ISSUE 5 - - 15 Land cover change, pastoralism, India, mixed methods, methods, mixed India, pastoralism, change, cover Land

PATRICK WENNSTRÖM PATRICK Keywords: Keywords: remote sensing RS would most likely fail. This risk could be minimized by integrating integrating by minimized be could risk This fail. likely most would RS qualitative data to the RS analysis. of relatively small but significant grazing lands.Such changes are that indicates which changes, detectable of domain the within not on based entirely conditions pastoralist policy improve to intended challenges. Combining the two data types and analysing the gaps loss the to referring are pastoralists that indicates them between The qualitative data generated a deeper understanding of land land of understanding deeper a generated data qualitative The change cover dynamics andrevealed the complexity of pastoralist many of one as perceived is pastures shrinking where livelihoods source of livestock feed, have decreased while agricultural land land agricultural while decreased have feed, livestock of source 2014. and 1992 years the between increased has land built-up and interviews and participatory mapping. RS results provide valuable insights about large-scale changes in the landscape, which could not beenhave captured through interviews. Grasslands, an important through a case study in southern , India where changes changes where India Nadu, Tamil southern in study case a through perspectives: two from investigated are landscape pastoral the in through ground the from and images satellite through space from advanced through a methodology that integrates remote sensing sensing remote integrates that a methodology through advanced done is This from ground. the perceptions andobservations (RS) This article explores how land cover change studies could be be could studies change cover land how explores article This

ceptions in southern Nadu, Tamil India servations and pastoralist per Combining remote sensing ob sensing remote Combining landscape: Perspectives on the pastoral ASIA IN FOCUS A rial image analysis (Gardin et al., 2011), al., (Gardin et analysis image rial they edge the importance of human factors in ae and other RS practitioners today acknowl nent within RS. Although many geographers compointerpretation is often-underrated an human and (Nightingale, 2003). Subjectivity logical traditions these methods come from and also because of the different epistemo 2003), (Jiang, cover land change about story tive interviews tell different of parts the same Sall, &Sy, 2014). This is because RS and qualita perceptionsand ground the (Herrmann, from tencies may occur between RS observations cover changes. However, significant inconsis useful and well-known tool for studying land ists. livelihood and for the well-being of pastoral this of therefore age-old critical survival the for preventing ing and loss the grazing lands of is economies (IUCN, modern in 2017). Monitor place their finding with difficulties major and laws that do not attend to pastoralists’ needs of pastoralism have resulted in policies and marginalisation political and 2003). social The 2016; Sharma, Köhler-Rollefson, Morton, & on these natural resources (Ghotge &Kishore, traditional livelihoods are largely dependent consequences Indian for pastoralists whose 2014). Buytaert, & Moulds, This has serious had 2011; Choudhary, & Bohra, Tsarouchi, Mijic, Remote sensing (RS) is arguably the most

observed in parts of India (Chaudhry, India of parts in observed grazinglands have been property mon drastic decline of grasslands and com ------16 as impossible and non-desirable (Aitkenas impossible non-desirable and & creation knowledge objective rather see who the worldview of most qualitative researchers This is an approach that does not align with interpret land the coverly” (Nightingale, 2003). researcher’s task has been seen as to “correct have historically often been neglected as the es (Lu, Mausel, Brondizio, & Moran, 2004). RS found to beoptimal and applicable to all cas data, however, single no approach has been remotely on forming sensed change detection have per methods and for es developed been Numerous technological approach earth. the of surface the shape that processes cial-natural ical for understanding the dynamics of so analysis. cover Land is crit change detection RS provides important sources of data for GIS GIS to qualitativeA approach ralist have roamed for many generations. pasto sheep semi-nomadic where area tural agricul populated Tamilern densely a Nadu, Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts of south this through amixed methods case study in is better suited to informing policy. Iillustrate derstanding of the pastoral landscape, which cover change un could generate deeper a land about data qualitative quantitative and comparing and Integrating dynamics. scape land studying improvedan for methodology aimthe to contribute to development the of toralist perceptions land cover of change with Kwan, 2010). In this article, Icombine RS data with pas ------ISSUE 5 ------Indian pastoralists belong to a caste that that caste a to belong pastoralists Indian mobile pastoral castes, for instance the Yadavs Yadavs the instance for castes, pastoral mobile who are dominating politics in large areas of pas However, northern2003). (Jaffrelot, India negative face undoubtedly livelihoods toral often which attitudes and misconceptions, & (Ghotge exclusion political and social to lead the shrinking and degradation of grasslands is a problem in the arid of zones northern India Tsarou 1985; Jodha, 2011; al., et Chaudhry (e.g. given been has attention Less 2014). al., et chi agricul and the densely complex populated to tural landscapes of the south of the In country. India southern in pastoralism on fact, literature is remarkably scarce. specialises in animal husbandry, often within a society people alongside and castes of other pasto to contrast stark in is This occupations. asso frequently more areas in communities ral Africa in e.g. livelihoods, pastoral with ciated pastoralists the where East, Middle the and practically often territories vast remote inhabit pas Indian 2003). al., et (Sharma themselves by so the of bottom the at not are groups toral cial and hierarchy generally more have assets groups. social poorest the than livestock) (i.e. very socially of examples rare even are There toralism (Herrmann et al., 2014). In addition to to addition In 2014). al., et (Herrmann toralism pos to tend pastoralists scale, in large being about their and detailed rich sess information (Ji and its conditions ecological environment ang, 2003). A look in pastoralism India at threats livelihood critical most the of One dwin the is today pastoralists Indian by faced has This development lands. pastoral dling been factors by non-supportive driven like agri expanding policies, irrigated government cultural land, the enclosure of forests and pro pasture of deterioration the and areas, tected et (Sharma species invasive of because lands Several studiesal., confirmed have 2003). that 17 ------Combining RS with qualitative data has has data qualitative with RS Combining their familiarity with large geographical areas pas transhumance of scale spatial the to due each other (Mialhe et al., 2015). A particularly each other et (Mialhe al., 2015). on studies in involve to group social suitable of because pastoralists is change cover land namics, and qualitative and meth quantitative validate and complement to be used can ods limitations of the chosen methodologies. Local Local methodologies. chosen the of limitations for improving knowledge source a is valuable dy change our understanding of cover land us understand new dimensions of the research research the of dimensions new understand us the highlighting time same the at while topic mains an undervalued component et (Gardin Analysing the discrepancies between al., 2011). help can methods different the of results the tion and interpretation has only quite recently recently only quite has and interpretation tion re and results RS affect to acknowledged been to RS data, however, discussions on situated situated on discussions however, data, RS to knowledge and partiality more be even might percep human since field this within relevant highlightedand the incom ‘situatedness’ (Nightingale, own its on data RS of pleteness unique means no by is partiality This 2003). and analysing geographical data. ty integrated GIS (Dunn, 2007). This field works works field This 2007). (Dunn, GIS ty integrated where GIS integrated socially a more towards people are involved in the process of obtaining field has developed, sometimes referred to as as referredtofield developed,has sometimes qualitative GIS, participatory GIS orcommuni Conventional GIS have been for be criticised GIS have Conventional incom and for producing exclusive ing socially a new critique this of out and analyses plete cover change (e.g. Bakr, Weindorf, Bahnassy, Bahnassy, Weindorf, Bakr, (e.g. change cover & Yomralıoğlu, Güler, Marei, & El-Badawi, 2010; 2017). al., et Young 2004; al., et Lu 2007; Reis, are and quantitative focused on technological the detection offor land improving solutions ment in recent years, and further progress can can progress further and years, recent in ment on studies Most future. near the in be assumed changeland in common cover have that they is a relatively new and evolving scientific field, field, scientific evolving and new a relatively is improve technological much seen has which ASIA IN FOCUS and one Landsat image 8OLI/TIRS from 2014. 1992, one Landsat 7ETM+ image from 2000, for the analysis; one Landsat 5TM image from ArcGIS 10.2. Three Landsat images were used steps were performed in the software program RS All detection. change post-classification 4) and assessment, accuracy 3) classification, process that involved 1) pre-processing, 2) The RS methodology followed a four-step data and methods sensing Remote 2001). ika, stock contributes to (Ramdas, Yakshi, &Deep live their that soils of fertilization the through India in activities agricultural of sustainability Furthermore, pastoralists play akey role in the Gahey, Davies, Hagelberg, &Ouedraogo, 2014). contributing conservation (Mc to biodiversity water, quality, regulating and soil maintaining by providesment, but ecosystem services system which does not degrade the environ pastoralism as asustainable food production of arather newfound international interest in proved government result could a attitudes be ment of Tamil Nadu, 2016). Nevertheless, im cultivable existing of (Govern lands fodder for is rather increasing on capacity production the seem to bean incentive for this change; focus er, grazing lands not existing protecting does (, 2016). Howev livelihoods and for the economy of the state rural for husbandry animal of role vital the es Government of Tamil Nadu officiallyrecognis grounds (Ghotge & Kishore, 2016). Today the grazing traditional their be to used that areas protected and tothem enter forests certain ease their restrictions on pastoralists and allow only recently that some states have decided to titudes and policies (Sharma et al., 2003). It is which has resulted in hostile government at overgrazing through environment the grading 2016).Kishore, Pastoralists are frequently blamed for de ------18 grazing. for areas ant help of local pastoralists as particularly import the with Peikulam) and identified were tam Srivaikun Tirunelveli, (Ambasamudram, sites area of 576 (Figure km² 1). These four study four 12 x 12 kilometre study sites with a total al., 2017). The study area was delimited into cover change (Tsarouchi et al., 2014; Young et land monitoring for useful particularly it makes cord of the earth’s surface since the early 1970s The Landsat program’s near continuous re calculated; overall, user,calculated; producer, kappa and & Chipman, 2004). Four of accuracy types were images into these five classes (Lillesand,Kiefer, sification algorithm all pixels to classify in the training samples were then used by the clas The grassland. and scrubland land, ricultural five classes were used; water, built-up land, ag study, this For classified. manually were classes cover land predetermined of samples’ ‘training fication was thenperformed which means that classi 2010). Williams, & (Abdi supervised A ison toin order facilitate interpretation compar and through principal a component analysis (PCA) formation in the images were also removed hancement (Young 2017). al., et Excessive in image and through en correction geometric First, the satellite images were pre-processed 2017). (Wennström, Nadu Figure 1: Map of the study area in southern Tamil ------ISSUE 5 ------stantial strength of agreement’ (Landis & Koch, Koch, & (Landis agreement’ of strength stantial 1977). that the most noteworthy changes that have have that changes noteworthy most the that are 2014 and 1992 years the between occurred and a an increase in agricultural land (+7.3%) The remaining decrease in grassland (-7.1%). classesland had cover not changed signifi andwater (+1%) cantly; built-up land (+0.9%) had increased marginallywhile there had been of Most (-2.1%). scrubland in decrease a slight be occurred have to appear changes these of results The 2000. and 1992 years the tween Table in showed are assessments accuracy the which 2014, and 1992 from two images The 1. were used for the change detection analysis, bench suggested the commonly above scored (Tsarouchi accuracy overall for 85% of mark 1992 the for statistics kappa The 2014). al., et classified image was0.83, which accordingto be should considered (1977) Landis and Koch the of classifications the while perfect’, ‘almost re 0.77 and 0.73 scored images 2014 and 2000 ‘sub category the into falls which spectively, the participants were found, approached, and this of purpose the For field. the in interviewed partici sample the that important was it study herd of experience of years several had pants information that so Nadu Tamil southern in ing about the environmental and social change sort purposeful of This be generated. could when suitable infor is sampling convenience with be from generated could anyone mation 2012). (Tracy, network social particular the in the interviewsFinally, were transcribed, coded and analysed. Remote sensing observations 2000 1992, years the from images classified The 3 shows Figure 2. Figure in shown are 2014 and 19 ------Separate personal interviews with pasto with interviews personal Separate ment affects their livelihoods. A total of 17 pas 17 of total A livelihoods. their affects ment and study this for interviewed were toralists ralists were conducted to further conducted to ralists were explore and analyse in what way the changing environ key locations for grazing and diminished pas diminished and grazing for locations key tures. used both as a tool for stimulating discussion discussion stimulating for a tool as both used and changes, and livelihood on environmental and identifying migratory routes for drawing ing social networks and marginalised popula were maps reference The 2012). (Tracy, tions ages of 32 and 55 were present at the work the at present were 55 and 32 of ages selected were they snowball shop; through reach for method a useful is which sampling of Peikulam, was chosen in consultation with with consultation in chosen was Peikulam, of the between herders Twelve informant. a key features directly on a printed map or an aeri an or map a printed on directly features for venue The 2006). al., et (Corbett image al village the in temple a small workshop, PM the mapping was used which is a method that that a method is which used was mapping a into integrated easily is that data generates GIS because the participants draw landscape sources and social arrangements in particular scale study this For 1994). (Chambers, locations been established as part of Participatory Rural Rural Participatory part of as established been in rural develop techniques (PRA) Appraisal re existing understanding of a way as ment and separate personal semi-structured inter long have of forms mapping views.Various Qualitative methods and data par collected were data through Qualitative pastoralists local with (PM) mapping ticipatory were compared on a pixel-to-pixel basis (Güler on a compared pixel-to-pixelwere (Güler basis et al., 2007). were calculated using a post-classification where the detection images change technique ground truth points field truth collectedground through data. reference high-resolution as well as work changes land cover betweenFinally, the years statistics. 260 reference points were used per per used were points reference 260 statistics. 126 to compared were which image, classified ASIA IN FOCUS

Figure 3: Area of land cover classes in the classified imagesfrom 1992, and 2014.2000 2017).(Wennström, Figure 2: Classified images of the fourstudy sites for the years 1992, and 20142000 20 ISSUE 5 - - - cation. The accuracy assessment (Table 1) is to to is 1) (Table assessment accuracy The cation. since some extent supporting assumption this somegrassland has been incorrectly classified as agricultural land and vice versa. Although ana and neutral as seen often are images RS the objectively, changes lystsinterpret to aim which accounted for 27.56% of the changes. changes. the of 27.56% for accounted which This could indicate that grassland and agricul tural land been have mixed up in the classifi 21 - Table 1: Results of the accuracy assessment of the classified images from 1992, 20002014. and 1992, from images classified the of assessment accuracy the of Results 1: Table change that can be observed through RS was was RS through be observed can that change agricultural land that has become grassland has become agricultural land, which stands for 66.78% of the changes. land cover Surprisingly the second largest contradictorily, and rather significantchange that has occurred between that grassland was 2014 and 1992 years the The post-classificationchange detectionanal most the far by that showed 4) (Figure ysis ASIA IN FOCUS near villages towns. and Disappearing com land built-up extent, lesser a to and, land tural into agricul grasslands of transformation a be ceive the main changes that have occurred to which have more indirect on effects land use. ing the landscape or through social processes dynamics in the area, either by directly alter perceived land as problems thatcover affect tions, and stigmatisation of pastoralism. All are deterioration patterns, use village of institu land changing routes, migratory the on stacles ob physical diseases, animal species, invasive are (in order) random These a proliferation of pastoralist livelihoods in southern Tamil Nadu. sues that were perceived as impediments to Interactions with pastoralists revealed six is Pastoralist perceptions appear at first. might they than complex more are dynamics cover land change that indicate also could It need to beresults from a“failed” classification. lands and cultivated areas does not necessarily pastoral expanding and diminishing taneously simul of result contradictory ally, seemingly a Addition deepened. that provides be RS can cover land change of understanding shallow combined with qualitative data, the somewhat itative (Jiang, alone interviews 2003). When qual through revealed be cannot that mation changes in the landscape as RS generates infor providing valuable information large-scale on However, it does not reduce its usefulness for cussed also within atechnical field such as RS. subjectivity needs to behighlighted and dis This results. the influence which terpretations ples of where analysts makes choices and in exam cover are land classes and points trol training of ground samples, con selection The 2011). al., (Gardin et interpretations individual and variability performance human by fected results of RS image analyses are inevitably af Pastoralists in southern Tamil Nadu per ------22 influenced participants’ perceptions of land land of perceptions participants’ influenced (Burke, 2015). have might subconsciously This which resulted in the 2015 South Indian floods ter exceptionally an wet northeast study was done in early 2016, immediately af (Jiang, 2003).knowledge for this field work The where climatic fluctuations may impact local also need beunderstood in awider context Perceptionsments. environmental of change reduced dueor to agriculturallots encroach have and/or sold been converted to housing Village commons them. for worse the for landscape the have that transformed changes commons the to protect are other perceived used that institutions village the of terioration mons due to privatization the land de and of which forces pastoralists to choose alternate cles like fences are fragmenting the landscape, mean direct danger to the livestock and obsta changes that are increasing. Congested roads ment fencing and as critical are also seen cal obstacles due to infrastructural develop year (Robbins, 2001; Sharma et al., 2003). Physi causing thousands of livestock deaths every demic literature and the latter is believed to be Lantena camera has some support in the aca Prosopis juliflora its constituentand species believed to poison their sheep. The toxicity of problem with animal diseases as its fruits are tree is seen as a key cause for the aggravating es for pastoral livelihoods. This is because the nificant change,which severehas consequenc tree Prosopis juliflora is alsoperceived as a sig grasslands. on encroachment agricultural of issue the of well, which might have led to exaggerations as cropped lands non-irrigated and are often escalate, to reported are diseases animal years, frequently problem; as a during unusually wet rains the wererain. Indeed, mentioned rather sizing issues related to floods andexcessive cover change, with possibly them overempha Proliferation of the fast growing invasive ------ISSUE 5 - - - extensive than they are according to RS obser RS to according are they than extensive on study RS a conventional However, vations. the pastoral landscape Nadu of southern Tamil missedwouldhave importantperspectives on landscape dynamicsand obstacles faced by from the ground because of the different sto different the of because ground the from aboutriesmethods these environmental tell Local knowledgechange. about the environ very is ment on a landscape-scale limited since changesland cover often occur slowlyand largeover geographical areas which makes understandto fromthemground difficult a to RS of contribution unique The perspective. its in lies thus change cover land on studies large (temporal and spatial) scale perspective A purely(Jiang, qualitative study 2003). might loss theexaggerated extent of grassland have more as be perceived might changes such since 23 ------The red circles marks locations where pastoralists perceive grazing lands have disappeared disappeared have lands grazing perceive pastoralists where marks locations The circles red and the green circles represents particularly important grazing lands (Wennström, 2017). Figure 4: Remote sensing observations of land cover change within the four study sites sites study four the within change cover land of observations sensing Remote 4: Figure shown. are ‘grassland’ class the involves that changes Only 2014. and 1992 between years the tative parts of this study illustrate the value of of value the illustrate study parts this of tative RS observationsperceptions with combining Comparative analysis of analysis observed Comparative changes perceived and quali and quantitative the from findings The no longer viewed pastoralism as a as viable liveli no longer viewed pastoralism their hood that determined and were option children should not follow in their footsteps. createda feeling of hopelessness regarding ma absolute The profession. their of future the study this for interviewed herders the of jority local villagers’ hostility towards herders. Nega herders. towards hostility villagers’ local have to seem harassment and stereotypes tive routes is the enduring problemof the stigmati the enduring is routes import previously Some pastoralists. of sation ant grazing grounds are avoided because of routes, often along roads. Another issue that is is oftenthat routes, issue along roads. Another migratory their the herders change to forcing ASIA IN FOCUS been lost which might partly explain why they have pastures traditional their pastoralists, the land cover has to changed. not Nevertheless, not bedetected through RS since the actual sible to the pastoralists. Such changes could inacces grounds grazing and routes certain scape, such as fences and roads, are making revealed that physical obstacles on the land interviews The land. built-up and agricultural mainly caused by conversion of grasslands into the perceived decrease of pastoral lands is not tions pastoralist and perceptions could that be observa RS discrepancies the tion for between (Nightingale, 2003). explana possible Another than it is because of the location’s significance land cover certain a change extensive as more imagery. Resource users may in perceive fact by the RS analysis of coarse resolution satellite detected be cannot grasslands of patches small of disappearance The pastures. important but es that were in restricted fact to relatively small the pastoralists talked about land cover chang that be could discrepancy this for explanation changes have occurred (figure 4). Onepossible these that location exact the regarding sources information two the correlationvious between However, ob land. no is into agricultural there transformed have grasslands that been cated ralists’ perceptions land the cover about indi 2003). Both the RS observations and the pasto (Nightingale, landscape changing the about tween the results can also provide useful clues 2014). al., et (Herrmann landscape the in processes social-natural understanding for important and valuable are perspectives cover change studies (Mialhe et al., 2015). Both land to dimension additional an brings which provided through knowledge be can local ronment that cannot beobserved from space anotherone since information envi the about duces data that complement authenticate and pastoralists. Mixing methods in this way pro Any discrepancies that might appear be appear might that Any discrepancies ------24 landscape in southern Tamil mix southern Thus, in Nadu. landscape completely differentpastoralstories the about aspects of land cover change, but also to tell worked to only not emphasize different the quantitative methods and qualitative The have been capable of achieving on their own. would method each than dynamics change er land cov of understanding tive deeper a and perceptions perspec gain wider a has helped Combining pastoralist and observations RS Conclusion at the same location using RS. detected cover be land could in changes cant during although PM the signifi no workshop pastures diminishing as areas some marked but significantbut perception locations and the stood to berefering to the loss of rather small inaccessible. Hence, pastoralists the are under pastures important making landscape the ing stacles such as fences and roads are fragment ob physical that indicated Interviews analysis. cline of grasslands was not detected by the RS and qualitative data; the perceived drastic de quantitative the between gap the highlighted results the Comparing impediments. livelihood this was just one out of a series of perceived jor threat to their livelihood, however, to them ma a were into grasslands expansion cultural the ground. Pastoralists confirmed that agri insights to this by providing perceptions from to interpret. The qualitative data gave further difficult were that coverpatterns land change However, also it showed complex obscure and land had occurred between 1992 and 2014. built-up and land agricultural in increase and grassland in decrease a that indicated which observations, RS through captured were scape ent epistemological traditions. methodology that integrates data from differ er change studies can beadvanced through a has methods ing demonstrated how land cov Large-scale changes in the pastoral land pastoral the in changes Large-scale ------ISSUE 5 25 - - - holds a MSc in Rural De Rural in a MSc holds [email protected] Email: Email: from the University Swedish of Agricultural working research as He currently is Sciences. assistant at SLU. Patrick Wennström Patrick Management Resource and Natural velopment cles that were found through this study are not not are study this through found were that cles of detectablein the domain changes. This result indicates that a policy to improve improve to a policy that indicates result This based on RS observation conditions pastoralist obsta most since fail likely most would alone of shrinking grasslands mightbe further rein landscape. the of fragmentation the by forced ASIA IN FOCUS IUCN. (2017). What is WISP? Retrieved from https://www.iucn.org/theme/ecosys Herrmann, Sall, S. M., &Sy, I., O. (2014). People and pixels in the Sahel: astudy Güler, Yomralıoğlu, M., T., &Reis, S. (2007). Using landsat data to determine land Government of Tamil Nadu. (2016). Animal husbandry. Ghotge, S., N. &Kishore, (2016). K. Gardin, S., van Laere, J., S. M. van Coillie, F. B., Anseel, M. F., Duyck, W., de Wulf, R. Dunn, (2007). E. C. Participatory GIS —apeople’s GIS? (2006). al. et Change: Mapping for emergence new a R. of The Overview: Corbett, Chaudhry, P., Bohra, &Choudhary, K., N. (2011). R. K. Conserving biodiversity of Chambers, (1994). R. Burke, J. 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