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BAKIA Mbianyor Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in East Cameroon: Policy and Livelihood Implications BAKIA Mbianyor MAY, 2014 A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of London Declaration of Original Authorship I, BAKIA Mbianyor hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the works of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed : Date : Page | I ABSTRACT Over the past few decades, artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) has grown at an exponential rate across sub-Saharan Africa where the activity involves an eclectic mix of people. Despite the conventional image of this being a marginal, subsistence-oriented and poverty driven activity, there is growing recent evidence that it is one of the region’s most important rural non-farm activities. However, ASM has received little coverage in development literature; has failed to garner support from governments, donor and aid agencies; and has been excluded from most of the region’s development agenda. These have been blamed on insufficient baseline census information on the subject and policy dialogues that are not in tune with the realities on the ground. My research helps to bridge this gap by focusing on the East Region, the location of a burgeoning ASM sector in Cameroon, capturing a level of detail not yet undertaken. To achieve this, a mixture of qualitative and quantitative analyses was undertaken: interviews with 26 key stakeholders; 389 miners, focus group discussions and participant observation. This research provides a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of ASM sector of the East Region of Cameroon. The findings from this research reveal that ASM is the most important livelihood in the area. The activity is highly informal as a result of lack of policy and regulatory capacity in the sector. Due to the absence of large-scale mine production and ubiquitous land availability, operatives mine directly from primary deposits. Extraction rates are high, with miners earning up to US$ 40 per day. Household income shows low levels of inequality with Gini coefficients of less than 0.4. The high incomes from ASM stimulates downstream activities and enhances local economies in a manner atypical in other rural parts of Cameroon. Despite ethnic heterogeneity in Cameroon, ASM populations are homogenous, and access to land for the activity is governed by politics, ethnicity and social identity. A few number of ASM operatives diversify their income sources by engaging in other livelihoods due to age and family responsibility. Whilst the study does not reveal any Page | II evidence of ‘re-agrarianization’, it has shown a recognisable level of interconnectedness between ASM and smallholder farming. Despite such strategy, the miners are deemed to be vulnerable and less adaptable to impending LSM boom and possible change in the miners’ lifestyles. The study concludes with a call for parallel studies to be carried out in other mineral rich parts of the country, and for ASM to be mainstreamed in Cameroon’s poverty reduction strategy. Page | III AUTHORS’S PUBLICATIONS AND SEMINAR PRESENTATIONS Over the past three years (October 2010–March 2014) aspects of this research have been disseminated through a variety of media, including presentations at national and international conferences, peer reviewed journal publications and conference proceedings. These research outputs and knowledge sharing with the wider academic and research community are detailed below. The list does not include formal and informal presentations made at a number of stakeholder meetings in Cameroon (e.g. regulators, ministerial authorities and the artisanal mining communities) during the fieldwork. Peer Reviewed Journal Publication Bakia, M. (2014). East Cameroon’s artisanal and small-scale mining bonanza: how long will it last? Futures. 62 (Part A): 40 -50 Presentations at Universities and International Conferences Year Title 1 2013 Bakia, M (2013). Resource Geopolitics of Mining and its implications for Sustainable Rural Livelihoods in the East Region of Cameroon. Presentation at the Royal Geographical Society – Institute of British Geographers (RGS – IBG) Annual International Conference, 2013. Sessions 1. Thursday, 29 August 2013. 2 2013 Bakia, M (2013). The ASM Gold Bonanza in East Cameroon: How long will it last? Presentation at an International conference on artisanal and small-scale mining, University of Surrey on 24 January 2013. 3 2013 Bakia, M (2013). Policy Implications for Artisanal Gold Mining in the Eastern Rainforest of Cameroon. Presentation at the annual PDS seminar, Department of Geography, Royal Holloway University of London on 4th March 2013. 4 2013 Bakia, M (2013). Gender Dimensions of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in East Cameroon. Presentation at the PDS symposium on 25th September 2013. 5 2014 Bakia, M (2014). Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in East Cameroon: Policy and Livelihoods Implications. Presentation at the Annual International Conference of the Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh. Session 9, Friday, 25th April 2014. 6 2014 Bakia, M (2014). Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in East Cameroon: perpetuating poverty or enabling livelihoods? Paper presented at the RHUL Politics, Development and Sustainability PhD Day on 11/06/2014. Page | IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This PhD process has involved a myriad of people who have been instrumental in making it a reality. I would like to thank my supervisors: Professors David Simon and Klaus Dodds, who I think are the best supervisors any PhD student would hope for. Their guidance, advice and support throughout the process have been unquantifiable. Their critical feedbacks and belief in my abilities as a person have been invaluable during the course of this research. Thank you both for your help and support, without which I would not have accomplished this PhD submission. I would also like to thank the University of London for the travel grant which enabled me to travel to Cameroon for the second phase of my field work. My thanks also go to the entire faculty and staff of the Department of Geography for facilitating a pleasant time for me at Royal Holloway University of London. My sincere gratitude goes to Miranda Wattaht, Mercy Yungah and Doreen Wirba for their assistance during the field work. I am also grateful to David Hoyle of the World Wildlife Fund for Nature for his support and advice during the pilot study. I am indebted to my friends – Dr Osric Tening Forton, Dr Asah Victor Akwinga and Dr Uduak Akpan Okon for their advice, input and support throughout the process. You helped instil in me the much needed confidence during critical moments of this journey. Thank you so very much. To my family here in the UK, I want to say you deserve to be praised and thanked for your love, endurance and support during the process. My wife, Ebot-Echi Bakia who bore the brunt of a husband doing a PhD and working; my sons - Nnemenok Bakianyor Bakia and Agbor-Echi Agbor-Ndakaw Bakia for putting up with a dad who was always either in the library or at work; my sister, Agbornaw Bakia, and brother, Ebini Bakia for their support, love and care throughout this process. I would also like to thank my colleagues at First Group, former and current for their understanding and support, without which it would have taken longer to cross the Page | V finishing line: Mark Underwood, Nigel Ellam, Sarah Chiu, Matt Cope, Julie Bignell, Brenda Wood, Carl Rulton, Danny Hutchings, Duncan Primrose, Rebecca Allen, Steve Roberts, Naomi Owens, Gary Howell, Patrick Clements, Frazer Scott, Colin Stewart and Paul Merrett. I would like to thank the following families for their love, care and support – Sessekou Dr Tambetabi and Manyi Tabe; Dr Mrs Laura and Dr Samuel Besong; Ben Onekeobi and Constance Ojong; Vitalis and Jennifer Chick; Boniface and Jacinta Nguh, Marceline and David Hoyle; Anita and Kenneth Ekokobe, and Charles and Vivian Mbah. I would like to thank my siblings for their love, support and encouragement: Bakianyor Bakia, Ayukesong Bakia, Nkonghonyor Bakia, Achere-Matambe Bakia, Nchong Bakia, Anjiendang Bakia, Ebangha-Taku Bakia, Agbornaw Bakia, Enyangaroh Etengeneng Bakia, Ayukosok Bakia, Affuenti Bakia, Ndip-Ayuk Bakia, Mbeng-Nchang Bakia, Ayangakor Bakia, Mor-Achankap Bakia, Tata Bakia, Akong-Agbor Bakia, Enow-Mor Bakia, Atemachere Bakia, Ndum Bakia, Obendang Bakia and Ebini Bakia. Finally, I would also like to thank the entire ‘Bor Akia-Akong’ family for their support and encouragement: Sessekou Amanekundu Besong Bakia, Comrade Tang Bakia, Anyi-Ayang Bakia, Nnemenok Bakia, Magbor Bakia, Mpeytarh Bakia and Mforfor Bakia. Page | VI DEDICATION FOR MY LATE PARENTS: Benjamin Nnemenok Bakia – father and Susana Agbor Bakia – mother, both of whom gave me life and sowed the seed for academic thirst. AND MY FAMILY: Ebot-Echi Bakia – wife; Nnemenok Bakianyor Bakia – son Agbor- Echi Agbor-Ndakaw Bakia – son, and Ebanghataku Enombi Malyka Bakia – daughter the pillars of my life who kept me standing through it all. Page | VII TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP ............................................................................................. I ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................. II AUTHORS’S PUBLICATIONS AND SEMINAR PRESENTATIONS................................................................ IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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