madina from Mecca in AD 622 and this marked the beginning of the Hijira Era. According-to the Muslim belief, Quran is the message of Allah revealed to Mohammad through his archangel Gabriel. It has been translated into several languages.

The five fundamental principles of Islam are:

(1) Tauhid (belief in Allah)

(2) Namaz (prayers, five times a day)

(3) Roza (fasting in the month of Ramzan)

(4) Zakat (giving of alms)

(5) Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca)

Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are preserved in what is called the Hadith or Hadees. After his death the Caliphate was established. There were four pious Caliphs. Islam talked of equality, brotherhood, and the existence of one God. Its arrival particularly made a profound impact on the traditional pattern of Indian society. The rise of both the Bhakti and the Sufi movements contributed immensely in this regard. Both the Bhakti and the Sufi movements believed that all humans are equal, God is supreme and devotion to God is the only way to achieve salvation.

Rise of Sufism

Sufism is a common term used for Islamic mysticism. The Sufis were very liberal in their religious outlook. They believed in the essential unity of all religions. They preached spirituality through

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music and doctrines that professed union with God. Sufism originated in Iran and found a congenial atmosphere in India under the Turkish rule. Their sense of piety, tolerance, sympathy, concept of equality and friendly attitude attracted many Hindus, mostly from lower classes, to Islam. Sufi saints such as Moinuddin Chisti, Nizamuddin Auliya, Fariduddin Ganj-e-Shakar were the pioneer sufïs who are still loved, respected and honoured in India. The sufis were also influenced by the Christian and Buddhist monks regarding the establishment of their khanqahs and dargahs. Khanqah the institutions (abode of Sufis) set up by the Sufis in northern India took Islam deeper into the countryside. Mazars (tombs) and Takias (resting places of Muslim saints) also became the centres for the propagation of Islamic ideas. These were patronized both by the aristocracy and the common people. The Sufis emphasized respect for all human beings. The Sufis were organised into religious orders or silsilahs. These silsilahs were named after their founders such as Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadi. and Naqshbandis. According to Abul Fazl, the author of the Ain-i-Akbari, there were as many as fourteen silsilahs in India during the sixteenth century. Each order had its own khanqah, which served as a shelter for the Sufi saints and for destitutes, and later developed as a centre of learning. Ajmer, Nagaur and Ajodhan or Pak Pattan (now in Pakistan) developed as important centres of Sufism. These also started the tradition of piri-muridi, (teacher and the disciple). In order to attain a state of mystical ecstasy, the sufis listened to poetry and music (sama) which were originally in Persian, but later switched to Hindawi or Hindustani. They preached the unity of God and self-surrender unto Him in almost the same way as the votaries of the Nïrgun Bhakti movement did. Music attracts everybody, irrespective of language. Slowly such music attracted the Hindus who started visiting the dargahs in large number. The Hindu impact on Sufism also became visible in the form of siddhas and yogic postures.

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The rulers of Delhi, who ruled from 1206-90, were Mamluk Turks. They were followed by the Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis, who ruled northera India from Delhi till 1526. All these rulers were called Sultans. A Sultan was supposed to rule over a territory on behalf of the Khalifa or Caliph, who was considered to be the spiritual and temporal head

of the Muslims. Both the names of the Khalifa and the Sultan used to be read in the khutha, (Friday prayers) by the local Imams. In 1526 the Delhi Sultans were replacedby the Mughals, who initially ruled from Agra and later from Delhi till 1707. Thereafter, the Mughal rule continued only nominally till 1857 when the dynasty ended. The Mughals did not ask for any investiture but continued to send presents to the Khalifas. They also got the khutba read in their own names. However, Sher Shah, a local Afghan ruler, challenged the Mughal ruler, Humayun and kept him away from the throne of Delhi for about fifteen years (1540-55). Sher Shah’s reign stands out for many outstanding achievements. Among these was the construction of several roads, the most important being Sarak-i-Azam or Grand Trunk Road extending from Sonargaon (now in Bangladesh) to Attock (now in Pakistan) and run through Delhi and Agra a distance of 1500 kos. The other roads were from Agra to Burhanpur, Agra to Marwar and from Lahore to Multan. He struck beautiful coins in gold, silver and copper which were imitated by the Mughal Kings.

Mughal emperor Akbar who ruled from 1556-1605 was a great ruler in the history of India. He made a sincere effort to foster harmony among his subjects by discouraging racial, religious and cultural biases. He tried to develop friendly relations with the Hindus. To fulfil his imperialist ambitions he entered into matrimonial alliances with the Rajput rulers. His greatest contribution was the political unification of the country and the establishment of an all powerful central government with a uniform system of administration. Akbar was a

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great patron of art, architecture and learning. As a secular minded monarch he also started a faith called Din-i-Illahi which encompassed ideas from various religions. On every Thursday, scholars from different religions came to debate on religious issues raised by the emperor. This was done at the Ibadat Khana in Fateh Pur Sikri at Agra. Though illiterate Akbar patronised scholars and learned men. In his court there were nine such Navratna Mulla Do Pyaza, Hakin Humam, Abdur Rahim Khan e Khanan, Abul Tayal, Tansen, Raja Todar Mal, Raja Man Singh, Faizi and Birbal. Akbar’s policy of liberalism and tolerance was continued by his successors, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. However this policy was abandoned by Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb’s short sighted policies and endless wars in different parts of the country (especially in South India) resulted in the disintegration of the Mughal empire. The rise of the Marathas in the south, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali, unrest amongst the nobility in the court and the rise of the Sikhs in north- western India destroyed whatever was left of the Mughal power. Economically India was still the biggest exporter in the world and had great wealth, but it was left far behind in the process of modernisation.

Cultural Development

It was in the field of art and architecture that the rulers of this period took a keen interest. The composite cultural characteristic of the medieval period is amply witnessed in these fields. A new style of architecture known as the Indo- Islamic style was born out of this fusion. The distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture were the (a) dome; (b) lofty towers or minarets; (c) arch; and (d) the vault. The Mughal rulers were great lovers of nature. They took pleasure in spending their time in building beautiful forts and gardens. The famous Mughal gardens like the Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat Bagh are important elements of our cultural heritage. There were waterways and fountains criss-crossing these gardens and finally, there were gardens

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with stages or levels. The water, while cascading from one stage to another, was made to fall in small streamlets with lamps lit behind them, making the water shimmer and lend a special charm to the whole atmosphere. It could also be made to flow over a chiselled and sloping slab, so that the water flowing over it shimmered. The best example of this type of garden is the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore (now in Pakistan). The Lahore garden has three stages. But a better example can be seen in India at Pinjore Garden situated on the Chandigarh- Kalka road where we have a seven-stage garden. This impressed the British so much that they created a three-stage garden in the Vice- Regal Lodge (now the Rashtrapati Bhawan) in New Delhi, It was on these very lines that the famous Garden in Mysore were built in the twentieth century. The pietra dura or coloured stone inlay work on marble became very popular in the days of Shah Jahan and the finest examples of this type of work are available in the Red Fort in Delhi and the Taj Mahal at Agra. Besides, the structures within the Fatehpur Sikri complex, the forts at Agra and Lahore and the Shahi mosques in Delhi and Lahore are an important part of our heritage. During this period mosques, tombs of kings and dargahs came to dominate the landscape. Another aspect of art, which is of great importance to us, is connected with Numismatics (the study of coins) which is a major source of information for any period in history. The coins of Muslim kings are valuable in history. Their designs, calligraphy and mint marks give us plenty of interesting information on this period. From the royal titles, the name and place of minting we can find out the extent of the monarch’s kingdom as well as his status. Muhammad Tughlaq’s coins were minted at Delhi, Daulatabad and several other provincial capitals and had at least twenty-five different varieties. Some of the legends found on the coins are quite interesting. The warrior in the cause of God’ and ‘he who obeys the Sultan obeys the Compassionate’, are a few examples.

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Bhakti Movement

The Sufis were not the only popular religious teacher of the time. There were also the Bhakti saints. Their teachings were similar to those of the Sufis but they had been teaching for a longer time. They were popular among the artisans, craftsmen and traders in the towns. The people in the villages also flocked to listen to them. The Sufi and Bhakti saints had many thoughts and practices in common. Their essential belief was in the need to unite with God. They laid stress on love or devotion as the basis of the relationship with God. To achieve all this a Guru or a Pir was needed. The Bhakti saints attacked the rigidity in religion and the objects of worship. They disregarded caste and encouraged women to join in their religious gatherings. The Bhakti saints did their entire teaching in the local vernacular language to make it comprehensible even to simple minds. The Bhakti saints belonged to various backgrounds but mainly from the lower castes. Many were artisans by origin or belonged to the less prosperous class of cultivators. They stressed the need for tolerance among humans and religions. The Bhakti movement was long known in the South. The idea of preaching Bhakti through hymns and stories was traditionally done by the Alvars and the Nayannars of the Tamil devotional cult. You will read about them later in this book

Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak was born of a Khatri family in the village of Talwandi which is now called Nankana. Though Guru Nanak was trained in accountancy, he preferred the company of saints and sufis. Some time later, he had a mystic vision. He left home for the company of

saints and pirs. He composed hymns and sang them to the accompaniment of the ‘rabab’, which is a musical instrument. His hymns are popular even today. He emphasised love and devotion for the

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one and only God. He strongly denounsed idol worship, pilgrimages, sacrifices and rituals as a way to achieving God. He demanded purity of character and conduct as the first condition of approaching God. He believed that anyone could achieve a spiritual life while doing his duties as a householder.

Ramanuja: Ramanuja was from the South and he taught in the langauge of the common people. His disciple was Ramananda who took his Guru’s message to the northern parts of India.

Ramananda: Ramananda was born at and educated at Varanasi. He preached at both these places. He wanted to rid the Hindu religion of its evil customs and practices. He wanted people to know that all men were equal in the eyes of God and there was nobody high born or low born. His followers belonged to different walks of like. For example, Kabir was a weaver, Sadhana was a butcher, Ravidasa was a cobbler and Sena was a barber.

Kabir the Ages

Kabir was Ramananda’s favourite disciple. Like Nanak, he criticised the existing social order and called for Hindu-Muslim unity. Kabir, the son of a Muslim weaver, strongly denounced idol worship, taking part in formal worship such as Namaz, pilgrimages or bathing in rivers. He wanted to preach a religion which was acceptable to all and that would unite all religions. He emphasised the unity of God. He called Him by several names such as Rama, Gobinda, Hari and Allah. You must have read his ‘Dohas’ or ‘couplets’ in Hindi.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu: Chaitanya was a saint from Bengal. He was a devotee of Lord Krishna. Though he was a Brahman he condemned the caste system and emphasised on the equality of all. He wanted the people to know that true worship lay in love and devotion. He used to go into a trance singing devotional songs in praise of Lord Krishna.

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Mirabai : Mirabai was another Bhakti Saint who worshipped, composed and sang songs in praise of Lord Krishna. Like Chaitanya, she too would go into a trance in her love for the God.

Namadeva : Namadeva was a tailor. He wrote in Marathi. His poetry spoke of intense love and devotion to God.

Popularity of the Bhakti Movement:

How did the Bhakti movement became so popular with the people? An important reason was that they challenged the caste system and the superiority of the Brahmanas. They welcomed the ideas of equality and brotherhood which the Sufi saints also preached. People were no longer satisfied with the old religion. They wanted a religion which could satisfy both their rationality as well as emotions. All the Bhakti saints emphasised oneness of God. They said that the path to God lay in devotion and Bhakti to Him and not in any rituals. They condemned rituals and sacrifies. In northern India, it developed into two streams, nirguna bhakti and saguna bhakti. The nirguna bhaktas were devotees of a formless God even while calling him variously as Rama, Govinda, Hari or Raghunatha. The most conspicuous among them were Kabir and Nanak. The saguna bhaktas were devotees of Rama, the son of Dasharatha, or Krishna, the son of Devaki and Vasudeva. Some of the best examples of Saguna bhaktas were Tulsidas, who idolised Rama in his famous Ramcharita Manas, and Surdas, who sang praises of Krishna in his famous Sursagar. Raskhan, a Muslim poet, who was a devotee of Lord Krishna, also belonged to this tradition. The first important feature of bhakti movement was the concept of oneness of God and brotherhood of all human beings. It did not discriminate against anyone on the basis of caste or gender. Its second important feature was surrender into God, who is all pervasive and capable of solving the problems of the devotees. The third important feature of bhakti was an intense personal devotion to God

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with an emphasis on a good moral life. It was felt that chanting the name of God constantly purified the soul and prepared one for His grace. A true devotee does not want heaven or moksha. He only wants to chant the Lord’s name and be born again and again to sing His praise.

Conclusion:

In addition, came the guru or spiritual teacher, whose function was to provide people with hope, strength and inner courage. He was supposed to be a person who had marched ahead on the path of bhakti and had probably realised God and hence was capable of leading others into Him. This brought in a system of pahul. Pahul was the sanctified water offered by a master to the pupil or shishya as a token of his being accepted as a trainee on his march to godliness. The Sikhs performed “washing of the swords” ceremony, called khande ka pahul, evolving as the pir-muridi custom (the saint-soldier concept). Have you been able to notice here some features of the Bhakti tradition, which were similar to the practices and ideas of the Sufis? The spirit of Bhakti pervaded the whole of India and found vivid and beautiful expression in the religious poetry of the medieval saints and mystics, no matter what religious faith they believed in. Their literary compositions, rendered into geet, qawali, etc united the people, as nothing else could have done. It also stimulated the development of regional languages.

References:

1. John Keay (2011), India: A History, 2nd Ed – Revised and Updated, Grove Press / Harper Collins, see Introduction and Chapters 3 through 11

2. Mohammada, Malika (2007), The foundations of the composite culture in India, Aakar Books.

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3. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark; Heuston, Kimberley (May 2005). The Ancient South Asian World. Oxford University Press.

4. Nikki Stafford Finding Lost, ECW Press, 2006, p. 174

5. Cultural History of India. New Age International Limited Publications. 2005..

6. Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, by Keat Gin Ooi p.642

7. Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia by Daigorō Chihara p.226

8. Lange, Christian. Justice, Punishment and the Medieval Muslim Imagination. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization. Cambridge University Lange: Greater Persia (including Khwārazm, Transoxania, and Afghanistan)."

9. E. Dunn, Ross. The adventures of Ibn Battuta, a Muslim traveller of the fourteenth century. University of California Press, 1986.

10. Tharoor, Shashi. India: From Midnight to the Millennium and Beyond. Arcade Publishing, 2006.

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FUNDING OF HIGHER EDUCATION OF MONGOLIA

Batchuluun Jalbasuren Nyamaa Nyamsuren Mongolian University of Life Mongolian University of Life Sciences, Mongolia Sciences, Mongolia

ABSTRACT

A major breakthrough in the higher education sector which was occurred since the transition of Mongolia to the market economy is the emergence of private institutes and universities, and hence the appearance of competition. According to the laws of market economy some of the private institutes and universities went bankrupt, others expanded their activities taking certain positions on the market. Currently, the postgraduate education sector of Mongolia has characteristics of monopsony and oligopoly market. Setting too low or too high tuition fee rates at institutes and universities may be the reason of decrease in the number of students. Therefore, the establishment of appropriate tuition fee rates may give the opportunity to increase the number of students.

KEY WORDS: financing of universities and higher education, number of students, income source of universities, competitiveness of universities.

INTRODUCTION

Public and private schools providing higher education in Mongolia operate generally by defraying their costs via tuition payments and state support. Studies show that 85.0 percent of the total funding of a higher educational institution are formed by tuition payments, while 0.4 percent are formed from donations from organizations and society, 2.8 percent from projects, approximately 5.0 percent from other complementary activities, and 7.3 percent from other sources.

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In many developing and developed countries as a result of economic reform public funding of higher education is reduced, and within the framework of this reform policy there was a decision to follow a direction according to which it is necessary to increase funding from other sources than tuition fee. Among the top 10 universities in the world the proportion of undergraduate students is decreasing, while the proportion of graduate students is more than 50 percent.

RESEARCH METHOD

A British scientist Nicolas Bar [4] has developed a methodology which allows setting tuition fee depending on the number of students. And this methodology of analysis consisting in negative correlation between the tuition fee and the number of students is taken as the basis of this research. The significance of universities in the higher education sector of Mongolia is calculated by HHI \Herfindahl-Hirschman index\. RESEARCH RESULTS

The number of institutes and universities providing higher education in Mongolia was shown in the figure below by categories, public and private.

Figure 1. The number of public and private institutes and universities

100 88 77 80 72 71 73 Public: Institute, college 60 Public: University

40 Private: Institute, college 20 9 10 10 10 10 11 Private: University 7 4 5 4 5 7 6 8 6 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Source: Statistical Bulletin, 2015.

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While during the last 3 years the number of public universities has not changed, the number of private institutes and colleges has decreased. However, the decline in the number of private institutes and colleges on the one hand is due to the expansion of activities and getting the university title, on the other hand, due to the fact that some schools have suspended their activities because of the decline in enrollment. The number of students in institutes and universities over the past 4 years is shown in the following figure.

Figure 2. The number of students in institutes and universities

200 180 16.1 17.1 26.2 27.2 29.3 160 Private: University 49.2 51.2 43.1 140 44.5 42.4 120 Private: Institute, 100 98.4 88.8 90.6 88.2 88.4 college 80 Public: University 60 40 Public: Institute, 20 15.3 15.1 13.7 13.5 college 0 6 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Source: Statistical Bulletin, 2015.

Although the number of students in public universities is relatively high, in recent years it has been falling continuously. This is because of the high learning requirements in some fields, such as doctor, mining engineer etc., students in order to study their favorite specialties choose private universities. The reduction of students in private institutes and colleges is due to their preference of universities rather than institutes.

The quality of institutes and universities depends on a range of factors including the knowledge and skills of teaching staff, the learning

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environment, the support to the research works etc. If in 2006 the student-professor ratio in institutes and universities was 20.9, in 2015 i.e. after 10 years it was 23.6, which indicates that the growth rate is relatively low.

Institutes and universities of Mongolia provide education at 3 levels such as bachelor’s, master’s, and doctorate. Total number of students studying at each of these three levels is shown in the figure below.

Figure 3. Students of higher educational institutions

2%

10% Bachelor's students

Master's students

Doctorate students 88%

Source: www.pmis.gov.mn

An indicator showing that there is a quality improvement in structure of students in higher educational institutions in recent years is the increasing number of participants in graduate-level programs. There are 18.0 students who attend master’s programs at institutes and universities, which is 10.3 percent of all students.

Funding sources of tuition fee for students in tertiary education is shown in the following figure based on the data from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science of Mongolia.

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Figure 4. Funding sources of tuition

Other expenses, 7%

STF loan, 8% The Law on Public Service, 10% School expenses, 1% Personal expenses, 74%

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Science of Mongolia, Report, UB, 2015.

Figure 4 shows that 74 percent of all students study on own expense, 10 percent via the law on public service, 8 percent via the study grant and loan from the state training fund, 1 percent on the expense of university, 7 percent on the expense from other financing sources.

Based on the number of students enrolled in graduate programs at institutes and universities of Mongolia, there were determined the market share, consequently were identified characteristics of the market. To identify characteristics of the market which prepare specialists in specific fields we used the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (H).

=

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– weight of the students in a specific field to the total - number of students

The table below shows the results of determination of the market characteristics by specialties of the doctorate (PhD) programs provided by institutes and universities of Mongolia using the Herfindahl- Hirschman index (H)

Table 1. Characteristics of the markets providing programs on doctorate (Phd) specialties and the main competing schools

Specialties HHI Market Market shares of value characteristics main 3 competing schools (by %) 1 Education Studies 3429.16 monopsony MNUE-52.3, Graduate University-23.5, NUM-7.5 2 International 6449.7 monopsony NUM-76.9, Studies Graduate University-23.1 3 Linguistics 4477.1 monopsony Graduate University-59.6, MNUE-27.7, NUM- 12.8 4 Culture Studies 8579.9 monopsony MSUAC-92.3, Graduate University-7.7 5 Business 1905.1 oligopsony Graduate Management University-27.7, MNU-21.7, NUM- 21.2 6 Education 5883.2 monopsony MNUE-73.4, Management MUST-21.8, Graduate

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University -4.8

7 Foreign language 4071.2 monopsony IUU-60.4, MUST- Studies 12.5, MNUE-12.5 8 Accounting 8755.6 monopsony NUM-93.3, MULS- 6.7 MNUE – Mongolian National University of Education

NUM – National University of Mongolia

MSUAC – Mongolian State University of Art and Culture

MNU – Mongolian National University

MUST – Mongolian University of Science and Technology

IUU – International University of Ulaanbaatar

MULS – Mongolian University of Life Sciences

Estimation of the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (H) of the 8 specialties of the doctorate (PhD) programs provided by Mongolian higher educational institutions shows that all of them have characteristics of monopsony market, except the business management.

The table below shows the determination of the market characteristics by calculating the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (H) based on the number of students attending master’s programs at institutes and universities of Mongolia by 15 specialties.

Table 2. Characteristics of the markets providing programs on doctorate (Phd) specialties and the main competing schools

The specialty HHI Market Market shares of main value characteristic 3 competing schools s (by %) 1 Education 1897.7 oligopsony Hovd University-34.5,

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Studies Graduate University - 20.8, MNUE-Ar-11.2 2 Mongolian 3362.0 monopsony MNUE-41.0, Studies University of UB-32.8, Ider Institute-24.6 3 Linguistics 3635.2 monopsony Graduate University- 53.6, NUM-25.0, Orkhon University-8.9 4 Culture 4817.7 monopsony MSUAC-52.1, Studies Graduate University- 45.8, MUST-2.1 5 Business 1576.5 oligopsony IFE-32.5, Graduate Management University-17.6, MUST-8.0 6 Literary 4556.2 monopsony NUM-61.5, Hovd Studies University-23.1, University of UB-15.4 7 Foreign 3533.1 monopsony MNU-50.6, IUU-29.1, language Soyol Erdem Studies Institute-8.9 8 Journalism 1930.8 oligopsony MNUE-32.4, NUM- 18.9, Zohiomj Institute-8.9 9 Accounting 2146.1 oligopsony NUM-39.4, MULS- 14.9, IFE-12.3 1 International 5449.1 monopsony NUM-71.9, Graduate 0 Relations University-12.6, University of Humanities-9.6 1 Education 5394.4 monopsony MNUE-71.6, Shine 1 Management Irgenshil Institute- 14.5, Tsetsee gun Institute-6.3

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1 Public Service 3752.2 monopsony UB Erdem University- 2 56.6, NUM-14.7, MNUE-14.0 1 State 2638.8 monopsony Seruuleg Institute- 3 administratio 41.4, National n Academy of Management Governance-26.5, Graduate University- 9.9 1 Family 10000.0 monopsony IUU-100 4 Studies 1 Water 3554.7 monopsony NUM-40.6, MULS- 5 Management Darkhan-40.6, MUST- 15.6

Although there are lots of institutes and universities in Mongolia the fact that all of the 15 specialties’ markets are monopolistic or oligopoly says that students taking master’s programs are centralized in a few universities.

Expansion of financing of the higher educational institutions and aligning it to the development policy are important issues. In order to deal with these issues universities follow two principles: first, increasing revenues, and second, properly allocating costs. In the cost side there are fixed and variable costs. As for fixed costs they are not directly related to the production of product units, and include the costs which are necessary “to open the doors to start the business” [2].

The analysis of correlation between the tuition fee and the number of students is conducted on the example of the Graduate University of Mongolia. Almost 90 percent of the total funding of the Graduate University of Mongolia is formed only from the tuition payment. Therefore, the number of students who attended master’s program in

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2009-2015 and the rate of tuition fee were determined and the correlation between the tuition fee and the number of students was calculated by quadratic equation in SPSS (software) and shown in the figure below.

Figure 5. Correlation between tuition fee and the number of students

As the number of students attending master’s programs at the Graduate University of Mongolia has a strong correlation with the rate of tuition fee, based on analysis above it was calculated how the number of students changes depending on the tuition fee variations and shown in the table below.

Table 3. Changes of the number of students in sight of changes in tuition fee

Tuition fee variation Corresponding number of students 2.5 mln tugrik 182 3.0 mln tugrik 386 3.5 mln tugrik 477 4.0 mln tugrik 454 4.5 mln tugrik 317 5.0 mln tugrik 67 Table 3 shows that when the tuition fee is 2.5 mln. tugriks, the number of students attending master’s programs would be 182; when the

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tuition fee is 3.0 mln. tugriks, the number of students attending master’s programs would be 386; when the tuition fee is 3.5 mln. tugriks, the number of students attending master’s programs would be 477; when the tuition fee is 4.0 mln. tugriks, the number of students attending master’s programs would be 454; when the tuition fee is 4.5 mln. tugriks, the number of students attending master’s programs would be 317; when the tuition fee is 5.0 mln. tugriks, the number of students attending master’s programs would be 67. In other words, when the tuition fee is 3.5 mln. tugriks, the number of students would be at its maximum rate of 477. However if the tuition fee is below 3.5 mln. tugriks the number of students would be 182-386, and if to set the tuition fee rate at 5 mln. tugriks, the number of students would sharply fall reaching 67. Thus, it is necessary to set the tuition fee at the rate close to 3.5 mln. tugriks.

CONCLUSION

Although there are lots of institutes and universities in higher education sector and it looks like there is a perfectly competitive market, in fact the monopsony and oligopoly market characteristics are dominating. The funding source of higher educational institutions of Mongolia is the tuition payment, and whether the tuition fee rate is low or high depends on the number of students. However setting too low or too high tuition fee rates may be the reason of decrease in the number of students. Regarding to the university considered as an example, there is an opportunity to raise the tuition fee of the master’s program to 4.0 mln. tugriks.

Notwithstanding that the legal basis for educational activities is well established, universities as well as the government still have not found the solution to the issues related to funding, which is the driving force of any activity. Thus, making clear the ways of financing will provide conditions to develop the science.

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REFERENCES

Batchimeg N., Tamir Ch. (2013). Report on analysis of tertiary education policy

Boldbaatar L. (2004). Some issues on financial management of higher educational institutions. MUST, Ulaanbaatar.

Johnson, H.T. (1990). Activity Management: Reviewing the Past and Future of Cost Management. Journal of Cost Management: Vol. 3, No. 4, Winter 1990: pages 4 – 7.

John Daniel. (2011)., The Impact of New Business Models for Higher Education on Student Financing, Bellagio Conference Centre.

Kiesling, H. (1979). Economic Cost Analysis in Higher Education: The University of Mid-America and Traditional Institutions Compared. Educational Communication and Technology, 27(1), 9-24.

Santos, J. L. (2007). Resource Allocation in Public Research Universities. The Review of Higher Education, 30(2).

Telem, M. (1981). The Institution of Higher Education - A Functional Perspective. Higher Education, 10, 581-596.

Y.M. Mensah, R. W. (2003). Cost efficiency and financial flexibility in institutions of higher education. Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, 22.

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WOMEN AN IDEOLOGICAL VIEW

Batchu Prabhakar Rao Associate Professor Department of Science and Humanities Krishna Chaitanya Institute of Technology and Sciences Markapur, Andhra Pradesh Abstract: Empowering the women has become the focus of considerable discussion and attention all over the world as well as associated with research in many educational disciplines including that of adult education. Today women is stigmatized and rebuked by the family and society. In the awake of increasing social awareness of the asymmetry of the development process, the gaps between the men and women, rich and the poor, the agricultural labours, and the rich peasants. This paper focused on the role of women empowerment in society and awareness of women for economic and social development.

Key words: Women Empowerment, Economic Development, Importance of Awareness programmes

Introduction:

Man is by nature a social being. He comes into contact with other individuals in different capacities. These contacts with associations are the inevitable consequence of modern civilization. The women can relate themselves with only those who reside near him in a given area. It is inevitable; people living in an area develop social likeness, common social ideas, common traditions and the sense of belongingness. The fact of social living and common specific area gives birth to community. In all these associations, one is expected to observe a code of conduct or a set of rules. The object of these set of rules is to make association of human possible and ensures that members of the society may live and work together in an orderly and peaceful manner. Social change is a Universal Phenomenon. Increase in population,

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development in science and technology, etc., are some of the factors which usher in change. Social or political revolutions can bring about change often on a large-scale. The French Revolution, for example, changed the social structure and culture of European society in many respects. Any discussion on social development must pay due attention to the interrelationship between social, economic, political, cultural and environmental situations. As far as India is concerned, it must be recognized that while the society is comparatively stable, it is also stratified, exclusive, and patriarchal. In the field of social and welfare services, the pattern of development has reflected imbalances and sole dependency over the years.

Woman is the e greatest gift of god t o humanity. A women, in our country, belongs to a class or group of society who are in a disadvantageous position on account of several social barriers and impediments and have, therefore, been the victim of tyranny at the hands of men with whom they, fortunately, under the constitution enjoy equal status, women also have the right to life and liberty; they also have the right to be respected and treated as equal citizens. They must have the liberty, the freedom and, of course, independence to the live the roles assigned to them by nature so that the society may flourish as they alone have the talents and capacity to shape the distinity and character of men anywhere and in every part of the world1.

India is a pluralist country. The reverence for women is interwoven in its cultural raiment of which Hinduism and Islam are the main strands. It is the catchword of Hindu familial jurisprudence and so of its methodology that “where women are revere gods lives.” So does Islam venerate motherhood in un-eloquent language, and ordains “underneath mother’s feet is the paradise” beside the Quran venerates

1 Bodhisattwa Gautam V Subhara Chakraborty, AIR 1996 SC 922: (1996), I SCC 490

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femininity in different contexts2. Women held enviable position. Women in Vedic period enjoyed equal status with men in all spheres of life. The Indian philosophers of yore (the rashes) considered that the seeds of divinity grow and blossom in a truly cultured society where women are given due respect and equal opportunities of rise and dignity. Works like patanjali & Katyayana suggest that women were disseminated Vedic Knowledge (education at that time), seers, sages and philosophers like Gargi, Maitreyi, Yami, Indrani, ect. Highlight the reverence which women enjoyed in ancient times. Women participated in both social and business life3.

Women have been the victims of violence and exploitation by the male dominated society all over the world. India is no exception to this unfortunate situation. Justice, liberty, equality, and dignity on the four main elements of free life stipulated in the Indian Constitution, they are the steps to the attainment of goals of welfare state and all efforts of the government are directed towards this end in view4.

Social Development of women:

Development with motivation and full participation of the rural women people has no foundation and no prospect of success, overall. The interrelation between participation and socio – economic development is always important of women. Social development in the form of women empowerment, equitable distribution of income and wealth, is a far cry without creating a conducive atmosphere through awareness generation and skill development. The awareness of gender equality, environmental degradation, health, care, legal education, etc., is essential for the health growth of the society.

2 hDattatreya Motiram V. State of Bombay, AIR 1953 Bom 842. 3 H.l kumar, Dismissal of sexual harasser upheld-S.C gives women’s Right a shout in area, Labour Law Journal, 1999, pg 235 to 237. 4 Dushyant Yadv, Protection of women from domestic violence in India , Indian Bar Review: Vol.XLI (1) 2014 ,p.105

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Social development without developing leadership qualities at the grass root level results in distortions of various types. The women welfare development organizations and its traditional intuitions like women panchayats exercise an enormous social and moral authority over its members and these should be effectively involved for protection of the women interest in land, this is significant because even the powers conferred on some officers in initiate Suo -Moto action have not led to the detection of all the cases of their restoration, the women development organization/ institutions.

Economic Development:

Economic growth with social justice one of the most important goals of developing economy likes ours. Harmonious growth of intersectoral income, trade and income distribution are some of the pre- requisites of accelerated economic development. In the process of growth, agriculture and industry depends on each other for raw materials and market, besides, it is often argued that declining output ratio of agriculture and industry increases the net domestic product and affects the income distribution pattern in the economy.

Contribution of Education to Women Development:

Education is fundamental to the social development. Illiteracy is invariably associated with deprivation and socio- economic under development. Realization of this basic truth ultimately found expression in the resolution. The vast literature of social science acknowledges education as the most important co-relate of development. The role of education, as a direct investment, can be appreciated considering the spectacular recovery of war torn economy of Europe and Japan after the Second World War.

In India women are more than man, most of this woman are living in bad condition they are suffering various problems since independence; the Government has implemented several empowerment

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programmes to develop or empower the women. But they have not made any remarkable improvement in their living conditions. It can be mainly attributed to the non-availability of education and information on the emerging technologies. Therefore, transfer of new technologies to the rural communities has become essential to empower them with education, power, and position; it challenges social conventions and customs. Women education influences all the family members with whom she deals and it helps to eradicate the poverty and thereby triggering development. Women education influences all the family members with whom she deals and it helps to eradicate the poverty and thereby triggering development5.

Role of NGOs in Women Empowerment

There is infinite number of goals before Public aware societies and the goals which are achieved by Public aware societies are our inspiration. In present day’s modern society also women are being discriminated in the society and some women are still suffering from problems like illiteracy, superstitions, child marriages and dowry. Public aware societies will help in empowerment of women and Public aware societies will create legal awareness among all categories of people. The main aim of the public aware societies is to supply the information regarding Women empowerment laws, criminal laws and other books to common people. To promote awareness among the people Public aware societies will help more and they are very useful in creating awareness among people.

Public library play important role in women empowerment process. Hence it has been established as a crucial place in the life of women, as it provides information that is essential for the women empowerment. It will help for their own development, family and

5 Ravikuar S k (20006) Indian women 1st ed, Jaipur, deep Publication, p. 32-46

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community development6. Awareness programme is the dissemination of knowledge about local issues and social practices affecting rights of women in order to make the civil society aware of their responsibility and expose the struggle of the poor sections of the society. However, the public libraries, media and social welfare agencies play an equally important role in the dissemination of information on rights and the responsibilities among the people.

Legal awareness for Women Empowerment:

Many women and girls are not aware of laws on violence against women, of their legal rights, or how to exercise these rights. Legal awareness is necessary for women in all nations, so that they can affirmatively claim their rights. Legal literacy/awareness programme for which it produces a variety of legal awareness training materials, including books, manuals, posters, pamphlets, radio plays and films.

The greatest impediment in the way of the National Council for Women (NCW) to achieve its desired goal of empowering women is the lack of legal awareness among the poor strata of the society and the absence of a proper channel to impart legal knowledge to them. In order to dispel this prevalent ignorance and recognizing the need to impart legal awareness to all, the NCW envisioned the concept of a legal awareness programme for women. The underlying objective is to create awareness among women about their constitutional entitlements, legal rights and remedies and facilities access to justice to them by informing them about various means of redressal. The programme also aims to popularize alternative dispute settlement mechanisms for civil matters and sensitize men about the rights of women. In a democratic country the administration of the country

6 Sasi P.K (2014) Role of public libraries on women empowerment: A Study with special reference to District Library Malappuram, IOSR Journalof Humanities and social science (IOSR- JHSS) , vol. 19, Issue 10,p. 36-42

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depends upon laws of the country. Therefore, if the women of the country are aware about the laws of the country it will help in the social, economic, cultural development of the country.

Conclusion:

The development of the women NGOs (Non Governmental Organizations) should conduct the awareness programmes and reputed institutions and aims to empower women and girls with the knowledge of their rights and duties, ultimately to be able to share power equally, gain full access to the means of development and to inspire a whole generation of women to work together towards achieving equality and justice. NGOs, local leaders, legal fraternity and progressive farmers at local level can also play an important role in removing illiteracy and poverty among the women and making them aware of the importance of in their personal development as well as development of the society as a whole through awareness camps.

Awareness is a process of self and social empowerment that moves women and others not only to activate the rights they do have, but to redefine and reshape that inadequate ones as expressed in practice. Awareness can empower women to demand justice. Accountability and effective remedies at all levels. Legal and general needs always stand to become crisis oriented because their ignorance prevents them from anticipating legal troubles and approaching a lawyer for consultation and advice in time. In a democratic country the administration of the country depends upon laws of the country. Therefore, if the citizens of the country are people aware about the laws of the country it will help in the social, political, economic, cultural development of the country. In a democratic country like India, it is necessary to create awareness about the rights and duties among the women for the development of the nation. By establishing the NGOs, Special Legal and general Agencies across the country in state, district levels we can promote and crate awareness among the women which will help in the development of the country.

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CRISIS vs LEADERSHIP

Bompada Janardanarao Prof. Jaladi Ravi Ph.D Research Scholar (PT) Department of Commerce and Department of Commerce and Management Studies Management Studies Andhra University Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam

Abstract

As the crisis is a sudden unexpected event which is nothing but a threat and lead to Unrest to the organization, among people, stockholders and employees seriously interrupt the business and significantly damage the reputation Crisis Management is the process with which organization deals with and resolve the problem. In fact it is designed to lessen and prevent the damage happened during the crisis. Crisis management has 3 phases like pre crisis, crisis response and post crisis. The study of crisis management originated with the large-scale industrial and environmental disasters in the 1980s. the dangerous signals leading to crisis are – decreasing Market share and profitability; failure to plough back the profit into business. Lack of planning, inflexible CEO, Increased dependence on debt and restricted dividend policies etc.,

There are 10commandments in crisis management like- speak with one voice, Resist the urge to discipline too early, Beginnings are as important as endings, every crisis is unique and advance planning is a vital etc., Also in crisis the Leadership is about playing to strengths and addressing weaknesses in the most productive and efficient way possible. And it is the ability to see a problem and be the solution.

A perfect leader should posses 5 genuine core values- Initiative, Decisiveness, Ethics, Accountability, Speed. Important characters of a

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perfect leader are- Honesty, Delegating authority, Communication and Commitment, positive attitude, creativeness, Inspire, approach, Intuition, positive attitude etc.,

There are 6 leader ship styles we can see while handling the crisis: A.Coercive – the "coercive" leadership style as, "Do as I say .B.Authoritative-A company that is floundering might be helped when a leader uses the authoritative, "come with me" approach. C. Affiliative - In using an affiliative style, the leader puts great emphasis on the team members to build their morale and help them feel good about working together as a team. D. Democratic -Giving everyone a voice and a vote sounds fair,. It's a good way to encourage everyone to speak up and offer ideas, which is especially useful when the direction to take is uncertain and new thoughts are needed.E. Pace setting-Leaders who set high standards for themselves and encourage others to meet these standards are setting the pace for high achievement. It works for highly self-motivated employees, but others can feel constantly pushed to excel. F. Coaching-Coaching is great for helping employees who want to improve their habits and are eager to have help doing so. It doesn't work as well for those who are resistant to change or don't believe they need to do so

Crisis leadership, on the other hand, immediately addresses both the damage and implications for the company’s present and future conditions, as well as opportunities for improvement.

‘CRISIS’ Any situation that is threatening or could threaten to harm people or property, seriously interrupt business, significantly damage reputation and/or negatively impact the bottom line. Every organization is vulnerable to crises.

Crisis management is the process by which an organization deals with a disruptive and unexpected event that threatens to harm the organization, its stakeholders, or the general public. Also it is designed

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to prevent or lessen the damage a crisis can inflict on an organization and its stakeholders. As a process, crisis management is not just one thing. Crisis management can be divided into three phases: (1) pre- crisis, (2) crisis response, and (3) post-crisis. The pre-crisis phase is concerned with prevention and preparation. The crisis response phase is when management must actually respond to a crisis. The post-crisis phase looks for ways to better prepare for the next crisis and fulfills commitments made during the crisis phase including follow-up information.

The study of crisis management originated with the large-scale industrial and environmental disasters in the 1980s It is considered to be the most important process in public relations.Three elements are common to a crisis: (a) A threat to the organization, (b) The element of surprise, and (c) A short decision time. According to ‘Venette’s arguement the "crisis is a process of transformation where the old system can no longer be maintained." Therefore, the fourth defining quality is the need for ‘change’. If change is not needed, the event could more accurately be described as a failure or incident.

10 commandments of Crisis Management that can be implemented effectively to smoothen the Financial other operational services of the firm.

1.Heed the Boys Scouts’ Motto: be prepared.

Two levels of preparation are necessary to successfully weather a crisis. The first might best be described as crisis prevention. This involves among other things a general review of the adequacy of the firm’s compliance and information and control systems. When they function effectively, these systems should reduce the occurrence of unplanned disasters and facilitate the mitigation of the effects of those that cannot be prevented..

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The second level of preparation involves being ready to effectively deal with a crisis when it arises. In today’s business environment a crisis- particularly for securities and financial firms may seem almost inevitable.

2. As Every crisis is Unique, Advance planning has vital role:

All crisis are unique and inevitably raise complex and often unforeseen issues. Thus there is no single template for a crisis response that will assure that injury will be avoided or minimized. Custom tailoring, not off the rack efficiency, is the best prescription. However, there are certain similarities and predictable patterns in the way most crises unfold. The first step is establish core crisis teams for each foreseeable type of crisis. The team should include corporate leadership and high level representatives from operations and technology, the finance department, media relations, investor relations, the risk and compliance function, and the legal department. Project specific specialists, such as accountants, should also be included.

3.Beginnings are as important as endings

The outset of a crisis is when proper preparation pays off . Once a crisis actually occurs, the pertinent crisis team can be assembled immediately without losing valuable time. It is critical to quickly get at the facts and find out as much as possible about the situation. Most often the lawyers will oversee the factual investigation.

4. Speak with one Voice

Planning ahead for how communications will be handled in the event of a crisis is critical. while numerous constituencies will want to be kept informed during a crisis(e.g. employees, shareholders, trading counterparties, customers, government prosecutors and regulators and the public) every effort should be made to speak with one voice and to avoid communicating mixed or inconsistent messages. Firms should

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assess what issues will be of interest to each constituency and craft responses that will reasonably satisfy them that the crisis is being managed properly and that their interest are being protected. The firm should speak with a single trained voice via a pre-designated spokesperson or control group authorized to deliver the public message. The firm may want to consider involving public relations professionals early on to set the right tone.

5. Stop any bad practices as soon as possible

Any illegal activities should be stopped as soon as the firm learns about them. It is important to promptly address whatever problem seems to be precipitating the crisis.

6. Be careful of the “First Date”

Maintaining credibility with regulators and prosecutors is critical. The firms relationship with regulators does not begin with the onset of a crisis. Long term investment in a reputation for integrity and compliance can provide a reservoir of good will that may help at a critical time.

7. you may be able to protect the attorney –client privilege, but you still have to share the key facts.

The principles now state that credit for cooperation will not depend on whether a corporation has waived attorney client privilege or work product protection. or produced materials covered by attorney client or work product protections. But rather, will depend on the disclosure of pertinent facts. Corporations that timely disclose relevant facts to the government may receive credit for cooperation regardless of whether they waive privilege in the process.

8.Not every stone needs to be turned over.

Internal investigations should be designed to uncover the facts relevant to the crisis. Management must know the cause and effects in

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order to implement appropriate preventative steps. Despite the need to know the relevant facts. Not every stone must necessarily be overturned. The nature of the investigation and decision about who should conduct and oversee it are highly fact-specific. Good management practices suggest that the limits of the investigation should be carefully set and reset, if necessary..

9. Resist the urge to discipline too early-

Firm should tread carefully when determining whether and when to take action against employees involved in a crisis. While they may feel pressure from the press the public, congress and /or the board to move quickly to punish those viewed as responsible. Companies should resist the impulse to discipline reflexively. Fairness to employees and officers requires caution here, and frequently coincides with the firm’s best interest. Discipline is often more wisely one of the last steps in an investigation rather than the first in order to ensure that firms do not act prematurely, without full information. Strong discipline may alienate other employees who possess important information. Employee cooperation will be much more difficult to obtain after disciplinary action is taken.

10. When the smoke clears, learn from the experience.

Once the crisis has abated, the firm will often need to take steps repair its reputation with regulators and others. And to restore employee morale. It is also the time to learn from the crisis. The firm’s information reporting and control and compliance structures will have been tested and perhaps shown to be wanting. Therefore, it is prudent for management to review these systems to prevent future problems and to assure the board that such a review is being undertaken. Periodic risk assessment and reassessment are also critical. The firm must have a strong well informed group of the financial, reputational and legal risks in its various lines of regulated businesses and should

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ensure that a workable early warning system is established. As the business changes, these risk assessments must be refreshed.

As it was narrated by our great Hon’ble Ex- prime minister, Pandit Jawahalal Nehru - The real leader of Action in a Crisis almost always acts subconsciously and thinks of the reason for his action.

Universally accepted dangerous signals which a company should vigilant for

 Decreasing market share / Decreasing constant rupee sales

 Decreasing profitability

 Increased dependence on debt / Restricted dividend polices

 Failure to plough back the profits into business / Wrong diversification at the expense of the core business.

 Lack of Planning.

 Inflexible CEO / Management succession problems / Unquestioning Board of Directors

 A management team unwilling to learn from competitors Leader Ship : Action of leading a group of people or Organization or ability to do this. This may be Superintendency. Practical skill encompassing the ability of an individual or the organization to lead or guide other individuals, team or entire organization. According to idea of transformational leadership an effective leader is a person who creates the inspiring vision of future. He inspires and motivates the people to engage with that vision.

Leadership is about playing to strengths and addressing weaknesses in the most productive and efficient way possible. And it is the ability to see a problem and be the solution. So many people are willing to talk about problems or can even empathize, but not many can see the

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problem or challenge and rise to it. It takes a leader to truly see a problem as a challenge and want to drive toward it. That is what causes people to want to follow, and a true leader has a following. Also "A leader is someone who leads by example and has the integrity to do the right thing even when it is not popular. A good leader has positive influence over others, inspiring them to become a better person and example for others to model their life against, as well." It is serving the people that work for you by giving them the tools they need to succeed. "Leadership is the ability to help people achieve things, they don't think are possible. Leaders are coaches with a passion for developing people, not players; they get satisfaction from achieving objectives through others. Leaders inspire people through a shared vision and create an environment where people feel valued and fulfilled

"Effective leadership is providing the vision and motivation to a team so they work together toward the same goal, and then understanding the talents and temperaments of each individual and effectively motivating each person to contribute individually their best toward achieving the group goal." "Leadership is being bold enough to have vision and humble enough to recognize achieving it will take the efforts of many people — "leadership is about three things: To listen, to inspire and to empower. Over the years, it is tried to learn to do a much better job listening actively, making sure , really understand the other person's point of view, learning from them, and using that basis of trust and collaboration to inspire and empower. It's about setting the bar high, and then giving them the time and resources to do great work."

"It may be defined- leadership as knowing when to be in front to lead and guide a team during the journey, and when to step back and let others take the lead. And " leadership is an act — a decision to take a stand, or step, in order to encourage, inspire or motivate others to move with you. What's more, the most effective leaders do not rely on their title, or positional power, to lead. Rather, their ability to use their own

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personal power combined with their use of strategic influence are what make them effective."

Organizations face challenges on an ongoing basis, but there are differences between simply surviving a crisis and leading through one.

Essentially a perfect leader should posses the following genuine core values

Initiative --- Leader should possess a self propelled and proactive approach.

Decisiveness : leader should take the decision with Speed and clarity

Ethics: Leader has to be very much consistent with Professional and Moral values.

Accountability: a Leader should take the responsibility for actions

Speed : leader has to demonstrate swiftness and efficiency in every thing he does.

Top Ten characteristics of a great leader-

Having a great idea, and assembling a team to bring that concept to life is the first step in creating a successful business venture . Here are some key qualities that every good leader should possess, and learn to emphasize.

1.Honesty:Whatever ethical plane you hold yourself to, when you are responsible for a team of people, its important to raise the bar even higher. Your business and its employees are a reflection of yourself, and if you make honest and ethical behavior a key value, your team will follow suit. Promote a healthy interoffice lifestyle, and encourage your team to live up to these standards. By emphasizing these standards, and displaying them yourself, you will hopefully influence the office environment into a friendly and helpful workspace.

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2.Delegate:Finessing your brand vision is essential to creating an organized and efficient business, but if you don’t learn to trust your team with that vision, you might never progress to the next stage. Its important to remember that trusting your team with your idea is a sign of strength, not weakness. Delegating tasks to the appropriate departments is one of the most important skills you can develop as your business grows. The emails and tasks will begin to pile up, and the more you stretch yourself thin, the lower the quality of your work will become, and the less you will produce. The key to delegation is identifying the strengths of your team, and capitalizing on them. Find out what each team member enjoys doing most. Chances are if they find that task more enjoyable, they will likely put more thought and effort behind it. This will not only prove to your team that you trust and believe in them, but will also free up your time to focus on the higher level tasks, that should not be delegated. It’s a fine balance, but one that will have a huge impact on the productivity of your business.

3.Communication : Knowing what you want accomplished may seem clear in your head, but if you try to explain it to someone else and are met with a blank expression, you know there is a problem. If this has been your experience, then you may want to focus on honing your communication skills. Being able to clearly and succinctly describe what you want done is extremely important. If you can’t relate your vision to your team, you won’t be working towards the same goal. Training new members and creating a productive work environment all depend on healthy lines of communication. Whether that stems from an open door policy to your office, or making it a point to talk to your staff on a daily basis, making yourself available to discuss interoffice issues is vital. Your team will learn to trust and depend on you, and will be less hesitant to work harder. If your website crashes, you lose that major client, or your funding dries up, guiding your team through the process without panicking is as challenging as it is important. Morale is linked to productivity, and it’s your job as the team leader to instill a positive energy.

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4.Confidence:There may be days where the future of your brand is worrisome and things aren’t going according to plan. This is true with any business, large or small, and the most important thing is not to panic. Part of your job as a leader is to put out fires and maintain the team morale. Keep up your confidence level, and assure everyone that setbacks are natural and the important thing is to focus on the larger goal. As the leader, by staying calm and confident, you will help keep the team feeling the same. Remember, your team will take cues from you, so if you exude a level of calm damage control, your team will pick up on that feeling. The key objective is to keep everyone working and moving ahead.

5.Commitment :If you expect your team to work hard and produce quality content, you’re going to need to lead by example. There is no greater motivation than seeing the boss down in the trenches working alongside everyone else, showing that hard work is being done on every level. By proving your commitment to the brand and your role, you will not only earn the respect of your team, but will also instill that same hardworking energy among your staff. It’s important to show your commitment not only to the work at hand, but also to your promises. If you pledged to host a holiday party, or uphold summer Fridays, keep your word. You want to create a reputation for not just working hard, but also be known as a fair leader. Once you have gained the respect of your team, they are more likely to deliver the peak amount of quality work possible.

6.Positive Attitude: You want to keep your team motivated towards the continued success of the company, and keep the energy levels up. Whether that means providing snacks, coffee, relationship advice, or even just an occasional beer in the office, remember that everyone on your team is a person.

7.Creativity:Some decisions will not always be so clear-cut. You may be forced at times to deviate from your set course and make an on the fly decision. This is where your creativity will prove to be vital. It is during

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VOLUME 6, ISSUE 4(9), APRIL 2017 these critical situations that your team will look to you for guidance and you may be forced to make a quick decision. As a leader, its important to learn to think outside the box and to choose which of two bad choices is the best option.

8.Intuition:When leading a team through uncharted waters, there is no roadmap on what to do. Everything is uncertain, and the higher the risk, the higher the pressure. That is where your natural intuition has to kick in. Guiding your team through the process of your day-to-day tasks can be honed down to a science. But when something unexpected occurs, or you are thrown into a new scenario, your team will look to you for guidance. Drawing on past experience is a good reflex, as is reaching out to your mentors for support. Eventually though, the tough decisions will be up to you to decide and you will need to depend on your gut instinct for answers. Learning to trust yourself is as important as your team learning to trust you.

9.Inspire:Creating a business often involves a bit of forecasting. Especially in the beginning stages of a startup, inspiring your team to see the vision of the successes to come is vital. Make your team feel invested in the accomplishments of the company. Whether everyone owns a piece of equity, or you operate on a bonus system, generating enthusiasm for the hard work you are all putting in is so important. Being able to inspire your team is great for focusing on the future goals, but it is also important for the current issues. When you are all mired deep in work, morale is low, and energy levels are fading, recognize that everyone needs a break now and then. Acknowledge the work that everyone has dedicated and commend the team on each of their efforts. It is your job to keep spirits up, and that begins with an appreciation for the hard work.

10.Approach:Not all human beings are the same. A basic concept, but something that is often overlooked. You have cultural perspectives, language barriers, different educational backgrounds, personality traits

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VOLUME 6, ISSUE 4(9), APRIL 2017 and varying value systems with which individuals come pre-conditioned that greatly affects how information is processed and interpreted. Some people work well under pressure, others don’t. Some respond best to tough love, others take it personally and shut down. In order to optimize your effectiveness as a leader, you must have the ability to customize your approach on a person by person basis, based on the situation at hand. Your capacity to execute this concept will play a huge role in your ability to get the best work out of your team and other partners along he journey.

In this context, Instead, Organizations should focus on developing leadership skills and top communicators should identify who are the most effective individuals to lead during a crisis and enlist them in an organization’s planning and ongoing crisis management efforts. The Crisis Leadership Model suggests that crisis leadership involves a combination of 4 external factors like ‘information gathering, External conscience, Preparation, and Experience and a wide array of personal and leadership attributes, built on a foundation of communications reinforced by ‘Authenticity’ and ‘Influence’Conventional wisdom regarding crisis management leads managers to believe that a crisis plan and monitoring industry events can provide the proactive planning needed to avoid false first steps in responding to an industry event. In fact, a research has shown that the better prepared a company is the more likely it is to survive a crisis, or even possibly prosper from it as per Barton, Newell & Wilson, 2002; Herman & Oliver, in 2002). Crisis preparation helps organizations anticipate, identify and organize strategies and tactics to prevent or modify the impact of events . According to Gonzalez-Herrero (1995), research and planning are the most essential roles in crisis management, because they allow a company to identify and address potentially threatening issues to prevent a crisis.

For leaders, understanding the risks from crises and planning for them can make the difference between surviving and succumbing to them .One contributing factor to the increased amount of risk placed on leadership

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VOLUME 6, ISSUE 4(9), APRIL 2017 today is the rapid distribution of information, whereby vast amounts are available almost immediately. Technology has created more open access to information to all publics, which transforms local news into global news and internal communication into external .Organizations and their leaders are now watched by the world 24 hours a day. For all the negative news today, there is growing evidence that crisis prepared companies fare better financially and stay in business longer 01, Tiller concluded that approximately 40 percent of Fortune 1000 industrial companies did not have an operational crisis plan, and Burnett surmised that “50 to 70 percent of the largest profit-making organizations in the United States haven’t made any disaster plans” (Burnett, 1998,. However, in light of recent events, there is evidence that this casual approach is changing, and that organizational leaders are beginning to place more emphasis on reputation management and crisis planning. One theory to explain the apparent apathy among leaders toward crisis planning is that executives do not pay as much attention to crisis planning because they are preoccupied with stock market pressures other issues of that particular financial quarter .Experts at Wharton and McKinsey say that leadership can actually be found in all levels of an organization. They emphasize that leaders, regardless of their position within the organization, have several key skills, including integrity, strategic thinking, communication, persuasion and decisiveness . Leadership expert John Baldoni ( in 2004) points out that authenticity is a leadership imperative. John Kotter (in 2001), a leadership expert at the Harvard Business School, defines leadership as the ability to cope with change. More change, he argues, demands more leadership. In similar research, others also conclude that adapting to change is imperative to crisis communications, whether it is chaos theory (Murphy, 1996), a classification matrix (Burnett, 1998), or the role of perception in crisis communications (Penrose, 2000). First, we must deal with the difficulty simply trying to define a crisis event. Many definitions of crisis management and crisis exist. What we do know is that a crisis does or has the potential to disrupt or affect an entire organization

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(Coombs, 1999). Crises also can be “show-stopping, people stopping, reputation ally defining” events that create victims (Lukaszewski, 2003). According to Pearson (1998), organizational crises are low-probability, high-impact events that threaten the viability of an organization. Pauchant & Mitroff (1992) say that crises have varying outcomes and can threaten the legitimacy of an industry and reverse the strategic mission of affected organizations. “A person's true character is revealed in times of crisis, and those innate qualities are not going to be changed,” said Hoffman. “Crisis leadership incorporates an ability to rapidly and intuitively make critical decisions with the traits common to all leaders – intelligence, influence and vision,” added Bernstein. Leaders facing a crisis will need to evaluate their own skill set, ideally before a crisis occurs. The values that many of the experts in this project expressed need to be sincere and authentic and embraced by the leader of a crisis ahead of time. The success of a crisis leader is measured in terms of his or her ability to influence or motivate key audiences toward a specific behavior or belief. In order to gain trust, leaders need to learn to use their value set and develop a level of authenticity. The Crisis Leadership Model was created which may help communications professionals examine who should be the best person to take command during a time of crisis and it can help crisis management teams learn more about building trust with stakeholders.

Crisis Leadership Model: The goal of any Crisis Leader is to build and sustain an organization’s trust and credibility among employees, communities, customers, partners, suppliers, investors and others that rely on the individual and his/her organization through two-way communication. Trust allows an organization to function in its normal state of affairs prior to a crisis occurring and will be Important in sustaining its reputation. But trust is earned and cannot occur without ‘authenticity and Influence’ from a Crisis Leader. Without these two characteristics, Authenticity and Influence, a crisis leader will lack support from the inside and/or outside. These traits are the pillars of crisis

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VOLUME 6, ISSUE 4(9), APRIL 2017 leadership. While management may be able to brush aside crisis planning as non-essential, this model should demonstrate that organizations cannot afford to fake crisis leadership.

A Genuine Leadership should have following traits and values:

Personal Attributes/Values-

 Integrity Organized

 Intelligence Analytical

 Passion Vision

 Charisma Courage

 Ability for Information External Conscience

 Communications

 Authenticity

 Influence

 Trust

 Preparation Experience External Influencers. These are factors may or may not be related to the crisis at hand, but are essential to leading an organization to normalcy. Information – During a crisis, leaders must have ongoing, two-way access to information (e.g., research, media stories and data), in order to assess the situation and make informed decisions for the benefit of the organization and its stakeholders that will move a situation into a more positive direction. Without information, a crisis leader is powerless to make effective decisions.

“External Conscience” –Effective crisis leaders know that they must have someone outside of their organization who can act as a sounding board. This may be a religious leader, outside consultant, mentor or

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trusted colleague. This neutral advisor is a person used for two-way communication to provide direction, not answers, in order to provide a subjective approach to a crisis.

“Preparation” – Before any crisis an effective crisis leader needs training in dealing with the media and all internal and external stakeholders. Whether this is in the form of risk management or from an outside consultant, training will help in preparing for unexpected events and communicating results. This is one-way knowledge since leaders must use the skills acquired in the past from training.

“Experience” – Experience as a leader and taking charge of situations plays into the ability for an individual to take command during chaos. This provides one way insight since leaders cannot go back in time but must draw on prior events and knowledge.

“Pillars” for crisis management and crisis leader:

“Authenticity” – A crisis leader gets ahead of the often unavoidable, sometimes Un pleasant realities of a crisis event, and communicates both realities and possibilities in a context of uncompromising honesty. Authenticity requires a leader to ensure actions are aligned with the spoken word; that those actions are meaningful; and to ensure that ethics and actions are not at odds at any time.

“Influence” – Influence is the attempt to control messages and affect the outcomes of the situation. That is not to say it is necessarily good or bad. It is simply to say that it is just that, control. Positive influence in a crisis will evoke desired reactions and responses that help regain control over the situation and people involved.

“Communications” – Being a crisis leader usually, but not always, means being the internal and/or external spokesperson for the organization. A crisis leader must therefore possess the ability to deliver news, updates and constant communication to all target

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audiences. The leader must also use two-way communication, which means listening and responding to questions, concerns and feedback.

Personal Attributes/Value Set:

These are a mixture and combination of qualities that crisis leaders should possess. While these qualities are potentially endless to identify, this model reflects, from this researcher’s studies, the key traits. The effective crisis leader will use these attributes to adapt to the needs and reactions from his/her audiences and pull from these qualities

Business managers and communications managers should never discount the importance of crisis plans and preparation. Both remain vital elements to any organization and should be continuously examined..

“Leader ship Styles” to be adopted in Managing the Crisis.

A.Coercive –‘Goleman ‘describes the "coercive" leadership style as, "Do as I say." It's good only when it's important that others know to take orders without question, such as after a natural disaster. It might also be effective when a company needs a complete turnaround to stay in business. In most business situations, though, the coercive style is too overbearing and can squash employees' motivation and morale.

B.Authoritative-A company that is floundering might be helped when a leader uses the authoritative, "come with me" approach. Instead of giving orders, the leader gives the goal but lets team members decide how they're going to get there. Authoritative approaches work well when the team needs a new vision, but the members are self-directed enough to figure out how to accomplish it.

C. Affiliative -In using an affiliative style, the leader puts great emphasis on the team members to build their morale and help them feel good about working together as a team. Everyone's contributions are stressed, and everyone is important to the team. It's a good way to

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build trust and team harmony. A leader who only uses the affiliative style, however, often fails to correct poor employee actions, and the company can suffer as a result.

D. Democratic -Giving everyone a voice and a vote sounds fair, said Goleman, but it can bog down the company's operations. It's a good way to encourage everyone to speak up and offer ideas, which is especially useful when the direction to take is uncertain and new thoughts are needed. Giving everyone a say takes time, though, so it's not a good style for crisis situations or any time a decision is needed quickly.

E. Pace setting-Leaders who set high standards for themselves and encourage others to meet these standards are setting the pace for high achievement. It works for highly self-motivated employees, but others can feel constantly pushed to excel. Pacesetting can harm the company's overall climate when everyone feels pushed to do more and at a faster pace. When they can't keep up the pace, they begin to feel as if they're failing, regardless how much they might be achieving.

F.Coaching-Coaching is great for helping employees who want to improve their habits and are eager to have help doing so. It doesn't work as well for those who are resistant to change or don't believe they need to do so. It can also undermine a person's self-confidence if he feels he is being coached too much and not allowed to think for himself.

Conclusion:

Crisis as Opportunity for a great leaders to prove their ability of leader ship

Every crisis is an opportunity to showcase an institution's character, its commitment to its brand promise and its institutional values. To address such shareholder impact, management must move from a mindset that manages crisis to one that generates crisis leadership. Research shows that organizational contributory factors

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affect the tendency of executives to adopt an effective "crisis as opportunity" mindset. Since pressure is both a precipitator and consequence of crisis, leaders who perform well under pressure can effectively guide the organization through such crisis. Executives focus on communications and public relations as a reactive strategy. While the company’s reputation with shareholders, financial well-being, and survival are all at stake, potential damage to reputation can result from the actual management of the crisis issue. Additionally, companies may stagnate as their risk management group identifies whether a crisis is sufficiently “statistically significant”. Crisis leadership, on the other hand, immediately addresses both the damage and implications for the company’s present and future conditions, as well as opportunities for improvement.

References:

1. Barton, L. (2007). Crisis leadership now: A real-world guide to preparing for threats, disaster, sabotage, and scandal. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

2. Borodzicz, Edward P. (2005). Risk, Crisis and Security Management. West Sussex, England: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

3. Bossu, Gilles, Mazet-Roux. and Roussel. Citizen Seismology or How to Involve the Public in Earthquake Response in Comparative Emergency Management: Examining Global and Regional Responses to Disasters. Editors: D. M. Miller and J. Rivera. Auerbach/Taylor and Francis Publishers. pp. 237–259 2011

4. Coombs, W. T. (2006). Code Red in the Boardroom: Crisis Management as Organizational DNA. Westport, CT: Praeger.

5. Office of Security and Risk Management Services (October 2007). "Crisis Management Workbook" (PDF). Fairfax County Public Schools.

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6. Davidson, M.N. (2005). Ethics in Human Resource Management, in P.H. Werhane, R. E. Freeman (Eds.), Blackwell Encyclopedic Dictionary of Business Ethics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

7. Davidson, M.N. (2004). "Leading in Black and White: Working across the Racial Divide in Corporate America". Personnel Psychology. 75 (2).

8. Davidson, M.N. (2004). "Here and There: A Conversation about Identity". Industrial-Organizational Psychologist. 41 (3).

9. Davidson, M.N. (2004). "Diversity that matters". Batten Briefings. 3 (1).

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BARRIERS TO WOMEN’S CAREER PROGRESSION

Dr Bindiya Assistant Professor Chetana’s Institute of Management and Research Mumbai

Introduction

Since the last two decades, there has been increase in the number of women occupying managerial positions. But then also, they represent a very small percentage of top management positions like CEO. In developing Asia, the percentage of women having decision making power at workplace is still lower than men. In comparison to Europe and United States the percentage of women in Asian companies sitting on corporate boards is still low. The glass walls existing within hierarchical structures persisted in creating the subtle barriers for women. There are various jobs that are still considered suitable for women. In many countries, traditional gender roles and social customs influence the role that women are supposed to play in labour markets. Such norms generally internalise in the business world and become part of the fabric of corporate culture. In countries of Middle East and South Asia, efforts are being made to open up the route for women gaining access to managerial positions. Many MNCs in these countries are also acting as key players in hiring and promoting women in their managerial structures. Though there is increase in the number of women at managerial level but still their percentage is relatively low. Many factors were analysed by the previous studies that were responsible for the under representation of women at managerial levels. Social skills and professional expertise were the main factors responsible for the women advancement. However, other factors like ambition and luck also played an important role in their lives. But the support from both superiors and husbands (Goyal and Jaitly, 2016) was

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considered essential for the women in reaching the top managerial level position and in handling work-life balance problems.

International perspective on women holding board level positions

Various international consultancy and research companies conducted international surveys on women CEOs of large stock exchange companies. The 2013 Grant Thornton International Business Report indicated that 44 countries had 14 percent of women CEOs (9 percent increase from 2012). 2016 Grant Thornton International Business Report while exploring the global shift in the number of women occupying top positions in the business world indicated that only 19 percent of women were holding board roles around the world.

According to the World Economic Forum’s 2015 Gender Gap report, only 7% of seats are occupied by women in boards of publicly traded companies, and 11% of firms are having participation of female in ownership.In survey, the score of India measuring perception of people towards women’s ability to reach leadership positions was 3. Whereas the score of US in the survey was 5.1 while the score for Norway and Iceland stood at 6.

Rising to the top managerial positions, Indian women have occupied their place amongst the famous business elite. In India, 10% of the board level positions are held by women who represent 40% of global workforce. In addition, the double burden syndrome (the challenge of balancing work with family demands) amongst women is more in Asia rather than in Europe. According to Catalyst 2017, women in India are holding 2.7% of board chairs and 7.7% of board seats. Telecommunications, technology and media are the main service sectors with highest percentage of women holding board chairs.

Credit Suisse Research Institute's bi-annual CS Gender 3000 report indicated that over the last six years, women on boards in India

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doubled from 5.5 in 2010 to 11.2 in 2015. Out of the 12 Asia-Pacific countries surveyed, India occupied second lowest position for the representation of women at senior level whereas Australia showed the highest percentage of women at the board level.

As CEO’s and employees, women are economic forces across emerging markets. They make up 40 percent of world’s work force today and many of the sectors critical for economic growth of the country rely heavily on women employees. In this sense, banking and financial service sector are the main areas with maximum percentage of women segment. The banking sector in India did have its male domination till the 1980s but in the last three decades the gender equilibrium became ‘fairly’ poised.

In banking, many women leaders started their journey in late 1970s and 80s. In the 80s, it was realized that women could be great assets and their businesses need to be gender neutral. In the mid-80s and early 90s, Indian banking sector starting hiring number of smart women graduating from the B-schools. To name a few, Chanda Kochhar the Managing director of ICICI Bank is one of the success pillars of the retail business of the banking sector. Under her leadership, bank was able to won “Best Retail Bank in India” in 2001. She joined bank as a management trainee in 1984 and rose through the ranks to become the managing director and Chief Executive Officer. Then, Arundhati Bhattacharya, the real role model for the entire women community and the first female chairperson of State Bank of India launched a two-year sabbatical policy for women.

And the third largest bank i.e. Axis Bank is having Shikha Sharma at its helm. Various studies have indicated the women’s presence in top managerial positions as CEOs or board members. The 2017 catalyst survey relating to number of women on board indicated that percentage of women in senior positions has slowed down globally. In 2016, women

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held only 24% of senior positions across the world and 33% of global businesses were not having women in senior roles whereas in India, women were occupying only 16% of senior positions. In India, a study on 42 companies revealed the existence of gender gap at all levels of the pipeline that widened as women moved towards the senior managerial levels like CEO.

Socially constructed roles, family responsibilities and institutional discrimination are some of the main barriers responsible for women’s underrepresentation in managerial positions. Barrier known as a factor or event prevents the access of a person from making progress. Bolstering the role of women at workplace has now become a global issue. Hence, it is essential to understand and remove the barriers responsible for women’s under-representation on boards. The aim of my study is to highlight the barriers faced by women in reaching the top managerial position.The significance of my study is to contribute towards the endorsement and support of the need to promote more women at top managerial positions.

Literature Review

Experts have cited variety of barriers to advancement like lingering bias and career paths that inhibit women’s promotion. These barriers are not only deep-rooted but also pernicious for the progression of women to top level.There is considerable evidence indicating that women’s career is characterized by various barriers in comparison to men (Kumra and Vinnicombe, 2008; Mainiero and Sullivan, 2005, Lyness and Schrader, 2006). The proportion of women reaching the top managerial positions remained low due to the existence of discriminatory barrier termed as ‘glass ceiling’ (Maume, 2004). Embedded in societal, cultural and psychological factors, glass ceiling impedes the advancement of women to senior management positions (Jain and Mukherji, 2010).

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Performing domestic responsibilities are considered as the women’s primary roles and if there is any distraction in the performance of their primary role, it will lead to role conflict (Goyal and Jaitly, 2016).They are exposed to much more stress from the combined work-family demands than their male counterparts (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985; Jick and Mitz, 1985). Taking more leaves from office and less experience undercut woman’s managerial advancement (Waldfogel, 1998).Ridgeway (2001) demonstrated the negative impact of biased belief on the working mother’s performance at workplace. The belief that a working mother should give less priority to demands at workplace acts as a barrier to women’s advancement to top position.

If on one hand women are at the peak of ladder of success but on the other hand they are mutely suffering the violence afflicted on them by their own family members. In comparison to past, women in modern times have achieved a lot but in reality they still have to travel a long way. Their path is full of roadblocks. Govender (1997) in his study found role-conflict, insufficient maternity benefits, lack of role models and mentors as the main barriers faced by women at workplace. Such barriers further reduce the opportunities for women to influence the group decisions.

A supportive culture helps in the reduction of stress of employees thereby increasing their morale at workplace (Wise and Bond, 2003). Social support has been identified as a coping mechanism that helps in reducing negative effect of stressors (Carlson and Perrewe, 1999). Some studies have suggested that there is positive association of social support with the well-being of employees (GreenhausandParasuraman, 1986; Granrose, et al., 1992; Beehr and McGrath, 1992).

Barriers to women’s career progression

Out of 40 percent of global female workforce, only 4.6 percent of Fortune500 CEOs are female. McKinsey survey report states that

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women interested in moving to the next level are generally from entry and middle-management level i.e. 79 percent of women are from entry level and 83 percent are from middle level management. There are lot of obstacles that women have to face while reaching the top managerial positions. The findings of various studies have found the following barriers for the under-representation of women in top positions:

Family responsibilities

Women employees have to juggle their time between the demands of their family and the organization. At workplace, they face difficulty in shedding their role as house wife and mother. Even at a high managerial level, women still have the main responsibility for unpaid duties at home which slows down their careers. She has to fulfil the expectations of domestic and career roles which lead to role conflict. Such role conflict forces them to limit their career aspirations. She is left with fewer opportunities of job promotion. As a result women's work experience in comparison to men reduces which negatively affects their possibilities for advancement.

Cultural Barriers

Managerial and leadership roles are mainly associated with “man’s domain” that acts as an impeding factor for women’s advancement to top position. However, leadership roles requires certain qualities like ambition, strength, aggressiveness, decisiveness which are ascribed more to men in comparison to women.

Structural Barriers

Structural barriers like work-life balance, flexible working arrangements, lack of networks etc. too act as barriers for women in the corporate world.

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Self-imposed barrier

Women generally tend to hold themselves back from advancement with self-imposed barriers. Some barriers are partly self-imposed by women themselves arising out of either gender differences in behaviour or lack of confidence.

Lack of accountability mechanisms and gender-disaggregated evidence

For encouraging compliance with policies of gender equality and redressing the remaining inequalities, it is essential to establish robust accountability mechanisms. The significant evidence gaps on gender- differentiated needs are acting as obstacles to implement the targeted measures for improving the access of women to top managerial positions.

Women not considered tough for handling the high standards

Womenare considered as power hungry due to which they don’t want to empower their subordinates.In comparison to men, women also lack self-confidence and are more self-critical. This also includes their reluctance to put themselves forward for special assignments.

Reluctance of companies to hire women on top positions

Various organisational practices that are sound reflect more of the lives and situations of men like overseas assignments and rotation. As a result, such companies resist in hiring women for top managerial positions.

Insufficient management experience in diverse fields

One of the reasons for women not being selected for top management positions is due to their insufficient management experience in diverse fields. Women are concentrated in particular type of managerial

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functions reflecting the “glass walls” phenomenon that is segregated by gender within management occupations.

Lack of mentoring

Lack of mentoring is another obstacle that prevents women’s advancement to top managerial positions.Male mentors tend to be resistant to mentor a woman because they perceive women as more emotional, not as skilled at problem-solving, and because of the risk of work place sexual harassment issues

Stereotyping

Women have to deal with many obstacles at the workplace namely prejudice, stereotyping, sexual harassment and isolation Research has found that presence of stereotype threat may become the reason of one’s under-performance. Generally, masculine characteristics like aggressiveness and assertiveness are found to be associated with achievement and success. Whereas nurturing, selfless, modest and being quiet are the characteristics associated with women.

Lack of flexible workplace arrangements

For accommodating work and family commitments, working mothers prefer to work part time or leave the organization for extended. Instead of concentrating on the development of their own career, they are busy in supporting their domestic front and husband’s career.

Workplace relationships

Male mentors resist mentoring woman as they consider woman as emotional and less skilled at problem solving (Hanson, 2008).

Globalisation

Globalisation has again presented many new barriers for women working at top positions. Due to increasing responsibility, the top executives are supposed to move to new towns and cities. But this acts

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as a strong barrier for many women with families. Along with family issues, many women have also been found reluctant in adopting new place cultures and social norms.

Recommendations

For discovering one’s inner talent and motives, it is essential to impart education and career counselling to people (Rao and Rao, 1990). However, the work and accomplishments of women should also be showcased to top management. Yan Zhong (2006) identified communication skills, problem, solving skills and hard work as some of the facilitators important for women’s career advancement. Findings from postal research has indicated that innovative measures like flexible working hours and working from home should be incorporated for making women compatible with work environment. Various recommendations that will help women to rise to the top managerial level are explained below:

 Exposure of women to top management policies and procedures

 Job rotation will help women to acquire multiple capabilities thereby increasing their productivity

 Leadership development programs

 Adequate and good child care facilities can also be provided at their workplaces.

 Launching mentoring programs especially for women

 Setting up of formal recruitment program where women at top level positions can be recruited

 The appointment and appraisal of women should be based on merits instead of gender disparity.

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 For enabling the women executives to have a better work-life balance, every organization should conduct regular wellness and personal development programmes.

 Appraisal systems should be gender neutral and performance focused.

 Recruitment and promotion shortlists should include women

 Personalized career path should be offered for retaining the best talent.

 Leadership development and reintegration programs for women executives coming after a long career break

 Family-friendly policies(Goyal and Jaitly, 2016) in the form of parental leaves, job sharing arrangements, provision of child care facilities and flexible working arrangements for encouraging the women to prove their competence, caliber and qualification.

Conclusion

Though women in India have achieved unprecedented success in the job market, but it is still a slow progress. Sex segregation is declining at a low pace and women’s advancement of top positions is still a dream. The problems of women working in India are multidimensional and vary from women to women. The problems of women belonging to nuclear family are different from that of women in joint families. Even the attitude of superiors and subordinates, type of work, timings of work, atmosphere at workplace, distance of office from home etc. are various factors affecting the lives of working women.Various changes for supporting specific requirement of women executives like flexible transfer policy, extension of maternity leave to one year and policy of working from home for those having kids less than 3 years should be introduced. Due to high work pressure in private sector jobs, it has also

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become difficult for women to maintain a healthy family life. Hence, it is assumed that work-life balance can help in bringing a huge transformation in an individual’s life (Goyal, 2014).The issues highlighted in the study may help the companies to develop corporate policies where women are treated equally and fairly. Thus, in this contemporary era,it has become essential to empower women for enabling them to launch themselves in the competitive corporate world.It is necessary for the companies to identify female talent so as to retain and promote women to top positions.

References:

 Abrams, C. (2015). Why So Many Banks Are Led by Women in India. Wall street journal. Retrieved from http://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2015/11/19/why-so-many-indian- banks-are-led-by-women/  Beehr, T.A. and McGrath, J.E. (1992). Social support, occupational stress and anxiety. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 5, 7-19.  Carlson, D. S., and Perrewé, P. L. (1999). The role of social support in the stressor–strain relationship: An examination of work–family conflict. Journal of Management, 25(4), 513-540.  Catalyst. Women CEOs of the S&P 500. New York: Catalyst, March 14, 2017.  Catalyst. 2015 Catalyst Census: Women and Men Board Directors. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/2015- catalyst-census-women-and-men-board-directors  Women in management. (2017).Retrieved from http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/women-management  EY Centre for Board Matters. (2015). Top Earners in S&P 500 Companies, Unpublished Data.  Fain, J. R. (2010).Breaking the glass ceiling: Slow progressahead. Contemporary Economic Policy, 29(1), 56-66.  Goyal, B., and Jaitly, M. (2016). An empirical study of work-family conflict affecting women executives in service sector. Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 4 (12), 26-33.  Goyal, B.,and Jaitly, M. (2016). To Explore The Challenges Faced By Women Working in Service sector. The International Journal of Business and Management, 4 (6), 210-215.

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 Goyal, B. (2014). Work-Life Balance of Nurses and Lady Doctors. International Journal of Engineering and Management Research, 4(4), 244-249.  Grant Thornton International Business Report. (2013). Women in senior management: Setting the stage for growth.  Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10, 76-88.  Greenhaus, J.H., Parasuraman, S. (1986). A work-nonwork interactive perspective of stress and its consequences. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 8, 37-60.  Granrose, C.S., Parasuraman, S. and Greenhaus, J.H. (1992). A proposed model of support provided by two-earner couples. Human Relations, 45(12), 1367-1394.  Govender, K. (1997). Career Advancement Obstacles Encountered byWomen in the Workplace. Unpublished Masters Dissertation,University of Durban-Westville, Durban.  Hansen, K. (2008). The value of a mentor. QuintCareers.com, Nov 13, retrieved from http://www.quintcareers.com/mentor_value.html  Jain, M. andMukherji, S. (2010). The perception of ‘glass ceiling’ in Indian organisations: An Exploratory Study. South Asian Journal of Management, 17 (1), 23-42.  Jick, T.D. and Mitz, L.F. (1985). Sex differences in work stress. Academy of ManagementReview, (10), 408-20.  Kumra, S. and Vinnicombe, S. (2008). A study of the promotion to partner process in a professional service firm: how women are disadvantaged. British Journal of Management, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 65-74.  Lyness, K.S. and Schrader, C.A. (2006). Moving ahead or just moving? An examination of gender differences in senior corporate management appointments.Group & Organization Management, 31 (6), 651-76.  Mainiero, L.A. and Sullivan, S.E. (2005). Kaleidoscope careers: an alternative explanation to for the ‘Opt-out’ Revolution. Academy of Management Executive, 19 (1), 106-23.  Maume, D.J. Jr (2004). Is the glass ceiling a unique form of inequality? Evidence from a  Random-effects model of managerial attainment. Work and Occupations, 31 (2),250-74.

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 Rao,P.S. and Rao,V.S.P. (1990). Personnel/Human ResourceManagement Text, Cases and Games, KonarkPublishers, New Delhi, 334-335.  Ridgeway, C.L. (2001). Gender, Status and Leadership. Journal of Social Issues,57 (4), 637-55.  Number of women on boards in India doubled over past 6 years. (2016).Retrieved from http://www.moneycontrol.com/news/current- affairs/numberwomenboardsindia-doubled-over-past-6- yrs_7525421.html  OECD (2014). Women, Government and Policy Making in OECD Countries: Fostering Diversity for Inclusive Growth, OECD  6 barriers for women’s career advancement. (2017).Retrieved from https://www.peoplematters.in/article/leadership/6-barriers-womens- career-advancement- 12645??utm_source=peoplematters&utm_medium=interstitial&ut m_campaign=learnings-of-the-day  Top 8 Most Influential Women in Indian Banking. (2015). Retrieved from https://letstalkpayments.com/top-8-most-influential-women-in- indian-banking/  Women in the Workforce: India. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/  women-workforce-india  Waldfogel, J. (1998). Understanding the ‘family gap’ in pay for women with children.Journal of Economic Perspective, 12 (1), 137- 56.  Zhong, Y.M.S. (2006). Factors Affecting Women's CareerAdvancement in the Hospitality Industry:Perceptions of Students, Educators, and Industry Recruiters. Family and Consumer SciencesEducation, Texas Tech University. PhD Dissertation  Wise, S. and Bond, S. (2003). Work-life policy: does it do exactly what it says on the tin. Women in Management Review, 18(10), 20- 31.

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DR.B.R.AMBEDKAR VIEWS ON INDIAN FEDERALISM – A CRITICAL APPRAISAL Anugandhula Srinivas Assistant Professor in History Government Degree College Korutla, Dist: Jagtial, Telangana State Abstract

Dr. Ambedkar wanted to create in which all have equal federal power in democratic devices. He worked as eradicator of evils from society but he couldn’t succeed fully. He wanted to establish a corruption free society in which all are equal. So, we have to finish this work. He wanted to secularize politics and wanted to protect politics form narrow mindedness, theology and traditionalism. His inspirational tone always made the young people of India to realize the true nature of humanity. This is the right time when we have to recall and remember the philosophy, ideals and principles of Dr.Ambedkar for the betterment and enlightenment of our country and establishment of world-peace.

Key Words: Downtrodden Ideology,Indian FederalismSocial Change, Direct Principles of State Policy, Fundamental Rights

Introduction

Indians today are governed by two different ideologies. Their political ideal set in the preamble of the Constitution affirms a life of liberty, equality and fraternity. Their social ideal embodied in their religion denies them.

Dr.B.R. mbedkar

The decision to divide Andhra Pradesh raises important questions about federalism and the nation’s future. This is the first time in India that a state is sought to be divided without the consent of

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the State legislature, and without a negotiated settlement among stakeholders and regions, and in the face of public opposition. All major federal democracies have in their Constitutions the provision that a state cannot be divided or merged with another state without its prior consent. This is the essence of federalism.

India’s Constitution-makers gave much thought to the issue of formation of new states and reorganisation of states. The Drafting Committee and the Constituent Assembly were aware of the circumstances prevailing at that time. India witnessed Partition, accompanied by violence, bloodshed, and forced mass migration. In addition, there were several kinds of States — Parts A, B and C — and there was need to reorganise all states and integrate the 552 princely states. If the consent of every State or Unit was a precondition to altering the boundary, reorganisation would have become an excruciatingly difficult exercise. Consequently, the final text of Article 3 as promulgated provided for the President’s recommendation and ascertaining the views of the state concerned both with respect to the proposal to introduce the Bill and with respect to the provisions thereof. Our nation-builders were wise in drafting the Constitution to suit our requirements. More important, successive governments have wisely applied Article 3 in dealing with states. While prior consent of the state was not necessary under the Constitution, in practice every state has been formed with prior consent, in most cases after a detailed, impartial examination by an independent commission. Only in the case of Punjab, there was no legislature at the time of dividing the State in 1966. But there was a broad consensus among stakeholders and no opposition. So far, Parliament and governments have acted with restraint and wisdom in dealing with boundary issues and formation of states. They rejected the notion that anything could be done to alter boundaries, provided it is not expressly prohibited by the Constitution. While prior consent of the state legislature is not mandatory, in

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practice care has been taken to obtain consent, or to act only on the express request of the state. The 1956 reorganisation was based on the fundamental principle of language; there was broad national consensus on the issue.

In their present form are enabling provisions empowering Parliament to act in an exceptional situation when national interest warrants it, or to settle marginal boundary disputes between states when they are recalcitrant and efforts to reconcile differences and arrive at a settlement fail. The framers of the Constitution did not intend to give Parliament arbitrary powers to redraw boundaries; nor did successive Parliaments and governments act unilaterally or

arbitrarily without consent, broad consensus or negotiated settlement. Even after 1987, in every case of state formation, the consent of the state legislature was obtained. The broader principle of federalism and the willing consent of constituent units and their people has been deemed to be necessary before a state is formed or a territory merged, unless overwhelming national interest demands action by Parliament. The procedure was observed in creating Jharkhand, Uttaranchal and Chhattisgarh in 2000.

Dr. Ambedkar said in his reply to the debate in the Constituent Assembly on states’ rights: “The… charge is that the Centre has been given the power to override the States. This charge must be admitted. But before condemning the Constitution for containing such overriding powers, certain considerations must be borne in mind. The first is that these overriding powers do not form the normal feature of the Constitution. Their use and operation are expressly confined to emergencies only”. It is this spirit that informed the actions of the Union government and Parliament over the past six decades. There were blemishes in the application of Article 356 earlier. But over the past two decades Indian federalism has matured a great deal. The

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Supreme Court, in Bommai (1994), made Article 356 more or less a “dead letter” — as Dr. Ambedkar had hoped. Though the Finance Commission’s recommendations are not binding on Parliament and government, those of every Finance Commission in respect of devolution of resources have been accepted and implemented. Since the report of the Tenth Finance Commission, there has been greater transparency in devolution: most of the tax revenues of the Union are being treated as the divisible pool, and a fixed proportion of it is shared with states as decided by the Finance Commission. States are now more in control of their economic future.

Limited sovereignty

This does not mean states can act as they please, or that their territorial integrity is inviolable. There is one nation and one citizenship, and the nation’s territorial integrity is paramount. However, within that overarching framework, states exercise limited sovereignty, and the federal spirit informs the operation of the Constitution. The Constitution did not intend to make India a unitary country with states functioning as municipalities, their survival dependent on the will and whim of the Union government. Nor did the operation of our Constitution over the past 63 years suggest a de facto unitary state. In fact, federalism has been deepening in India, in keeping with global trends. The determined efforts of the Union government and its oft-repeated declarations that Andhra Pradesh will be divided irrespective of the legislature’s views, pose a grave danger to federalism and unity. Andhra Pradesh was formed with the prior consent of the Andhra State Legislature, and the Hyderabad State Legislature. When two popular movements for the state’s division were launched in the three regions — in Telangana in 1969-70, and in Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema in 1972-73 — the Union government encouraged all regions to arrive at a negotiated settlement. Corresponding constitutional provisions were put in place to safeguard

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the interests of all regions. An explicit and implicit compact was made by the Union with the people of Andhra Pradesh to the effect that the State would remain united. It is on this basis that people migrated on a large scale to the other regions and to the capital, Hyderabad, and built their lives, livelihoods and the State’s economy. In this backdrop, any redrawing of boundaries would need another agreement arrived at by the affected parties through patient negotiation. The Union has a seminal role in helping reconcile conflicting interests harmoniously. Parliament can act only on the basis of such an agreement, consensus and consent. Any other approach would be ham-handed, arbitrary and uneven, and run counter to the principles and practice of federalism as they have evolved under Indian conditions.

The way the President and Parliament handle the Andhra Pradesh issue will, in a fundamental sense, shape the future of the Union itself. This is a defining moment not for Andhra Pradesh alone, but for our federal Constitution and India itself. If such an arbitrary decision becomes a precedent, any and every state could be divided or boundaries altered without consent, and without a negotiated settlement, that will effectively convert states into municipalities, and India into a unitary state. Neither the Constitution-makers nor nation- builders intended such an outcome. And India’s future will be in peril if such an effort is made to make the nation effectively unitary at this stage. In critical moments like this the President and Parliament have to act with restraint, foresight and wisdom. The President is not only the head of the Republic, he is also a part of Parliament. The President is elected by members of both Houses as well as members of State Assemblies. In a fundamental sense the President represents the nation — both Union and states — and is the final defender of the Constitution and federalism along with the Supreme Court. This is therefore a fit case where the President should exercise his constitutional duty independently before recommending introduction of

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any Bill to divide the State of Andhra Pradesh. Leaders of parliamentary parties too should act with clarity and wisdom, and with the knowledge that division of a state without its consent and a negotiated settlement among all stake-holders converts the nation effectively into a unitary one. Every state will, in future, be vulnerable to unilateral action for short-term electoral expediency. The Constitution, the President, Parliament and the political parties will be put to a severe test in this case, and the way they respond to this challenge will shape the future of our Republic, and the future of federalism in India.

Dr. Ambedkar’s Views on Federalism

Dr. Ambedkar in his speech on 4th November 1948 dealt at length the salient features of the proposed federation. He said that the Draft Constitution embodied an undoubtedly federal constitution in as much as it sought to establish a dual polity consisting of the Union at the Centre and the State at its periphery, each endowed with its sovereign powers to be exercised in their respective fields. It had certain distinctive features differentiating it from other federations. Thus the Draft Constitution made it possible for the proposed Indian Federation to be converted into a unitary state in times of war or of grave emergency. Again the proposed Constitution provided a number of devices – some taken from Australian Constitution while others were new for overcoming the rigidity of inherent in federalism. These were inter alia, vesting the exclusive powers of legislation in Parliament over a wide range of matters; placing fundamental laws, civil as well as criminal, under current jurisdiction to ensure uniformity in all basic matters; a comparatively easy amending process; and the power given to Parliament to legislate, subjects even in normal times. Other special features were a single judiciary, certain common All India Civil Services, and a single Indian

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citizenship. Refuting the criticism that the Centre had been made too strong, Ambedkar maintained that the Draft Constitution had struck a fair balance between the claims of the Centre and the units.

While the Centre was not given more responsibilities and power than were strictly necessary, conditions in the modern world rendered the centralization of power inevitable and the trend was bound to operate in India, irrespective of the provisions of the Constitution. 17 Part XVIII of the Constitution from Article 352 to 360 contains the provision for emergency situations including provisions for national emergency, emergency for states in case of failure of

constitutional machinery and financial emergency. The founders of the Constitution were very much concerned about these provisions as it provided for rule by the President over the state (under Article 356 when situation arises that the state cannot be carried on in accordance with the Constitution) and thus feared it would lead to the breakdown the federal character of our constitution. They hoped that this would never be called into operation. Quoted here is the historical speech of Dr. Ambedkar which he delivered at the time when many

Members of Constituent Assembly had opposed this Article. At that time Dr. Ambedkar had said-

"I share the sentiments that such articles will never be called into operation and that they remain a dead letter. If at all they are brought into operation, I hope the President who is endowed with these powers will take proper precaution before actually suspending the administration of the Province. I hope the first thing he will do would be to issue a mere warning to a Province that has erred that things were not happening in the way they were intended to happen in the Constitution. If that warning fails, the second thing for him to do will be to

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order an election allowing the people of the Province to settle matters by themselves. It is only when these two remedies fail that he should resort to this Article."18

The contribution of Dr. Ambedkar towards making of the Constitution of India just cannot be measured. At a time when India was passing through epoch-making events, Dr. Ambedkar had become one of the potent forces to reckon with whether in office or out of it. Endowed as he was with a towering personality, erudition, deep insight into constitutional law, with a firm grip on the intricacies of administration, indomitable courage and fearlessness, said Dr. Zakir Hussain, Former President of India. When the Constitution was adopted, it was the largest Constitution of the world by its size. It is not only a legal document for ruling the country but a socio-political instrument that has paved the way for all-round development of the millions of the downtrodden people, chained by poverty, illiteracy, discriminatory social systems. The Constitution has provided the way forward for these people to be unshackled from those terrible conditions by providing them with certain fundamental rights. From his far-sightedness and statesmanship, today we can see these people are knocking the doors of the court and getting their fundamental rights enforced, wherever the legislative and the executive has failed to do so.

Conclusion

Ambedkar knew that India being a very large and diverse country cannot be ruled unitarily but decentralization of power is needed so that at regional level, the problems of the people are solved and region-specific welfare schemes can be made for them. Thus he made the constitution federal in structure. From that he hoped, it shall satisfy the aspirations of the people to have a government at regional level and the diversity of the people on various lines such as region,

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area, language shall be respected. Ambedkar was concerned not only about the community he belonged to but for all the victims of inequality in our country prevailing due to socio-economic conditions. Once Ambedkar had remarked about the rights of women by saying “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved”. “Ambedkar had visions of not only a casteless society, but one in which there was gender justice, labor justice, economic justice an equal distribution of opportunities. He stood not just for the Dalits, but for all victims of inequity. He had introduced gender justice in the Constitution something which even the United States Constitution does not have till then” once said Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer, former Chief Justice of India.

References

1. “Mission of Education”, Employment News, 4-10 Sept. 2016, P.40.

2. Ambedkar’s quotations are cited from the book The Legacy of Dr.Ambedkar, ed. by D.C. Ahir, B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, 2016 pp 285-306.

3. Voctoria A. Velkoff (October, 1998) “Women of the World. Women’s Education in India”, U.S. Department of Commerce, retrieved on 15-01-2010.

http://ww.census.gov/ipc/prod/wid-9801.pdf.

4. “Education in India” in Wikipedia, retrieved on 09-10-2009, http://ww.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_India.

5. Singh, Ranbir, “Sociological Perspective of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar” in Essays in Honour of Bharat Ratna Baba Saheb Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, ed. by S.K. Kushwaha, Kurukkshetra University, Korukshetra, 2015, P.34.

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6. Chakraborti, Mohit, Pioneers in Philosophy of Education, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 2013 p.17.

7. Tagore, Rabindranath, The Religion of Man, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1953, pp.145-146.

8. Iqbal, Yasmeen, “Dr.B.R.Ambedkar-father of Indian Constitution” in Essays in Honour of Bharat Ratna Baba Saheb Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, p.84.

9. Ambedkar, B.R., “Castes in India: Their Genesis, Mechanism and Development”, Indian Antiquary, Vol., XXVI, 1917.

10. Ambedkar, B.R.,Annihilation of Caste, Lahore, 1935.

11. Ambedkar, B.R.,,Annihilation of Caste: With a Reply to Mahatma Gandhi, Address before the Annual Conference of Jat- Pat-Todak Mandal Lahore, Maharastra Govt. Publications (Reprint) 2009.

12. Ambedkar, B.R.,Ranad, Gandhi and Jinnah, Thacker and Co. Ltd., Bombay, 1943.

13. Ambedkar, B.R.,Who were the Shudras? How they came to be the Fourth Varna in the Indo-Aryan Society?, Thacker and Co., Ltd., Bombay, 1946.

14. Ambedkar, B.R.,,States and Minorities. Thacker and Co. Ltd., Bombay, 1947.

15. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches Vol. 1-10, Education Department of Maharashtra , Government, Bombay, 1993.

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THE INDIAN CAPITAL MARKET – AN OVERVIEW

Dr.G.Chandra Mouli Reader in Commerce Government Degree College Sabbavram, Visakhapatnam

The pace of economic development is conditioned, among other things, by the rate of long-term investment and capital formation. Capital formation is conditioned by the mobilization, augmentation and chanalisation of investible funds. The capital market serves a very useful purpose by pooling the capital resources of the country and making them available to the enterprising investors. Well developed capital markets augment resources by attracting and lending funds on global scale1. The increase in the size of the industrial units and business corporations due to technological developments, economies of scale and other factors has created a situation wherein the capital at the disposal of one or few individuals is quite insufficient to meet the growing investment demands. A developed capital market can solve this problem of paucity of funds. An organized capital market can mobilize and pool together even the small and scattered savings and augment the availability of investible funds2. While the rapid growth of joint stock companies has been made possible to a large extent by the growth of capital markets, the growth of joint stock business has in turn, encouraged the development of capital markets. A developed capital market provides a number of profitable investment opportunities for the small savers. Chart-1 shows the investment opportunities in capital market

1 Levy, H and M. Sarnath, Capital Investment and Financial Decisions, Prentice-Hall, Englewood, Cliffs, 1988. pp 21-32 2 Lorenz.T. Venture Capital Today, Woodhead, Fauekner, London 1989. pp 55.25

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Meaning and Definition of Capital Market It is an organized market mechanism for effective and efficient transfer of money capital or financial resources from the investing class (a body of individual or institutional savers) to the entrepreneur class (individual or institutions engaged in industry business or service) in the private and public sectors of the economy. In a very broad sense, it includes the market for both long-term and short-term funds. H.T. Parikh has referred to it as, “By capital market, I mean the market for all the financial instruments, short-term and long - term as also commercial, industrial and government paper.” In the words of Goldsmith, “the capital market of a modern economy has two basic functions: first the allocation of savings among users and investment; second the facilitation of the transfer of existing assets, tangible and intangible among individual economic units3.” Grant defines capital market in a broad sense as “a series of channels through which the savings of the community are made available for industrial and commercial enterprises and for public authorities. It embraces not only the system by which the public takes up long-term securities directly or through intermediaries but also the elaborate network of institutions responsible for short – term and medium – term lending.” From the above definitions, it may be deducted that the function of capital market is the collection of savings and their distribution for industrial investment. Thus, capital formation is sine qua non of economic development. As such, the relationship between the market, instrument, and services are integrated as well as inter-dependent. Capital market is generally understood as the market for long – term funds. The capital market provides long-term debt and equity4 finance for the government and the corporate sector. By making long –

3 BSE, Annual Capital Market Review, Bombay, 2002.pp 16-18 4 BSE, Annual Capital Market Review, Bombay, 2002.pp 16-18

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term investments liquid, the capital market mediates between the conflicting maturities preferences of lenders and borrowers. The Capital market also facilitates the dispersion of business ownership and the reallocation of financial resources among corporations and industries. Capital Market Structure in India An important segment of the organized financial system comprises of the new issues market and stock market. The term capital market is a wide term, encompassing all long-term claims of money– lending and borrowings. It thus includes all term lending by banks and financial institutions and long-term borrowings from foreign markets and new issues by companies and raising of all resources from public through issue of new securities, deposits, loans etc. As the Chart 2 shows, capital market includes issues of two major categories – marketable and non –marketable, whether marketable or not, these are issued by government and government departments, companies, public sector units, mutual funds, UTI etc. LIC and GIC sell policies and collects savings from public, which are not marketable. The other non-marketable securities or claims are issued by post offices as savings certificates, deposit receipts etc., non- securitised loans and advances of banks and financial institutions, deposits with banks and companies and securities of private limited companies and finance company deposits / loans, chit funds etc. the marketable securities are issued through the new issues market and are traded through the stock market. The contributors to new issues are promoters, collaborators, if any, employees, NRIs, banks, FIIs, Mutual Funds5 and the public at large. The players through whom these issues are managed are mainly merchant bankers, registrars, brokers, mutual funds, etc., which are

5 Sadhak. H. Mutual Funds in India 2nd Edition, Response book, New Delhi, 2003.p124- 126

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dealt with in detail in later chapters. The ancillary functions and complementary to the above is those of underwriters, collecting bankers, investment consultants, portfolio managers, investment managers etc. are also discussed in later chapters. The capital market study should authentically encompass both the marketable and non-marketable segments. In view of the fact that demand and supply forces and trading activity is confined only to the segment of marketable securities, this book is using the term ‘Capital Market’ in the sense of marketable securities6. Thus, more popular instruments traded in the market are equity, debentures, and bonds etc., which are discussed in this book. UTI and the mutual fund schemes being popular for trading, they are also dealt with. Briefly the major players–instruments and activity in capital market are covered from the point of management. The Indian Capital Market Today The Indian capital market with over 7,500/- listed companies and 23 stock exchanges is second in size only to that of the USA, in terms of availability of industrial securities. The Indian capital market offers good potential for further expansion in terms of absorption of large capital flows. It is noteworthy that despite problems faced on account of irregularities in security transactions earlier this year, the Indian stock markets have shown creditable business resilience and recovery. As per the review published by Fortune International in its, autumn Special 1992 number, the Indian capital market has appreciated by 44 per cent in US dollar terms an appreciation rate which was second only to that of the Philippines at 71per cent. Comparable statistics for other emerging markets are : South Korea (-) 24 per cent, Indonesia (-) 5 percent, Singapore 5 per cent, Malaysia 9 per cent, Hong Kong 39 per cent, etc. it is true that the price – earning

6 Shah.S.G. “Inter Bank Money Markets”, Journal of Indian Institute of Bankers, April- june, 1978, pp 144-146

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ratio of 29 is comparatively high when compared with the prevailing ratios in the afore – mentioned markets. But it needs mention that in the Indian market; the PE ratio is influenced to a very large extent by 4 or 5 leading scrips. If one leaves out these scrips, the PE ratio would certainly compare favourably with those prevailing in other emerging markets. In fact, considering that active trading is confined to few hundred scrips, it is conceivable that with substantial inflow of foreign capital, many of the currently dormant scarps, mainly of medium – sized corporate bodies, would show growth potential. There are a couple of areas where some improvement will be necessary. The first is the factor of a long time between the transaction and the actual registration of transfer of securities a present. Secondly, the reporting and controlling system will have to be geared up to ensure compliance with the stipulations regarding upper limit for investment in a domestic company (24 per cent) and by a particular investor (5per cent). The Reserve Bank authorities confirm that steps are being taken to overcome these problems. Following the recommendations of Chakravarty Committee Report on Monetary System, the RBI7 during the year, began the auction of 182 days treasury bills in the money market. The objective of this measure has been to broad base the development of money market by introducing new instruments, create an active secondary market, bring the interest rates on treasury bills to the market level and gradually reduce the monotisation of public debt. Strengthening the Capital Market The Abid Hussian committee8 on development of capital market has suggested creation of two-tier stock exchanges along with a number of fiscal measures to streamline the stock market for bringing stability

7 RBI Functions and Working Bombay.1983.p.84 8 Cited by Bajpai.G.N. at S.D Gupta memorial Lecture on March 13, 2003 in Bombay. P.7.

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and restoring investors’ confidence. It has recommended long-term policy measures to bolster the capital market so that industries with a proven track – record could meet their financial need form the growing capital market. The public sector financial institutions could then be made to cater to the needs of the newly emerging companies for survival and sustenance during their nascent phase. During the stock exchange boom of 1985 – 869, a number of listed companies disappeared overnight giving rise to the fly by night phenomenon. The committee noted that most of these companies were largely promoted by merchant banks, which were found to have received commission in the process. The committee recommended that all the companies should go through the registered merchant banks when they went public. The merchant banks should scrutinize the new companies entering the capital market, besides certifying that they were viable. This would act as a safeguard on the listing of new companies. Yet another major recommendation dealt with the development of market makers, not prevalent in the exchanges now. The report proposed that merchant banks enter into a tie up with the brokers to quote a cost-effective floor price10. To finance the buying or selling of shares, it called for provision of institutional financing through commercial banks. The committee recommended simplification of procedures involved in transferring of shares, which are considered to be complicated and cumbersome at present. This included recommended simplification of procedures involved in transferring of shares, which are considered to be complicated and cumbersome at present. This included the creation of a network of corporations akin to the proposed Stock Holding

9 Khan.M.Y. Financial Services, Tata-McGraw-Hill, Publishing Company New Delhi, 2001. pp 123.43 10 Soloman, Ezra and Pringle, J.J., An Introduction of Financial management, Prentice Hall of India. New Delhi, 1999,98.10

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Corporation of India (SHCL) under the leadership of the IDBI so that private investors could freely transfer the shares11. The report urged that a highly reputed national level institution be set up to undertake multiple memberships in stock exchanges throughout the country. The committee also underlined the need to open new instruments such as non-voting shares with higher dividends than the voting shares. This would remove the fear of capture of managements of the companies as harboured by some efficiently run units. `Capital market in the Process The important task of the economy has always been to strengthen the capital market largely though stimulation of private investment. This could be achieved by effecting structural changes to the capital market, widening the scope of fiscal incentives and to impart some mobility to it. It is also equally important to protect the value of savings held in the form of fixed interest securities, which is the mainstay of fixed income earners. This will help in strengthening the capital market and improve the economy. The Indian capital market has developed to a large extent but is still in a process of evolution. Various measures have been taken, especially in the last two years, to develop a healthy and mature capital market. These include implementation of Dave Committee12 recommendations for phased liberalization of stock market operations, opening up of the stock exchange membership to financial institutions and corporate bodies, encouraging banks and financial institutions to go in for mutual funds, finalisation or rating symbols by CRISIL to guide investors, the setting up of the DFHI to create an active secondary market and most important of all, the establishment of SEBI to regulate stock exchanges so as to promote a healthy and orderly

11 Jawahar Lal “Personal Investing” wheeler publishing, New Delhi, 1995, pp.85 12 BSE, Annual Capital Market Review, Bombay, 2002.pp 16-18

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securities market, however, one more are which requires serious attention is the scope for a multi-tier market. Over time, while the Securities market has expanded manifold, the structure and working of the market has remained unchanged. At present through, various securities traded in the stock exchanges are different in nature they are all subject to the same listing requirements. The size, liquidity, floating stock, volume of trade, company’s performance, etc., of listed companies differ widely, still they all are treated as par. The existing uniform listing requirements are neither suitable to the investor, who is not aware of the differences in securities, nor to the issuing companies whose needs are diverse13. The SEBI14, in its approach paper, has referred to its plans to seek and promote a mortifier market structure, with different tiers having distinct characteristics suited to the differing needs of issuers and investors. Each tier would have its own listing requirements. The primary objective of such a structure would be to ensure that the market is attractive to issuers of different sizes and is suited to their needs to impart liquidity to issues and to provide appropriate incentives to elicit good response form the investors. There is no doubt that there is need for a multi-tier market. However, as a first step, it should be advisable to have a two – tier market. It has been suggested that public issues below Rs. 3 crore should form one tier of the market, while those above Rs.3 crore can form the other elevated tier of the market. Such bifurcation would help the smaller companies to mobilize resources at a lower cost, with less stringent requirements, and provide a way for companies to gradually move up to the elevated market as they grow. The higher tier would be subject to stringent requirements of disclosure to stock exchanges and

13 RBI Functions and Working Bombay.1983.p.84 14 Survey of Indian Investors , Securities and Exchange Board of India. Mumbai,2002. PP.21-23

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investors15. These shares would obviously be more liquid. The investors on their part would be aware of the relative liquidity and risk and the reward profile of alternative investments. The idea behind the introduction of a two-tier market is to insulate the general public from the relatively high risk shares in the lower market. This should be possible since only those persons having the capacity to take risks and the necessary expertise to make professional judgment would operate in this market. Mainly financial institutions, banks and their subsidiaries and brokers would actively participate in this market. The companies with relatively few shareholders, with in recent trading history or those having only local or regional investor interest, would be attracted to this lower tier of the market. The envisaged two tier of the market would continue to form part of the existing securities exchange market. Another type of secondary securities market being envisaged is the Over The Counter (OTC) Market16. The difference between the two is that a securities exchange market operates on auction basis, whereas an OTC market functions on the negotiation principle. In an exchange market, many buyers and sellers compete for the best share price through agents, whereas in the OTC market, intermediaries (brokers/dealers) for one buyer and one seller seek each other and agree on a trade price. In the OTC market, there is no physical meeting place for buyers and sellers. Instead they find each other through electronic network or by telephone or telex. There is no double auction method as practiced by the exchanges. Instead the market in a stock is maintained by firms that act as dealers by establishing positions in a security. An important and unique characteristic of an Indian capital market, that has been lost as a result of globalization of the market, is

15 Naresh Kumar, Share Holding Pattern in India Money Matters, April, 1990. p.10 16 Jain B.M “Impact of Financial Liberalization Policy in India” , Himalaya Publishing House, Bombay 1997. p.67

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the isolated nature of the markets17. The Indian markets till now were neither linked to global markets nor were affected by ups and downs being experienced by global markets. As a result, the markets continued to remain buoyant even during Gulf War and other world crisis18. However, now the markets reportedly more volatile and no more prone to economically beneficial happenings overseas. This would necessitate a need for greater intervention and stricter policing and hence there is a need to give greater freedom and more powers to SEBI, the supervising authority in the Indian market The volume of capital market activity has increased substantially over the last couple of decades though in the most recent period, for various reasons, activity has been somewhat subdued both in the primary and secondary markets. The period has also witnessed some widening and deepening of the market and the emergence of new institutions, such as merchant banks and mutual funds as well as new investments. Venture capital companies have also made their appearance but they have not grown anywhere near their potential, as exemplified in the U.S. or the need for them given the contribution they can make to convert innovative scientific ideas into commercial propositions and for their role in promoting techno entrepreneurship. This calls for proactive policies such as fiscal concessions and a supportive set of operational guidelines including encouraging foreign venture companies to set up in India19. The expansion of capital markets to meet successfully the changes of future requires the correction of some long standing systemic deficiencies stemming from institutional and procedural aspects of the functioning especially of secondary market institutions.

17 Virender Jain, “Investors Behaviour” Mc millan India Limited , New Delhi, 2001, pp 175-176 18 Ojha. P.D. “Capital Market-Emerging Trends”, RBI Bulletin, January, 1988.p.45-47 19 Shah E.S Financial Depending In Economical Development, Oxford, London, 1980 pp. 95-96

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This is being done and there is now a greater measure of transparency at a result of the requirement of fuller disclosure and the arrival on the scene of investment oriented research agencies. Reform of the stick exchanges is also under way20. A depository system has been introduced and dematerialized trading is picked up. Computerized on-line trading between markets is gathering momentum and the presence of the National Stock Exchange has made enormous difference acting as it does as a space setter for improved market procedures. The reform in the Indian capital market21 would gain added significance in the context of a measure of internationalization of Indian Capital markets. For the Indian system to derive the full benefits and avert risks involved in the process, a structured and sequenced integration would be needed. The greater interaction of Indian and international markets would necessarily involve further improving our procedures and practices. Foreign investors are used to open trading systems within the framework of prudential regulation. Their markets are also characterized by adequate disclosure and research cased information and severe penalties for insider trading. Our markets would need, both for their own development and to promote fruitful linkages with foreign capital market, to conform to these principles.

20 Shah.S.G. “Inter Bank Money Markets”, Journal of Indian Institute of Bankers, April- june, 1978, pp 144-146 21 Sadhak. H. Mutual Funds in India 2nd Edition, Response book, New Delhi, 2003.p124-126

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ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT A SOLUTION FOR WOMEN EXPLOITATION S. Pichaipillai Assistant Professor Economics of Economics Thiru.Vi.Ka. Ka. Govt Arts College, Thiruvarur [Deputed from Economics Wing, DDE, Annamalai University]

Abstract

Gender equality concerns women and men, and it involves working with men and boys, women and girls to bring about changes in attitudes, behaviors, roles, and responsibilities at home, in the workplace, and in the community. The female are exploited without considering their wellbeing. The rights of the women are taken without their consideration, which belongs to them. Forcing the women to work against their interest, knowledge and taking advantage from the disadvantage women. Economic empowerment can be the only solution to all the above mentioned issues. If women can autonomously earn income from employment or entrepreneur, then exploitation will be no more in the society. Until, the female depend a male for all her needs, then the strength of a women will be weakened by the male dominant society and she may lose focus and determination to face the society. Therefore, education is the prime need for all the women and education will show the way of development for all and women is not an exemption.

Keywords: Exploitation, education, employment,

Introduction

Women in ancient India were held in high respect. With the course of time, the status of woman got lowered. Muscle and money power started dominating the societies. And as men fought the wars and ran the ventures of industrial production, they started considering

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themselves superior to woman. Gender equality concerns women and men, and it involves working with men and boys, women and girls to bring about changes in attitudes, behaviors, roles, and responsibilities at home, in the workplace, and in the community. Genuine equality means more than parity in numbers or laws on the books; it means expanding freedoms and improving overall quality of life so that equality is achieved without sacrificing gains for males or females.

Meaning of Exploitation

Exploitation means attaining something in a cruel or misbehavior. This could be seen in politics, economy and society. The female are exploited without considering their wellbeing. The rights of the women are taken without their consideration, which belongs to them. Forcing the women to work against their interest, knowledge and taking advantage from the disadvantage women.

Women Exploitation

Pre-birth and infancy stage of women

In the developing countries like India, at the stage pre-birth of women, the parents desperately go for selective abortion if it is a girl child. The parents believe that girl child is a huge burden in all respects and they have to spend more for her marriage as dowry. At the infancy stage, a girl child is treated as a burden and she is discriminated in terms of health and education. Thus, the girl child grow physically and mentally weak, where is isolated in a family itself.

Childhood and adolescence stage of women

The girl child is discriminated by the society even in her childhood play ground. The boys refuse to include the girls at play ground and show separate soft games for girls. In her adolescence stage the girl is ill-treated and teased by her school boy mates and treats them as a glamour event. Thus, the parents force them for early

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marriage by foregoing their education and future. Thus, all these events affect the women’s interest, patience and dream.

Dowry

Dowry is a ghost that severely punishes the women. The law states that dowry is an offence and it is a huge crime. But, there is no change among the people wherein women demands dowry in most cases and act against the well being of the women community.

Education

Education shows the way of life, creates in build capacity to live a moral life and to survive in the society in terms of social, political and economic situations. Education can improve the life style of the women and they can stand by their own. But, the enrollment in the rural schools is quite low and dropouts are high among the female in slums, rural and tribal areas. At the same time, the provision of basic facilities for the female is not adequate in the schools, which is also a drawback for fall in women enrollment. Education is the backbone for a human being where the bone of women is broken by the society and she forced to live as a handicap through her life.

Avoiding the exploitation of women

At present, women has started to attain higher education and able to stand by their own. But, exploitation of women still continues at larger ground. Women have started to involve in various activity and shares their view in political, social and economic development. Still the female participation in all the activities must be improved.

Economic empowerment

Economic empowerment will allow women to begin to plan for their futures in ways they had never dreamt of before. Giving a solution to the problem is trying to attain sustainable development. Access to finance and service can change the life and levels of women in the

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economy. As a result, multiplier effect would bring tremendous changes to all future female generation. Financial and economic inclusion can alone bring changes in the lives of women.

Women as Entrepreneurs

Women need more training and practice and Government of India must extend all the services to the welfare of the female. Training in non-farm can provide income in the off-season. Technological update has to be taught to be female thereby they can uplift their economic standards. Training must focus on use of technologies through computerized modules. Thus, the women can stand by themselves and start new projects thereby sustain their livelihoods. Women entrepreneurs can economically and socially develop by earning income, access to resources, realizing increase in self-confidence and participate in decision making in and around their environment.

Conclusion

In the globalised world, changes have been taking all around the world and in all the fields. International women day, mother’s day and sister’s day are celebrated. But, female still face various issues regarding exploitation, crime abuse etc. At the same time, some organizations are fighting for women freedom and empowerment. From family to the society, female are depressed in attaining all their rights but male dominate in attaining all their rights.

Women have all the rights and in no way she can be ill-treated. Women have right to education, work, speak and involve in politics. It should be remembered that the socio economic empowerment must be ensured by the nation to minimize the exploitation which can help to improve the status of women. Moreover, apart from education, culture, law, and Government policy can’t bring any changes in the women’s safety without change of people’s mind set.

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Indian Government should also address the fundamental issue of gender inequality and the structure that allows those most marginalized in society, particularly the deprived group of women and girls. A nation's progress and prosperity can be evaluated by the way it treats its women. Men must recognize and admit the fact that women are equal partners in life. Create awareness everywhere about women to end exploitation against women and girl through the education and strong social, moral, and cultural values and make strong laws to punish victim immediately in Present Indian society.

Economic empowerment can be the only solution to all the above mentioned issues. If women can autonomously earn income from employment or entrepreneur, then exploitation will be no more in the society. Until, the female depend a male for all her needs, then the strength of a women will be weakened by the male dominant society and she may lose focus and determination to face the society. Therefore, education is the prime need for all the women and education will show the way of development for all and women is not an exemption.

References

 Bhuyan, D., Panigrahy. R. L. (2006). Women Empowerment. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House .

 Chandra, R. (Ed.). (2004). Status of Women in India in Social Development in India. New Delhi: Isha Books.

 Golla, A, A. Malhotra, P. Nanda and R. Mehra (2011) Understanding and measuring women’s economic empowerment. Definition, framework, indicators Washington DC: International Centre for Research on Women

 Hallward-Driemeier, M.and Ousman Gajigo (2010) ‘Strengthening economic rights and Women’s occupational

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choice: the impact of reforming Ethiopia’s Family Law’ World Bank, Washington DC

 Kantor, P. (2005) ‘Determinants of women’s microenterprise success in Ahmedabad, India: empowerment and economics’ Feminist Economics Vol 11 (3): 63-83

 OECD (2011) Women’s Economic Empowerment. Issues Paper Paris: OECD-DAC ENDERNET.

 Rao, M.K. (2005) Empowerment of Women in India New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.

 UNDP (2008) Innovative approaches to promoting women’s economic empowerment New York: UNDP.

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RISING IN TEACHING SKILLFUL ENGLISH TO THE ENGINEERING STUDENTS Shaik Mohimood Assistant Professor of English Nalanda Institute of Engineering and Technology Sattenapalli

Abstract

This paper explore aims at dissecting the current act, methods, skilful and devices in the teaching of Technical English which is the start and finish of the business world to engineering graduates. In fact English is a major challenge to artificial language, the complex language for cross cultural communication. Competency in the English language can help the learner to overcome the phobia dominate among the Non English people. An attempt has also been made to make an analytical study of the rising trends in teaching technical English to the engineering graduates, would be future grownup and private businesspersons.

Keywords: Teaching ,English , Engineering ,Students

Study a foreign language without the influence of the mother tongue is a difficult task. To surpass all the challenges and meet with the growing demand of present day our students need to posses. a) Leadership qualities b) Representation skills c) Career development d) Self intelligence. This paper explores some problems in the English language learning and to offer valuable suggestion for incorporation communicative skills as required for the better well position of our engineering students.

To ability the engineering graduates with the good communicative skill in English, innovative tasks and exercises are to be introduced. The way of the tasks may be well designed to equip the students with life skills necessary to undergo language skills with an increased level of understanding with self-esteem and self-reliance.

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Technical students may shed off their psychological constraints and they have to come out of the barriers of commutation and to expose their technical skills in effective of barriers of communication and to expose their technical skills effective English. An attempt here is made to review the various approaches by which our engineering students may be trained to use correct word at correct time.

English language at its most objective presentation is to be found in the technical education as consigned into the frame work of the technical communication, it is like any other language essentially rooted in the art of beautification of emotions which gets classified as literature. It is a remarkable academic fact that English with its literature in its full growth from 1400 A.D onwards, has been from the influence of literary charms. Privileged, the teachers in English in the engineering colleges are competent to teach technical English knowledgeably. Because they know the roots of English words out of their academic experience of studying literature in its artistic form. It is a definite advantage in favour of the students.

With view on research more attention is given to stress in the meet for the teachers in English to adopt innovative methods and original techniques in language teaching. It is to active the students into having practical experience of using English forthwith and not learning it for social prestige or romantic pleasure. It will be a waste of time and energy when the archaic class room perspective are offered in textually as routinely as suggested in all monotony. Instead, new ideas born out of experiments of the innovative-minded teachers are to be brought to light and it will broaden the horizons of education. Here we will recall the latest outcome of such radicalisation of class room teaching methods.

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CHALLENGES TO OUR ENGINEERING STUDENTS

There is an increasing demand for advanced methods for on how to make technical communication conductive to internal changes. One such change is to modulate the pattern of English communication as suitable to the silence in the foreign countries of the different languages. There are many challenges in the academic circle indicating how the technical communication is to be freed from the literature and the grammarian constraints. There are number of challenges that the engineering students have to undergo to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the communication in different situations. They encounter a variety of situations involving listening, speaking, reading and writing. To create a more harmoniously comfortable work place our engineering graduates need to know the importance of employability skills.

1. LEADERSHIP QUALITIES: Norms of leadership in the corporate sector are pointers to the individually developed managerial skills. The professional engineers will make his command of English language instrumental in projecting his professional personality into the areas of career efficiency. His communication skill will decide the day. This skill pays a significant role in leadership effectiveness. To acquire the effectiveness our students are to be motivated to:

1. Generate and circulate information

2. Maintains professional and ethical values

3. Set a goal

4. Plan inform to employees

Non-verbal talent will never catch the eye. The leader in the world of business is made and not born. If the engineering students are trained to acquire proficiency in speaking, the chances for providing himself as a good leader with self-esteemed modesty. He knows how to

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win the heart of his employees in the style of Bill Gates and Wipro Aziz Premzi.

2. REPRESENTATION SKILLS: Talking in the workplace conference, group discussion or negotiations with the trade unions will be an exacting work. Within the organizations one needs to answer the following questions:

1. What message is to be transfer?

2. Who need it?

3. What methods of transmission should be used?

4. What skilful aids should be used?

However a right minded careerist will use polite or powerful words in communication his views in substantiation of the company's instructions. No clumsy mannerisms are to be paraded in the group discussion, writing inoffensive and effective style of language will be with grater a care and caution for the simple reason that such written stuff will be records and documents in permanent use and ready reference. For group discussion both interpersonal skills are more in line with non-verbal skills in the sense that the participants are exposed and discredited if such skills are exaggeratedly exploited.

3. CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Improvement of one's own career depends upon career aspirations since the work in the corporate sector is carried out by means of exchanging communication. Career advancement requires good communications skills and our engineering graduates are to get inculcated with the following qualities:

1. Team work

2. Academic performance

3. Aptitude

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4. State of health condition

5. Body language

The effective communication is invariably talking in polite and convincing language to his superiors or employers. Our engineering and students need the following skills for career planning and development.

4. SELF EMOTION

An able minded man will be an efficient professional with his talent to communicate with others so effectively as to get favourable results. A professional should not in his career. This indicates that a convincing communicator will be a self-confirmed public relations expert also. It is important that the technical experts might be too human to be understood as a man of vision. A good communicator is a good professional and he adopts the following methods:

Reactions to innovative ideas

Transfer of ideas and Experience.

Problem solving skills

Self confident, avoid the negligence.

Establish the zeal and positive attitude.

So as to obtain the results of emotional intelligence our engineering students need to acquire balance of mind along with effective communication skill

The skill need is to develop communication skills along with the life skill. The different techniques of manipulating the linguistic resources of English lead to the successful career path with

A deep perception of human nature.

A clear understanding of the psychology human beings.

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A discerning eye to judge the attitude of the employees and

In the highly competitive world there is a constant need to review and to improve the existing

Methods of learning skilful English so to meet the increasing and complex requirements of the modern global society. Our students need and must have both technical and communication skills containing new and clear ideas to accelerate their professional advancements. Every enterprising organization should have therefore a special group of people adept in Work Motivation, Leadership effectiveness, Presentation Skills, Career planning and Development and Emotional Intelligence. They are found integrated with the corporate sector in the global scenario. The main task of this group is to suggest new designs of work culture. The professional students have to develop their proficiency in technical English so as to become worthy members of this workgroup. This is to assure them the attainment of professional competence for immediate and prosperous employability.

Reference:

1. Chellammal.V, Learning to Communicate Allied Publishers Private Ltd, Chennai 2004.

2. Calisthus A. Technical English II Resource cum workbook L-care Publications Tirunelveli 2008

3. Crystal, David, English as a Global Language, 2nd Great Britain, and Cambridge university press 2003.

4. Duff, Alan McConnell, Tiger's Eye, BBC English London, Oxford University press 2006.

5. English for Engineers and Technologists, Vol-1 2nd Edition. Division of Humanities and social Sciences, Anna University, Orient Longman Ltd 2003.

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6. Farhathulla, T.M., Communication Skills for Technical students, Chennai Orient Longman 2002.

7. Gibaldi Joseph, MLA Handbook writers of research papers 6th ed., Affiliated East West Press Private ltd. New Delhi 2004.

8. Rayudu CS: Communication, Himalaya Publishing House, Eighth Revised ed.2007.

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THE INDIVIDUALIZED APPROACH TO YOGA IN THE KRISHNAMACHARY’S TRADITION Dr.P.S. Sreevidya Junior Accountant District Treasury Idukki, Kerala Abstract

Yoga has been practiced for centuries and it has moved to modern world by the teachings of great personalities. Thirumalai krishnamacharya is concerned as the father of modern yoga credited with the revival of yoga in twentieth century. He revolutionized yoga by the individualized approach called viniyoga. Through viniyoga system he developed a systematic method o study, practice, teach and adapt yoga. It is called vinyasa or movements and sequence methodology approach to yogasana practice is unique in all forms of yoga. Krishnamacharya’s yoga tradition lays focus on individual’s personal potential and emphasis the uniqueness of each person. It is meant to meet the needs and interests of an individual, which gives the practitioner the tools to individualize and actualize the process of self discovery and personal transformation. This individualized approach to yoga put forth so many years ago is even more important now because present day yoga has become famous in the whole world but in many places, the practitioners of yoga ignore the movements and sequence methodology and as a result yoga practices become a mere physical exercise.

Keywords: Yoga,Viniyoga,Vinyasa,Movements, and Sequence methodology.

Introduction

The practice of yoga is believed to have started with the very dawn of civilization and actual history of it starts from a hoary past with the discoveries at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, which shed much

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light on the antiquity of yoga practices. Now in the contemporary times, everybody has conviction about yoga practices towards the preservation, maintenance and promotion of health. Yoga has spread all over the world by the teachings of great personalities. Yoga has been practiced for centuries, with alternative meanings and health benefits as it has moved into modern day. Thirumalai Krishnamacharya is one of the most prominent teachers credited with the revival of yoga in the 20th century by the built of the bridge, which yoga was taken on its way out of the past and into the present. He is known worldwide as the father of modern yoga as he developed movement-oriented postural systems. He founded, practiced, and taught Viniyoga system of Hathayoga. It is a comprehensive and individual approach with the systematic method to study, practice, teach and adapt yoga. Krishnamacharya revolutionized yoga with this individualized approach and made it accessible to everyone. He strongly believed that the success of yoga does not lie in the ability to perform postures but in how it positively changes the way we live our life and our relationships. Krisnamacharya tradition of yoga focused on the personalizing the asana, pranayama or meditation and also providing support for transformation at physical and mental level.

Transformation of yoga from pre-Vedic to modern period

The historical origin of yoga in India belongs to distant past, and when and how it began cannot be established. Any attempt at an explanation or definition of yoga necessarily involves going into the questions of its origin, purpose and its relation to the development of man’s philosophical thought and also his religious ideas and experiences. The country of origin of yoga is undoubtedly India, where for many hundreds of years it has been a part of man’s activities directed towards higher achievements. Yet when we want to find a clear definition or a general description of yoga, the Indian texts do not help

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us directly. Therefore, to describe yoga, requires research into the period from pre-Vedic to modern.

The actual history of yoga starts from pre-Vedic period. The archeological discoveries at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro shed much light on antiquity of yoga practice. Some of the seals and figures reveal something about the antiquity of yoga practices in ancient India. A number of excavated seals from the site of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro show picture of a figure seated in a yogic position that has used by the Indian yogis for meditation till the present day. The position of the body, the direction of the eyes, in fact, in addition of having surrounded by animals led one to believe that it is Siva Pasupati, who is represented, performing an exercise of yoga. It is difficult to assess as to what extent the yoga practice was known to the people of Indus Valley civilization. From a close study of those seals one may come to the conclusion that the Indus people or at least classes of them are acquainted with some of the yoga techniques, such as asana and dhyana.

The philosophical speculations reflected in the Vedas presuppose the germ of Indian philosophical systems including the classical yoga. In Vedas there are number of hymns high lighting various aspects of yoga. The hymns of Rig-Veda contain the elements of yoga in their germinal form. The word yoga appears in its oldest meaning in the Rig- Veda in a noun form derived from the root yujir. It designates a connection or union between two things or two horses or bullocks. In the Atharva Veda the word yoga has been used to denote the yoke of a plough or tool under which six or eight bullocks are yoked together for trilling purpose. The word in the sense of yoke or implement or tool or union appears commonly throughout the Vedas. The word yoga is also used to denote connection between the words of a mantra and in some passage of the Rig-Veda, the word yogya or yojana is used in the place of yoga. The Vratyas, a group frequently mentioned in Rig-Veda; lived

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as solitary wandering ascetics and had a reputation of holiness. Even the group of practices of small teams of vratyas contained elements of yoga practice, particularly of the kind later known as Tantrayoga. They are no doubt another example of ancient yogis. Vrtyas were the forerunners of the later day yogis. The yoga that we are acquainted with today was derived from the “ecstatic rites of savages.”1

Pre-classic period of yoga covers an extensive period of Upanishads and Bhagavatgita. In the Upanishads the yoga takes, deviation and receives a highly technical meaning. So as to denote a special state in which all the senses will be under full control and the mind remains quiet and calm. The philosophical speculation of the Upanishads comprises all the fundamental doctrines that inspired deeply the developmental course of the yoga philosophy. The elements of yoga which appear in their rudimentary form in the Vedas assume a more conspicuous form in the Upanishads. The Upanishads contain the allusion of the fundamental concepts of yoga scattered throughout their passages. These yogic allusions serve as the valuable source to the yoga represented by Patanjali. The Upanishads acknowledge yoga as the highest state of citta and agrees well with the definitions of yoga given in the Yogasutra of Patanjali.

The great Indian epic, namely Mahabharata is the source of information about various kinds of yoga practices. The famous Bhagavadgita is the most important section dealing with yoga in Mahabharata. Bhagavadgita consists of seven hundred Sanskrit slokas arranged in eighteen chapters on different aspects of yoga. The appeal of yoga in Bhagavadgita perhaps due to the way, in which of it presented with various aspects of yoga being treated almost as separate types of yoga. These subsequently developed their respective methodological features still further and practically constituted

1 S.K Ramachandra Rao, Early Indian Thought (New Delhi: Kalpatharu Research Academy Publishers,1999)

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themselves into separate schools of yoga. The most important schools are four in number Karmayoga, Jnanayoga, Bhakthiyoga and Dhyanayoga.

Classical period of Yoga flows from the teaching of the ancient Indian yoga philosopher, Patanjali. Patanjali is believed to have compiled the first systematic text on yoga between the 6th and 2nd century B.C. Patanjali collected the concepts and techniques scattered in the Vedic and Upanishadic literature and framed them into famous Yogasutra. Thus, Patanjali is not the creator of the yoga philosophy or the inventor of the yogic techniques, but he has given us the first systematic treatise on yoga which helped to make it as a school of thought. “Patanjali’s Yogasutra is the result of an enormous effort, not only to bring together and classify a series of ascetic practices and contemplative formulas that India had known from time immemorial, but also to validate them from a theoretical point of view by establishing their basis, justifying and incorporating them into a philosophy.”2

The post classical period of yoga mostly covers the heterodox and orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. The first group consists of Buddhism, Jainism and Charvaka materialism which does not owe any allegiance to Vedas and hence these systems are called nastika darsana. The second group including Nyaya-Vaisesika, Sankhya-Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta believes in the authority of Vedas. Most of these systems are accepted the yoga principles in their philosophical speculations.

The history of modern yoga began with the parliament of religions held in Chicago in 1893. It was at this congress that Swami Vivekananda, a disciple of Ramakrishna, made a lasting impression on the American public. Before Swami Vivekananda a few other yoga

2 Miracca Elide, Yoga Immortality and Freedom (USA: Princeton university press,1964)

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masters had crossed the ocean to visit Europe, but their influence had remained local and ephemeral. After Swami Vivekananda, the next popular teacher in the West was Paramahamsa Yogananda, who arrived in Boston in 1920. He established the elf realization fellowship in Los Angeles and he wrote the famous ‘Autobiography of a Yogi’. In 1919, Yogendra Mastamani arrived in Long island and for nearly three years demonstrated to astounded Americans the power and elegance of Hathayoga. Before returning to India, he founded the American branch of Kaivalyadhama, an Indian organization created by the late Swami Kuvalayananda which has contributed greatly to the scientific study of yoga. Another renowned modern yoga adepts of Indian origin are Sri Aurobindo, the father of Integral Yoga, Ramana Maharshi, an unparalleled master of Janayoga, Papa Pamdas, who lived and breathed Mantrayoga, the yoga of transformative sound, Swami Nithyananda, a miracle working master of Siddhayoga, and his disciple Swami Muktananda, who put Tantric yoga. The great exponent in modern times of Hathayoga was Sri Krishnamacharya. He practiced and taught the Viniyoga system of Hathayoga.

Viniyoga-The individualized approach

Krishnamacharya was unique in many ways- as a master of yoga, as a teacher as an Ayurvedic physician and as a scholar. He is mostly known for his contribution to the revival of the more physically oriented disciplines and practices of Hathayoga. Therefore he is often referred as the father of modern yoga. The notion that k practiced and taught yoga that was somehow new or modern is primarily due to the many distortions or misunderstandings about the link between the physical practices of Hathayoga and the meditational practices of Rajayoga. He was the conservator of the ancient teachings of Rajayoga. There is only one yoga, the Rajayoga of Pathanjali. All other forms of yoga are involving the practice of some of the eight limbs of the Yogasutras. Krishnamacharya with his depth knowledge and practice

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was clear about these connections. He believed yoga to be India’s greatest gift o the world. His yoga instructions reflected his conviction that yoga could be both a spiritual practice and a mode of physical healing.

Viniyoga is an authentic approach to yoga reflecting the comprehensive teachings of Krishnamacharya. Viniyoga is a Sanskrit word with a multitude of meanings. It literally means separation, detachment, and leaving, but commonly means employment use and application and it often refers to therapeutic style of Hathayoga taught by Krishnamacharya. The idea of viniyoga is that all the tools of yoga be adapted to the individual’s capabilities. This individual approach to practicing and teaching yoga is essential if the student is to realize the full potential of yoga practice for healing self discovery and personal transformation. It is meant to meet the needs and interests of each individual, which gives the practitioner the tools to individualize and actualize the process of self discovery and personal transformation. This practice believes in the individual’s personal potential and gives them appropriate goals and means to get there. It truly emphasizes the uniqueness of each person. This practice is unique because it transcends through a lineage of teachers, dating back to the origin of yoga. In addition it is the practice that focuses the most on the individual practitioner and his needs.

Krishnamacharya promoted viniyoga-teaching what is appropriate for an individual. Underlying all of Krishnamacharya;s teachings was the principle “ teach what is appropriate for an individual.”3Yoga can be practiced to maintain or increase health and wellness; as a treatment or therapy; and as a discipline for spiritual practice and personal transformation. Each body different anatomically and

3 Mohan A.G, Krishnamacharya: His Life and Teachings(Boston: Shambhala,2010)

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otherwise; when teaching or learning yoga, two primary factors should be considered.

 The purpose: why is yoga being studied? Is the goal what the student needs?

 The person: who is studying? What is their capability, age, level of fitness, state of health, profession, time they have for practice, level of acceptance, motivation, beliefs? Are they willing to listen and understand?

To teach yoga effectively, Krishnamacharya said teachers must know:

 How to teach asanas with correct breathing, with or without vinyasa (moving from one position to another in accordance with the inhalation and the exhalation of the breath)

 How to use asana in their own practice.

 How to tech a group of people.

 How to teach individuals. (including helping students understand what kind of practice is appropriate for them)

One of the Krishnamacharya’s few worldly goals was to propagate the practice of sound and sensible yoga. Krishnamacharya knew that yoga practice must be undertaken with discipline in order to have a lasting effect, especially as a treatment. He noted that re-search, to search once more, is needed, to once again explore ancient practices and reestablish their value and relevance in modern society. Knowing the student is important for teaching the most beneficial yoga practices. Knowing how to use symmetric and asymmetric postures to work the two sides of the body independently or together to create balance, is vital. However, the primary goal of classical yoga is to bring concentration and stillness to the mind. Krishnamacharya states, a focused mind and a peaceful and positive feeling are vital requirements as well as by-products of an effective asana practice. Mental focus as

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part of asana practices an entrée to the meditation that follows the asanas. Without mental focus asanas are just an exercise of the body and the breath; the mind is disengaged and vagrant. “No accomplishment or achievement is possible without effort.”4 Such an asana practice will not effectively lead to meditation.

Breathing links the body and mind, leading the body toward wellness and the mind toward calmness. Pranayama involves regulating the breath keeping the body still, and focusing the mind. Krishnamachaya cited pranayama practice as the reason for his longevity. True to his discipline, his instruction about pranayama practice depends on a person’s age and how much time is spent on asana; as people grow older, both practices change.

Krishnamacharya is widely considered as the “architect of vinyasa.”5 Vinyasa is an essential part of Krishnamacharya’s teaching. Vinyasa is an ancient practice of physical and spiritual development. It is a systematic method to study, practice, teach and adapt yoga. This movements and sequence methodology approach to yogasana practice is unique in all forms of yoga. By integrating the functions of mind, body and breath in the same time frame, a practitioner will experience the real joy of yoga practice. Each of the important postures is practiced with many elaborate variations and movements. Each variation is linked to the next one by a succession of specific transitional movements, synchronized with the breath. The mind closely follows the slow, smooth, deliberate yogic breathing; and the connecting of the mind and body takes place with the breath acting as the harness.

Vinysa strictly follows the most complete definition of classical yoga. Yoga is typically defined in two ways: in one definition it is

4 Krishnamacharya.T, Yoga Makaranda: The Essence of Yoga( Madurai: CMV Press,1934) 5 Fernado, Pages Ruiz, “Krishnamacharya’s Legacy”. Yogajournal. Com March 2012

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defined as union; in other, it is mental peace. By using the breath as a harness, vinyasa integrates body and mind and so is the yoga of union. And because the mind follows the breath, the mind is made part of the whole process and achieves an elevated level of mental peace. Thus the undercurrent of peace and joy is established permanently.

The parameters prescribed in classical yoga with respect to yogasanas, as contained in Yogasutra of Patanjali are:

Steadiness:- for a posture to qualify as a yogasana, it should afford the practitioner the ability to remain steady in that posture, be it standing on his or her feet or standing his or her head.

Comfort: - use of breath and close attention of the mind to the breath, which are the hallmark of yoga, ensure that there are considerable joy and relaxation for the practitioner.

Smooth and long breathing:- this condition stipulates that while practicing asanas, the breath should be smooth and long. Since the movements are slow in vinyasayoga, one has to slow one’s breathing rate as well. A good line to follow is taking no more than six breaths per minutes. One should inhale for five seconds during an expansive movement and exhale smoothly when folding forward, turning, twisting, bending the knees, or doing body contractors.

Viniyoga refers to a general concept that means proper application based on the situation and it applies in many different contexts. It is the proper application of the practices of yoga based on the needs of the individual and he situation. So, the practices that are taught, and the way that and the way that they are taught, will vary according to the individual and situation. However, the way the postures are taught always depends on the needs of the person in the particular situation. When appropriate, the postures are not taught this way at all. Indeed sometimes the postures may not be taught at all. Other yoga practices, such as breathing, meditation, chanting, self-

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reflection or devotion, may be more appropriate for the needs of the individual or the situation. When understood in this way, it does not make sense to describe viniyoga as a style of yoga in which the postures are done in particular way.

Conclusion

The most significant figure in the foundation of the modern yoga tradition in India is Tirumalai Krishnamacharya. His view on yoga was rooted in Yogasutra of Patanjali, which is the heart of the teaching of Krishnamacharya. Krishnamacharya’s influence can be seen most clearly in the emphasis on asana practice and he proposed a move from limitations to abilities. This approach is the hall mark of Krishnamacharya’s teaching. The discernment that Krishnamacharya spoke of so many decades ago is even more important now. Present day yoga has become famous in the whole world but in many places, great practitioners of yoga ignore the movements and sequence methodology and just move, bends and shake their arms and legs and claim that they are practicing yoga. He stood for a profound practical approach to yoga, where all the tools of yoga are implemented and wisely adapted to meet the needs, abilities, goals and requirements of each individual. Understanding of a person’s present condition, personal potential, appropriate goals and the means available as each person is different; these will vary with each individual. As a style of practice, Viniyoga refers to an approach to yoga that adapts the various means and method of practice to the unique condition, needs and interest of an individual. The goal of Viniyoga practice is to enhance healing, flexibility and strength of joints implies that is all it does, it only does this when it serves a practitioner. As a result, each practitioner is given the tools to individualize and actualize the process of self-discovery and personal transformation. The practice is not about pushing oneself to one’s limits but rather working to the best of one’s ability. He understood the body is not just as a physical construct, but s the part of

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the holistic entity. For him practice and knowledge must always go together. He used to say, practice without right knowledge; one can mindfully do a wrong practice.

REFERENCE

1. Elide Miraca. (1964). Yoga Immortality and Freedom. USA: Princeton University Press.

2. Feuerstein, George. (1991). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga. New York: Paragon House.

3. Krishnamacharya, T. (1934). Yoga Makaranda: The Essence of Yoga. Madurai: CMV Press.

4. Mitra, Rajedralal. (1883). The Yoga Aphorisms of Patanjali. Culcutta: Baptist Mission Press.

5. Mohan, A.G. (2010). Krishnamacharya: His Life and Teachings. Boston: Shambhala.

6. Pages, Ruiz,Fernado,(2012). Krishnamacharya’s Legacy. Yogajournal. Com March 2012

7. Shankar, Ganesh, (2002).Classical and Modern Approaches to Yoga. New Delhi: Pratibha Prakasan.

8. Ramachandra, Rao, S.K. (1999). Early Indian Thought. (New Delhi: Kalpatharu Research Academy Publishers.

9. Verma,V. (1976). The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali a Scientific Exposition. New Delhi: Clarion Books Pvt. Ltd.

10. Whicher, Ian. (1998). Yoga and Freedom: A Reconsideration of Patanjali’s Classical Yoga. Albang: State University of New York Press.

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ACADEMIC LEADERSHIP PERFORMANCE IN ETHIOPIAN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS- ITS CHALLENGE AND PRACTICE IN SAMARA UNIVERSITY FOCUS

Professor R.Ranranathan Abraham Gebreyohanns Brhan Professor of Special Needs and PhD Scholar in Dept. of Education Principal of Institute of Advanced Andhra University, India & Studies in Education and Advisor, Ethiopian Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Strategy Center Ministry of Education, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which academic leaders in Samara University are effective in their leadership. The study employed both qualitative and quantitative approaches, emphasizing more on descriptive survey method. Participants of the study were taken from Colleges, Academic Director Offices, Departments, and top managements of the University. The participants of the study include 77 instructors, 15 department heads, 3 College Deans, 5 Academic Directors and 4 top management of the University. These informants were selected on the basis of stratified and purposive sampling techniques. Multiple instruments that included questionnaires, interviews and document analyses were used to gather data. The collected data were analyzed using appropriate qualitative and quantitative data analysis techniques. The results of the study unveiled that academic leaders’ leadership effectiveness in the University was not up to the desired level as measures by the three major leadership dimensions considered in the study. The study further revealed that academic leaders’ leadership effectiveness was hampered by both personal and institutional factors. In addition, the study revealed that most academic leaders believed that addressing more effective governance can improve educational quality significantly. Finally, the Institution is advised to arrange continuous and relevant training for academic leaders’ to make them effective in their leadership. And also it was recommended that the University organize applicable trainings for the present decentralize power and make deans

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and academic directors independent on significant academic and administrative issues. Key words: Academic Leaders’, Higher Education Institution, Leadership Background of the study Education in general and Higher Education in particular is the hall mark of a nation’s development as it is crucial in producing skilled labor force that accelerates the pace of the nation’s social and economic advancement (UNESCO, 2005). Because of the huge investment in higher education, the need to hold higher educational institutions accountable for measurable performance is also becoming crucial. The increase in competition for scarce resources and decrease in public trust in higher education institutions practices and performance has resulted in unprecedented demands for higher education institutions to demonstrate their effectiveness and efficiency, which to a great extent, leis on the performance of administrators in general and academic leaders in particular ( Heck, Johnsrud and Rosser, 2000). Academics leaders are among key personal up on whom the performances Higher Education institutions. They are expected to play a leading role in providing an important foundation to their institutions. They are expected to play a key role in, developing policies, coordinating unit/office works creating favorable work in environment. They mobilize and utilize resources efficiently. They and effectively, encourage staff professional development and promoting research. In short, they are responsible for encouraging practices that improve and sustain the quality of education and training that their institution offers to students and other community members (Wolvertonet et al., 2001). Academic leaders are also responsible for fostering good teaching, representing their Institution, and providing direction and recruiting strong faculty (Gardner, 1992). Despite the fact that, effective leadership of academic leaders has a potential influence on the success of higher education institutions, there is little evidence on approaches to evaluate the effectiveness of higher education institutions leadership in general (Austin and Scherrei, 1980). Higher education leadership effectiveness and concluded that minimal empirical research exists to determine the best method to assess their performance. They attributed this to lack of

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consistent and reliable assessment tools. In addition holding higher education institutions accountable for measurable outcome is a fairly new practice. Currently, the most common approach for evaluating academic leaders’ leadership effectiveness is a role-based approach. According to role- based approach effectiveness is academic leaders are effective in their leadership when they could manage to play leadership responsibility roles expected of them in an appropriate manner. Leadership in organizational context is obviously complex and multidimensional (Yukl, 1989). According to Fish (2004), the role of academic leaders has become more complex and demanding. Academic leaders are responsible for all aspects of academic affairs in addition to budgeting, recruiting, curriculum development and faculty development and retention. Academic leaders also have the responsibility of external fund raising and alumni relations (Montez and Gmelch, 2000). Specially, in developing countries where higher education institutions are expected to transform the society with manager resources provided from the government, academic leaders are expected to device mechanisms through which they can secure additional fund which helps them to realize their vision and mission. In addition, success of Higher Education institutions can be affected by the relationship that exists between and among staff members of the institutions. Moreover, academic leaders are expected to play roles that are crucial for the achievement of organizational goals. They have the authority to chart where the University and its missions are heading (Mercer, 1997). By selecting which goals to pursue, academic leaders have the potential to exert a tremendous influence on the direction of the units (Twombly, 1992). In general, the major role that academic leaders are expected to play as leaders can be categorized in to seven major dimensions. These dimensions include: vision and goal setting, management of the academic leadership, interpersonal relationship, communication skills, research/professional endeavors, quality of education in the institution, and support for international diversity. These are also considered as leadership dimensions that serve to evaluate academic leaders’ leadership effectiveness (Heck, Johnsrad and Rosser, 2000).

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In sum, academic leaders’ leadership is among the major determinants of the effectiveness of Higher Education institutions performances.If higher education institutions are to develop their capacity to change and to be relevant, strengthening of their leadership capacity is very much needed (Balton and Genck, 1971). And such actions should be based on the results of sound scientific knowledge. It is therefore, important to study effectiveness and the associated factors that hamper its success. Leadership as a concept is nebulous and difficult to describe. It has been a subject of thought and debate since the time of Aristotle and Plato (McCaffery, 2004). Since that time, diverse theories have evolved to explain the various types of leadership styles. However, trying to define leadership in general terms is tenuous and difficult, but effective leadership is oblivious when it is demonstrated (Bennis, 1989). Although there is little consensus on a single definition, leadership can be defined as a process designed to influence a group of individuals to work together to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2007). At the outset it is important to define the concept "leadership" in general and "academic leadership" in particular. The term leadership has been variously defined in the literature on strategic management. According to BIJUR (2000, p.167) "leadership means enhancing human potential". It is about creating the right environment for people to develop as leaders. It is also about communicating clearly and effectively. According to Arega (2016) Higher education institutions in the continent and specifically in Ethiopia are expected to play a critical role in the development of human resources and in the overall social development and transformation of the continent. Higher education plays a major part in shaping the quality of leadership in the global society. To be part of the globalized world, every nation must change itself to develop its economy and participate efficiently. As the world becomes more connected, the global economy gets more competitive, and the challenges to be addressed more complex, education has become the most powerful tool in providing solutions to various challenges (Semela, 2011).

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However, the process of establishing an effective quality higher education system is driven by a number of forces that demand a balanced approach. For instance, there is a need to strike a balance between the provision of equal access for education and the availability of finance needed to manage mass expansion of higher education, and between the pressure for increased institutional autonomy and those for growing public accountability. The focus on higher education in developing nations such as Ethiopia can bear fruit if education is delivered by emphasizing quality over quantity in the delivery of education (World Bank, 2009). The specific contributing factors to the level of quality of education include leadership, government oversight, students, instructors, funds, budget, and technology. Among these factors, academic leadership is considered as one of the major determinants of quality of education. Before introducing the situation of academic leadership of Public Higher Education Institutions in Ethiopia, it is important to review some facts about higher education in Ethiopia in terms of physical expansion, and student population. For Ethiopia, modern higher education began in 1950 with the establishment of the University College of Addis Ababa, a government institution, which later became Haile Selassie I University and still later Addis Ababa University (Teshome, 1990). In 1991, the country had only two public universities and six colleges, with a capacity to enroll only about10,000 students. By May 2014, the number of public universities reached 31 with enrollment capacity of more than 300,000. Meanwhile, prior to 1991, private higher education institutions (HEIs) did not exist in Ethiopia. Since 1992, 76 for-profit private HEIs (one university, three university colleges, 69 colleges, and three institutes) and three nonprofit private colleges have been founded (compiled by the author from various government publications). The expansion of HEIs in Ethiopia brought about, as expected, a remarkable increase in student population. Between 1996 and 2003, the student population of the higher education system, including accredited private programs, increased from about 35,000 to more than 100,000. By 2010-2011, the total enrollment (undergraduate and graduate) of the HEIs (private and public) in all programs (regular, evening, summer, and distance education) was 467,843 (Ministry of Education of Ethiopia [MoE], 2011). The total number of graduates from undergraduate and graduate programs for the 2010-2011 academic

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years was 81,598. The rapid expansion in the number of HEIs and student population, with poor leadership and government quality, inadequate human and investment capital to implement quality of education, is affecting higher education in Ethiopia. Statement of the problem The purpose of this study was therefore to identify key factors that contribute to the quality of academic leadership and factors that are attributable to leadership and its practices in public Higher Education Institutions in Ethiopia in the case of Samara University. At the outset it is important to define the concept "leadership" in general and "academic leadership" in particular. The term leadership has been variously defined in the literature on strategic management. According to BIJUR (2000, p.167) "leadership means enhancing human potential". It is about creating the right environment for people to develop as leaders. It is also about communicating clearly and effectively. HEIFETZ and LAURIE (1997) state that leadership involves three fundamental tasks: (a) creating a holding environment (environment that facilitates achievement of goals), (b) directing, protecting, orienting, managing conflict and shaping norms, and (c) maintaining presence and poise. Good leadership is about ensuring unity and cohesion upon decisions up and down the line. Academic leadership is a special case of general leadership in as much as it refers to leadership in an academic setting or institutions. Researchers’ knowledge, studies carried out so far to scrutinize academic leadership performance in Ethiopian Higher Education Institutes in general and Samara University in particular are scare. Furthermore, in its five years strategic plan, Samara University has pointed out Poor leadership and Management as one of the University’s challenge and emphasize the important of having visionary and committed leadership at Institutional and Proramme level (SU, 2016). And this implies that there is a need for an empirical study that examines the existing academic leadership status together with the associated factors that affect academics’ leadership performance in the University. Hence, this study attempted to assess the extent to which academic leaders in Samara University are effective in their leadership by focusing on the following research questions:

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a) To what extent the academic leaders effective in setting vision and goals of the University in general and their respective responsibilities?

b) To what extent does an academic leader contribute to better teaching, research and community services of the universities?

c) What challenges do these academic leaders face in their line of duties in the Higher Education Institutions?

d) How are these leaders able to overcome the challenges they face in their positions?

e) What are the possible measures being taken for effective practices of Academic leadership in Higher Education Institutions?

2. Literature Review At the outset it is important to define the concept "leadership" in general and "academic leadership" in particular. The term leadership has been variously defined in the literature on strategic management. According to BIJUR (2000, p.167) "leadership means enhancing human potential". It is about creating the right environment for people to develop as leaders. It is also about communicating clearly and effectively. HEIFETZ and LAURIE (1997) state that leadership involves three fundamental tasks: (a) creating a holding environment (environment that facilitates achievement of goals), (b) directing, protecting, orienting, managing conflict and shaping norms, and (c) maintaining presence and poise. Good leadership is about ensuring unity and cohesion upon decisions up and down the line. Academic leadership is a special case of general leadership in as much as it refers to leadership in an academic setting or institutions. Academic institutions present a different setting than private or public sector organizations. Private organizations are guided solely by considerations of maximizing shareholder value. The government agencies and public sector organizations are guided by considerations of maximizing the value to stakeholders, which includes community at large. In academic institutions, maximizing stakeholder value refers to maximizing value to stakeholders such as students, staff, community, and funding agencies. Thus, the stakeholders in academic institutions are more diverse. These special features of academic

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institutions pose a different set of challenge to leadership. This means that though academic leadership has some commonalities with leadership in general, there are special challenges involved as has been indicated in paragraphs that follow. Research on academic leadership is evolving. In Australia, notable work has been done in recent years by RAMSDEN (1998), HARMAN (2002), WOLVERTON et al. (1999) SARROS et al. (1997) and MEEK and WOOD (1997). In particular, RAMSDEN (1998) has developed a model (which this study uses) that defines the characteristics that influence effective academic leadership. [2] Academic institution is a broad term and includes all institutions that provide some form of academic instruction. It includes institutions like primary and secondary schools, professional training institutions like TAFE (Technical and Further Education) colleges, and tertiary institutions like Universities (also known as the higher education sector). Given the constraint of time and resources, the scope of this study is limited to a higher education institution. There are 37 higher education institutions in Australia. It was not possible to make a study of leadership in all or a sample of these institutions again due to constraint of time and resources. Hence this report is based up on interviews conducted with academic leaders in one university only. The author is familiar with the University's mission and vision as also with general ethos of work culture. It was therefore considered appropriate to restrict the interview to three academic leaders from the university given author's knowledge about the institution. As the setting in which the leaders operated was common, it was easier to compare how the three leaders operate under the same conditions. The author is familiar with the setting, which helps in bringing additional insights in this study, as the author is able to verify from observing the leaders whether responses during interviews are actually translated into practice. It also helps in validation of responses collected during interview. [3]

2.1. LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS The clear purpose of leadership is common to all organizations. This purpose is organizing and influencing every stakeholder of the organization towards the achievement of goals. However, it does not mean that there are no differences in the system of managing different

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organizations differ from one another in the functions or tasks they carry out that require special skill from employees and abilities and skill required by the leader. On the other hand, leadership effectiveness is believed to be crucial for the overall success of any organizations. Oakland (1993) asserts that effective leadership is an approach to improve the competitiveness, effectiveness and flexibility of the whole organization through planning, organizing and allowing participation of all members at the appropriate level. As already indicated above, a conceptual framework of leadership in higher education underpins this study. According to RAMSDEN (1998), effective academic leadership in higher education is a function of several factors or characteristics. These include:

 leadership in teaching,  leadership in research,  strategic vision and networking,  collaborative and motivational leadership,  fair and efficient management,  development and recognition of performance and  interpersonal skills 2.2. What is Academic leadership mean? Academic leadership is a broad capability and function across a higher education institution, reflected in leadership in governance, both corporate and academic, and in operations. Academic leadership relates to judgments about the courses and curricula to be offered; the students to be admitted to these courses; academic staff to be employed and their deployment to best effect; the development of learning resources and systems; the appropriate academic policy framework and its implementation; student assessment; the leading, supervision and development of staff; the monitoring and improvement of the quality of courses; and how stakeholders will be assured of academic standards. Academic leadership reduces risk – the risk of any decline in accountability and quality, and risk to academic operations arising from changes to discipline or professional accreditation frameworks. Effective academic leadership requires oversight of these matters.

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Higher education, of its nature, is built on communities of scholarship, on diverse perspectives and on academic freedom. Consequently, academic leadership cannot reside in just one individual or with individual academics teaching at the subject level, but requires the contribution of many people in many roles. So effective academic governance can include how and to whom responsibility for leadership is delegated, and the rationale for delegations. Academic institution is a broad term and includes all institutions that provide some form of academic instruction. It includes institutions like primary and secondary schools, professional training institutions like TAFE (Technical and Further Education) colleges, and tertiary institutions like Universities (also known as the higher education sector). Given the constraint of time and resources, the scope of this study is limited to a higher education institution. There are 37 higher education institutions in Australia. It was not possible to make a study of leadership in all or a sample of these institutions again due to constraint of time and resources.

2.3. LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA Soon after the restoration of independence, late 1941, education was given high priority which resulted in opening of schools in different parts of the country. At a time, most of the teachers and principals were from foreign countries such as the UK, USA, Canada, Egypt, and India (ICDR, 1999). According to MoE (2002), prior to 1962, expatriate principals were assigned in the elementary and secondary schools of different provinces of Ethiopia during the 1930’s and 1940’s. During this time, the principalship positions were given to Indians, because of their experience in principalship. In 1964, it was a turning point that Ethiopians started to replace expatriates. According to Teshome (cited in Ahmed, 2006) this new chapter of principalship began with a supervising principal. Such a person was in charged not only for a single school but also for the educational system of the community where the school was located. The Ethiopian school heads were directly assigned in elementary schools without competition among candidates. After 1960 it was a time that Ethiopians who were graduated with BA/BSc degree in any field

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were assigned as principals by senior officials of the MOE. The major criteria to select them were educational level and work experience (MOE, 2002). However, in the first, few decades of 1960’s graduates of B.A degrees in pedagogy were directly assigned in secondary schools. On the other hand, career structure promotion advertisements which were issued from 1973 – 1976 showed that secondary school principals were those who held first degree , preferably in educational administration ( EDAD) field. In addition to these teachers who had experiences as a unit leader or department head were candidates for principalship. Currently, the job description, issued by MoE in 1989 indicated that secondary school principals should have a first degree in school administration and supervision including a sufficient work experience.

3. Conceptual Framework As already indicated above, a conceptual framework of leadership in higher education underpins this study. According to RAMSDEN (1998), effective academic leadership in higher education is a function of several factors or characteristics. These include:

. leadership in teaching, . leadership in research, . strategic vision and networking, . collaborative and motivational leadership, . fair and efficient management, . development and recognition of performance and . Interpersonal skills. [4] RAMSDEN (1998) elaborates that teaching leadership refers, for example, to bringing new ideas about teaching to the department or creating excitement about teaching. Research leadership can be evidenced, for example, by inspiring respect as a researcher, or leading by example. Strategic vision and networking are demonstrated through furthering interests of the department across the university. Developing and recognition of performance includes aspects such as praising and sustaining success of the staff of the department and giving good feedback to improve. Interpersonal skills refer to

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communicating well and having concern for others. The objective of the study was to describe how the practice of academic leadership of the leaders interviewed fits in with the theoretical framework of effective academic leadership developed by RAMSDEN (1998). It also compares the academic leadership styles of the three leaders with each other to understand similarities and differences if any. [5]

4. Methodology of the Study This case study used both qualitative and quantitative approaches, with more emphasis on descriptive survey method, were employed so as to benefit from the strong side of both approaches. This method is presumed to sufficiently describe the current academic leadership effectiveness and factors that hamper this effectiveness in the Universities. Sample and Sampling procedure The sampling technique for this study was purposive, not random, because the objective of the study was to identify the challenges and practices of academic leadership. Each of the Universities was asked to contribute four individual participants (president, vice president, and two administration staff members). Currently the University has four top Management officials; namely one President, three vice Presidents (for Academic, Research and Administration). All of these was purposively selected and included as a participant of the study. From the University 3 academic Directors and 5 deans were selected. Besides, a total of 15 heads and 20 instructors of the departments in these colleges (College of Business and economics, Social Science and Natural and Computational Science) and 15 Department heads under these Colleges were purposely selected and included in the study due to their close working relationship and sufficient experience and insight to judge academic leadership quality in their universities.

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Table 1: Clear description of sample and sampling technique No Populations Total Sample Techniques numbers size employed 1 Presidents 1 1 Purposive 2 V.presidents 3 3 Purposive 3 Deans 7 3 Purpose 4 Directors 5 5 Available 5 Heads 30 15 Purposive 6 Instructors 80 50 Purposive Total 126 77 Sources of Data Primary sources: University top Management officials, Academic Directors, College deans and Heads of Departments used as primary sources. Secondary sources: Books, journals, internet, thesis and documents from MOE were used as secondary sources of data. Instruments of Data Collection The following Three basic types of instruments were used as the main tools of data collection:

. Questionnaire . Interview . Document Analysis Questionnaires were employed to collect data from academic Directors, College Deans, and department heads to access the challenges and practices of academic leadership quality in Samara University. The questionnaires were adapted from standardized questionnaire prepared by Heck, Johnsrub, and Rosser (2000), with the consultation of diversified body of literature on academic leadership quality by RAMSDEN (1998) and others. It was meant to get the leaders talking

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about their reflections on each of the characteristics of effective academic leadership. Leadership is an area that has many aspects and open-ended questions were considered as the most appropriate way to gather responses of these leaders about aspects, which they consider important. The five point scales were given the scale values in such a way that strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree were given a scale value of 5,4,3,2,1, respectively for the positive items while it was reverse for negative items. The total score of a subject on a single variable was calculated by summing the scores on the items belonging to the variables. The reliability of the questionnaire was maintained in such a way that it was pilot testing on one college before it was employed for the purpose of actual data collection. Accordingly, the coefficients of reliability of items for measuring academic leadership qualities in the three dimensions were 0.9, 0.9 and 0.8 respectively. In addition to the questionnaire, semi-structured interview was used to garner the view of the President and Vice presidents on issues like quality of academic leadership effectiveness, major challenges and remedies that the university should take to maximized academic leadership quality. Data Analysis Both the qualitative as well as the quantitative data were analyzed parallel. Such kind of analysis is employed when equal weight is given to both types of data. Data analysis included a review of (a) all questionnaires and interviews, (b) documents related to each institution’s governance structure as it relates to quality functions, and (c) government proclamations on higher education 650/209. All of these data were arranged into categories or themes, with the analysis process using methods introduced by researchers, including Creswell (2008), Gay (1996), and McMillan and Schumacher (2001). The reason is that the descriptive survey method is appropriate to describe and interpret conditions that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that or evident or trends that are developing. Particularly the method is important for the study since it was intended to make detail description and analysis of leadership Practice and challenges as to produce competent academic leaders.

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In analyzing the data we used both descriptive and inferential Statistics. Mean, percentage and standard deviation were computed in descriptive statistics whereas ANOVA and Independent t-test were computed under inferential statistics. Finally data gathered though interviews were analyzed in narrative form qualitatively. The demographic data covers sex, position work experience in the University, current educational level, and their disciplinary areas. The natures of the academic leaders 88.7% were male. This is not surprising as there is an intolerable gender gap in the University particularly in academic positions. As far as work experiences concerned, majority of the respondents 70.6 % had less than 5 years of work experience. The presence only a limited number of academic staff with long years work experience seems to be due to high staff turnover in the institution and the newness of some of the colleges and offices. With regards to the level of education, majority of the respondents, 69.4% second degree (MA/MSC/DVM/MD) with specialized fields. Where as a limited number 5.6% of the academic leaders had their first degree. Moreover, majority of the respondents 60.6% studied social science background. This means most of them had the background of leadership, management and others soft science skills. When we look at academic leaders’ view of their Institutional view some view their Institutional leadership effectiveness is positive. Academic Directors, College Deans, department heads’, and Instructors response to academic leadership effectiveness in setting vision and mission of the University. This result in short reveals that the effectiveness of academic leaders in setting their Institutions’ vision and goals is below the expectation to their responsibility. Discussion According to the findings of their study, Visio and goals are sources of inspiration for employees. Academic leaders; deans, directors and heads make series of decisions daily, often without the data needed to make informed choices. Leaders with clearly articulated goals are often more effective problem solvers. When tackling messy problems often faced in the institution, the academic leaders’ vision becomes substitute for

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information (Hallinger and Heck, 2000). Clearly articulated vision shaped action, invests our work with meaning and reminds us why we are educators. When vision is shared with employees, it become a catalyst of transformation (Hallinger and Heck, 2000). Directors, Deans and Heads as academic leaders therefore, are expected to set and communicate the vision and goal of their university so that they can inspire employees with the Ultimate aim of bringing about better organizational performance. However, the result of this study uncovered that the academic leaders’ effectiveness in setting their Institution vision and goal is moderate. Research is one of the core missions of Ethiopian Higher Education Institutions. According to theNo.650/2009 Ethiopian Higher Education Proclamation, one of the major objective of Higher Education Institutions is to promote and in enhance research focusing on knowledgeable technology transfer consistent with the country priority needs (FDRE, 2009, p. 4979). To this end, the document clearly stated that Higher Education Institutions have the responsibility to encourage relevant studies, research and community services in national and local priority areas and disseminate the finding as may be appropriate. Furthermore, with the presumption that research leads to quality education and is a springboard for informed policy, the University identified research undertaking as one of the major strategic issues in its transformational agenda (Samara University, 2015). The 2015 Strategic Plan of the University states that academic leaders are responsible for monitoring their Institution for teaching learning process, research and community services and for other administrative activities (Samara University, 2015). Academic leaders are expected to encourage staff to carry our research. The result of this study, however, revealed that though academic leaders are attempting to do various activities to encourage research undertakings, it seems that their effort is not up to the expected level. Another mission of Higher Education Institutions to train qualified and competent professionals who are capable of playing considerable role in the socio-economic advancement of the nation. However, it is naïve to expect Higher Education Institutions to play this role without quality education and training. Many scholars agree that due to massive expansion of Higher Education Institutions in Ethiopian, the quality of education and training has been very much compromised.

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The Ethiopian Higher Education Proclamation (650/2009) states that quality training, education and service is one of the major guiding values of Higher Education Institutions. The document further underlines that Higher Education Institutions should develop internal quality assurance system. This is because as they are responsible for the quality of education and training they offer to their students (FDRE, 2009: 4988). Samara University also seems to give due attention to the quality of education it offers as ensuring the quality and relevance of teaching and learning plan. However, ensuring the quality of education is not a simple task. It requires the involvement of all staff members among which academic leaders are the major ones. In this regard, academic leaders can play various roles. However, the finding of this study disclosed that academic leaders in the University are moderately effective in their effort to promote the quality of education offered by their Institution. According to the 2015 Strategic Plan of the University, academic leaders are the chief executive officers of their Institution and are responsible for an array of activities that require decisions making. However, it would be illogical to expect academic leaders to discharge these responsibilities in the way expected without autonomy and power. Langton et al.(2002) argue that power is a key to component is found in the power of the leader to affect other people's behavior and get them to act in certain ways and decide on utilization of resources for the achievement of organizational objectives. Academic leaders are expected to make decision on various academic and administration issues which in turn require legitimate power. However, academic leaders in Samara University seem to try hard to carry out various responsibilities without commensurate power and autonomy. This lead to poor organizational performance lack of power and autonomy as it hampers any activity carried by the Institution. The implication is that if academic leaders have to play their leadership role in an effective an efficient way, power to make decisions should be decentralized. They should also work without any unnecessary external interference. As stated previously, the University has various missions to realize. The realization of these missions requires qualified and competent academic staff. However, due tools staff attraction and retention capacity, the University has been suffering from shortage of qualified staff (Samara University, 2015). The working and living environment

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as well as the location of the University are not favorable to qualified and experienced staff. Retention of these staff has become difficult due to uncompetitive salary and benefit schemes. Leaders alone cannot realize the missions of the University. This requires the concerted effort of well trained and experienced staff. Of course, some of major causes of staff turnover might be beyond the level of academic leaders of the University. For example, the issue of salary and other incentives in most cases are determined by the Ministry of Education and other Federal offices. In order to enhance the University performance, academic leaders should focus on the major missions of the Ministry of Education Higher Education Institutions in general and in their Institution in particular, i,e. teaching and learning, research and community service. Unless the academic leaders free themselves from the routine chores of the office and reserve some free time for study and reflect on the purpose and the program of the academic body over which they preside, their decisions which inevitably be superficial, uninformed, and often inconsistent (Roaden, 1970). In short, spending much time on routine activities that have low strategic relevance for the materializations the Institution missions leads academic leaders to be deficits in time they need to work on key functions of the University. This ultimately influences the realization of institutional missions negatively. Conclusion and Recommendations The result of this study revealed that the effectiveness of the academic leaders in setting vision and goals of their institutions is not up to the desired level. Moreover, the academic leaders are found to be modest in influencing their staff to be involved in research undertaking and promote quality of educational programs provided to the students. If the University needs to materialize its vision and missions, it should assist academic leaders to become more effective in teaching-learning, research and community services. Academic leadership effectiveness in Samara University is hampered by such factors as: lack of adequate preparation, limited power to decide resources allocation and utilization, ineffective incentive scheme, high staff turnover and in apt structure. This implies that academic leaders’ leadership effectiveness is being hindered not only by factors related to

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the leaders themselves but also institutional factors that are related to the University as well as the Higher Education at large. Hence, the following points are proposed to address these problems and improve the leadership effectiveness of academic leaders in the University.

. The University top level management should be committed to ensure that authority and responsibility are meaningful decentralization and fairly distributed to all colleges and director offices.

. The appointment of deans needs to be based on level of education, prior training and experience. To this effect, the University should revise its criteria for the selection of academic leadership from head of department to the college deans and directors.

. The University ought to attract and retain qualified staff members. In this regard, it should broaden opportunities for staff members to supplement their income through, for instance, involvement in consultancy works, short-term training, continuing education, in-house professional assessments, and others.

. The organizational structure of the University should be revised in such a way that if facilitates the materializations of Institutional missions and goals.

. It is useful that the University arrange various training opportunities related to Higher Education leadership in order to fill the gap observed in academic leaders training deficiency and improve their leadership capacity.

. The University should pave ways through which academic leader share experiences on important leadership skills; develop policies by which well performing academic leaders are recognized awarded. References Ade, A. (2000). Leadership and Human Resources Management in Nigeria. Journal of Institute of Personnel Management of Nigeria, 3(1), 11-14.

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Armstrong, M., & Baron, A. (1998), Performance Management- the new realities. London: The Institute for Personnel Development. Bloom, D., Canning, D., & Chan, K. (2005). Higher education and economic development in Africa: A research paper commissioned by World Bank (AFTHD). Boston, MA: Harvard University. Bogue, E. G., & Hall, K. B. (2003). Quality and accountability in higher education: Improving policy, enhancing performance. Westport, CT: Praeger. Bush, T. (2003). Theories of educational leadership and management (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Coats, H. (2010). Defining and monitoring academic standards in Australian higher education. Higher Education Management and Policy, 22(1), 1-17. Codling, A., & Meek, V. L. (2006). Twelve propositions on diversity in higher education. higher Education Management and Policy, 18(3), 23-47. Creswell, J. H. (2008). Qualitative inquiry and research design:Choosing among five Approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks,CA: SAGE. Desta, D. (2004). Observations and reflections of the higher education teachers on the quality of teaching and learning in higher education in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education, 11, 1-10. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2009). Higher Education Proclamation No. 650/2009. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Berhanena Selam. Gardner, W.E. (1992). Once a Dean: SomeReflections. Journal of Teacher Education. 43(5), 357-366. Ghelawdewos Araia, Development is the Best Contraceptive: The Controversy of Population Explosion & the Ethiopian Famine: Heck, R., Johnsrud, L. & Rosser, V.(2000). Administrative Effectiveness in Higher Education: Improving Assessment Procedure.Research in Higher Education,41(6),663-681. MoE.( 1999). General Education Quality Assurance package. Addis Ababa _____ ( 2002 ). Education sector Development program ( ESDP – II). Addis Ababa: EMPDA _____ ( 2002). The Education and Training policy and its Implementation. Addis Ababa. _____ (1994). The Education and Training policy, Addis Ababa. _____ (2005). The Education sector Development program Implementation Manual ( ESDP – III ). Addis Ababa EMPDA

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Ramsden, P. (1998) Managing the effective university, Higher education research and development. Vol. 17. No. 3 pp. 347-370 Roaden, L.A. (1970). The College Deanship: A New Middle Management in Higher Education.Governance in Higher Education, 9(4), 272-276. Samara University.(2016). Five years Strategic Plan of Samara University (2016-2020). Samara University. Scott, G., Coates, H. & Anderson, M. (2008). Learning leadership in times of change: Academic leadership capabilities for Australian higher education. University of Western Sydney, Australian Council of Educational Research & Australian Learning & Teaching Council: Sydney, Melbourne & Canberra. http://www.olt.gov.au/resource-learning-leaders- change-uws- 2008UK Quality Code Teshome, G. W. (1990). The development of higher education and social change. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. UNESCO. (2005). EFA Global Monitoring Report: The Quality Imperative. UNESCO, Paris. Wolverton et al. (2001). The Changing Nature of Academic Deanship. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, 28(1). Woods, P.A. (2004) Democratic leadership: drawing distinctions with distributed leadership, International Journal of Leadership in Education. World Bank. (2003). Higher education development for Ethiopia: Pursuing the vision. Washington, DC. World Bank. (2009). Accelerating catch-up: Tertiary education for growth in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC. Yizengaw, T. (2003, September). Transformations in higher education: Experiences with reform and expansion in Ethiopian higher education system. Paper presented at the Conference on Improving Tertiary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Things That Work, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Yizengaw, T. (2004). The status and challenges of Ethiopian higher education system and its contribution to development. Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education, 1, 6-49.

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GLOBALIZATION EFFECT ON INDIAN CULTURE

Dr. Ch. Kishore Department of Telugu K.V.R. College Nandigama, Krishna Dist., A.P. 1. Introduction - Indian culture Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviours, objects, and other characteristics common to the members of a particular group or society. Through culture, people and groups define themselves, conform to society's shared values, and contribute to society. Thus, culture includes many societal aspects: language, customs, values, norms, mores, rules, tools, technologies, products, organizations, and institutions. The culture of India is one of the oldest and unique. In India, there is amazing cultural diversity throughout the country. The South, North, and Northeast have their own distinct cultures and almost every state has carved out its own cultural niche. There is hardly any culture in the world that is as varied and unique as India. India is a vast country, having variety of geographical features and climatic conditions. India is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, including four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. "Unity in diversity" - these are not just words, but something that are highly applicable to a country like India that is incredibly rich in culture and heritage. A few quotations or statements cannot describe the pedestal that India holds on to the world map because of its colourful and unique culture. From the times of Mauryas, Cholas and Mughals to the period of British Empire, India has always been famous for its traditions and hospitality. The warmth in the relations and euphoria in celebrations make the country stand out distinctively in the global fraternity. Everything, from the culture and values to customs, rituals and traditions, is 'special' in this 'Land of Gods'.

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The rich heritage of Indian culture can be traced back to ancient times. The practices, beliefs and customs that we follow today were established thousands of years back. In ancient India, culture was the determining factor of the Indian society. Though different beliefs were followed in different regions, the foundation base of ancient Indian culture remained the same. From every day dressing to elaborate rituals, every minute and major detail was decided centuries back. The root of Indian culture has existed since ancient times and that is what makes it so strong. After the initial set up of the foundation by the Indus Valley Civilization, the coming of the Aryans further consolidated it. The Aryans had a particular social structure according to which administration was carried on. There was division of labor and each hierarchy had its own job to do. The merchants and the priestly class were considered very elite and were much respected and feared. There were certain symbols of worship like cows, bulls, the sacrificial fire, etc. The chanting of sacred hymns came into vogue with the Vedic age. Though agriculture was the main occupations, there was development of small scale industries and handicrafts. In ancient India, fine arts formed an integral part of the culture. Music and dance evolved highly in ancient India and new forms of dances and music came into being. Music was usually accompanied by instruments to provide bass and rhythm. Dances required elaborate costumes, jewelry and make-up and were usually performed in temples or royal courts. Theater also originated in ancient India and was an integral part of the daily culture. People enacted scenes out of daily life like wild animals hunting for food. Some people became small animals like cows, goats, etc. who were "preyed" upon by people playing the role of carnivores like lions, tigers, etc. The culture of ancient India has been refined and modernized over the ages

The first feature to remember when thinking of India is its diversity. It is a country in which there are 15 official languages, over

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300 minor languages and some 3,000 dialects. Twenty-four languages have more than one million speakers each. The largest spoken language is Hindi, but this is the mother tongue of only about 40 percent of the population. Often Indians cannot understand each other and frequently use English as a link or administrative language. But language is not the only diversity. There has been over 4,000 years of philosophical and cultural development in India, going back to early Aryan civilization. Since then, Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, Islamic, Sikh and other influences have left deep imprints on society. Every Indian, even the poorest illiterate, can tell stories of myth and history, a consciousness of a great civilizational heritage which is unusually widespread. Yet, there was no India as we know it until the achievement of independence in 1947.

2. Effect of globalization on Indian culture Globalization has a wide role to play worldwide. It has left back its footprints at every sphere of life. Not only in India, but the interchange of world views and ideas has resulted in a major transformation of the lifestyle and living standard of people globally. Indian culture is no bar to this transformation process. Our deep rooted traditions and customs have loosened up their hold with the emergence of globalization. India has a rich cultural background and pride of its culture is famous throughout the world. Globalization has not only inculcated the westernization in India, but conversely the Indian culture has also spread its impact globally. Culture and traditions of any geographic region hold a special significance with respect to its uniqueness and that is the differentiating factor for a population within a geographic boundary from the other. This uniqueness has been disturbed to the varying degrees in lieu of globalization. Such an impact is very much pronounced when they hit a developing country like India. The culture of any country does not only portray the region and language of the region, but it starts with

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the mindset and mentality of the residing citizens. Indian culture is quite rich with respect to its heritage and resources, and more importantly due to the welcoming approach of its citizens. India is bouquet of flowers varying religion, dialect, edibles, tradition, custom, music, art and architecture etc, bundled into a single unit of patriotism and unity. The common factor within all these diversities is the Indian mindset of welcoming, greeting, celebrating in a united way with immense affection and togetherness. This is the rich essence of the Indian culture that has attracted many foreigners to stay back in India and mingle into its eternal fragrance. When one analyze this rich culture with the globalization point of view, it can find many punch holes of westernization and mixing of other traits and cultures into our beautifully woven blanket.

The joint families have become a strange surprise to the Indians especially to those residing in the metropolitan cities in the small flat culture with the nuclear families blooming up like mushrooms in the rain.People have lost the patience to get adjusted into the joint family, imbibing the values of the elders and getting the young ones brought up under the shadow of their grandparents. Children have started treating grandparents like guests or visitors, and such an upbringing is one of the main reasons of increasing old age homes, as those children consider their own parents as burden in their state of adulthood.

Similarly, marriages have also lost their values. It is very much evident from the increasing number of divorce cases and the extra- marital affairs reported every now and then. Marriage used to be considered as bonding of the souls which will be linked even after the death; but today marriage is like a professional bond or a so-called commitment to share life without compromising their self-interests. The ego factor into the Indian youth is again a product of globalization.

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Elders have the incorporated values of treating the guests as God, warm-hearted welcoming, greeting elders with due respect and a celebrating every small festival with great colour of enjoyment and togetherness. Such a wide gathering with full hue and light can hardly be seen today. People have highly restricted themselves in social interaction. The interaction in present generation is highly diplomatic considering the financial status and wealth. People have lost social values and cheerful blessing of togetherness. The present generations are happier celebrating Valentine’s Day rather than Indian festivals.

Unprecedented interaction and mobility have dented local cultures. Large scale immigration and a transnational workforce - the product of globalization - is dispersing cultures across the world, leading to a unified world culture. India is no exception. There was a time when Indians used to greet each other with “Namaste” or something similar in regional dialects. But now it’s “Hi” and “Hello” among a large section of the population. The joint family system of India, which has been appreciated worldwide, is breaking up, paving the way for nuclear families everywhere. Most people now like an independent life, a by-product of globalization. There are old-age homes and senior communities everywhere, in the major cities at least. And what’s a real worry is that, many of these nuclear families are getting further divided because of strained relations between partners. Traditionally, life partners were searched from local communities, usually within the same caste. Inter-caste marriages are now common. Parents are turning to the web to search for prospective brides and grooms, and often, they prefer NRIs (Non-Resident Indians) for their westernized outlook, lifestyles, and higher disposable income. A fatter bank account is more important than the happiness index.

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3. Conclusion To conclude with, there are different aspects of the Indian culture. Each aspect is practiced by people but not everyone believes in the different aspects. As one can see it is a very traditional culture, everyone has their opinion towards it, positive and negative. Therefore the Indian Culture is a very unique culture and has various practices. Although the youth do not believe in the traditional aspects, the culture will vary with time and will not be traditional anymore because of the modern world. All in all the aspects are frequently practiced but tomorrow’s generation are going to change it. Indian culture is incredibly complex and resembles a chaos of mind-boggling proportions. But beneath this seeming chaos is a scientific foundation that is thousands of years old. It has been a long-standing complaint that Indian youth are highly influenced by American and European cultures. With India fast becoming a truly global environment in terms of economy, food and culture, what does it take to make sure our youth do not forget the richness of being Indian.

Reference

1. Globalisation and Its Impact on Indian Culture - 4 Oct 2011- By Subhasish Chatterjee (Author)

2. Globalization: The Key ConceptsBy Thomas Hylland Eriksen Berg, 2007

3. Appadurai, A. (1996) Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

4. Erosov, B. and Y. Singh (1991) the Sociology of Culture, Moscow: Progress Publishers.

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REFORMS IN THE CAPITAL MARKET : A STUDY

Dr.G.Chandra Mouli Reader in Commerce Government Degree College Sabbavram,Visakhapatnam

The 1991- 92 securities scam prompted the government to increase the pace of reforms in the capital market. Several reform measures have been undertaken since then in both the primary and secondary segments of the equity market1.

Primary Capital Market

(i) The Securities and Exchange Board of India was set up in early 1988 as a non-statutory body under an administrative arrangement. It was given statutory power in January 1992 through the enactment of the SEBI Act 1992 for regulating the securities market. The two objectives mandated in the SEBI Act are investor protection and orderly development2 of the capital market.

(ii) The Capital Issues (Control) Act, 1947 was repealed in May 1992, allowing issuers of securities to raise capital from the market without requiring the consent of any authority either for floating an issue or pricing it. Restrictions on right and bonus issues were also removed. The interest rate on debentures was freed. However, the new issue of capital has now been brought under SEBI’s purview and issuers are required to meet the SEBI guidelines for disclosure and investor protection, which are being strengthened from time to time to protect investor interest.

1 Johnson H.J, Financial Institutions and Markets, Mc Graw-Hill, New York, 1993, p.125-126 2 Bhatia.B. New Issue Markets Of India, Vora Bombay, 1976 p.45-46

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(iii) The infrastructure of the primary capital market has been fairly diversified over the years with the setting up of a large number of merchant bankers, investment and consulting agencies, registrars to the issue, and so on.

(iv) The primary capital market has widened and deepened with public sector banks, financial institutions, and public sector enterprises in the infrastructure and power sectors increasingly rising resources from the market both by way of debt and equity.

(v) Although the process of institutionalization of the market on the supply side started in 1987-88 when many mutual funds sponsored by banks and financial institutions were set up, it gained considerable momentum in the early 1990s when many mutual funds were set up in the private sector. There are now 37 mutual funds operating in the country with a total asset base of over Rs.1 lakh crore.

(vi) The requirement to issue shares at a par value of Rs.10 and Rs.100 was withdrawn. This gave companies the freedom to determine a fixed value per share. This facility is available to companies which have dematerialized3 their shares. Moreover, the shares cannot be issued in the decimal of rupee. The companies which have already issued shares at Rs.10 or Rs.100 per value are also eligible for splitting and consolidating the share values.

(vii) Improved disclosure standards, prudential norms, and simplified issue procedures have been prescribed. Companies are required to disclose all material facts, specific risk factors associated with their projects while launching public issue and give justification for pricing on their prospectus. The offer document is not vetted by SEBI but a

3 Hunt and Andrews, Financial Management, Black well publishers limited, Cambridge, New York, pp 120.12

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code of advertisement for public issue, for ensuring fair and truthful disclosures has been introduced.

(viii) To reduce the cost of issue, underwriting by issuer was made optional, subject to the condition that if an issue was not underwritten and in case it failed to secure 90 per cent of the amount offered to the public, the entire amount so collected would be refunded4.

(ix) One of the significant steps towards integrating the Indian capital market with the international capital market was the permission given to foreign institutional investors such as mutual funds, pension funds, and country funds, to operate in the Indian market. Foreign institutional investors were initially allowed to invest only in equity shares; later, they were allowed to invest in the debt market, including dated government securities and treasury bills. The ceiling for investment by foreign institutional investors was increased from 40 per cent to 49 per cent in 200-01. this increase can be made with the approval of shareholders through a special resolution in the general body meeting.

(x) Indian companies have also been allowed to raise capital from the international capital markets through issues of Global Depository Receipts, American Depository Receipts, Foreign Currency Convertible Bonds (FCCBs) and External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs). Companies were permitted to invest all ADR/GDR proceeds abroad. Two – way fungibles was announced for ADRs/GDRs in 2000-01 for persons residing outside to sectoral caps wherever applicable.

(xi) (a) Various bottlenecks on the floatation of new capital issues, particularly for infrastructure projects, were removed. Requirements such as making a minimum public offer of 25 per cent of the issue, five

4 Weller, Paul, The Theory of Future markets, Blackwell, Oxford, New Delhi, 1990.p.105-107

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shareholders per Rs.1 lakh of offer, and minimum subscription of 90 per cent are no longer mandatory for infrastructure companies.

(b) With a view to helping infrastructure companies to raise funds for their projects, their debt instruments are allowed to he listed on the stock exchanges without prior listing of equity. Corporate with infrastructure projects and municipal corporations are exempted from the requirements of rule (2)(b) of the Securities (Contracts)(Regulation) Act, 1956 5 to facilitate the public offer and listing of its pure debt instruments as well as debt instruments fully or partly convertible into equity without requirement of prior listing of equity but are subject to conditions such as investment grade rating. The freedom to issue debt security granted to infrastructure companies and municipal corporations has been extended to all companies. This is subject to certain conditions. Issues below Rs.100 crore shall carry an investment grade credit rating, issues above Rs100 crore shall carry an investment grade credit rating from two credit rating agencies; the issues shall comply with the provisions of rule 19 (2)(b) of the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act6, 1956 regarding the size of the public offer and the promoters shall bring in the equity contribution of 20 per cent and lock in the same for three years.

(c) In respect of unlisted companies, the existing requirement of a track record of dividend payment in at least three of the preceding five years for asking an initial public offer (IPO) has been relaxed. Under the new norms, the companies will have to demonstrate an ability to pay dividend instead od showing an actual dividend paying record.

5 Cited by Bajpai.G.N at S.D.Gupte Memorial Lecture on March 13,2003 in Bombay P-7 6 Goldsmith. R.W. The Financial development of India 1860-1977, Oxford University press, Delhi, 1983 . pp. 134-136

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(xii) Merchant bankers are prohibited from carrying on fund-based activities other than those related exclusively to the capital market. Multiple categories of merchant bankers have been abolished and there is only one entity, the merchant banker.

(xiii) Besides merchant bankers, various other intermediaries such as mutual funds, portfolio managers, registrars to an issue, share transfer agents, underwriters, debenture trustees, bankers to an issue, custodian of securities, venture capital funds and issues have also been brought under the purview of SEBI.

(xiv) Since 1998-99, banks are permitted within the ceiling of 5 per cent of incremental deposits of the previous year prescribed for bank’s investment in shares to (a) sanction bridge loans to companies against expected equity flows/issues for periods not exceeding one year and (b) extend loans to corporate against shares held by them to enable them to meet promoters’ contribution to the equity of new companies in anticipation of raising resources. The approval of the bank’s board is necessary. The prescription of the minimum margin of 50 per cent of loans to individuals against preference shares and debentures/bonds7 of corporate bodies is withdrawn. However, the margin of 50 per cent prescribed in respect of equity shares has been retained. Subsequently, the ceiling amount on advances against shares to individuals was increased from Rs.10 lakh to Rs.20 lakh against dematerialized securities while the minimum margin prescription was reduced from 50 per cent to 25 per cent for dematerialized shares.

(xv) A code of conduct on advertisement has been issued for mutual funds, banning them from making any assurance or claims that might mislead the public.

7 Gupta .L.C . “Indian Share Owners – A Survey” Society for Capital Market Research and Development , New Delhi , 1991. pp 95-110

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(xvi) The entry norms for IPOs have tightened by modifying the Disclosure and Investment Protection (DIP) guidelines. According to the new guidelines, IPOs five times the size of the pre-issue net worth are allowed only if the company has a record of profitability and a net worth of Rs.1 crore in three of the past 15 years. Companies without such a track record or a issue size beyond five times the pre-issue net worth are allowed to make IPOs only through the book building route, with 60 per cent of the issue to be allotted to qualified institutional borrowers (QIBs). For shares issued on a preferential basis to any person by listing companies, a lock-in period of one year has been stipulated. Infrastructure companies8 are exempt from the requirement of eligibility norms if the project has been appraised by a public financial institution and not less than 5 per cent of the project cost is being financed by any of the institutions jointly or severally, by way of loans and/or subscription to equity.

(xvii) The SEBI DIP (Disclosure and Investor Protection) Guidelines, 2000 have been amended. Permission has been granted to Foreign Venture Capital Investors (FVCIs) registered with SEBI and State Industrial Development Corporations (SIDCs) to participate in public issues through the book-building route as Qualified Institutional Buyers (QIBs). There is no lock-in requirements for the pre-issue capital of an unlisted company held by Venture Capital Funds (VCFs) and FVCIs. Exemption from the public offer requirement in view of a reduction in quantum from 25 per cent to 10 per cent and restriction of a minimum public issue size of Rs.25 crore in respect of an IPO through the book-building issue have been removed.

(xviii) Companies in the IT, telecom, media, and entertainment sectors are allowed to tap the market with a minimum offering of 10 per cent

8 Jain B.M “Impact of Financial Liberalization Policy in India” , Himalaya Publishing House, Bombay 1997. p.67

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of their equity. All public issues through this route have to satisfy the criterion of a minimum Rs.100 crore issue size, follow book-building route with an allocation of 60 per cent to Qualified Institution Buyers9, and maintain a minimum floating post-listing stock on a continuous basis.

(xix) The issuer can make a public or rights offer of shares in demat form only. Investors have the option of subscribing to securities in either the physical or the dematerialized form.

(xx) Every public listed company making an Initial Public Offering of any security for Rs.10 crore or more is required to make an offer only in a dematerialized form.

Secondary Capital Market

1. The open outcry trading system, prevalent till 1995, was replaced by the on line screen based electronic trading. In all, 23 stock exchanges have approximately 8,000 trading terminals spread all over the country.

2. Three new stock exchanges at the national level were set up in the 1990s. These are Over the Counter Exchange of India (1992), National Stock Exchange of India10 (1994), and Inter-connected Stock Exchange of India (1999).

3. Trading and settlement cycles were uniformly trimmed from 14 days to 7 days in all stock exchanges in August 1996. Rolling settlement (T+5) was introduced in January 1998 for the dematerialized segment of all companies. With effect from December 31, 2001, all scrips have

9 Cited by Gupta.L.C, Jain Naveen and Choudhury Utpal in ‘Why ordinary investors remain Disenchanted’ – Society for Capital Market Research & Development, New Delhi. 10 Gupta .L.C . “Indian Share Owners – A Survey” Society for Capital Market Research and Development , New Delhi , 1991. pp 105-117

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come under rolling settlement. The settlement cycle for all securities was shortened from T+5 to T+3, with effect from April 1, 2002.

4. With a view to maintaining integrity and ensuring safety of the market, various risk containment measures have been initiated or strengthened, such as the mark to market margin system, intra-day trading limit, exposure limit, and setting up of trade/settlement guarantee fund. Stock exchanges are allowed, subject to conditions, to use the Settlement Guarantee Funds (SGFs) for meting shortfalls caused by non-fulfillment/partial fulfillment of the obligations by members, before declaring them defaulters. The NSE set up a separate clearing corporation- The National Securities Clearing Corporation to act as counterparty to all trades executed in the capital market segment of the exchange11.

5. To enhance the level of investor protection, the process of dematerialisation of securities through the depository system and their transfer through electronic book entry is pursued vigorously. To enable this, the National Securities Depository Limited was set up in November 1996 and the Central Depository Service Limited in February 1999. All actively traded securities are held, traded, and settled in demat form.

6. Badla-carry forward trading mechanism was reinstated in January 1996, with safeguards in line with the recommendations of Patel Committee (1995) and Varma Committee (1996). The cash segment was strengthened with measures such as mandatory delivery under negotiated deals, securities lending, and continuous net settlement. All deferral products including badla have been discontinued from July 2001 following the scam of March 2001.

11 Joginder Singh “ Working of security Markets in India”, Reliance Publishing House, New Delhi, 1994. p.31

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7. Issuing companies are required to make continuing disclosures under the listing agreement. All listed companies are required to furnish to stock exchanges and also publish unaudited financial results on a quarterly basis. Disclosure of material information, which may have a bearing on the performance/ operations of a company, is also required to be made available to the public.

8. One of the most significant reforms in the secondary market is the measure to improve corporate governance. Corporate governance12 is a set of systems and processes designed to protect the interests of stakeholders. It is commitment to values, ethical business conduct, and a high degree of transparency. It is about creating and enchanting shareholder wealth while protecting the interests of all other stakeholders. SEBI had appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Kumar Mangalam Birla on corporate governance in India13. The committee framed the codes for corporate governance and suggested the implementation of the code through stock exchanges.

9. Stock exchanges have also undergone some major structural reforms. The boards of various stock exchanges have been made broad-based so that they represent different interests and not just the interests of their members. Stock exchanges, brokers, and sub-brokers have been brought under the regulatory purview of SEBI.

10. Companies are allowed to buy back their own shares for capital restructuring, subject to the condition that the buy back does not exceed 25 per cent of the paid-up capital and free reserves of the concerned company. This buy back has been allowed to improve liquidity and enhance wealth of the shareholder.

12 Bhatt . R.S. “Unit Trust of India and Mutual Funds”. A study. UTI Institute of Capital Markets, Bombay, 1994 p 12.13 13 The Bombay Stock Exchange official Directory, 1998-1999, Bombay, Volume-1.p.48.

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11. The insider trading regulations have been formulated prohibiting insider trading and making it a criminal offence, punishable in accordance with the provisions under the SEBI Act, 1992.

12. Regulations are also in place for take over and substantial acquisition of shares to make the take over process more transparent and mindful of the interests of small shareholders.

13. An index-based market wide ‘circuit breaker’ system has also been introduced to check a sudden rise in security price, in speculation and over-trading. This system becomes active at three stages of the index movements either way, at 10, 15 and 20 per cent. As an additional measure of safety, individual scrips wise bands of 20 per cent either way may have been imposed for all securities except those available for stock options.

14. In February 1999, trading terminals were allowed to be set up abroad for facilitating market participation by non-residents. Internet trading was permitted in February 2000.

15. For ensuring greater market transparency, in 1999 SEBI banned negotiated and cross deals where both the seller and buyer operate through the same broker). Moreover, all private off – market deals in both shares as well as listed corporate debts were banned. So these deals are routed only through trading screens.

16. Since June 2000, trading of futures has begun. NSE and BSE have created proper facilities for derivatives trading, including conducting of regular training programmes for the same. The Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act14, 1956 has been attended for introduction of options trading. Trading of index based and stock based options started in June and July 2001 respectively while trading of stock based future began in November 2001.

14 EXIM Bank of India, annual Report 2000 pp .25

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17. It is mandatory for listed companies to announce quarterly results. This enables investors to keep a close track of the scrips in their portfolios. The declaration of quarterly results in line with the practice prevailing in the stock markets in developed countries.

18. To check price manipulation, mandatory client code and minimum floating stock for continuous listing were stipulated in November 2001.

19. The government amended the Securities Contracts 9Regulation) Rules, 1957 to standardize listing requirements at stock exchanges.

20. A 99 per cent value at risk (VAR) based margin system for all scripe in rolling settlement was introduced from July 2, 2001.

21. The central government has notified the establishment of the Investor Education and Protection Fund (IEPF) with effect form October 1, 2001 the IEPF will be utilized for the promotion of awareness15 amongst investors and protection of their interests.

22. The restriction on short sales announced in March 7, 2001, was withdrawn with effect form July 2, 2001, as all deferral products stand banned after that date.

Capital Market Developments

The capital market has passed through a phase of substantial adjustment and advancements in recent years. A significant development was the entry of public sector enterprises in the power and telecommunication sectors in the capital market to raise larger resources by issue of tax free bonds. Although this did not have any crowding out effect on the private sector borrowers, they faced stiffer competition in the market and had to come out with more attractive features attached to their issues.

15 SEBI, Annual Report 2003 pp 35

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The drop in the stock prices experienced during the year also the marked a corrective phase, following the boom in 1985 – 8616 . However, it is seen as a temporary phase which would in no way deters the long-term development of the market. High rate of savings, increasing presence of households for investment in financial assets, increasing diversity of financial instruments and growing securitisation of the financial market have been the basic factors providing enduring strength to the capital market. Besides, the need to raise the rate of industrial growth would require larger financial resources to be raised from the market. The market capitalization of equity shares quoted on stock exchanges is currently estimated to be around 9 per cent of GNP. This is a relatively low figure by international comparison. The share of market capitalization in GNP is 160 per cent in Japan, 65 per cent in USA, 122 per cent in U.K., 42 per cent in Taiwan, 95 per cent in Malaysia and 23 per cent in South Korea. The average price – earning (PE) ratio in India is currently in the range of 9 to 10 compared to 91 in Japan, 67 in South Korea, 32 in Malaysia and 15 in USA and Hong Kong17. The lower size of market capitalization and PE ratio in India are indicates of the potential for further development of the capital market in India.

Institutional Investment in Indian Capital Market

Indian capital market had been kept insulated form global capital markets and cross-border movement of capital all these years18, as a matter of policy. Recent changes have made the economy more open to the international markets. Access to India’s markets has been

16 Joginder Singh “ Working of security Markets in India”, Reliance Publishing House, New Delhi, 1994. p.31 17 Bank Of England op.Cit.p.441. 18 Jawahar Lal “Personal Investing” wheeler publishing, New Delhi, 1995, pp.85

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made easier for foreign capital, technology and goods. It is natural that the Indian Capital market should have been thrown open to the overseas investors.

In the past, overseas investments19 had been mainly in the shape of direct foreign investment in specific approved industrial ventures. The capital market was open to non-resident Indians and, more recently, to overseas corporate bodies of Indian nationals in a restricted way. In conformity with various policy measures taken during the past year and a half, which covers Indian’s external trade, collaboration and technology policies, financial restructuring, etc., the Government has since announced a new policy, welcoming Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) to invest in the Indian capital market, both primary and secondary.

The salient features of the recently announced policy are20:

1.Foreign institutional investor s(FIIs) including pension funds, mutual funds, investment trusts, asset management companies, nominee companies and incorporated / institutional portfolio managers or their attorneys (providing discretionary and non-discretionary portfolio management services) would be welcome to make investments under the new guidelines.

2. Investment in all securities traded on the primary and secondary markets, including the equity and other securities / Instruments of companies which are listed / to be listed on the stock exchanges in India including the OTC Exchange of India is permitted. The instruments would include shares, debentures, warrants and schemes floated by

19 Mitra .N.L. “Report on Investor Protection”, centre for Business Law Studies, Bangalore..2001.p.102-103 20 Fenster Maker. J.V, readings in Financial Markets and institutions, Appleton, New york, 1969. P.113.10

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domestic mutual funds Government may even add further categories of securities from time to time.

3. FIIs would be required to obtain an initial registration with Securities & Exchange Board of India 9SEBI) to enter the market, Nominee companies, affiliated and subsidiary companies of an FII will be treated as separate FIIs for registration and may seek separate registration with SEBI.

4. Since there are foreign exchange controls in force, FIIs shall also seek various permissions under FERA from the Reserve Bank of India. Both will be under a single window approach.

5. Flls seeking initial registration with SEBI shall be required to hold a registration from the Securities Commission, or such other regulatory organizations for the stock market in their country of domicile/ incorporation.

6. SEBI’s initial registration would be valid for five years. RBI’s general permission under FERA to the FII will also hold good for five years. Both will be renewable for similar five-year periods later on.

7. Under the FERA permission, FIIs will be able to buy21, sell and realize capital gains on investments made through the initial corpus remitted to India, subscribe / renounce right offerings of shares, invest on all recognized stock exchanges through a designed bank branch and appoint a domestic custodian for custody of the investments.

8. The general permission from the RBI will enable the FII to :

a) Open foreign currency account(s) in a designated bank. (There can be more than one account in the same bank branch, in different currencies, if so required by the FII for its operational purposes).

21 Robinson, R.I Financial markets, Mc- Graw Hill International Book company 1985, pp 130-131

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b) Open a special non-resident rupee account to which all receipts from the capital inflows, sale proceeds of shares, dividends and interest could be credited.

c) Transfer sums from the foreign currency account to the rupee account and vice versa, at the market rates of exchange.

d) Make investments in securities in India out of the balances in the rupee account.

e) Transfer repatriable (after tax) proceeds from the rupee account to the foreign currency accounts.

a) Repatriate the capital, capital gains, dividends, incomes received by way of interest, etc., and any compensation received towards sale/renouncement of rights offerings of shares subject to the designated branch of a bank / the custodian being authroised to deduct withholding tax on capital22 gains and arranging to pay such tax and remitting the net proceeds at market rates of exchange. b) Register FII’s holdings without any further clearance under FERA.

9. There would be no restriction on the volume of investment – minimum or maximum – for the purpose of entry FIIs, in the primary / secondary market and also on the lock- in period prescribed for the purpose of such investments made by FIIs. However, portfolio investments in primary or secondary markets will be subject to a ceiling of 24per cent of issued share capital for the total holdings of all registered FIIs in any one company. Conversions, out of the fully and partly convertible debentures issued by the company will also be taken into account for the purpose. The holding of a single FII in any company would be subject to a ceiling of five per cent of total issued

22 Revell, J. The British Financial System, McMillan, London, 1980 pp 105-106

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share capital, for which purpose, holdings of an FII groups will be counted as holdings of a single FII.

10. The maximum holding of 24per cent for all non-resident portfolio investments, including those of the registered FIIs, will also include NRI corporate and non-corporate investments, but will not include; direct foreign investments (which are permitted up to 51per cent in all priority areas( and investments by FIIs through the following alternatives; Offshore single / regional funds, global depository receipts and Euro-convertibles23.

11. Disinvestment will be allowed only through stock exchanges in India including the OTCEI. In exceptional cases, SEBI may permit sales other than through stock exchanges, provided the sale price is not significantly different from the stock market quotations, where available.

12.All secondary market operations would be only through the recognized intermediaries on the Indian stock exchange, including OTCEI. FIIs would not be expected to take delivery of purchased and give delivery of sold securities.

13. FIIs can appoint as custodian an agency approved by SEBI to act as a custodian of securities and for confirmation of transactions in securities, settlement of purchase and sale and for information reporting. Such a custodian shall establish separate accounts for detailing on a daily basis the investment capital utilization and securities24 held by each FII for which it is acting as custodian. The custodian will report to the RBI and SEBI semi-annually, as part of their disclosure and reporting guidelines.

23 Sahadevan, K.G. Mutual Funds Prentice Hall New Delhi 19997. pp 98-99 24 Patel, I.G. Indian Banks and International banking, RBI Bulletin, January 1982 pp.25-1

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14.RBI may at any time request by an order, a registered FII to submit information regarding the records of utilization of the inward remittances of investment capital and the statement of its securities transactions. RBI an /or SEBI any also at any time conduct a direct inspection of the records and accounting books of a registered FII.

15.FIIs investing under this scheme will benefit from a concessional tax regime of a flat tax rate of 20per cent on dividend and interest income and a tax rate of 10per cent on long term (one year or more) capital gains.

The capital market in the present decade has magnificently responded to meet the ever-growing capital needs of both the private and public sectors. Despite the ten – fold increase in the total capital25 raised from the market in the short span of seven years by the private sector alone, the total mobilization was only 5per cent of the net household savings. There is no reason why the share of the net household savings has not been increasing. The other factor which must be kept in view is that, yield and earnings on equities in India are far higher than in most other countries where stock exchanges are fairly developed. Given the improvement in the general economic environment and better corporate results which are likely to follow in the wake of the massive investments in plant and technology that has taken place in the last five years, interest in corporate securities is likely to widen.

The capital market has also undergone a sea change with its scale and scope of its activities has also diversified in a multi-directional way. With the establishment of new institutions, the edifice of the capital market is strengthened and broad – based. With the significant increase in savings, many investment avenues have opened up in recent years. The review shows that the capital market in India has grown on

25 Idbi.p.53

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its own impetus. The changes brought about in it since independence has strengthened it. The potential of the Indian capital market is immense which can help a great deal in establishing a welfare state in India by tapping public savings, engendering a senseof public participation as also management accountability to the public26.

Financial innovation has brought undoubted benefits to the customers of financial services. The markets have shown that they can adapt quickly and flexibly to changing circumstances; they will probably continue to do so 27 . Achieving the objective of bringing immediate benefits to individual firms requires continued alertness to ensure that risks are adequately assessed and controlled and are priced appropriately. The technology which has nurtured these innovations is also available to help in controlling them, for efficient markets require not only the absence of distorting restrictions but also good information on which to base decisions and allocate resources. Experience has proved that no amount of fiscal and financial incentives alone, or even easy availability of finance, can bring success in industrialization efforts, unless other inputs like resourceful entrepreneurship, latest and efficient technology/know–how, professionalised management, well – motivated and skilled manpower coupled with project outselling facilities and extension services are available at every stage during the life – cycle of a project. In its promotional and developmental role, it has been, and continues to be, the endeavor of development banks to provide these non-financial inputs to the best possible extent, consistent with their resources and capability 28 . This apart, the development banks will continue to play a significant role in widening

26 Idbi . p. 274 27 Mayya M.R. “ Reflection on the Changing Scenario of Indian Stock Market” Forrum for Tree Enterprise, Bombay 1995. pp. 33.12 28 Virender Jain, “Investors Behaviour” Mc millan India Limited , New Delhi, 2001, pp 175-176

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the savings market and capital market, and at the same time providing equal opportunities to employ the savings protectively thereby increasing employment, raising the level of income, reducing poverty and improving the standard of living of the people.

In South Asia, India is the only capital market capable of growing into an international center with its inherent strength which very few markets possess29. Both Singapore and Hong Kong are highly developed but they do not possess inherent strength. With the center of financial gravity shifting to the Middle East, India is sure to command increasing interest. But this can happen only if we are able to re-design our complex structure of regulations affecting the flow of capital. This would call for a new vision and a new strategy. We would have to emerge out of the maze we have built for ourselves. A new order is emerging. We have opened up our closed economy on a selective basis. We have to cast our sight to a new horizon. Let us hope that we will be able to see the new vision and endeavor to achieve it in the coming years30.

29 The Bombay Stock Exchange official Directory, 1989-1990, Bombay, Volume-2.p.12 30 Khan.M.Y. Indian Financial system, Tata-McGraw-Hill, Publishing Company New Delhi, 2003. pp35.27

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TARGETED ADVERTISING USING BEHAVIORAL DATA & SOCIAL DATA

Priyanka M. Sahu Prof. D. M. Sable 1Computer Science & Engineering, RTMNU University RTMNU University, A.C.E, Wardha A.C.E, Wardha, Maharashtra, India Maharashtra, India

Abstract- Advertising is the key factor of any social sites. The explosive growth of social networks increases the prolific availability in customer tastes and preferences. This data can be exploited to serve the customers better and offer them the advertisements to the customers. To provide relevant advertisements to consumers, its important to consider the location of the consumer as well. The consumers will be highly contented if the offers shown to them are easily accessible in nearby areas. we propose a model combining the idea of

social and spatial data to provide targeted advertisements. Social data is acquired through user's Facebook profile and location of the user is found with the help of Beacons. In these we are also using the concept of GPS (Global Positioning System). GPS helps for providing the service globally, in which we can provide multiple services to multiple users. The

GPS system operates independently of any internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning information.

Keywords- Targeted; Advertisements; BLE; IOT; mining; recommendation; GPS.

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I .INTRODUCTION

Mobile phones are existing or being everywhere today They are not only used as means of communication, but since the advent of smart phones, one can also perform web search, video streaming, image sharing and status updates on the social media. They have dismantled the location barriers entirely. As a result, personalized content can be suggested to the user considering their social conduct as well as their surroundings. The effectiveness of targeting a small portion of customers for advertising has long been recognized by businesses. Users, today, are flooded with irrelevant and extraneous advertisements and offers, which might result in

dissatisfaction of the customer. If the process of recommending advertisements to users, which they find pertinent, could be ameliorated, it would open plethora of new opportunities for businesses, and increase customer retention. The explosive growth of social networks has led to prolific availability in customer tastes and preferences. Users today share everything, be it their preferences in food or in clothes with the help of social networks on a regular basis. This data can be exploited to serve the customers better and offer them the advertisements they would be delighted tosee. To provide relevant advertisements to consumers, systems have to consider their location as well. The consumers will be highly contented if the offers shown to them are easily accessible in nearby areas.BLE devices are gaining popularity due to their cost efficient and energy saving model. Beacon is the best available option when it comes to indoor location positioning, communication and analytics. This technology easily edges out Wi-Fi and NFC with its combination of flexibility, accuracy and a low-cost infrastructure. The widely available and diversified assortment of online social networks, most recent social network-based recommendations have concentrated on limited kinds of online social. There does not exist any model that combine the idea of social and

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spatial data to provide effective results. Some systems do not consider user preferences, others do not take into account the location.

There are several devices in use today for providing the location of a person. In this paper, we present the idea of using a 'beacon' or a 'Bluetooth Low Energy Device' for accessing the location of user. The beacon devices are an indoor proximity system which transmit a signal using Bluetooth Low Energy, or BLE for short – the signal contains a unique identifier for that beacon. When a BLE-enabled device (like a smart phone), comes in the range of the beacon signal, an action can be triggered in the device orsome contextually relevant message can be sent or notifications can be triggered, provided the device has its 'Bluetooth' service operational. The working of this project in which we uses the concept of GPS,which provides the high geographic range. GPS stands for “GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM”. GPS is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of

24 satellites placed into orbit. GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precious orbit & transmit signal information to earth.GPS receiver take the information & use trilateration to calculate the users exact location.

II. LITRETURE SURVEY

1. Targeted advertising using behavioural data and social data mining.[1]

In this paper author proposed ,a model combining the idea of social and spatial data to provide targeted advertisements. Social data is acquired through user's.Facebook profile and location of the user is found with the help of Beacons.

2. A Review of the Role of Sensors in Mobile Context-Aware Recommendation Systems[12]

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In this paper, author proposed, the importance of

considering the context of the situation in which the

recommendation process takes place, in order to offer more relevant & precise recommendation. Recent approaches also have highlighted the importance of considering the context of the situation in which the recommendation process takes place, in order to offer more relevant & precise recommendation.

3. GPS: Which Indoor Location Technology will your Business Benefit from [14]

In this paper, author proposed, When a BLE-enabled

device (like a smart phone), comes in the range of the

beacon signal, an action can be triggered in the device or some contextually relevant message can be sent or notifications can be triggered, provided the device has its 'Bluetooth' service operational.

BLE devices are gaining popularity due to their cost

efficient and energy saving model. Beacon is the best

available option when it comes to indoor location

positioning, communication and analytics. This technology easily edges out Wi-Fi and NFC with its combination of flexibility, accuracy and a low-cost infrastructure.

4. Gateway to the internet of things [3]

In this paper, author proposed, To provide relevant

advertisements to consumers, systems have to consider their location as well. The consumers will be highly contented if the offers shown to them are easily accessible in nearby areas. There are several devices in use today for providing the location of a person. In this paper, we present the idea of using a 'beacon' or a 'Bluetooth Low Energy Device'

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for accessing the location of user. The beacon devices are an indoor proximity system which transmit a signal using Bluetooth Low Energy, or BLE for short – the signal contains a unique identifier for that beacon .

5. Personalized Recommendations Based On Users’ Information-Centered Social Networks.[2]

In this paper, author proposed the widely available and diversified assortment of online social networks, most recent social network-based recommendations have concentrated on limited kinds of online sociality. There does not exist any model that combine the idea of social and spatial data to provide effective results. Some systems do not consider user preferences, others do not take into account the location. In this model, we discuss the idea of combining both to recommend best offers to customers.

6. Context-aware recommender systems for learning: a survey and future challenges[15]

In this paper, author proposed, There are not many systems in use currently which employ the combination of spatial and social data to provide recommendations to user. Many paradigms have been proposed to incorporate contextual information in the recommendation process. A first recommendation via context-driven querying and search approach uses contextual information to query or search a certain repository of resources (e.g., restaurants) and presents the best matching resources (e.g., nearby restaurants that are currently open) to the user. A second contextual preference elicitation and estimation approach is a more recent trend in context-aware recommender system research. This approach attempts to model and learn contextual user preferences.

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7. Social tagging for personalized location-based

services.[7]

In this paper, author proposed a data mining framework that utilizes the concept of social network for the targeted advertising of products by observing cohesive subgroups from the user's social network account and based on that infer the probability of liking a particular product category from transaction records.

8. Automatic keyword extraction from individual

documents[9]

In this paper, author proposed, how the current generation of location- based services (LBSs) fail to provide personalized recommendations and only suggest the nearby the point of interests (POIs). To overcome such a limitation, they realized a social recommender system able to identify user preferences and information needs, thus suggesting personalized recommendations related to possible POIs in the surroundings. Seth and Zhang discussed a social network based approach to personalized

recommendation of participatory media content, such as blogs and proposed and evaluated such a system based on a Bayesian user-model.

9. A Social Network Based Approach to Personalized Recommendation of Participatory Media Content.[8]

In this paper, author proposed, how the current generation of location- based services (LBSs) fail to provide personalized recommendations and only suggest the nearby the point of interests (POIs). To overcome such a limitation, they realized a social recommender system able to identify user preferences and information needs, thus suggesting personalized recommendations related to possible POIs in the surroundings.

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10.Introducing context into recommender systems."Proceedings of AAAI workshop on recommender systems in E-commerce[13]

In this paper, author proposed, many recommender systems have appeared today based on advertising products by obtaining users’ preferences in forms of ratings and reviews either explicitly (stated directly by the users) or implicitly (inferred from previous transaction history or Web logs). Personalization and recommender systems can potentially reduce the omnipresent information overload in our networked world, though a promising and possibly complementary approach is to utilize context, but this has been rarely applied in personalization systems so far.

III.COMPATATIVE STUDY OF LITERATURE SURVEY

NAME OF AUTHOR DESCRIPTION PAPER Targeted Vrinda Bhatia Combining the advertising using & Varun idea of social & behavioural data Hasija 2016 spatial data to and provide targeted social data mining advertisement. A Review of the Sergio harri, Ramon The importance of Role of Sensors in Hermoso, considering the Mobile Context- Raquel situation in which the Aware Trillolado recommendation Recommendation Year process take place. Systems 2015 GPS: Which Devika Girish When a BLE Indoor Year july-2015 device ,comes in Location the range of Technology will BEACON signal, your Business an action can be Benefit triggered from Gateway to the Beacon Provide relevant

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internet of Gateway advertisement to Things Year consumers. 2015 Personalized Lee Danielle Widely available Recommendations Year & diversified Based On Users’ 2013 assortment of Information- online social Centered network. Social Networks Context-aware Verbert Katrien Search approach recommender Year uses contextual systems-for 2012 information to learning query or search certain repository of resources. Social tagging for Biancalana Utilize the concept personalized Year of social network locationbased 2011 for the targeted services advertising of products. Autimatic Rose stuart Helps for identify keyword Year 2010 user performance extraction for & information individual needs. document

IV.PROBLEM DEFINATION

 User Behaviour Analysis Efficiency Problem.

 Problems With Location base Marketing. V.OBJECTIVE

 Location based marketing i.e location oriented.

 To Improve Behaviour analysis by Using Association & Apriori technique or algorithm.

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 Association algorithm –provide information about same object. Apriori technique- provide the internal link of several object.

 User Location Used To Calculate Location Based Marketing & also helps for accessing the location of user by using GPS satellite.

 A similar Model or stack Can be used In Providing the Information for better Service

available in Users Vicinity according to there needs.

Fig: Basic System Architecture

Social sites refers to those networks whose provide

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services to the user such as facebook ,twitter, & linkedin. This social site is connected with web server such as J2EE( Java Second Enterprise Edition). In the architecture 1to N represents the number of users. These number of users can send request to the web server and then web server access

information from the data base i.e data server. According to user request web server access information from the data server (database). In the architecture number of clients & database server is indirectly connected through the web server. After accessing the information from database, web server replies the appropriate response to the number of customer according to their needs and requirement. Web Server address always be unique because as per client request web server replies the unique response to each and every client(mobile). Web server contains the IP address,

port number and project name (topic name). IP address always unique. There are two type of port number is used. Port number of web server is 19666 which is used for sending the request from client to server. Port number of database is 3306, which is used for accessing the information from database (MY SQL) to server. Web serve provide service to the user by using HTTP connection.

VII. MODULE IMPLEMENTATION

 Implementation of collecting all user data from user & social.

 Implementation of rapid keyword extraction, apriori.association technique for calculate user behavior.

 Implementation of find targeted advertisement user behavior anakysis.

 Implementation of find location based targeted advertisement.

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MODULE 1:-

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MODULE 2:-

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MODULE 3:-

MODULE 4:-

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VII. CONCLUSION

A novel idea for the targeted advertising of products.

Personalization process is completed using the information obtained from the user's social network. Spatial information is obtained using Bluetooth Low Energy devices. The systems for targeted advertising existing today provide suggestions considering only user's interests. To

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solve this problem, we have proposed a model which uses combination of social and spatial data. Such models are capable of obtaining user's preferences and based on their current location, they provide more appropriate advertisements model or a similar stack can be used in providing the information for better medical services available in user's vicinity according to his/her needs and in the case of ticket counters at airports to provide the best deal available.

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[7] Biancalana, C., et al. "Social tagging for personalized location-based services." Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Social Recommender Systems. 2011.

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[12] Sergio Ilarri, Ramón Hermoso, Raquel Trillo-Lado, and María del Carmen Rodríguez-Hernández, “A Review of the Role of Sensors in Mobile Context- Aware Recommendation Systems,” International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks, vol. 2015, Article ID 489264, 30 pages, 2015. doi:10.1155/2015/489264

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