Impressionism, which specifically examined late experimentation and innovation in artistic practice. nineteenth-century Paris, as well as the surround- The invention of photography furthered this con- ing suburbs and French coast, in a radically new versation about art, as did the design of collapsible visual mode. This ongoing evolution reflected con- metal tubes for paint, which allowed artists to work tinuing social changes and attitudes toward art. easily out of doors. All of these influences—social, New subjects were of interest, as was the devel- political, and technological—can be seen in the art oping concept of the avant-garde—a desire for of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

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IRON BRIDGE, Abraham Darby III and Thomas F. Pritchard, , , 1779 The in England As was discussed in the overview of this section, the Industrial Revolution began in England around the mid-eighteenth century. Technological inventions that harnessed the power of electricity, combustion, and steam allowed human and animal labor to be replaced by mechanical devices. These greatly increased productivity, which allowed for the rapid development of a variety of industries in England. This new manufacturing economy largely replaced agricultural production, which had been central in the country up until that point. With industrialism came many other major shifts in English society. Wealth was now distributed across a greater segment of the population, and many more people were able to purchase consumer goods. These increased markets were further stimulated by the expansion of transportation systems such as canals and railroads, which moved materials and goods across the country. Trade continued to develop, which eventually led to the establishment of international markets for British goods. As the British expanded their reach throughout the world, they became a global force—it was during this period that the nation became the largest empire in history and reached the height of its global power. Engineering and Material Innovations Perhaps the most important material exploited during the early period of the Industrial Revolution was . Up until the early eighteenth century, iron in England was produced through a process of , with heat and used to extract the material from its ore. Unfortunately, England had a shortage of charcoal, and so most iron had to be imported. In 1709 Abraham Darby developed a process for smelting iron using (processed coal), instead of charcoal, which allowed for a boom in iron production, as iron ore and coal were both abundant in England. Darby’s descendants would build on his contributions to the iron industry—his son, Abraham Darby II (1711–63), further refined the smelting process to produce higher quality iron material, and his grandson, Abraham Darby III (1750–89), would construct the first iron bridge. Iron became the backbone of industrial development in England. New architectural forms were needed to serve the quickly developing manufacturing processes of the Industrial Revolution—factories, mills, warehouses, and dockyard structures were required, and these buildings had to be larger, stronger, and more fire-resistant than earlier structures. They also had to be relatively inexpensive to construct in order to be economically practical. Iron suited these purposes perfectly, as its production cost had been greatly reduced, and its great tensile strength allowed for the construction of the types of vast enclosed spaces necessary for manufacturing and industry. While these new structures would gener- ally rely on traditional architectural forms, such as arches and post and lintel systems, iron allowed for building on an unprecedented scale.

SOURCE GUIDE • REVISED PAGE USAD ART RE 2015 • 2014– 97