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Documenta Praehistorica XXXVIII (2011)

The supply system of siliceous rocks between the , and during the Star;evo culture

Rajna {o[ic´ Klind/ic´ Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of , HR [email protected]

ABSTRACT – This paper analyses the production processes of chipped stone artefacts from ten Star- ≠evo culture sites in the area between the rivers Sava, Drava and Danube. The aim was to compare the results of assemblages analysis from individual settlements to reconstruct the existence and ex- tent of relationships between settlements and their inhabitants. The results showed that in the area between Sava and Drava during the early Neolithic period, a system for acquiring and processing raw materials and the production and exchange of stone tools among the settlements developed. The Star≠evo culture population was familiar with the environment and resources, and had developed a system of procurement and distribution of raw material and intermediate goods.

IZVLE∞EK – V ≠lanku analiziramo produkcijske procese odbitkovnih kamnitih orodij iz desetih naj- di∏≠ kulture Star≠evo na podro≠ju med rekami Savo, Dravo in Donavo. Namen raziskave je pri- merjava rezultatov analiz skupkov iz posameznih najdi∏≠ za rekonstrukcijo obstoja in obsega odno- sov med naselbinami in njihovimi prebivalci. Rezultati ka∫ejo, da se je na podro≠ju med Savo in Dra- vo v obdobju zgodnjega neolitika razvil sistem za pridobivanje in obdelavo surovega materiala ter produkcijo in izmenjavo kamnitih orodij med naselbinami. Prebivalci kulture Star≠evo so poznali okolje in naravne vire, in tako so razvili sistem pridobivanja in distribucije surovin in polizdelkov.

KEY WORDS – (); Star≠evo culture; lithics; distribution; sites; raw material

Introduction

In this paper, the organisation of lithic production considered realistic. Although the methodology of at Star≠evo sites in the area between the rivers Sa- excavation and data collection was different, re- va, Drava and Danube is analysed. Material origina- cently investigated sites in each group justify the di- tes from the sites Slavonski -Galovo, Zadubrav- vision of the settlements. This enabled conclusions lje, Ivandvor, Toma∏anci-Palace, , πagovina about the production of chipped stone artefacts be- Cerni≠ka, and several locations in (they all tween the Sava, Drava and Danube during the Star- probably belong to the same large settlement). Since ≠evo period. According to the established site typo- material originates from excavations of varying logy, each settlement was classified into one group scope and methodology, these factors also influen- based on the amount of production types in the as- ced the final composition of the assemblage. The semblage. Austro-Hungarian maps were used to ap- range of artefacts per site ranges from 1 to several proximate walking distances in hours between set- thousand, as in -Galovo and Zadu- tlements and mutual ‘availability’ depending on na- bravlje. For these reasons, it is hard to draw firm tural obstacles. Given the highly altered landscape and comprehensive conclusions about aspects of the due to Austro-Hungarian and modern land reclama- chipped stone industry. Some sites were excavated tion, the construction of embankments and canals on very large surfaces, using precise methodology, for drainage, for information on and flood so information on the quantity of artefacts can be areas were used from ‘Croatia on 18th secret Military

DOI> 10.4312\dp.38.27 345 Rajna {o[ic´ Klind/ic´

Maps’, and 19th Century – ‘Brod Regiment’ and ‘Gra- social contact and exchange systems. The finished di∏ka Regiment’ Military Maps published by the Cro- tool did not have to remain in the community whose atian Institute for History (Buczinsky et al. 1999a; member made it. It was common for products to be 1999b). Based on the available data, we found that transported to other communities of the same cultu- in the Early Neolithic in the area between the Sava, ral group. Distance from the source can be tracked Drava and Danube, there was a choice of raw mate- from the level of use of almost all artefacts, as well rials, and a system of raw materials procurement, as re-modeled tools, while at production sites there production and distribution between settlements as was some profusion, since even larger and still use- in other parts of Europe in this period. able segments of cores were used as tools. The distri- bution of regional raw material sometimes corre- Settlement types according to the production sponded with the borders determined by other ele- of lithic artefacts ments of material culture. The rules of access to the raw material still remain unclear. We can only draw Irrespective of the distance and availability of sour- conclusions on the basis of the relationship between ces of raw material, it was necessary to insure quan- the amount of waste and number of tools at speci- tities which would satisfy the needs of the whole fic locations. Obviously, the pattern changed, depen- community. Also, irrespective of distance, the final ding on the raw material and chronological period. stage in the production of tools occurred in the set- This relationship between the amount of raw mate- tlement itself. The place of use could also be par- rial, waste and tools at specific sites has enabled the tially confined to the settlement itself, but some ob- differentiation of several types of Early Neolithic set- jects moved with their owners. Rejected pieces and tlement: (1) extraction/exploitation, (2) production, some lost pieces could be found again in association (3) distribution, (4) consumption, (5) self-sustained, with the settlement, because personal property was (6) no procurement, but production present, (7) tool safer inside the settlement. Storage (utilitarian and production and use. symbolic) and graves were special cases, since ob- jects were kept for later use, or in the other world. The linear path of raw material in systematised Artefacts could take a rather simple route from the groups of settlement is 1–4. The path can, of course, source of the raw material to the settlement, or to be shorter or different, depending on the type of raw the place of use, which did not necessarily have to material and the usual means of transportation. Of be in the same location. Different stages of work- course, we frequently find in one settlement an over- shop activity could occur between these locations lap between certain groups. In addition to the chaîne (Balcer 1995). We could recognise specific ‘industri- operatoire for determining the type of settlement, al zones’ in different periods and for different raw we have found very useful the scheme of the ‘life- materials, such as regions of exploitation of chert cycle’ of the object from extraction from the rock to and radiolarite in the Bakony Mountains (Biró, Re- discarding, created by M. de Grooth (1997). The genye 1991). The reconstruction of the movement scheme was originally devised for chipped stone of objects presents a significant challenge. Different material, but is applicable to almost all artefacts. Ac- members of a community would have exploited, cording to this scheme, we can determine respecti- produced and used different types of artefact, which vely for every site which activities linked to produ- potentially reflected the social structure. The posi- ction occurred there, and whether the settlement tion of the artefacts depends on geological and geo- had contacts (and of what kind) with other settle- graphical characteristics, as well as the division of ments. It is very difficult to determine the origin of labour and their passing through many different some objects – exchanges sometimes leave a very li- hands during their lifespan – from raw material to mited number of traces, which is obvious from eth- discarded and worn out artefact, which then became nographic analogies (food, spices, textile, cattle), waste to be removed for security reasons. One and and we can detect only those objects that are not the same block of raw material could end up in dif- prone to deterioration. The cooperation which had ferent ways, in the hands of different people, in dif- to exist between the first alochtonous agriculturalists ferent stages of production simultaneously, and du- and the autochthonous settlers of the Trans-Danube ring the long period in which the artefact was remo- region was also conducted through patterns of ex- deled and modified several times for various uses. change. Indigenous settlers were familiar with sour- One person could transfer one pre-core to different ces of Szentgal radiolarite, raw material crucial for places and distribute it among various users, with- farmers, and hence they exchanged it for skills such out the necessary context of sophisticated forms of as house building and plant cultivation, or for provi-

346 The supply system of siliceous rocks between the Drava, Sava and Danube rivers during the Star;evo culture sions, such as meat and salt (Banffy 2004). Settle- ● The sixth group includes settlements which ob- ment typology was adapted to the area between Sa- tained raw material from someone else, while perfor- va, Drava and Danube rivers according to (1981; ming the ensuing stages of production themselves – 1983; 1989) and Matetiucova (2008.99–102). these were settlements which participated in a spe- cific system of exchange (such as Bylany in eastern ● The first group includes settlements or system of Czech, Skroszowice, Niemcza, Stráchow – all three in settlements the activity of which was exclusively or southern Silesia). These sites confirmed the group mostly linked to raw material extraction from a specialisation of certain settlements for exploitation, quarry. These settlements were situated in the close preparation, and distribution as early as the second vicinity of the quarry and contained numerous traces half of the 5th millennium BC. of processing of raw material into cores and other products, and little or no trace of occupation or dwel- ● The seventh group procured raw material already ling. processed into blanks, and, if necessary, additionally processed these into tools. The existence of the sixth ● The second group refers to production settlements and seventh groups was frequently determined by with large amounts of waste material, blanks, discar- the type of raw material used, and equally by the ded and worn out cores, core rejuvenation flakes, skill of specific settlers. In regular settlements, some overshot blades, and unfinished tools. These were stages of tool processing were also present, but the large settlements the basic function of which was concentration of waste material was much smaller. handling and processing raw material. The difference between a settlement and a work- shop was observable in the inversely proportional ● The third group is the hardest to detect and was relationship between the number of tools and the probably the rarest. In regions situated far from pri- amount of waste. mary sources of raw material, some settlements were detected which served as secondary distribution cen- The analysis of the production process has proven tres of raw material. the existence of intensive production in all the sta- ges at the sites of Zadubravlje and Slavonski Brod– ● The fourth group comprises settlements which ex- Galovo. The production of blades and flakes from al- clusively used final products obtained through ex- ready prepared cores has been confirmed at Virovi- change for other products such as wheat, pottery, or tica–Brekinja, Ivandvor, Vinkovci–Zvijezda, Vinkov- meat. On occasion, in times of shortage or disrupted ci–Nama and Vinkovci–Hotel. Traces of production supply, the settlers produced certain ad-hoc tools were not found on the sites at Toma∏anci– Pala≠a themselves from locally obtainable material. Due to and πagovina Cerni≠ka. the developed system of exchange in the Early Neo- lithic, there was a large number of such sites, such Table I shows the quantity of finds per m2 on the as Vörs, Devavanya, Golokut (Kalicz et al. 2002, Ka- sites. These figures, although quite significant, might czanowska, Kozłowski 1985). in some cases not reflect the real situation due to the large gaps between objects on certain sites, as ● The fifth group consists of settlements which pro- well as the lack of data for an accurate estimate of duced enough for their own needs, and neither ob- the settlement size. However, they do point to fun- tained raw materials and cores and/or blanks from ctional differences between the settlements. others, nor distributed their own products. Such set- tlements appear in the Late Neolithic (for example, On the basis of the structure of the lithic assemblage the Sopot Culture). In some cases, we can demon- in the settlements, we can make two different settle- strate an independent supply in certain communi- ment divisions. The assemblages can be divided into ties, whose members undertook acquisition expedi- groups based on several factors. Firstly, we could de- tions to quarries or mines for the raw material they termine the type of settlement depending on the required. Individuals came here from distant settle- structure of the assemblage, i.e. the proportion of ments situated in regions suitable for early agricultu- categories of the ‘chaîne operatoire’. These data ral communities, and returned home with the nec- have enabled the reconstruction of production stages essary amounts of raw material, without processing in certain settlements. Taking them into account, we the raw material at its source (except perhaps the could assume that the settlements communicated basic separation of material of evidently poor qual- among themselves and supplied each other. Thus ity). we have confirmed that all production phases were

347 Rajna {o[ic´ Klind/ic´ present on certain sites, only some on other sites, Excavated Number Distribution Sites and that on some sites stone tools were not produ- area\m2 of finds of finds\m2 ced, but only used. Galovo 200 2746 13.7 Zabubravlje 6200 4276 0.68 Types of settlement depending on phases of Vinkovci Hotel 2100 77 0.03 production between the Sava, Drava and Da- Vinkovci Nama 2680 37 0.01 nube rivers. Production and distribution settle- Vinkovci Zvijezda 332 60 0.18 ments Vinkovci 76 2 0.02 Duga Ulica 23 Zadubravlje and Galovo Vinkovci Varteks 360 1 0.002 To the sites of Zadubravlje and Slavonski Brod–Ga- Vinkovci Jugobanka 3660 35 0.009 lovo, the raw material was transported, and then Cerni;ka {agovina 50 41 0.82 processed into cores in the settlement. Blades and numerous corticated flakes, even up to 100%, pro- Ivandvor 8000 896 0.11 ved that un-manufactured raw material was shaped Toma[anci Pala;a 4000 58 0.01 into cores in the settlements. Pre-cores were not Virovitica Brekinja 5400 255 0.04 found at Zadubravlje, but the completely corticated Tab. 1. Excavated area and number of chipped debitage indirectly confirmed their presence. Some stone artefacts per m2. prepared cores were used for the production of blades and flakes, and some were most probably possibility of easy exploitation. Besides, they were distributed to other settlements. The assemblage di- not tectonised like some other radiolarites in the splayed a small quantity of chunk which testified to Ophiolite zone. The River Sava flooded several times (i) the skill of the producers and (ii) the quality of a year, and hence the river-bed could not be approa- the raw material. The two settlements functioned as ched nor the river crossed (Rubi≤ 1953). It was as- distribution centres for the raw material, more pre- sumed that during those periods, between two expe- cisely the silicified limestone that settlers collected ditions, the settlers used raw material they could col- in Northern , material that comprises 70% of lect locally, in the river-beds of smaller rivers and the assemblage. These settlements undoubtedly had brooks, as well as on the surface. The alluvial drifts numerous other functions, but one of the most im- of the River Sava carried chert and radiolarite peb- portant was the production of cores, primarily, blade bles which could be collected on the surface. So far, cores, which were (most probably) collected during it has been difficult to establish whether the cores periodic expeditions to Northern Bosnia. The settlers and other products made of river pebbles were also were very selective in their choice of raw material. distributed to other settlements, since the raw mate- Even though the Sava river-bed was rich in siliceous rial appeared very similar and was available from rocks pebbles and the Ophiolite, and Sava-Vardar different sites. In the settlements, silicified lime- zones (Hrvatovi≤ 2006) were abundant in radiola- stones were manufactured into cores and blades and rite, the primary choice for these people was silici- distributed to the north, west, and east. The range of fied limestone of excellent chipping quality. The fac- distribution has yet to be established. So far, we tors for the selection could be various – knowledge could have established that there was a system of of the source, tradition, good chipping quality, di- supply, but not the details. What the exact tradable stinctive and attractive appearance, suitable size, the currency was can also not be determined, but, based on analogies, we could suppose that it was wheat, Percentage of tools in total assemblage clothes, meat, or other produce. In , salt was on analysed sites exchanged for stone material (Bánffy 2004). Here, Sites Percentage of tools it is difficult to make such an assumption, since salt Zadubravlje 7.9% deposits were present in the same regions as the Virovitica-Brekinja 15.6% raw material, i.e. close at hand. According to the Ivandvor 16.2% range of their movements, the same people had ac- Toma[anci-Pala;a 29.0% cess to salt and stone material. Control over the sour- {agovina Cerni;ka 38.0% ces of these raw materials meant a significant strate- Slavonski Brod – Galovo 7.3% gic advantage for the communities in the valleys of the rivers Sava and . Hence the small number Tab. 2. Percentage of tools in total assemblage on of sites discovered in this area is rather surprising. analysed sites. According to the above data and the absolute dating

348 The supply system of siliceous rocks between the Drava, Sava and Danube rivers during the Star;evo culture for the region of the Northern , we could as- the bedrock, was there manufactured into cores, and sume that the sites in the valley of the River Sava then the blades and flakes were chipped off the and what is today were cores. Some of the prepared cores were stored for contemporary, and henceforward perhaps even que- later use and prepared for transportation to settle- stion the direction of Neolithisation of the valley of ments which were participating in the exchange the River Bosna. scheme. The blocks of raw material were of greater size than the commonly found river pebbles, which According to current analyses, we could establish is visible in the dimensions of the flakes and blade- that people returned to the Zadubravlje and Galovo like flakes, some of which were up to 15cm long. In sites several times and hence that these were occu- that first phase of removing corticated debitage, pied for prolonged periods. Returning to the same there was a large number of blade-like flakes with place, especially if it was in a good position, near a cortication which marked the phase in the prepara- river or major communication route, was quite fre- tion of cores for chipping off blades. The dimensions quent among Early Neolithic populations, which also of the blades followed the reduction of the cores; displayed a certain respect for ancestors, i.e. avoid- hence there were blades of different dimensions. ance of their potential remains during the erection This did not point to irregularities in production, but of new settlements. Locations of settlements, even to the efficient exploitation of the raw material. In though they became invisible after being abando- the stages when the cores were larger, larger blades ned, (unlike settlements of the tell type), could still were chipped off; as the size of the cores grew smal- be preserved in oral history (Chapman 1989.39). ler, so the size of the blades also diminished. The dimensions of the blades followed the reduction of On a number of objects in Galovo, the assemblages the cores, but the length-width ratio remained the could be characterised as workshops. Besides Galo- same. The quantity of cores was also important, with vo, this type of assemblage was documented only in the most numerous being blade cores. Some of the Zadubravlje. A workshop assemblage is a term used cores were ‘exhausted’, while some could still be for assemblages containing more than 500 artefacts chipped. The latter were probably used as preser- in one object (Balcer 1995.75), and could refer to ved stock by the inhabitants of Galovo and Zadu- material directly linked to the workshop, as well as bravlje, or were perhaps cores which, for various to material which originated in the workshop, with reasons, never made it to their end-users. Especially the pit being its secondary location. The material significant were finds of flakes left after the repair from the workshop was frequently swept into a pit, of the platform, i.e., rejuvenation of the core, which which left no evidence of the existence of the work- proves there was extensive production and not only shop on the surface (Balcer 1995.78). It seems logi- chipping of flakes according to demand. In confir- cal to assume that it was much more practical to mation of this, there were cores with changed orien- place workshops outside and not inside pits. Chips tation, i.e. changed platform, or, in other words, remaining after production in workshops presented cores on which a new platform was formed after the a danger both to humans and livestock, because of old one could no longer be used. The cores were ca- their sharp edges, and hence were probably remo- refully prepared, and if they were used for the pro- ved from the walking surface and deposited in aban- duction of blades, were mostly conical or wedge- doned objects, partially buried objects, or objects shaped. As a local feature, being a result of the raw dug especially for that purpose. Workshop residue material used, we could single out ‘laminar’ cores. was probably transferred on clothes or animal skins Laminar cores were found in Zadubravlje, Galovo which were spread around during the work (Bal- and Ivandvor. These were of significantly greater cer 1995.78). Due to the distribution of the finds in- width than thickness, covered with cortication on side the object, as well as the structure of the assem- two sides, with chipping marks visible on lateral blage, it appears more likely that the pits were not sides. Cores of all types were frequently found in the locations where production was undertaken, but that completely exhausted stage, without cortication, es- the residue from the near-by workshop, which was pecially at sites which we considered not to be pro- probably situated on the surface, was swept into it. duction sites, but places where the cores were used The sites at Zadubravlje and Slavonski Brod had all several times. the typical characteristics of sites of extensive pro- duction. The number of tools in the total assemblage Settlements of partial production was relatively small (7% and 7.9%, see Table II). Raw The assemblages of chipped lithic material at the set- material was transferred to the site as extracted from tlements of Ivandvor, Virovitica Brekinja, Vinkovci

349 Rajna {o[ic´ Klind/ic´

Na-Ma, Zvijezda and Hotel displayed different char- blades were also the most numerous among tools. acteristics. There were no pre-cores, and the quan- The types of tool and the raw material used indicate tity of corticated flakes and blades was very small. that these two settlements were typical Star≠evo sites Cores were present, as well as some unworked flakes situated between the rivers Sava, Danube and Drava. and blades, and a small number of platform renewal flakes. Already prepared blade cores were arriving Communication between settlements from the area around the River Sava or some other The distances between sites were such that they sug- areas, depending on the position of the settlement, gest their mutual accessibility. In some regions, com- and the settlers were chipping them off according to munication could be difficult due to the marshy land, need. There was a very small number of corticated but the settlers were probably familiar with routes flakes and blades, as well as crested blades and by which they could surmount these obstacles. For blade-like flakes, which meant that the preparation calculating distances in kilometres (air distance), we stage was minimally present. From the analogies used Goggle Earth, which is commonly used for the with Star≠evo culture, we could conclude that the purpose. The presumed travel time on foot between cores were not exhausted in one chipping session, two sites was calculated from Austro-Hungarian maps but that the settlers chipped off as many blades as outlining the distance in hours between two sepa- needed at a given moment, and stored the core for rate sites, and the passability of specific routes dur- later use. This means that blades were not ‘goods’ ing dry or rainy weather. The sites of Slavonski stored and saved for future use, but cores. Such a Brod–Galovo and Zadubravlje were very close to practice was made possible by the good quality of each other, only 15km apart. Ivandvor by ∑akovo the raw material, which was easily chipped off. Viro- and Toma∏anci–Pala≠a are 7.5km apart, and Ivan- vitica–Brekinja, even though it belonged to this dvor is 25km away from Slavonski Brod. πagovina group according to the structure of the assemblage, Cerni≠ka is situated 55km to the west of Slavonski was not in the system of exchange. The raw mate- Brod. The distance between Slavonski Brod and Sta- rial from Virovitica, even though macroscopically si- ri Perkovci is 26km, and from Stari Perkovci to Ivan- milar, was completely different from the raw mate- dvor 11.2. Ivandvor and Vinkovci are 30km apart. rial found at other sites, and hence Virovitica–Breki- The easternmost site analysed in this paper was Vin- nja had to belong to some other system of exchange. kovci, and the westernmost were Virovitica–Breki- The settlers of Virovitica, just like the settlers of nja (NW) and πagovina Cerni≠ka (SW). The distance other settlements from this group, sometimes pre- between any two sites of Star≠evo culture was never pared cores themselves from locally available raw greater than one day’s walk. The settlements in Po- material. The assumption is that their production savina were 30 to 50km distant from a region with was based on regionally available pebbles, but in mi- raw material (silicified limestone), which is between nimal quantities, according to need. Traces of such a one and two-day walk in one direction. Of course, production were found in all the settlements from between these sites there are also sites not addres- this group. It is important to mention that, even sed here, or possibly not yet discovered, and they though core preparation was not the primary activi- can make the maximum distance between the two ty of the inhabitants of these settlements, all the sites. In some regions the terrain was certainly more cores, those obtained from exchange and those they difficult for walking, or even impassable, and hence made themselves, were very carefully processed and in some areas, despite the relatively small distan- effectively used. The conclusion on the effectiveness ces, communication was somewhat difficult due to of core use was confirmed by the platform renewal swamps and flooded areas, especially at certain times flakes. of the year.

Consummation settlements The distances between sites suggest simple and rela- The percentage of tools in the assemblage was hig- tively rapid communication. The route from Vinkov- hest at settlements from which cores, as well as ma- ci to Mikanovci was dry and passable, but the route terial linked with the different stages of shaping through the woods from Mikanovci to Vrpolje was and knapping cores were almost completely absent, passable only in very dry weather, and the maps did These settlements include the sites at Toma∏anci–Pa- not even specify the distance in hours. It was much la≠a and πagovina Cerni≠ka. At the πagovina Cerni≠- easier to travel from ∑akovo to Vinkovci than from ka not a single core was found, while three were Vinkovci to Vrpolje. The optimal communication found in Toma∏inci. In the assemblages of both set- route would thus be: Vinkovci–Ivankovo (2h 45min); tlements, the dominant products were blades. The Ivankovo–Vo∂inci (1h 45min); Vo∂inci–Novi Mika-

350 The supply system of siliceous rocks between the Drava, Sava and Danube rivers during the Star;evo culture

they could also have belonged to the system of settlements due to their very convenient strategic positions. The absence of sites between Vrpo- lje and Vinkovci was also the result of thick forests and swamps, and probably due to difficult passability, this area was not even used as a communication route. The transpor- tation of cattle and goods through , and further towards Ba- nat, was optimal by waterways be- cause of the numerous swamps (Si≤ 1975).

πagovina Cerni≠ka was situated be- tween the highland and lowland re- gions of Slavonska Posavina. The route from πagovina to Galovo could be crossed in 15 hours. Other settle- Fig. 1. Map with sites analysed in the paper. ments of Star≠evo culture were situ- ated along the way, so we could sa- novci (30min); Novi Mikanovci–∑akovo (2h 45min). fely assume that it was not necessary to make the The walking time from Vinkovci to ∑akovo could journey in one leg, unless absolutely necessary, but thus be calculated to 8h 30min, and from Stari Per- in stages with rest stops in between. kovci it would take approximately 9 hours. Half an hour’s walk would cover the distance between Stari After Star≠evo culture Perkovci and ∞ajkovci. From ∞ajkovci, the two pos- During the Late Neolithic in the broader region of sible routes were to Slavonski Brod or Zadubravlje. Central and Southeastern Europe, the dominant practice was the use of exclusively local resources, The trip from Brod to ∑akovo could have followed while a system of exchange has not been documen- one of the following routes: Brod-Bukovlje (1h ted (Kaczanowska, Kozłowski 1997.31). The tran- 45min); Bukovlje-Vranovci (15min); Vranovci-Trnja- sition from good quality raw materials to that of bad ni (1h); Trnjani-Selna (15min); Selna-Gar≠in (15min); quality, and from global to local, can also be fol- Gar≠in-Andrijevci (1h 30min); Andrijevci-∞ajkovci lowed on Croatian sites. During the period of Star≠e- (2h). From Brod to ∞ajkovci was a seven-hour walk, vo culture, in the regions between the Sava, Drava and to Vrpolje an additional 45 minutes. The strate- and Danube the selection of raw material was rather gic position of Vrpolje is already evident in this pe- varied, but red silicified limestone was absolutely riod. On this route, the journey from Vinkovci to dominant. There was a well-established exchange Brod could be completed in 16 hours, which is def- system and so-called production settlements, as well initely too much for one day, so travelers probably as settlements engaged in processing, modifying and stayed overnight in one of the villages along the using the raw material. The dominant raw material route. Andrijevci, ∞ajkovci, Vrpolje, Perkovci or ot- originated from the Ophiolite zone, 30 to 50km to her settlements in the vicinity of ∑akovo could have the south of the settlement. Neogenic post-volcanic been ideal travel stops, and were easily accessible siliceous sediments have been documented for the both from Galovo and from Zadubravlje. From ∞aj- whole period of Star≠evo culture, but in very small kovci to Sredanci was a two-hour walk. A half-hour quantities. Only after the disappearance of Star≠evo walk would cover the distance between Zadubrav- culture from the Balkan Peninsula did this raw ma- lje and Trnjani, and hence the journey from Zadu- terial become dominant (together with radiolarites bravlje to ∑akovo was significantly shorter than to from secondary sources). We could logically presup- Brod, while Stari Perkovci could be reached in 5 pose loss of control over sources of raw material. hours. The sites in Perkovci were situated immedia- This loss need not have been the consequence of tely on the border of the swamp region, at some- conflicts between populations, but only of changed what higher elevations (Makrovi≤, Boti≤ 2008), and ‘political circumstances’. The assumption is that the

351 Rajna {o[ic´ Klind/ic´ occupants of Star≠evo settlements to the north and situation has been documented for some sites in Mo- south of the River Sava were acquainted and consi- ravia (sites Vedrovice and Kladniky) (Mateiciuco- dered themselves ‘the same’. Vin≠a and Sopot cul- vá 2001.289; 2002.186; 2008). In the later periods ture people were undoubtedly ‘others’ to each other. of LBK, Szentgal radiolarite was used as a raw ma- If there was no immediate demand for the raw ma- terial only regionally (Gronenborn 2003.48). Many terials, and there was none, since enough could be LBK settlements used raw materials from very dis- collected in the nearby area, and there was no de- tant sources and procured them through direct or in- mand for the selection of raw material as in earlier direct exchange. The network of multi-directional periods, there was no need for the establishment of contacts and indirect exchange was not repeated to an exchange system which would have additional the same extent in the periods of the Late Neolithic. consequences. The Sopot culture people kept away Thus the highly developed system of exchange from the mountainous regions, were restricted to among early agriculturalists of the Danube region the narrow lowland region next to the right bank of was linked to the low level of adaptation of LBK set- the Sava, and perhaps were completely unfamiliar tlements to the various conditions of procurement with the existence of that raw material. Sopot cul- of siliceous rocks in . In other words, ture underwent significant changes. The number of this would mean that weak adaptation to exploita- blades decreased, i.e. the percentage of blade tools, tion resulted in good adaptation to exchange. Un- while the number of end-scrapers increased. Signifi- fortunately, we do not have as much data for Star- cant changes also occurred regarding the raw mate- ≠evo culture as we have for the LBK, but the avail- rial (even though the beginning of these changes able data nevertheless point to some general con- was detectable already at the end of Star≠evo cul- clusions. Lithic finds from Star≠evo culture senso ture). The red silicified limestones disappear from stricto have been documented in and the general use. Instead, river pebbles and neogenic Transdanubian region. The most common materials post-volcanic siliceous sediments were used. A break in use by the Star≠evo culture in the Transdanubian in communication was possible; Sopot culture was region were Balkan flint, Szentgal radiolarite, Me- present only on the northernmost regions of the csek radiolarite, Tevel flint and obsidian (Kacza- right bank of the Sava, and so far there is no evi- nowska, Kozłowski 2008). Flake tools were much dence of its having spread to southern regions. Thus more common than blade tools, unlike at Transdanu- far, analyses have been conducted only for a small bian LBK sites (Biró 2005.247). Raw material ana- number of the sites, but a significant change is still lysis of Star≠evo culture sites in Serbia has shown noticeable in comparison to earlier periods. significant variations in the use of raw material. At Lepenski Vir, for example, in the early Neolithic ho- Central and Eastern Europe lithic material in rizons, Balkan flint predominated, while in earlier the first Neolithic communities compared to periods, this was not the case, since it comprised Star≠evo lithic material between the Sava, Dra- only around 3% (Kozłowski, Kozłowski 1983.267). va and Danube At some other sites, like Blagotin, only local raw ma- terial was used, regardless of its quality (πari≤ 1999). Raw material procurement Even though variations of chert predominated, there The LBK complex is very well investigated in terms were also significant quantities of quartz and quar- of lithic material and raw material procurement and tzite. πari≤ claims that the amount of quartzite might behaviour, since there has been quite a long tradi- have been larger if adequate attention had been paid tion of related research. By observing distances from to the collection of artefacts made from it (πari≤ 1999). sources to sites, one notes a significant difference From the presence of obsidian and Balkan flint, we between the Eastern and Western complex. While in can conclude that Star≠evo culture used raw mate- the Western part, the average distance was 100km, rial from distant sources and in different ratios in the Eastern part this was only 40km. These diffe- through direct procurement or exchange (Tripkovi≤ rences reflect the conservatism and social conserva- 2003.171). Körös culture displayed similar characte- tism of the Eastern LBK, as compared to the more ristics. The most popular raw material was Carpha- open system of complex social networks of the West- tian obsidian, siliceous sediments from the Matra ern LBK (Kaczanowska 2003.9). A very popular raw Mountains and white opals, while Balkan flint was material in the Western complex was Szentgal radio- in use, but in much smaller quantities. It seems that larite. At some sites, even up to 230km distant from the system was much more elaborate during the the source, it comprised 50% of the assemblage Early than in the Middle Neolithic (Kaczanowska, (e.g., sites at Rosenburg and Strögen), and the same Kozłowski 1997; 2008).

352 The supply system of siliceous rocks between the Drava, Sava and Danube rivers during the Star;evo culture

Lithic assemblage composition and core re- The existence of long blades, unlike at central Bal- duction kan sites, was not common in the Transdanubian Carefully prepared cores, especially for blades, were Neolithic, nor in neighbouring regions which were characteristic of early LBK and Körös culture (Kacza- not inhabited by the Körös culture (Bacskay, Siman nowska, Kozłowski 2008). In these systems, the pre- 1988.126). The absence of long blades is also char- pared cores were brought to the site, where no more acteristic of Croatian sites, with the exception of the than a few blades were chipped from them, accor- find of several fragmented blades at Toma∏anci–Pa- ding to need, and the cores themselves stored some- la≠a and Ivandvor. where in the settlement. The preliminary processing of the raw material (preparation of platform, forma- Balkan flint tion of crest, removal of cortication) took place out- One of the most characteristic features of the lithic side the settlement. Blocs of raw material or cores industries of Early Neolithic complexes was the use were brought to the site. We can presuppose the exi- of non-local raw material distributed over a wide area stence of workshops near the source, but a very (Kaczanowska, Kozłowski 2008.12). Among these small number have been documented (Kaczanow- materials, the most important was so-called ‘Balkan ska, Kozłowski 2008; Starnini, Szakmany 1998). flint’. Products made from Balkan flint were found The system presupposed very economical manage- in the region from Tra≠ka valley to the upper flow of ment of the raw material, where hardly anything the River Tisa (Kaczanowska, Kozłowski 2008.12). was discarded and even chips were stored for later On the territory covered in this paper, Balkan flint use. Blade production was probably done by skilled occurred rarely, but was present. So far, only three and specialised workers. This is observable from the examples have been found at three sites (Vinkovci straight blade edges, ridges and proportionality. The Na-Ma, Toma∏anci Pala≠a I, Kaznica–Rutak (Fig. 2; usage of ‘external’ raw material undoubtedly influ- assemblage not analysed in this paper). It is worth enced the economical use and preservation of cores, noting that all these are blades. artefacts and tools (Kaczanowska, Kozłowski 2007. 243). Both in Star≠evo and in Körös culture, com- Conclusions plete reduction was not done during one episode, but in a process that extended through time and During the Star≠evo culture period there was a cer- space. Various episodes were interrupted by repairs tain change in tool typology. Towards the end of and renewals, not only of the platform, but also of Star≠evo culture, the number of end-scrapers and the bottom and of lateral sides. Cores were discar- flake tools increased. Larger blades appeared in sta- ded only in the final stage of production, when they tistically quite irrelevant quantities, and at a limited were completely used up (Kaczanowska, Kozłow- number of sites. This was the first significant diffe- ski 2007.243). On Serbian Star≠evo culture sites, rence in comparison to the assemblages in other such regularities in the preparation and use of cores areas of Star≠evo culture. The appearance of longer did not occur. Even though in majority of cases the blades was a basic characteristic of Star≠evo culture cores were well prepared, at some sites such as Ba- and was linked to specific processes in the advance- nja, a lack of precision was noted together with signs ment of . These blades, in different num- of non-economic use (Odell 1988.257). bers, appeared at almost all Star≠evo sites. What ap- proach should we employ to explain the lack of lon- Long blades ger blades in the Croatian Early Neolithic? Kozłow- Most of the Early Neolithic industries in Central and ski and Nowak (2007) classify the Early Neolithic Eastern Europe can be characterised as blade indu- long blades under the ‘Neolithic package’. The lack stries. can be regarded as the single of long blades pointed either to an incomplete Neo- exception to that rule. Where long blades are con- lithic package in the settlements between the three cerned, the situation is somewhat different; alhough rivers, or to another strategy of tool use. At present, they were characteristic of Early Neolithic, and, ac- we cannot offer a conclusive answer. cording to some, part of the ‘Neolithic package’ (Koz- łowski, Nowak 2007.107), long blades were absent Another important difference between the Star≠evo from the assemblages of many sites. On the territory lithic material found in the region between the ri- of Serbia, both sites with long and average size vers and the material found in the ‘central’ region blades are present. At sites such as Divostin, long of distribution of Star≠evo culture is in the use of blades were completely absent, but Divostin can ne- raw material, such as Balkan flint and obsidian. The vertheless be characterised as a blade industry site raw materials which on the global level were impor- (Tringham et al. 1988.223; πari≤ 1999). tant not only for Star≠evo, culture but for the Early 353 Rajna {o[ic´ Klind/ic´

Neolithic complex in general, are almost completely absent from sites in the interfluvian region. The rea- sons for this are unknown. However, the presence, even though minute, of obsidian and Balkan flint could be evidence of a need to preserve tradi- tion and maintain links with neigh- bours. However, it is certain that both raw materials, irrespective of their (non)availability, had symbol- ic as well as practical meanings for their owners. They were of specific and memorable appearance and could serve as signs of affinity or identity, and as memories or bonds Fig. 2. Balkan flint blade from Kaznica-Rutak with the ‘old country’ (Kaczanow- ska 2003). In the context of the Early Neolithic, ob- depended on quality and not availability, and pos- sidian could have served as one of the symbols of sibly on some other factors which could not be pre- the new way of life, while the ownership and use of supposed on the basis of the existing data. The set- obsidian could have expressed an attitude to novel- tlers of interfluvian settlements undoubtedly com- ties and other cultures. At the onset of the Neolithic, municated with each other. The reasons for this obsidian was not simply a tool; it also carried within communication could have been multiple, but the itself a sign of allegiance, allegiance to the ‘agricul- procurement of stone artefacts was among them. The tural way of life’ (Tripkovi≤ 2003.122). inhabitants of certain settlements obtained raw ma- terial, produced blades and cores and distributed Obtaining raw materials for everyday use was in ac- them to other settlements. In some settlements, bla- cordance with familiar models of exploiting raw ma- des were distributed which were later used or addi- terial in the regions populated by cultural groups of tionally processed, and in some other settlements, the Early Neolithic. The Star≠evo culture settlers in the distribution pattern was centered on cores which the interfluvian region were very familiar with their were stored and chipped off according to need. What surroundings and the resources it offered, and had the core and blade distribution centres received in developed systems for the supply and distribution return is still impossible to determine. of raw materials and semi-products. Their selection

354 The supply system of siliceous rocks between the Drava, Sava and Danube rivers during the Star;evo culture

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